USA+SURVIVAL((2)-part3)

CAUTION
Do not expose flesh to petroleum, oil, and lubricants in extremely cold temperatures. The
liquid state of these products is deceptive in that it can cause frostbite.

Some plastic products, such as MRE spoons, helmet visors, visor housings, and foam rubber will ignite
quickly from a burning match. They will also burn long enough to help start a fire. For example, a plastic
spoon will burn for about 10 minutes.

In cold weather regions, there are some hazards in using fires, whether to keep warm or to cook. For
example—

•
Fires have been known to burn underground, resurfacing nearby. Therefore, do not build a fire too
close to a shelter.
•
In snow shelters, excessive heat will melt the insulating layer of snow that may also be your camouflage.

Cold Weather Survival 763

•
A fire inside a shelter lacking adequate ventilation can result in carbon monoxide poisoning.
•
A person trying to get warm or to dry clothes may become careless and burn or scorch his clothing
and equipment.
•
Melting overhead snow may get you wet, bury you and your equipment, and possibly extinguish
your fire.
In general, a small fire and some type of stove is the best combination for cooking purposes. A hobo
stove (Figure 3-2) is particularly suitable to the arctic. It is easy to make out of a tin can, and it conserves
fuel. A bed of hot coals provides the best cooking heat. Coals from a crisscross fire will settle uniformly.
Make this type of fire by crisscrossing the firewood. A simple crane propped on a forked stick will hold a
cooking container over a fire.

For heating purposes, a single candle provides enough heat to warm an enclosed shelter. A small fire
about the size of a man’s hand is ideal for use in enemy territory. It requires very little fuel, yet it generates
considerable warmth and is hot enough to warm liquids.

WATER

There are many sources of water in the arctic and subarctic. Your location and the season of the year will
determine where and how you obtain water.

Water sources in arctic and subarctic regions are more sanitary than in other regions due to the climatic
and environmental conditions. However, always purify the water before drinking it. During the summer
months, the best natural sources of water are freshwater lakes, streams, ponds, rivers, and springs. Water
from ponds or lakes may be slightly stagnant, but still usable. Running water in streams, rivers, and bubbling
springs is usually fresh and suitable for drinking.

The brownish surface water found in a tundra during the summer is a good source of water. However,
you may have to filter the water before purifying it.

You can melt freshwater ice and snow for water. Completely melt both before putting them in your
mouth. Trying to melt ice or snow in your mouth takes away body heat and may cause internal cold injuries.
If on or near pack ice in the sea, you can use old sea ice to melt for water. In time, sea ice loses its salinity.
You can identify this ice by its rounded corners and bluish color.

You can use body heat to melt snow. Place the snow in a water bag and place the bag between your layers
of clothing. This is a slow process, but you can use it on the move or when you have no fire.


Figure 3-2: Cooking fire/stove


764 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

- NOTE
Do not waste fuel to melt ice or snow when drinkable water is available from other
sources.

When ice is available, melt it, rather than snow. One cup of ice yields more water than one cup of snow.
Ice also takes less time to melt. You can melt ice or snow in a water bag, MRE ration bag, tin can, or improvised
container by placing the container near a fire. Begin with a small amount of ice or snow in the container
and, as it turns to water, add more ice or snow.

Another way to melt ice or snow is by putting it in a bag made from porous material and suspending the
bag near the fire. Place a container under the bag to catch the water.

During cold weather, avoid drinking a lot of liquid before going to bed.

Crawling out of a warm sleeping bag at night to relieve yourself means less rest and more exposure to
the cold.

Once you have water, keep it next to you to prevent refreezing. Also, do not fill your canteen completely.
Allowing the water to slosh around will help keep it from freezing.

FOOD

There are several sources of food in the arctic and subarctic regions. The type of food—fish, animal, fowl,
or plant—and the ease in obtaining it depend on the time of the year and your location.

Fish. During the summer months, you can easily get fish and other water life from coastal waters, streams,
rivers, and lakes. Use the techniques described in Part IV, Chapter 2 to catch fish.

The North Atlantic and North Pacific coastal waters are rich in seafood. You can easily find crawfish,
snails, clams, oysters, and king crab. In areas where there is a great difference between the high and low
tide water levels, you can easily find shellfish at low tide. Dig in the sand on the tidal flats. Look in tidal
pools and on offshore reefs. In areas where there is a small difference between the high- and low-tide water
levels, storm waves often wash shellfish onto the beaches.

The eggs of the spiny sea urchin that lives in the waters around the Aleutian Islands and southern
Alaska are excellent food. Look for the sea urchins in tidal pools. Break the shell by placing it between two
stones. The eggs are bright yellow in color.

Most northern fish and fish eggs are edible. Exceptions are the meat of the arctic shark and the eggs of
the sculpins.

The bivalves, such as clams and mussels, are usually more palatable than spiral-shelled seafood, such
as snails.


WARNING

The black mussel, a common mollusk of the far north, may be poisonous in any
season. Toxins sometimes found in the mussel’s tissue are as dangerous as strychnine.


The sea cucumber is another edible sea animal. Inside its body are five long white muscles that taste
much like clam meat.

In early summer, smelt spawn in the beach surf. Sometimes you can scoop them up with your hands.

You can often find herring eggs on the seaweed in midsummer. Kelp, the long ribbonlike seaweed, and
other smaller seaweed that grow among offshore rocks are also edible.

Sea Ice Animals. You find polar bears in practically all arctic coastal regions, but rarely inland. Avoid them
if possible. They are the most dangerous of all bears. They are tireless, clever hunters with good sight and


Cold Weather Survival 765

an extraordinary sense of smell. If you must kill one for food, approach it cautiously. Aim for the brain; a
bullet elsewhere will rarely kill one. Always cook polar bear meat before eating it.


CAUTION
Do not eat polar bear liver as it contains a toxic concentration of vitamin A.

Earless seal meat is some of the best meat available. You need considerable skill, however, to get close
enough to an earless seal to kill it. In spring, seals often bask on the ice beside their breathing holes. They
raise their heads about every 30 seconds, however, to look for their enemy, the polar bear.

To approach a seal, do as the Eskimos do—stay downwind from it, cautiously moving closer while it sleeps.
If it moves, stop and imitate its movements by lying flat on the ice, raising your head up and down, and wriggling
your body slightly. Approach the seal with your body sideways to it and your arms close to your body so
that you look as much like another seal as possible. The ice at the edge of the breathing hole is usually smooth
and at an incline, so the least movement of the seal may cause it to slide into the water. Therefore, try to get
within 22 to 45 meters of the seal and kill it instantly (aim for the brain). Try to reach the seal before it slips into
the water. In winter, a dead seal will usually float, but it is difficult to retrieve from the water.

Keep the seal blubber and skin from coming into contact with any scratch or broken skin you may have.
You could get “spekk-finger,” that is, a reaction that causes the hands to become badly swollen.
Keep in mind that where there are seals, there are usually polar bears, and polar bears have stalked and
killed seal hunters.
You can find porcupines in southern subarctic regions where there are trees. Porcupines feed on bark; if
you find tree limbs stripped bare, you are likely to find porcupines in the area.

Ptarmigans, owls, Canadian jays, grouse, and ravens are the only birds that remain in the arctic during the
winter. They are scarce north of the tree line. Ptarmigans and owls are as good for food as any game bird.
Ravens are too thin to be worth the effort it takes to catch them. Ptarmigans, which change color to blend
with their surroundings, are hard to spot. Rock ptarmigans travel in pairs and you can easily approach them.
Willow ptarmigans live among willow clumps in bottomlands. They gather in large flocks and you can easily
snare them. During the summer months all arctic birds have a 2- to 3-week molting period during which they
cannot fly and are easy to catch. Use one of the techniques described in Part IV, Chapter 2 to catch them.

Skin and butcher game (Part IV, Chapter 2) while it is still warm. If you do not have time to skin the
game, at least remove its entrails, musk glands, and genitals before storing. If time allows, cut the meat
into usable pieces and freeze each separately so that you can use the pieces as needed. Leave the fat on all
animals except seals. During the winter, game freezes quickly if left in the open. During the summer, you
can store it in underground ice holes.

Plants. Although tundras support a variety of plants during the warm months, all are small, however,
when compared to plants in warmer climates. For instance, the arctic willow and birch are shrubs rather
than trees. The following is a list of some plant foods found in arctic and subarctic regions (see Part IV,
Chapter 6 for descriptions).

ARCTIC FOOD PLANTS

• Arctic raspberry and blueberry
• Arctic willow
• Bearberry
• Cranberry
• Crowberry
• Dandelion
• Eskimo potato

766 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

•
Fireweed
•
Iceland moss
•
Marsh marigold
•
Reindeer moss
•
Rock tripe
•
Spatterdock
There are some plants growing in arctic and subarctic regions that are poisonous if eaten (see Part IV,
Chapter 7). Use the plants that you know are edible. When in doubt, follow the Universal Edibility Test in
Part IV, Chapter 6.

TRAVEL

As a survivor or an evader in an arctic or subarctic region, you will face many obstacles. Your location and
the time of the year will determine the types of obstacles and the inherent dangers. You should—

•
Avoid traveling during a blizzard.
•
Take care when crossing thin ice. Distribute your weight by lying flat and crawling.
•
Cross streams when the water level is lowest. Normal freezing and thawing action may cause a
stream level to vary as much as 2 to 2.5 meters per day. This variance may occur any time during
the day, depending on the distance from a glacier, the temperature, and the terrain. Consider this
variation in water level when selecting a campsite near a stream.
•
Consider the clear arctic air. It makes estimating distance difficult. You more frequently underestimate
than overestimate distances.
•
Do not travel in “whiteout” conditions. The lack of contrasting colors makes it impossible to judge
the nature of the terrain.
•
Always cross a snow bridge at right angles to the obstacle it crosses. Find the strongest part of the
bridge by poking ahead of you with a pole or ice axe. Distribute your weight by crawling or by
wearing snowshoes or skis.
•
Make camp early so that you have plenty of time to build a shelter.
•
Consider frozen or unfrozen rivers as avenues of travel. However, some rivers that appear frozen may
have soft, open areas that make travel very difficult or may not allow walking, skiing, or sledding.
•
Use snowshoes if you are traveling over snow-covered terrain. Snow 30 or more centimeters deep
makes traveling difficult. If you do not have snowshoes, make a pair using willow, strips of cloth,
leather, or other suitable material.
It is almost impossible to travel in deep snow without snowshoes or skis. Traveling by foot leaves a wellmarked
trail for any pursuers to follow. If you must travel in deep snow, avoid snow-covered streams. The
snow, which acts as an insulator, may have prevented ice from forming over the water. In hilly terrain,
avoid areas where avalanches appear possible. Travel in the early morning in areas where there is danger
of avalanches. On ridges, snow gathers on the lee side in overhanging piles called cornices. These often
extend far out from the ridge and may break loose if stepped on.

WEATHER SIGNS

There are several good indicators of climatic changes.

Wind. You can determine wind direction by dropping a few leaves or grass or by watching the treetops.
Once you determine the wind direction, you can predict the type of weather that is imminent. Rapidly
shifting winds indicate an unsettled atmosphere and a likely change in the weather.


Cold Weather Survival 767

Clouds. Clouds come in a variety of shapes and patterns. A general knowledge of clouds and the atmospheric
conditions they indicate can help you predict the weather.

Smoke. Smoke rising in a thin vertical column indicates fair weather. Low rising or “flattened out” smoke
indicates stormy weather.

Birds and Insects. Birds and insects fly lower to the ground than normal in heavy, moisture-laden air. Such
flight indicates that rain is likely. Most insect activity increases before a storm, but bee activity increases
before fair weather.

Low-Pressure Front. Slow-moving or imperceptible winds and heavy, humid air often indicate a low-pressure
front. Such a front promises bad weather that will probably linger for several days. You can “smell” and “hear”
this front. The sluggish, humid air makes wilderness odors more pronounced than during high-pressure conditions.
In addition, sounds are sharper and carry farther in low-pressure than high-pressure conditions.


CHAPTER 4


Survival in Mountain Terrain


SECTION 1: MOUNTAIN TERRAIN AND WEATHER

Operations in the mountains require soldiers to be physically fit and leaders to be experienced in operations
in this terrain. Problems arise in moving men and transporting loads up and down steep and varied terrain
in order to accomplish the mission. Chances for success in this environment are greater when a leader has
experience operating under the same conditions as his men. Acclimatization, conditioning, and training
are important factors in successful military mountaineering.

1-1. Definition. Mountains are land forms that rise more than 500 meters above the surrounding plain and
are characterized by steep slopes. Slopes commonly range from 4 to 45 degrees. Cliffs and precipices may
be vertical or overhanging. Mountains may consist of an isolated peak, single ridges, glaciers, snowfields,
compartments, or complex ranges extending for long distances and obstructing movement. Mountains
usually favor the defense; however, attacks can succeed by using detailed planning, rehearsals, surprise,
and well-led troops.

1-2. Composition. All mountains are made up of rocks and all rocks of minerals (compounds that cannot be
broken down except by chemical action). Of the approximately 2,000 known minerals, seven rock-forming
minerals make up most of the earth’s crust: quartz and feldspar make up granite and sandstone; olivene
and pyroxene give basalt its dark color; and amphibole and biotite (mica) are the black crystalline specks
in granitic rocks. Except for calcite, found in limestone, they all contain silicon and are often referred to as
silicates.

1-3. Rock and Slope Types. Different types of rock and different slopes present different hazards. The following
paragraphs discuss the characteristics and hazards of the different rocks and slopes.

a.
Granite. Granite produces fewer rockfalls, but jagged edges make pulling rope and raising equipment
more difficult. Granite is abrasive and increases the danger of ropes or accessory cords being
cut. Climbers must beware of large loose boulders. After a rain, granite dries quickly. Most climbing
holds are found in cracks. Face climbing can be found, however, it cannot be protected.
b. Chalk and Limestone. Chalk and limestone are slippery when wet. Limestone is usually solid; however,
conglomerate type stones may be loose. Limestone has pockets, face climbing, and cracks.
c.
Slate and Gneiss. Slate and gneiss can be firm and or brittle in the same area (red coloring indicates
brittle areas). Rockfall danger is high, and small rocks may break off when pulled or when pitons
are emplaced.
d. Sandstone. Sandstone is usually soft causing handholds and footholds to break away under pressure.
Chocks placed in sandstone may or may not hold. Sandstone should be allowed to dry for a
couple of days after a rain before climbing on it as wet sandstone is extremely soft. Most climbs
follow a crack. Face climbing is possible, but any outward pull will break off handholds and foot
holds, and it is usually difficult to protect.
e.
Grassy Slopes. Penetrating roots and increased frost cracking cause a continuous loosening process.
Grassy slopes are slippery after rain, new snow, and dew. After long, dry spells clumps of the slope
tend to break away. Weight should be distributed evenly; for example, use flat hand push holds
instead of finger pull holds.
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770 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

f. Firm Spring Snow (Firn Snow). Stopping a slide on small, leftover snow patches in late spring can
be difficult. Routes should be planned to avoid these dangers. Self-arrest should be practiced before
encountering this situation. Beginning climbers should be secured with rope when climbing on this
type surface. Climbers can glissade down firn snow if necessary. Firn snow is easier to ascend than
walking up scree or talus.
g. Talus. Talus is rocks that are larger than a dinner plate, but smaller than boulders. They can be used
as stepping-stones to ascend or descend a slope. However, if a talus rock slips away it can produce
more injury than scree because of its size.
h. Scree. Scree is small rocks that are from pebble size to dinner plate size. Running down scree is an
effective method of descending in a hurry. One can run at full stride without worry the whole scree
field is moving with you. Climbers must beware of larger rocks that may be solidly planted under
the scree. Ascending scree is a tedious task. The scree does not provide a solid platform and will
only slide under foot. If possible, avoid scree when ascending.
1-4. Cross-Country Movement. Soldiers must know the terrain to determine the feasible routes for crosscountry
movement when no roads or trails are available.

a.
A pre-operations intelligence effort should include topographic and photographic map coverage as
well as detailed weather data for the area of operations. When planning mountain operations, additional
information may be needed about size, location, and characteristics of landforms; drainage;
types of rock and soil; and the density and distribution of vegetation. Control must be decentralized
to lower levels because of varied terrain, erratic weather, and communication problems inherent to
mountainous regions.
b. Movement is often restricted due to terrain and weather. The erratic weather requires that soldiers
be prepared for wide variations in temperature, types, and amounts of precipitation.
(1) Movement above the timberline reduces the amount of protective cover available at lower elevations.
The logistical problem is important; therefore, each man must be self-sufficient to cope
with normal weather changes using materials from his rucksack.
(2) Movement during a storm is difficult due to poor visibility and bad footing on steep terrain.
Although the temperature is often higher during a storm than during clear weather, the dampness
of rain and snow and the penetration of wind cause soldiers to chill quickly. Although
climbers should get off the high ground and seek shelter and warmth, during severe mountain
storms, capable commanders may use reduced visibility to achieve tactical surprise.
c.
When the tactical situation requires continued movement during a storm, the following precautions
should be observed:
•
Maintain visual contact.
•
Keep warm. Maintain energy and body heat by eating and drinking often; carry food that can be
eaten quickly and while on the move.
•
Keep dry. Wear wet-weather clothing when appropriate, but do not overdress, which can cause
excessive perspiration and dampen clothing. As soon as the objective is reached and shelter
secured, put on dry clothing.
•
Do not rush. Hasty movement during storms leads to breaks in contact and accidents.
•
If lost, stay warm, dry, and calm.
•
Do not use ravines as routes of approach during a storm as they often fill with water and are
prone to flash floods.
•
Avoid high pinnacles and ridgelines during electrical storms.
•
Avoid areas of potential avalanche or rock-fall danger.
1-5. Cover and Concealment. When moving in the mountains, outcroppings, boulders, heavy vegetation,
and intermediate terrain can provide cover and concealment. Digging fighting positions and temporary


Survival in Mountain Terrain 771

fortifications is difficult because soil is often thin or stony. The selection of dug-in positions requires
detailed planning. Some rock types, such as volcanic tuff, are easily excavated. In other areas, boulders
and other loose rocks can be used for building hasty fortifications. In alpine environments, snow and ice
blocks may be cut and stacked to supplement dug-in positions. As in all operations, positions and routes
must be camouflaged to blend in with the surrounding terrain to prevent aerial detection.

1-6. Observation. Observation in mountains varies because of weather and ground cover. The dominating
height of mountainous terrain permits excellent long-range observation. However, rapidly changing
weather with frequent periods of high winds, rain, snow, sleet, hail, and fog can limit visibility. The rugged
nature of the terrain often produces dead space at midranges.

a. Low cloud cover at higher elevations may neutralize the effectiveness of Observation Points (OPs)
established on peaks or mountaintops. High wind speeds and sound often mask the noises of troop
movement. Several OPs may need to be established laterally, in depth, and at varying altitudes to
provide visual coverage of the battle area.
b. Conversely, the nature of the terrain can be used to provide concealment from observation. This
concealment can be obtained in the dead space. Mountainous regions are subject to intense shadowing
effects when the sun is low in relatively clear skies. The contrast from lighted to shaded areas
causes visual acuity in the shaded regions to be considerably reduced. These shadowed areas can
provide increased concealment when combined with other camouflage and should be considered
in maneuver plans.
MOUNTAIN WEATHER

Most people subconsciously “forecast” the weather. If they look outside and see dark clouds they may
decide to take rain gear. If an unexpected wind strikes, people glance to the sky for other bad signs. A
conscious effort to follow weather changes will ultimately lead to a more accurate forecast. An analysis of
mountain weather and how it is affected by mountain terrain shows that such weather is prone to patterns
and is usually severe, but patterns are less obvious in mountainous terrain than in other areas. Conditions
greatly change with altitude, latitude, and exposure to atmospheric winds and air masses. Mountain
weather can be extremely erratic. It varies from stormy winds to calm, and from extreme cold to warmth
within a short time or with a minor shift in locality. The severity and variance of the weather causes it to
have a major impact on military operations.

1-7. Considerations for Planning. Mountain weather can be either a dangerous obstacle to operations or a
valuable aid, depending on how well it is understood and to what extent advantage is taken of its peculiar
characteristics.

a.
Weather often determines the success or failure of a mission since it is highly changeable. Military
operations plans must be flexible, especially in planning airmobile and airborne operations. The
weather must be anticipated to allow enough time for planning so that the leaders of subordinate
units can use their initiative in turning an important weather factor in their favor. The clouds that
often cover the tops of mountains and the fogs that cover valleys are an excellent means of concealing
movements that normally are made during darkness or in smoke. Limited visibility can be used
as a combat multiplier.
b. The safety or danger of almost all high mountain regions, especially in winter, depends upon a
change of a few degrees of temperature above or below the freezing point. Ease and speed of travel
depend mainly on the weather. Terrain that can be crossed swiftly and safely one day may become
impassable or highly dangerous the next due to snowfall, rainfall, or a rise in temperature. The
reverse can happen just as quickly. The prevalence of avalanches depends on terrain, snow conditions,
and weather factors.

772 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

c.
Some mountains, such as those found in desert regions, are dry and barren with temperatures ranging
from extreme heat in the summer to extreme cold in the winter. In tropical regions, lush jungles with
heavy seasonal rains and little temperature variation often cover mountains. High rocky crags with
glaciated peaks can be found in mountain ranges at most latitudes along the western portion of the
Americas and Asia.
d. Severe weather may decrease morale and increase basic survival problems. These problems can be
minimized when men have been trained to accept the weather by being self-sufficient. Mountain
soldiers properly equipped and trained can use the weather to their advantage in combat operations.
1-8. Mountain Air. High mountain air is dry and may be drier in the winter. Cold air has a reduced
capacity to hold water vapor. Because of this increased dryness, equipment does not rust as quickly and
organic material decomposes slowly. The dry air also requires soldiers to increase consumption of water.
The reduced water vapor in the air causes an increase in evaporation of moisture from the skin and in loss
of water through transpiration in the respiratory system. Due to the cold, most soldiers do not naturally
consume the quantity of fluids they would at higher temperatures and must be encouraged to consciously
increase their fluid intake.

a.
Pressure is low in mountainous areas due to the altitude. The barometer usually drops 2.5 centimeters
for every 300 meters gained in elevation (3 percent).
b. The air at higher altitudes is thinner as atmospheric pressure drops with the increasing altitude. The
altitude has a natural filtering effect on the sun’s rays. Rays are absorbed or reflected in part by the
molecular content of the atmosphere. This effect is greater at lower altitudes. At higher altitudes,
the thinner, drier air has a reduced molecular content and, consequently, a reduced filtering effect
on the sun’s rays. The intensity of both visible and ultraviolet rays is greater with increased altitude.
These conditions increase the chance of sunburn, especially when combined with a snow cover that
reflects the rays upward.
1-9. Weather Characteristics. The earth is surrounded by an atmosphere that is divided into several layers.
The world’s weather systems are in the lower of these layers known as the “troposphere.” This layer
reaches as high as 40,000 feet. Weather is a result of the atmosphere, oceans, land masses, unequal heating
and cooling from the sun, and the earth’s rotation. The weather found in any one place depends on many
things such as the air temperature, humidity (moisture content), air pressure (barometric pressure), how it
is being moved, and if it is being lifted or not.

a.
Air pressure is the “weight” of the atmosphere at any given place. The higher the pressure, the
better the weather will be. With lower air pressure, the weather will more than likely be worse. In
order to understand this, imagine that the air in the atmosphere acts like a liquid. Areas with a high
level of this “liquid” exert more pressure on an area and are called high-pressure areas. Areas with
a lower level are called low-pressure areas. The average air pressure at sea level is 29.92 inches of
mercury (hg) or 1,013 millibars (mb). The higher in altitude, the lower the pressure.
(1) High Pressure. The characteristics of a high-pressure area are as follows:
• The airflow is clockwise and out.
• Otherwise known as an “anticyclone.”
• Associated with clear skies.
• Generally the winds will be mild.
• Depicted as a blue “H” on weather maps.
(2) Low Pressure. The characteristics of a low-pressure area are as follows:
• The airflow is counterclockwise and in.
• Otherwise known as a “cyclone.”
• Associated with bad weather.
• Depicted as a red “L” on weather maps.

Survival in Mountain Terrain 773

b. Air from a high-pressure area is basically trying to flow out and equalize its pressure with the
surrounding air. Low pressure, on the other hand, is building up vertically by pulling air in from
outside itself, which causes atmospheric instability resulting in bad weather.
c.
On a weather map, these differences in pressure are depicted as isobars. Isobars resemble contour
lines and are measured in either millibars or inches of mercury. The areas of high pressure are called
“ridges” and lows are called “troughs.”
1-10. Wind. In high mountains, the ridges and passes are seldom calm; however, strong winds in protected
valleys are rare. Normally, wind speed increases with altitude since the earth’s frictional drag is strongest
near the ground. This effect is intensified by mountainous terrain. Winds are accelerated when they converge
through mountain passes and canyons. Because of these funneling effects, the wind may blast with great force
on an exposed mountainside or summit. Usually, the local wind direction is controlled by topography.

a.
The force exerted by wind quadruples each time the wind speed doubles; that is, wind blowing at
40 knots pushes four times harder than a wind blowing at 20 knots. With increasing wind strength,
gusts become more important and may be 50 percent higher than the average wind speed. When
wind strength increases to a hurricane force of 64 knots or more, soldiers should lay on the ground
during gusts and continue moving during lulls. If a hurricane- force wind blows where there is sand
or snow, dense clouds fill the air. The rocky debris or chunks of snow crust are hurled near the surface.
During the winter season, or at high altitudes, commanders must be constantly aware of the
wind-chill factor and associated cold-weather injuries.
b. Winds are formed due to the uneven heating of the air by the sun and rotation of the earth. Much of
the world’s weather depends on a system of winds that blow in a set direction.
c.
Above hot surfaces, air expands and moves to colder areas where it cools and becomes denser, and
sinks to the earth’s surface. The results are a circulation of air from the poles along the surface of the
earth to the equator, where it rises and moves to the poles again.
d. Heating and cooling together with the rotation of the earth causes surface winds. In the Northern
Hemisphere, there are three prevailing winds:
(1)
Polar Easterlies. These are winds from the polar region moving from the east. This is air that has
cooled and settled at the poles.
(2)
Prevailing Westerlies. These winds originate from approximately 30 degrees north latitude from
the west. This is an area where prematurely cooled air, due to the earth’s rotation, has settled to
the surface.
(3)
Northeast Tradewinds. These are winds that originate from approximately 30° north from the
northeast.
e.
The jet stream is a long meandering current of high-speed winds often exceeding 250 miles per hour
near the transition zone between the troposphere and the stratosphere known as the tropopause.
These winds blow from a generally westerly direction dipping down and picking up air masses
from the tropical regions and going north and bringing down air masses from the polar regions.
f. The patterns of wind mentioned above move air. This air comes in parcels called “air masses.”
These air masses can vary from the size of a small town to as large as a country. These air masses
are named from where they originate:
•
Maritime over water.
•
Continental over land.
•
Polar north of 60° north latitude.
•
Tropical south of 60° north latitude.
Combining these parcels of air provides the names and description of the four types of air masses:

•
Continental Polar cold, dry air mass.
•
Maritime Polar cold, wet air mass.

774 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

•
Maritime Tropical warm, wet air mass.
•
Continental Tropical warm, dry air mass.
g. Two types of winds are peculiar to mountain environments, but do not necessarily affect the
weather.
(1)
Anabatic Wind (Valley Winds). These winds blow up mountain valleys to replace warm rising air
and are usually light winds.
(2)
Katabatic Wind (Mountain Wind). These winds blow down mountain valley slopes caused by the
cooling of air and are occasionally strong winds.
1-11. Humidity. Humidity is the amount of moisture in the air. All air holds water vapor even if it
cannot be seen. Air can hold only so much water vapor; however, the warmer the air, the more moisture
it can hold. When air can hold all that it can the air is “saturated” or has 100 percent relative
humidity.

a.
If air is cooled beyond its saturation point, the air will release its moisture in one form or another
(clouds, fog, dew, rain, snow, and so on). The temperature at which this happens is called the
“condensation point.” The condensation point varies depending on the amount of water vapor contained
in the air and the temperature of the air. If the air contains a great deal of water, condensation
can occur at a temperature of 68 degrees Fahrenheit, but if the air is dry and does not hold much
moisture, condensation may not form until the temperature drops to 32 degrees Fahrenheit or even
below freezing.
b. The adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which air cools as it rises or warms as it descends. This
rate varies depending on the moisture content of the air. Saturated (moist) air will warm and
cool approximately 3.2 degrees Fahrenheit per 1,000 feet of elevation gained or lost. Dry air
will warm and cool approximately 5.5 degrees Fahrenheit per 1,000 feet of elevation gained
or lost.
1-12. Cloud Formation. Clouds are indicators of weather conditions. By reading cloud shapes and patterns,
observers can forecast weather with little need for additional equipment such as a barometer, wind
meter, and thermometer. Anytime air is lifted or cooled beyond its saturation point (100 percent relative
humidity), clouds are formed. The four ways air gets lifted and cooled beyond its saturation point are as
follows.

a.
Convective Lifting. This effect happens due to the sun’s heat radiating off the Earth’s surface causing
air currents (thermals) to rise straight up and lift air to a point of saturation.
b.
Frontal Lifting. A front is formed when two air masses of different moisture content and temperature
collide. Since air masses will not mix, warmer air is forced aloft over the colder air mass.
From there it is cooled and then reaches its saturation point. Frontal lifting creates the majority of
precipitation.
c.
Cyclonic Lifting. An area of low pressure pulls air into its center from all over in a counterclockwise
direction. Once this air reaches the center of the low pressure, it has nowhere to go but up. Air continues
to lift until it reaches the saturation point.
d.
Orographic Lifting. This happens when an air mass is pushed up and over a mass of higher ground
such as a mountain. Air is cooled due to the adiabatic lapse rate until the air’s saturation point is
reached.
1-13. Types of Clouds. Clouds are one of the signposts to what is happening with the weather. Clouds
can be described in many ways. They can be classified by height or appearance, or even by the amount of
area covered vertically or horizontally. Clouds are classified into five categories: low-, mid-, and high-level
clouds; vertically-developed clouds; and less common clouds.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 775

a.
Low-Level Clouds. Low-level clouds (0 to 6,500 feet) are either cumulus or stratus (Figures 1-1 and
1-2). Low-level clouds are mostly composed of water droplets since their bases lie below 6,500 feet.
When temperatures are cold enough, these clouds may also contain ice particles and snow.
(1) The two types of precipitating low-level clouds are nimbostratus and stratocumulus (Figures
1-3 and 1-4).
Figure 1-1: Cumulus clouds.


Figure 1-2: Stratus clouds.


776 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 1-3: Nimbostratus clouds.


Figure 1-4: Stratocumulus clouds.

(a) Nimbostratus clouds are dark, low-level clouds accompanied by light to moderately falling
precipitation. The sun or moon is not visible through nimbostratus clouds, which distinguishes
them from mid-level altostratus clouds. Because of the fog and falling precipitation
commonly found beneath and around nimbostratus clouds, the cloud base is typically
extremely diffuse and difficult to accurately determine.
(b) Stratocumulus clouds generally appear as a low, lumpy layer of clouds that is sometimes
accompanied by weak precipitation. Stratocumulus vary in color from dark gray to light
gray and may appear as rounded masses with breaks of clear sky in between. Because the
individual elements of stratocumulus are larger than those of altocumulus, deciphering

Survival in Mountain Terrain 777

between the two cloud types is easier. With your arm extended toward the sky, altocumulus
elements are about the size of a thumbnail while stratocumulus are about the size of a fist.

(2) Low-level clouds may be identified by their height above nearby surrounding relief of known
elevation. Most precipitation originates from low-level clouds because rain or snow usually
evaporate before reaching the ground from higher clouds. Low-level clouds usually indicate
impending precipitation, especially if the cloud is more than 3,000 feet thick. (Clouds that appear
dark at their bases are more than 3,000 feet thick.)
b.
Mid-Level Clouds. Mid-level clouds (between 6,500 to 20,000 feet) have a prefix of alto. Middle
clouds appear less distinct than low clouds because of their height. Alto clouds with sharp edges
are warmer because they are composed mainly of water droplets. Cold clouds, composed mainly
of ice crystals and usually colder than –30 degrees F, have distinct edges that grade gradually into
the surrounding sky. Middle clouds usually indicate fair weather, especially if they are rising over
time. Lowering middle clouds indicate potential storms, though usually hours away. There are two
types of mid-level clouds, altocumulus and altostratus clouds (Figures 1-5 and 1-6).
(1) Altocumulus clouds can appear as parallel bands or rounded masses. Typically a portion of an
altocumulus cloud is shaded, a characteristic which makes them distinguishable from high-level
Figure 1-5: Altocumulus.


Figure 1-6: Altostratus.


778 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

cirrocumulus. Altocumulus clouds usually form in advance of a cold front. The presence of
altocumulus clouds on a warm humid summer morning is commonly followed by thunderstorms
later in the day. Altocumulus clouds that are scattered rather than even, in a blue sky,
are called “fair weather” cumulus and suggest arrival of high pressure and clear skies.

(2) Altostratus clouds are often confused with cirrostratus. The one distinguishing feature is that a
halo is not observed around the sun or moon. With altostratus, the sun or moon is only vaguely
visible and appears as if it were shining through frosted glass.
c.
High-Level Clouds. High-level clouds (more than 20,000 feet above ground level) are usually frozen
clouds, indicating air temperatures at that elevation below -30 degrees Fahrenheit, with a fibrous
structure and blurred outlines. The sky is often covered with a thin veil of cirrus that partly obscures
the sun or, at night, produces a ring of light around the moon. The arrival of cirrus indicates moisture
aloft and the approach of a traveling storm system. Precipitation is often 24 to 36 hours away.
As the storm approaches, the cirrus thickens and lowers, becoming altostratus and eventually stratus.
Temperatures are warm, humidity rises, and winds become southerly or southeasterly. The two
types of high-level clouds are cirrus and cirrostratus (Figure 1-7 and Figure 1-8).
(1) Cirrus clouds are the most common of the high-level clouds. Typically found at altitudes greater
than 20,000 feet, cirrus are composed of ice crystals that form when super-cooled water droplets
freeze. Cirrus clouds generally occur in fair weather and point in the direction of air movement
at their elevation. Cirrus can be observed in a variety of shapes and sizes. They can be nearly
straight, shaped like a comma, or seemingly all tangled together. Extensive cirrus clouds are
associated with an approaching warm front.
(2) Cirrostratus clouds are sheet-like, high-level clouds composed of ice crystals. They are relatively
transparent and can cover the entire sky and be up to several thousand feet thick. The sun or
moon can be seen through cirrostratus. Sometimes the only indication of cirrostratus clouds is a
halo around the sun or moon. Cirrostratus clouds tend to thicken as a warm front approaches,
signifying an increased production of ice crystals. As a result, the halo gradually disappears and
the sun or moon becomes less visible.
d.
Vertical-Development Clouds. Clouds with vertical development can grow to heights in excess of
39,000 feet, releasing incredible amounts of energy. The two types of clouds with vertical development
are fair weather cumulus and cumulonimbus.
(1) Fair weather cumulus clouds have the appearance of floating cotton balls and have a lifetime of
5 to 40 minutes. Known for their flat bases and distinct outlines, fair weather cumulus exhibit
only slight vertical growth, with the cloud tops designating the limit of the rising air. Given
Figure 1-7: Cirrus.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 779


Figure 1-8: Cirrostratus.

suitable conditions, however, these clouds can later develop into towering cumulonimbus clouds
associated with powerful thunderstorms. Fair weather cumulus clouds are fueled by buoyant
bubbles of air known as thermals that rise up from the earth’s surface. As the air rises, the water
vapor cools and condenses forming water droplets. Young fair weather cumulus clouds have
sharply defined edges and bases while the edges of older clouds appear more ragged, an artifact
of erosion. Evaporation along the cloud edges cools the surrounding air, making it heavier and
producing sinking motion outside the cloud. This downward motion inhibits further convection
and growth of additional thermals from down below, which is why fair weather cumulus
typically have expanses of clear sky between them. Without a continued supply of rising air, the
cloud begins to erode and eventually disappears.

(2) Cumulonimbus clouds are much larger and more vertically developed than fair weather cumulus
(Figure 1-9). They can exist as individual towers or form a line of towers called a squall line.
Fueled by vigorous convective updrafts, the tops of cumulonimbus clouds can reach 39,000
feet or higher. Lower levels of cumulonimbus clouds consist mostly of water droplets while at
higher elevations, where the temperatures are well below freezing, ice crystals dominate the
composition. Under favorable conditions, harmless fair weather cumulus clouds can quickly
develop into large cumulonimbus associated with powerful thunderstorms known as supercells.
Super-cells are large thunderstorms with deep rotating updrafts and can have a lifetime of
several hours. Super-cells produce frequent lightning, large hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes.
These storms tend to develop during the afternoon and early evening when the effects of
heating from the sun are the strongest.
e.
Other Cloud Types. These clouds are a collection of miscellaneous types that do not fit into the previous
four groups. They are orographic clouds, lenticulars, and contrails.
(1) Orographic clouds develop in response to the forced lifting of air by the earth’s topography. Air
passing over a mountain oscillates up and down as it moves downstream. Initially, stable air
encounters a mountain, is lifted upward, and cools. If the air cools to its saturation temperature
during this process, the water vapor condenses and becomes visible as a cloud. Upon reaching
the mountain top, the air is heavier than the environment and will sink down the other side,
warming as it descends. Once the air returns to its original height, it has the same buoyancy as
the surrounding air. However, the air does not stop immediately because it still has momentum

780 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 1-9: Cumulonimbus.

carrying it downward. With continued descent, the air becomes warmer then the surrounding
air and accelerates back upwards towards its original height. Another name for this type of
cloud is the lenticular cloud.

(2) Lenticular clouds are cloud caps that often form above pinnacles and peaks, and usually indicate
higher winds aloft (Figure 1-10). Cloud caps with a lens shape, similar to a “flying saucer,”
indicate extremely high winds (over 40 knots). Lenticulars should always be watched for
changes. If they grow and descend, bad weather can be expected.
(3) Contrails are clouds that are made by water vapor being inserted into the upper atmosphere by
the exhaust of jet engines (Figure 1-11). Contrails evaporate rapidly in fair weather. If it takes
longer than two hours for contrails to evaporate, then there is impending bad weather (usually
about 24 hours prior to a front).
Figure 1-10: Lenticular.


Survival in Mountain Terrain781


Figure 1-11: Contrails.

f.
Cloud Interpretation. Serious errors can occur in interpreting the extent of cloud cover, especially
when cloud cover must be reported to another location. Cloud cover always appears greater on or
near the horizon, especially if the sky is covered with cumulus clouds, since the observer is looking
more at the sides of the clouds rather than between them. Cloud cover estimates should be
restricted to sky areas more than 40 degrees above the horizon that is, to the local sky. Assess the
sky by dividing the 360 degrees of sky around you into eighths. Record the coverage in eighths and
the types of clouds observed.
1-14. Fronts. Fronts occur when two air masses of different moisture and temperature contents meet. One
of the indicators that a front is approaching is the progression of the clouds. The four types of fronts are
warm, cold, occluded, and stationary.

a.
Warm Front. A warm front occurs when warm air moves into and over a slower or stationary cold
air mass. Because warm air is less dense, it will rise up and over the cooler air. The cloud types seen
when a warm front approaches are cirrus, cirrostratus, nimbostratus (producing rain), and fog.
Occasionally, cumulonimbus clouds will be seen during the summer months.
b.
Cold Front. A cold front occurs when a cold air mass overtakes a slower or stationary warm air
mass. Cold air, being more dense than warm air, will force the warm air up. Clouds observed will
be cirrus, cumulus, and then cumulonimbus producing a short period of showers.
c.
Occluded Front. Cold fronts generally move faster than warm fronts. The cold fronts eventually
overtake warm fronts and the warm air becomes progressively lifted from the surface. The zone of
division between cold air ahead and cold air behind is called a “cold occlusion.” If the air behind
the front is warmer than the air ahead, it is a warm occlusion. Most land areas experience more

782 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

occlusions than other types of fronts. The cloud progression observed will be cirrus, cirrostratus,
altostratus, and nimbostratus. Precipitation can be from light to heavy.

d.
Stationary Front. A stationary front is a zone with no significant air movement. When a warm or
cold front stops moving, it becomes a stationary front. Once this boundary begins forward motion,
it once again becomes a warm or cold front. When crossing from one side of a stationary front to
another, there is typically a noticeable temperature change and shift in wind direction. The weather
is usually clear to partly cloudy along the stationary front.
1-15. Temperature. Normally, a temperature drop of 3 to 5 degrees Fahrenheit for every 1,000 feet gain
in altitude is encountered in motionless air. For air moving up a mountain with condensation occurring
(clouds, fog, and precipitation), the temperature of the air drops 3.2 degrees Fahrenheit with every
1,000 feet of elevation gain. For air moving up a mountain with no clouds forming, the temperature of the
air drops 5.5 degrees Fahrenheit for every 1,000 feet of elevation gain.

a.
An expedient to this often occurs on cold, clear, calm mornings. During a troop movement or climb
started in a valley, higher temperatures may often be encountered as altitude is gained. This reversal
of the normal cooling with elevation is called temperature inversion. Temperature inversions
are caused when mountain air is cooled by ice, snow, and heat loss through thermal radiation. This
cooler, denser air settles into the valleys and low areas. The inversion continues until the sun warms
the surface of the earth or a moderate wind causes a mixing of the warm and cold layers. Temperature
inversions are common in the mountainous regions of the arctic, subarctic, and mid-latitudes.
b. At high altitudes, solar heating is responsible for the greatest temperature contrasts. More sunshine
and solar heat are received above the clouds than below. The important effect of altitude is that the
sun’s rays pass through less of the atmosphere and more direct heat is received than at lower levels,
where solar radiation is absorbed and reflected by dust and water vapor. Differences of 40 to 50
degrees Fahrenheit may occur between surface temperatures in the shade and surface temperatures
in the sun. This is particularly true for dark metallic objects. The difference in temperature felt on
the skin between the sun and shade is normally 7 degrees Fahrenheit. Special care must be taken to
avoid sunburn and snow blindness. Besides permitting rapid heating, the clear air at high altitudes
also favors rapid cooling at night. Consequently, the temperature rises fast after sunrise and drops
quickly after sunset. Much of the chilled air drains downward, due to convection currents, so that
the differences between day and night temperatures are greater in valleys than on slopes.
c.
Local weather patterns force air currents up and over mountaintops. Air is cooled on the windward
side of the mountain as it gains altitude, but more slowly (3.2 degrees Fahrenheit per 1,000 feet) if
clouds are forming due to heat release when water vapor becomes liquid. On the leeward side of
the mountain, this heat gained from the condensation on the windward side is added to the normal
heating that occurs as the air descends and air pressure increases. Therefore, air and winds on
the leeward slope are considerably warmer than on the windward slope, which is referred to as
Chinook winds. The heating and cooling of the air affects planning considerations primarily with
regard to the clothing and equipment needed for an operation.
1-16. Weather Forecasting. The use of a portable aneroid barometer, thermometer, wind meter, and hygrometer
help in making local weather forecasts. Reports from other localities and from any weather service,
including USAF, USN, or the National Weather Bureau, are also helpful. Weather reports should be used in
conjunction with the locally observed current weather situation to forecast future weather patterns.

a.
Weather at various elevations may be quite different because cloud height, temperature, and barometric
pressure will all be different. There may be overcast and rain in a lower area, with mountains
rising above the low overcast into warmer clear weather.

Survival in Mountain Terrain 783

b. To be effective, a forecast must reach the small-unit leaders who are expected to utilize weather
conditions for assigned missions. Several different methods can be used to create a forecast. The
method a forecaster chooses depends upon the forecaster’s experience, the amount of data available,
the level of difficulty that the forecast situation presents, and the degree of accuracy needed to
make the forecast. The five ways to forecast weather are:
(1)
Persistence Method. “Today equals tomorrow” is the simplest way of producing a forecast. This
method assumes that the conditions at the time of the forecast will not change; for example, if
today was hot and dry, the persistence method predicts that tomorrow will be the same.
(2)
Trends Method. “Nowcasting” involves determining the speed and direction of fronts, highand
low-pressure centers, and clouds and precipitation. For example, if a cold front moves
300 miles during a 24-hour period, we can predict that it will travel 300 miles in another
24-hours.
(3)
Climatology Method. This method averages weather statistics accumulated over many years. This
only works well when the pattern is similar to the following years.
(4)
Analog Method. This method examines a day’s forecast and recalls a day in the past when the
weather looked similar (an analogy). This method is difficult to use because finding a perfect
analogy is difficult.
(5)
Numerical Weather Prediction. This method uses computers to analyze all weather conditions and
is the most accurate of the five methods.
SECTION 2: MOUNTAIN HAZARDS

Hazards can be termed natural (caused by natural occurrence), man-made (caused by an individual, such
as lack of preparation, carelessness, improper diet, equipment misuse), or as a combination (human trigger).
There are two kinds of hazards while in the mountains: subjective and objective. Combinations of
objective and subjective hazards are referred to as cumulative hazards.

2-1. Subjective Hazards. Subjective hazards are created by humans; for example, choice of route, companions,
overexertion, dehydration, climbing above one’s ability, and poor judgment.

a.
Falling. Falling can be caused by carelessness, over-fatigue, heavy equipment, bad weather, overestimating
ability, a hold breaking away, or other reasons.
b.
Bivouac Site. Bivouac sites must be protected from rockfall, wind, lightning, avalanche run-out
zones, and flooding (especially in gullies). If the possibility of falling exists, rope in; the tent and all
equipment may have to be tied down.
c.
Equipment. Ropes are not total security; they can be cut on a sharp edge or break due to poor maintenance,
age, or excessive use. You should always pack emergency and bivouac equipment even if
the weather situation, tour, or a short climb is seemingly low of dangers.
2-2. Objective Hazards. Objective hazards are caused by the mountain and weather and cannot be influenced
by man; for example, storms, rockfalls, icefalls, lightning, and so on.

a.
Altitude. At high altitudes (especially over 6,500 feet), endurance and concentration is reduced. Cut
down on smoking and alcohol. Sleep well, acclimatize slowly, stay hydrated, and be aware of signs
and symptoms of high-altitude illnesses. Storms can form quickly and lightning can be severe.
b.
Visibility. Fog, rain, darkness, and or blowing snow can lead to disorientation. Take note of your exact
position and plan your route to safety before visibility decreases. Cold combined with fog can cause
a thin sheet of ice to form on rocks (verglas). Whiteout conditions can be extremely dangerous. If you
must move under these conditions, it is best to rope up. Have the point man move to the end of the rope.

784 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

The second man will use the first man as an aiming point with the compass. Use a route sketch and
march table. If the tactical situation does not require it, plan route so as not to get caught by darkness.

c.
Gullies. Rock, snow, and debris are channeled down gullies. If ice is in the gully, climbing at night
may be better because the warming of the sun will loosen stones and cause rockfalls.
d.
Rockfall. Blocks and scree at the base of a climb can indicate recurring rockfall. Light colored spots
on the wall may indicate impact chips of falling rock. Spring melt or warming by the sun of the
rock/ice/snow causes rockfall.
e.
Avalanches. Avalanches are caused by the weight of the snow overloading the slope. (Refer to
paragraph 2-4 for more detailed information on avalanches.)
f.
Hanging Glaciers and Seracs. Avoid, if at all possible, hanging glaciers and seracs. They will fall
without warning regardless of the time of day or time of year. One cubic meter of glacier ice weighs
910 kilograms (about 2,000 pounds). If you must cross these danger areas, do so quickly and keep
an interval between each person.
g.
Crevasses. Crevasses are formed when a glacier flows over a slope and makes a bend, or when a
glacier separates from the rock walls that enclose it. A slope of only two to three degrees is enough
to form a crevasse. As this slope increases from 25 to 30 degrees, hazardous icefalls can be formed.
Likewise, as a glacier makes a bend, it is likely that crevasses will form at the outside of the bend.
Therefore, the safest route on a glacier would be to the inside of bends, and away from steep slopes
and icefalls. Extreme care must be taken when moving off of or onto the glacier because of the moat
that is most likely to be present.
2-3. Weather Hazards. Weather conditions in the mountains may vary from one location to another as
little as 10 kilometers apart. Approaching storms may be hard to spot if masked by local peaks. A clear,
sunny day in July could turn into a snowstorm in less than an hour. Always pack some sort of emergency
gear.

a. Winds are stronger and more variable in the mountains; as wind doubles in speed, the force quadruples.
b. Precipitation occurs more on the windward side than the leeward side of ranges. This causes more
frequent and denser fog on the windward slope.
c.
Above approximately 8,000 feet, snow can be expected any time of year in the temperate climates.
d. Air is dryer at higher altitudes, so equipment does not rust as quickly, but dehydration is of greater
concern.
e.
Lightning is frequent, violent, and normally attracted to high points and prominent features in
mountain storms. Signs indicative of thunderstorms are tingling of the skin, hair standing on end,
humming of metal objects, crackling, and a bluish light (St. Elmo’s fire) on especially prominent
metal objects (summit crosses and radio towers).
(1) Avoid peaks, ridges, rock walls, isolated trees, fixed wire installations, cracks that guide water,
cracks filled with earth, shallow depressions, shallow overhangs, and rock needles. Seek shelter
around dry, clean rock without cracks; in scree fields; or in deep indentations (depressions,
caves). Keep at least half a body’s length away from a cave wall and opening.
(2) Assume a one-point-of-contact body position. Squat on your haunches or sit on a rucksack or
rope. Pull your knees to your chest and keep both feet together. If half way up the rock face,
secure yourself with more than one point—lightning can burn through rope. If already rappelling,
touch the wall with both feet together and hurry to the next anchor.
f. During and after rain, expect slippery rock and terrain in general and adjust movement accordingly.
Expect flash floods in gullies or chimneys. A climber can be washed away or even drowned
if caught in a gully during a rainstorm. Be especially alert for falling objects that the rain has loosened.

Survival in Mountain Terrain 785

g. Dangers from impending high winds include frostbite (from increased wind-chill factor), windburn,
being blown about (especially while rappelling), and debris being blown about. Wear protective
clothing and plan the route to be finished before bad weather arrives.
h. For each 100-meter rise in altitude, the temperature drops approximately one degree Fahrenheit.
This can cause hypothermia and frostbite even in summer, especially when combined with wind,
rain, and snow. Always wear or pack appropriate clothing.
i. If it is snowing, gullies may contain avalanches or snow sloughs, which may bury the trail. Snowshoes
or skis may be needed in autumn or even late spring. Unexpected snowstorms may occur in the
summer with accumulations of 12 to 18 inches; however, the snow quickly melts.
j. Higher altitudes provide less filtering effects, which leads to greater ultraviolet (UV) radiation
intensity. Cool winds at higher altitudes may mislead one into underestimating the sun’s intensity,
which can lead to sunburns and other heat injuries. Use sunscreen and wear hat and sunglasses,
even if overcast. Drink plenty of fluids.
2-4. Avalanche Hazards. Avalanches occur when the weight of accumulated snow on a slope exceeds
the cohesive forces that hold the snow in place. (Table 2-1 shows an avalanche hazard evaluation
checklist.)

Table 2-1: Avalanche hazard evaluation checklist.



786 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

a. Slope Stability. Slope stability is the key factor in determining the avalanche danger.
(1)
Slope Angle. Slopes as gentle as 15 degrees have avalanched. Most avalanches occur on slopes
between 30 and 45 degrees. Slopes above 60 degrees often do not build up significant quantities
of snow because they are too steep.
(2)
Slope Profile. Dangerous slab avalanches are more likely to occur on convex slopes, but may
occur on concave slopes.
(3)
Slope Aspect. Snow on north facing slopes is more likely to slide in midwinter. South facing
slopes are most dangerous in the spring and on sunny, warm days. Slopes on the windward
side are generally more stable than leeward slopes.
(4)
Ground Cover. Rough terrain is more stable than smooth terrain. On grassy slopes or scree, the
snowpack has little to anchor to.
b. Triggers. Various factors trigger avalanches.
(1)
Temperature. When the temperature is extremely low, settlement and adhesion occur slowly.
Avalanches that occur during extreme cold weather usually occur during or immediately
following a storm. At a temperature just below freezing, the snowpack stabilizes quickly. At
temperatures above freezing, especially if temperatures rise quickly, the potential for avalanche
is high. Storms with a rise in temperature can deposit dry snow early, which bonds poorly with
the heavier snow deposited later. Most avalanches occur during the warmer midday.
(2)
Precipitation. About 90 percent of avalanches occur during or within twenty-four hours after a
snowstorm. The rate at which snow falls is important. High rates of snowfall (2.5 centimeters
per hour or greater), especially when accompanied by wind, are usually responsible for major
periods of avalanche activity. Rain falling on snow will increase its weight and weakens the
snowpack.
(3)
Wind. Sustained winds of 15 miles per hour and over transport snow and form wind slabs on
the lee side of slopes.
(4)
Weight. Most victims trigger the avalanches that kill them.
(5)
Vibration. Passing helicopters, heavy equipment, explosions, and earth tremors have triggered
avalanches.
c. Snow Pits. Snow pits can be used to determine slope stability.
(1) Dig the snow pit on the suspect slope or a slope with the same sun and wind conditions. Snow
deposits may vary greatly within a few meters due to wind and sun variations. (On at least
one occasion, a snow pit dug across the fall line triggered the suspect slope). Dig a 2-meter by
2-meter pit across the fall line, through all the snow, to the ground. Once the pit is complete,
smooth the face with a shovel.
(2) Conduct a shovel shear test.
(a) A shovel shear test puts pressure on a representative sample of the snowpack. The core
of this test is to isolate a column of the snowpack from three sides. The column should be
of similar size to the blade of the shovel. Dig out the sides of the column without pressing
against the column with the shovel (this affects the strength). To isolate the rear of the column,
use a rope or string to saw from side to side to the base of the column.
(b) If the column remained standing while cutting the rear, place the shovel face down on the
top of the column. Tap with varying degrees of strength on the shovel to see what force it
takes to create movement on the bed of the column. The surface that eventually slides will
be the layer to look at closer. This test provides a better understanding of the snowpack
strength. For greater results you will need to do this test in many areas and formulate a scale
for the varying methods of tapping the shovel.
(3) Conduct a Rutschblock test. To conduct the test, isolate a column slightly longer than the length
of your snowshoes or skis (same method as for the shovel shear test). One person moves on
their skis or snowshoes above the block without disturbing the block. Once above, the person
carefully places one showshoe or ski onto the block with no body weight for the first stage of

Survival in Mountain Terrain 787

the test. The next stage is adding weight to the first leg. Next, place the other foot on the block.
If the block is still holding up, squat once, then twice, and so on. The remaining stage is to jump
up and land on the block.

d.
Types of Snow Avalanches. There are two types of snow avalanches: loose snow (point) and slab.
(1) Loose snow avalanches start at one point on the snow cover and grow in the shape of an inverted
“V.” Although they happen most frequently during the winter snow season, they can occur at
any time of the year in the mountains. They often fall as many small sluffs during or shortly
after a storm. This process removes snow from steep upper slopes and either stabilize slower
slopes or loads them with additional snow.
(2) Wet loose snow avalanches occur in spring and summer in all mountain ranges. Large avalanches
of this type, lubricated and weighed down by melt water or rain can travel long distances and
have tremendous destructive power. Coastal ranges that have high temperatures and frequent
rain are the most common areas for this type of avalanche.
(3) Slab avalanches occur when cohesive snow begins to slide on a weak layer. The fracture line
where the moving snow breaks away from the snowpack makes this type of avalanche easy to
identify. Slab release is rapid. Although any avalanche can kill you, slab avalanches are generally
considered more dangerous than loose snow avalanches.
(a) Most slab avalanches occur during or shortly after a storm when slopes are loaded with
new snow at a critical rate. The old rule of never travel in avalanche terrain for a few days
after a storm still holds true.
(b) As slabs become harder, their behavior becomes more unpredictable; they may allow
several people to ski across before releasing. Many experts believe they are susceptible to
rapid temperature changes. Packed snow expands and contracts with temperature changes.
For normal density, settled snow, a drop in temperature of 10 degrees Celsius (18 degrees
Fahrenheit) would cause a snow slope 300 meters wide to contract 2 centimeters. Early
ski mountaineers in the Alps noticed that avalanches sometimes occurred when shadows
struck a previously sun-warmed slope.
d.
Protective Measures. Avoiding known or suspected avalanche areas is the easiest method of protection.
Other measures include:
(1)
Personal Safety. Remove your hands from ski pole wrist straps. Detach ski runaway cords.
Prepare to discard equipment. Put your hood on. Close up your clothing to prepare for hypothermia.
Deploy avalanche cord. Make avalanche probes and shovels accessible. Keep your
pack on at all times do not discard. Your pack can act as a flotation device, as well as protect
your spine.
(2)
Group Safety. Send one person across the suspect slope at a time with the rest of the group watching.
All members of the group should move in the same track from safe zone to safe zone.
e.
Route Selection. Selecting the correct route will help avoid avalanche prone areas, which is always
the best choice. Always allow a wide margin of safety when making your decision.
(1) The safest routes are on ridge tops, slightly on the windward side; the next safest route is out in
the valley, far from the bottom of slopes.
(2) Avoid cornices from above or below. Should you encounter a dangerous slope, either climb to the
top of the slope or descend to the bottom well out of the way of the run-out zone. If you must traverse,
pick a line where you can traverse downhill as quickly as possible. When you must ascend
a dangerous slope, climb to the side of the avalanche path, and not directly up the center.
(3) Take advantage of dense timber, ridges, or rocky outcrops as islands of safety. Use them for
lunch and rest stops. Spend as little time as possible on open slopes.
(4) Since most avalanches occur within twenty-four hours of a storm and or at midday, avoid
moving during these periods. Moving at night is tactically sound and may be safer.
f.
Stability Analysis. Look for nature’s billboards on slopes similar to the one you are on.
(1)
Evidence of Avalanching. Look for recent avalanches and for signs of wind-loading and wind-slabs.

788 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

(2)
Fracture Lines. Avoid any slopes showing cracks.
(3)
Sounds. Beware of hollow sounds such as a “whumping” noise. They may suggest a radical settling
of the snowpack.
g.
Survival. People trigger avalanches that bury people. If these people recognized the hazard and
chose a different route, they would avoid the avalanche. The following steps should be followed if
caught in an avalanche.
(1) Discard equipment. Equipment can injure or burden you; discarded equipment will indicate
your position to rescuers.
(2) Swim or roll to stay on tope of the snow. FIGHT FOR YOUR LIFE. Work toward the edge of the
avalanche. If you feel your feet touch the ground, give a hard push and try to “pop out” onto
the surface.
(3) If your head goes under the snow, shut your mouth, hold your breath, and position your hands
and arms to form an air pocket in front of your face. Many avalanche victims suffocate by
having their mouths and noses plugged with snow.
(4) When you sense the slowing of the avalanche, you must try your hardest to reach the surface.
Several victims have been found quickly because a hand or foot was sticking above the
surface.
(5) When the snow comes to rest it sets up like cement and even if you are only partially buried, it
may be impossible to dig yourself out. Don’t shout unless you hear rescuers immediately above
you; in snow, no one can hear you scream. Don’t struggle to free yourself you will only waste
energy and oxygen.
(6) Try to relax. If you feel yourself about to pass out, do not fight it. The respiration of an unconscious
person is shallower, their pulse rate declines, and the body temperature is lowered, all of
which reduce the amount of oxygen needed.
2-5. Acute Mountain Sickness. In addition to dangers caused by dehydration, sunburn, hypothermia, and
other cold-weather problems, a high altitude can have physiological effects in itself. Acute mountain sickness
is a temporary illness that may affect both the beginner and experienced climber. Soldiers are subject to this
sickness in altitudes as low as 5,000 feet. Incidence and severity increases with altitude, and when quickly
transported to high altitudes. Disability and ineffectiveness can occur in 50 to 80 percent of the troops who
are rapidly brought to altitudes above 10,000 feet. At lower altitudes, or where ascent to altitudes is gradual,
most personnel can complete assignments with moderate effectiveness and little discomfort.

a. Personnel arriving at moderate elevations (5,000 to 8,000 feet) usually feel well for the first few
hours; a feeling of exhilaration or well-being is not unusual. There may be an initial awareness of
breathlessness upon exertion and a need for frequent pauses to rest. Irregular breathing can occur,
mainly during sleep; these changes may cause apprehension. Severe symptoms may begin 4 to
12 hours after arrival at higher altitudes with symptoms of nausea, sluggishness, fatigue, headache,
dizziness, insomnia, depression, uncaring attitude, rapid and labored breathing, weakness, and loss
of appetite.
b. A headache is the most noticeable symptom and may be severe. Even when a headache is not present,
some loss of appetite and a decrease in tolerance for food occurs. Nausea, even without food
intake, occurs and leads to less food intake. Vomiting may occur and contribute to dehydration.
Despite fatigue, personnel are unable to sleep. The symptoms usually develop and increase to a
peak by the second day. They gradually subside over the next several days so that the total course of
AMS may extend from five to seven days. In some instances, the headache may become incapacitating
and the soldier should be evacuated to a lower elevation.
c. Treatment for AMS includes the following:
•
Oral pain medications such as ibuprofen or aspirin.
•
Rest.

Survival in Mountain Terrain 789

•
Frequent consumption of liquids and light foods in small amounts.
•
Movement to lower altitudes (at least 1,000 feet) to alleviate symptoms, which provides for a
more gradual acclimatization.
•
Realization of physical limitations and slow progression.
•
Practice of deep-breathing exercises.
•
Use of acetazolamide in the first 24 hours for mild to moderate cases.
d. AMS is nonfatal, although if left untreated or further ascent is attempted, development of highaltitude
pulmonary edema (HAPE) and or high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE) can be seen. A
severe persistence of symptoms may identify soldiers who acclimatize poorly and, thus, are more
prone to other types of mountain sickness.
2-6. Chronic Mountain Sickness. Although not commonly seen in mountaineers, chronic mountain sickness
(CMS) (or Monge’s disease) can been seen in people who live at sufficiently high altitudes (usually
at or above 10,000 feet) over a period of several years. CMS is a right-sided heart failure characterized by
chronic pulmonary edema that is caused by years of strain on the right ventricle.

2-7. Understanding High-Altitude Illnesses. As altitude increases, the overall atmospheric pressure
decreases. Decreased pressure is the underlying source of altitude illnesses. Whether at sea level or 20,000
feet the surrounding atmosphere has the same percentage of oxygen. As pressure decreases the body has
a much more difficult time passing oxygen from the lungs to the red blood cells and thus to the tissues of
the body. This lower pressure means lower oxygen levels in the blood and increased carbon dioxide levels.
Increased carbon dioxide levels in the blood cause a systemic vasodilatation, or expansion of blood vessels.
This increased vascular size stretches the vessel walls causing leakage of the fluid portions of the blood
into the interstitial spaces, which leads to cerebral edema or HACE. Unless treated, HACE will continue to
progress due to the decreased atmospheric pressure of oxygen. Further ascent will hasten the progression
of HACE and could possibly cause death.

While the body has an overall systemic vasodilatation, the lungs initially experience pulmonary vasoconstriction.
This constricting of the vessels in the lungs causes increased workload on the right ventricle,
the chamber of the heart that receives de-oxygenated blood from the right atrium and pushes it to the
lungs to be re-oxygenated. As the right ventricle works harder to force blood to the lungs, its overall output
is decreased thus decreasing the overall pulmonary perfusion. Decreased pulmonary perfusion causes
decreased cellular respiration, the transfer of oxygen from the alveoli to the red blood cells. The body is
now experiencing increased carbon dioxide levels due to the decreased oxygen levels, which now causes
pulmonary vasodilatation. Just as in HACE, this expanding of the vascular structure causes leakage into
interstitial space resulting in pulmonary edema or HAPE. As the edema or fluid in the lungs increases, the
capability to pass oxygen to the red blood cells decreases thus creating a vicious cycle, which can quickly
become fatal if left untreated.

2-8. High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema. HAPE is a swelling and filling of the lungs with fluid, caused by
rapid ascent. It occurs at high altitudes and limits the oxygen supply to the body.

a. HAPE occurs under conditions of low oxygen pressure, is encountered at high elevations (over
8,000 feet), and can occur in healthy soldiers. HAPE may be considered a form of, or manifestation
of AMS since it occurs during the period of susceptibility to this disorder.
b. HAPE can cause death. Incidence and severity increase with altitude. Except for acclimatization to
altitude, no known factors indicate resistance or immunity. Few cases have been reported after 10
days at high altitudes. When remaining at the same altitude, the incidence of HAPE is less frequent
than that of AMS. No common indicator dictates how a soldier will react from one exposure to
another. Contributing factors are:
•
A history of HAPE.
•
A rapid or abrupt transition to high altitudes.

790 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

•
Strenuous physical exertion.
•
Exposure to cold.
•
Anxiety.
c. Symptoms of AMS can mask early pulmonary difficulties. Symptoms of HAPE include:
•
Progressive dry coughing with frothy white or pink sputum (this is usually a later sign) and then
coughing up of blood.
•
Cyanosis a blue color to the face, hands, and feet.
•
An increased ill feeling, labored breathing, dizziness, fainting, repeated clearing of the throat,
and development of a cough.
•
Respiratory difficulty, which may be sudden, accompanied by choking and rapid deterioration.
•
Progressive shortness of breath, rapid heartbeat (pulse 120 to 160), and coughing (out of contrast
to others who arrived at the same time to that altitude).
•
Crackling, cellophane-like noises (rales) in the lungs caused by fluid buildup (a stethoscope is
usually needed to hear them).
•
Unconsciousness, if left untreated. Bubbles form in the nose and mouth, and death results.
d. HAPE is prevented by good nutrition, hydration, and gradual ascent to altitude (no more than 1,000
to 2,000 feet per day to an area of sleep). A rest day, with no gain in altitude or heavy physical exertion,
is planned for every 3,000 feet of altitude gained. If a soldier develops symptoms despite precautions,
immediate descent is mandatory where he receives prompt treatment, rest, warmth, and oxygen. He
is quickly evacuated to lower altitudes as a litter patient. A descent of 300 meters may help; manual
descent is not delayed to await air evacuation. If untreated, HAPE may become irreversible and cause
death. Cases that are recognized early and treated promptly may expect to recover with no aftereffects.
Soldiers who have had previous attacks of HAPE are prone to second attacks.
e. Treatment of HAPE includes:
•
Immediate descent (2,000 to 3,000 feet minimum) if possible; if not, then treatment in a monoplace
hyperbaric chamber.
•
Rest (litter evacuation).
•
Supplemental oxygen if available.
•
Morphine for the systemic vasodilatation and reduction of preload. This should be carefully
considered due to the respiratory depressive properties of the drug.
•
Furosemide (Lasix), which is a diuretic, given orally can also be effective.
•
The use of mannitol should not be considered due to the fact that it crystallizes at low temperatures.
Since almost all high-altitude environments are cold, using mannitol could be fatal.
•
Nifidipine (Procardia), which inhibits calcium ion flux across cardiac and smooth muscle cells,
decreasing contractility and oxygen demand. It may also dilate coronary arteries and arterioles.
•
Diphenhydramine (Benadryl), which can help alleviate the histamine response that increases
mucosal secretions.
2-9. High-Altitude Cerebral Edema. HACE is the accumulation of fluid in the brain, which results in swelling
and a depression of brain function that may result in death. It is caused by a rapid ascent to altitude
without progressive acclimatization. Prevention of HACE is the same as for HAPE. HAPE and HACE may
occur in experienced, well-acclimated mountaineers without warning or obvious predisposing conditions.
They can be fatal; when the first symptoms occur, immediate descent is mandatory.

a. Contributing factors include rapid ascent to heights over 8,000 feet and aggravation by overexertion.
b. Symptoms of HACE include mild personality changes, paralysis, stupor, convulsions, coma,
inability to concentrate, headaches, vomiting, decrease in urination, and lack of coordination. The
main symptom of HACE is a severe headache. A headache combined with any other physical or
psychological disturbances should be assumed to be manifestations of HACE. Headaches may be

Survival in Mountain Terrain 791

accompanied by a loss of coordination, confusion, hallucinations, and unconsciousness. These may
be combined with symptoms of HAPE. The victim is often mistakenly left alone since others may
think he is only irritable or temperamental; no one should ever be ignored. The symptoms may
rapidly progress to death. Prompt descent to a lower altitude is vital.

c.
Preventive measures include good eating habits, maintaining hydration, and using a gradual ascent
to altitude. Rest, warmth, and oxygen at lower elevations enhance recovery. Left untreated, HACE
can cause death.
d. Treatment for HACE includes:
• Dexamethasone injection immediately followed by oral dexamethasone.
• Supplemental oxygen.
• Rapid descent and medical attention.
• Use of a hyberbaric chamber if descent is delayed.
2-10. Hydration In Hape and Hace. HAPE and HACE cause increased proteins in the plasma, or the fluid
portion of the blood, which in turn increases blood viscosity. Increased viscosity increases vascular pressure.
Vascular leakage caused by stretching of the vessel walls is made worse because of this increased vascular
pressure. From this, edema, both cerebral and pulmonary, occurs. Hydration simply decreases viscosity.

SECTION 3: MOUNTAINEERING EQUIPMENT

EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION AND MAINTENANCE

With mountainous terrain encompassing a large portion of the world’s land mass, the proper use of mountaineering
equipment will enhance a unit’s combat capability and provide a combat multiplier. The equipment
described in this chapter is produced by many different manufacturers; however, each item is produced
and tested to extremely high standards to ensure safety when being used correctly. The weak link
in the safety chain is the user. Great care in performing preventative maintenance checks and services and
proper training in the use of the equipment is paramount to ensuring safe operations. The manufacturers
of each and every piece of equipment provide recommendations on how to use and care for its product. It
is imperative to follow these instructions explicitly.

3-1. Footwear. In temperate climates a combination of footwear is most appropriate to accomplish all tasks.

a.
The hot weather boot provides an excellent all-round platform for movement and climbing techniques
and should be the boot of choice when the weather permits. The intermediate cold weather
boot provides an acceptable platform for operations when the weather is less than ideal. These two
types of boots issued together will provide the unit with the footwear necessary to accomplish the
majority of basic mountain missions.
b. Mountain operations are encumbered by extreme cold, and the extreme cold weather boot (with
vapor barrier) provides an adequate platform for many basic mountain missions. However, plastic
mountaineering boots should be incorporated into training as soon as possible. These boots provide
a more versatile platform for any condition that would be encountered in the mountains, while
keeping the foot dryer and warmer.
c.
Level 2 and level 3 mountaineers will need mission-specific footwear that is not currently available
in the military supply system. The two types of footwear they will need are climbing shoes and
plastic mountaineering boots.
(1) Climbing shoes are made specifically for climbing vertical or near vertical rock faces.
These shoes are made with a soft leather upper, a lace-up configuration, and a smooth “sticky
rubber” sole (Figure 3-1). The smooth “sticky rubber” sole is the key to the climbing shoe, providing
greater friction on the surface of the rock, allowing the climber access to more difficult terrain.

792 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 3-1: Climbing shoes and plastic mountaineering boots.

(2) The plastic mountaineering boot is a double boot system (Figure 3-1). The inner boot provides
support, as well as insulation against the cold. The inner boot may or may not come with a
breathable membrane. The outer boot is a molded plastic (usually with a lace-up configuration)
with a lug sole. The welt of the boot is molded in such a way that crampons, ski bindings, and
snowshoes are easily attached and detached.
Note: Maintenance of all types of footwear must closely follow the manufacturers’ recommendations.

3-2. Clothing. Clothing is perhaps the most underestimated and misunderstood equipment in the military
inventory. The clothing system refers to every piece of clothing placed against the skin, the insulation
layers, and the outer most garments, which protect the soldier from the elements. When clothing is worn
properly, the soldier is better able to accomplish his tasks. When worn improperly, he is, at best, uncomfortable
and, at worst, develops hypothermia or frostbite.

a.
Socks. Socks are one of the most under-appreciated part of the entire clothing system. Socks are
extremely valuable in many respects, if worn correctly. As a system, socks provide cushioning
for the foot, remove excess moisture, and provide insulation from cold temperatures. Improper
wear and excess moisture are the biggest causes of hot spots and blisters. Regardless of climatic
conditions, socks should always be worn in layers.
(1)
The first layer should be a hydrophobic material that moves moisture from the foot surface to
the outer sock.
(2)
The outer sock should also be made of hydrophobic materials, but should be complimented with
materials that provide cushioning and abrasion resistance.
(3)
A third layer can be added depending upon the climatic conditions.
(a) In severe wet conditions, a waterproof type sock can be added to reduce the amount of
water that would saturate the foot. This layer would be worn over the first two layers if
conditions were extremely wet.
(b) In extremely cold conditions a vapor barrier sock can be worn either over both of the original
pairs of socks or between the hydrophobic layer and the insulating layer. If the user is
wearing VB boots, the vapor barrier sock is not recommended.
b.
Underwear. Underwear should also be made of materials that move moisture from the body. Many
civilian companies manufacture this type of underwear. The primary material in this product is
polyester, which moves moisture from the body to the outer layers keeping the user drier and more
comfortable in all climatic conditions. In colder environments, several pairs of long underwear of
different thickness should be made available. A lightweight set coupled with a heavyweight set will
provide a multitude of layering combinations.

Survival in Mountain Terrain 793

c.
Insulating Layers. Insulating layers are those layers that are worn over the underwear and under the
outer layers of clothing. Insulating layers provide additional warmth when the weather turns bad.
For the most part, today’s insulating layers will provide for easy moisture movement as well as trap
air to increase the insulating factor. The insulating layers that are presently available are referred to
as pile or fleece. The ECWCS (Figure 3-2) also incorporates the field jacket and field pants liner as
additional insulating layers. However, these two components do not move moisture as effectively
as the pile or fleece.
d.
Outer Layers. The ECWCS provides a jacket and pants made of a durable waterproof fabric. Both
are constructed with a nylon shell with a laminated breathable membrane attached. This membrane
allows the garment to release moisture to the environment while the nylon shell provides a degree
of water resistance during rain and snow. The nylon also acts as a barrier to wind, which helps the
garment retain the warm air trapped by the insulating layers. Leaders at all levels must understand
the importance of wearing the ECWCS correctly.
Note: Cotton layers must not be included in any layer during operations in a cold environment.

e.
Gaiters. Gaiters are used to protect the lower leg from snow and ice, as well as mud, twigs, and
stones. The use of waterproof fabrics or other breathable materials laminated to the nylon makes the
Field jacket liner

pile jacket
gore-tex
jacket
gore-tex
trousers
pile
pants
Field pant liner

MediuM weight
underwear
light weight
underwear
Figure 3-2: Extreme cold weather clothing system.


794 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

gaiter an integral component of the cold weather clothing system. Gaiters are not presently fielded
in the standard ECWCS and, in most cases, will need to be locally purchased. Gaiters are available
in three styles (Figure 3-3).

(1) The most common style of gaiter is the open-toed variety, which is a nylon shell that may or
may not have a breathable material laminated to it. The open front allows the boot to slip easily
into it and is closed with a combination of zipper, hook-pile tape, and snaps. It will have an
adjustable neoprene strap that goes under the boot to keep it snug to the boot. The length should
reach to just below the knee and will be kept snug with a drawstring and cord lock.
(2) The second type of gaiter is referred to as a full or randed gaiter. This gaiter completely covers
the boot down to the welt. It can be laminated with a breathable material and can also be insulated
if necessary. This gaiter is used with plastic mountaineering boots and should be glued in
place and not removed.
(3) The third type of gaiter is specific to high-altitude mountaineering or extremely cold temperatures
and is referred to as an overboot. It is worn completely over the boot and must be worn
with crampons because it has no traction sole.
f.
Hand Wear. During operations in mountainous terrain the use of hand wear is extremely important.
Even during the best climatic conditions, temperatures in the mountains will dip below the freezing
point. While mittens are always warmer than gloves, the finger dexterity needed to do most tasks
makes gloves the primary cold weather hand wear (Figure 3-4).
(1) The principals that apply to clothing also apply to gloves and mittens. They should provide
moisture transfer from the skin to the outer layers. The insulating layer must insulate the hand
from the cold and move moisture to the outer layer. The outer layer must be weather resistant
and breathable. Both gloves and mittens should be required for all soldiers during mountain
operations, as well as replacement liners for both. This will provide enough flexibility to accomplish
all tasks and keep the users’ hands warm and dry.
(2) Just as the clothing system is worn in layers, gloves and mittens work best using the same principle.
Retention cords that loop over the wrist work extremely well when the wearer needs to
remove the outer layer to accomplish a task that requires fine finger dexterity. Leaving the glove
or mitten dangling from the wrist ensures the wearer knows where it is at all times.
g.
Headwear. A large majority of heat loss (25 percent) occurs through the head and neck area. The
most effective way to counter heat loss is to wear a hat. The best hat available to the individual
soldier through the military supply system is the black watch cap. Natural fibers, predominately
wool, are acceptable but can be bulky and difficult to fit under a helmet. As with clothes and hand
Figure 3-3: Three types of gaiters.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 795


Figure 3-4: Hand wear.

wear, man-made fibers are preferred. For colder climates a neck gaiter can be added. The neck
gaiter is a tube of man-made material that fits around the neck and can reach up over the ears and
nose (Figure 3-5). For extreme cold, a balaclava can be added. This covers the head, neck, and face
leaving only a slot for the eyes (Figure 3-5). Worn together the combination is warm and provides
for moisture movement, keeping the wearer drier and warmer.

h.
Helmets. The Kevlar ballistic helmet can be used for most basic mountaineering tasks. It must befitted
with parachute retention straps and the foam impact pad (Figure 3-6). The level 2 and 3 mountaineer
will need a lighter weight helmet for specific climbing scenarios. Several civilian manufacturers
produce an effective helmet. Whichever helmet is selected, it should be designed specifically for
mountaineering and adjustable so the user can add a hat under it when needed.
Figure 3-5: Neck gaiter and balaclava.


796 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 3-6: Helmets.

i.
Eyewear. The military supply system does not currently provide adequate eyewear for mountaineering.
Eyewear is divided into two categories: glacier glasses and goggles (Figure 3-7). Glacier glasses are
sunglasses that cover the entire eye socket. Many operations in the mountains occur above the tree
line or on ice and snow surfaces where the harmful UV rays of the sun can bombard the eyes from
every angle increasing the likelihood of snow blindness. Goggles for mountain operations should
be antifogging. Double or triple lenses work best. UV rays penetrate clouds so the goggles should be
UV protected. Both glacier glasses and goggles are required equipment in the mountains. The lack
of either one can lead to severe eye injury or blindness.
j.
Maintenance of Clothing. Clothing and equipment manufacturers provide specific instructions for
proper care. Following these instructions is necessary to ensure the equipment works as intended.
3-3. Climbing Software. Climbing software refers to rope, cord, webbing, and harnesses. All mountaineering
specific equipment, to include hardware (see paragraph 3-4), should only be used if it has the UIAA
certificate of safety. UIAA is the organization that oversees the testing of mountaineering equipment. It is
based in Paris, France, and comprises several commissions. The safety commission has established standards
for mountaineering and climbing equipment that have become well recognized throughout the
world. Their work continues as new equipment develops and is brought into common use. Community
Europe (CE) recognizes UIAA testing standards and, as the broader-based testing facility for the combined
European economy, meets or exceeds the UIAA standards for all climbing and mountaineering equipment


Figure 3-7: Glacier glasses and goggles.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 797

produced in Europe. European norm (EN) and CE have been combined to make combined European norm
(CEN). While the United States has no specific standards, American manufacturers have their equipment
tested by UIAA to ensure safe operating tolerances.

a.
Ropes and Cord. Ropes and cords are the most important pieces of mountaineering equipment and
proper selection deserves careful thought. These items are your lifeline in the mountains, so selecting
the right type and size is of the utmost importance. All ropes and cord used in mountaineering
and climbing today are constructed with the same basic configuration. The construction technique
is referred to as Kernmantle, which is, essentially, a core of nylon fibers protected by a woven
sheath, similar to parachute or 550 cord (Figure 3-8).
(1) Ropes come in two types: static and dynamic. This refers to their ability to stretch under tension.
A static rope has very little stretch, perhaps as little as one to two percent, and is best used in
rope installations. A dynamic rope is most useful for climbing and general mountaineering. Its
ability to stretch up to 1/3 of its overall length makes it the right choice any time the user might
take a fall. Dynamic and static ropes come in various diameters and lengths. For most military
applications, a standard 10.5- or 11-millimeter by 50-meter dynamic rope and 11-millimeter by
45-meter static rope will be sufficient.
(2) When choosing dynamic rope, factors affecting rope selection include intended use, impact force,
abrasion resistance, and elongation. Regardless of the rope chosen, it should be UIAA certified.
(3) Cord or small diameter rope is indispensable to the mountaineer. Its many uses make it a valuable
piece of equipment. All cord is static and constructed in the same manner as larger rope. If used
for Prusik knots, the cord’s diameter should be 5 to 7 millimeters when used on an 11-mm rope.
b.
Webbing and Slings. Loops of tubular webbing or cord, called slings or runners, are the simplest
pieces of equipment and some of the most useful. The uses for these simple pieces are endless, and
they are a critical link between the climber, the rope, carabiners, and anchors. Runners are predominately
made from either 9/16-inch or 1-inch tubular webbing and are either tied or sewn by a manufacturer
(Figure 3-9). Runners can also be made from a high-performance fiber known as spectra,
which is stronger, more durable, and less susceptible to ultraviolet deterioration. Runners should be
retired regularly following the same considerations used to retire a rope. For most military applications,
a combination of different lengths of runners is adequate.
(1) Tied runners have certain advantages over sewn runners: they are inexpensive to make, can be
untied and threaded around natural anchors, and can be untied and retied to other pieces of
webbing to create extra long runners.
(2) Sewn runners have their own advantages: they tend to be stronger, are usually lighter, and have
less bulk than the tied version. They also eliminate a major concern with the homemade knotted
runner—the possibility of the knot untying. Sewn runners come in four standard lengths:
2 inches, 4 inches, 12 inches, and 24 inches. They also come in three standard widths: 9/16 inch,
11/16 inch, and 1 inch.
Figure 3-8: Kernmantle construction.


798 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 3-9: Tied or sewn runners.

c.
Harnesses. Years ago climbers secured themselves to the rope by wrapping the rope around their
bodies and tying a bowline-on-a-coil. While this technique is still a viable way of attaching to a rope,
the practice is no longer encouraged because of the increased possibility of injury from a fall. The
bowline-on-a-coil is best left for low-angle climbing or an emergency situation where harness material
is unavailable. Climbers today can select from a wide range of manufactured harnesses. Fitted
properly, the harness should ride high on the hips and have snug leg loops to better distribute the
force of a fall to the entire pelvis. This type of harness, referred to as a seat harness, provides a comfortable
seat for rappelling (Figure 3-10).
(1) Any harness selected should have one very important feature: a double-passed buckle. This is a
safety standard that requires the waist belt to be passed over and back through the main buckle
a second time. At least 2 inches of the strap should remain after double-passing the buckle.
(2) Another desirable feature on a harness is adjustable leg loops, which allows a snug fit regardless
of the number of layers of clothing worn. Adjustable leg loops allow the soldier to make a latrine
call without removing the harness or untying the rope.
Figure 3-10: Seat harness, field-expedient harness, and full body harness.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 799

(3) Equipment loops are desirable for carrying pieces of climbing equipment. For safety purposes
always follow the manufacturer’s directions for tying-in.
(4) A field-expedient version of the seat harness can be constructed by using 22 feet of either 1-inch or
2-inch (preferred) tubular webbing (Figure 3-10). Two double-overhand knots form the leg loops,
leaving 4 to 5 feet of webbing coming from one of the leg loops. The leg loops should just fit over the
clothing. Wrap the remaining webbing around the waist ensuring the first wrap is routed through
the 6- to 10-inch long strap between the double-overhand knots. Finish the waist wrap with a water
knot tied as tightly as possible. With the remaining webbing, tie a square knot without safeties over
the water knot ensuring a minimum of 4 inches remains from each strand of webbing.
(5) The full body harness incorporates a chest harness with a seat harness (Figure 3-10). This type
of harness has a higher tie-in point and greatly reduces the chance of flipping backward during
a fall. This is the only type of harness that is approved by the UIAA. While these harnesses are
safer, they do present several disadvantages: they are more expensive, are more restrictive, and
increase the difficulty of adding or removing clothing. Most mountaineers prefer to incorporate
a separate chest harness with their seat harness when warranted.
(6) A separate chest harness can be purchased from a manufacturer, or a field-expedient version
can be made from either two runners or a long piece of webbing. Either chest harness is then
attached to the seat harness with a carabiner and a length of webbing or cord.
3-4. Climbing Hardware. Climbing hardware refers to all the parts and pieces that allow the trained mountain
soldier to accomplish many tasks in the mountains. The importance of this gear to the mountaineer is
no less than that of the rifle to the infantryman.

a.
Carabiners. One of the most versatile pieces of equipment available to the mountaineer is the carabiner.
This simple piece of gear is the critical connection between the climber, his rope, and the
protection attaching him to the mountain. Carabiners must be strong enough to hold hard falls, yet
light enough for the climber to easily carry a quantity of them. Today’s high tech metal alloys allow
carabiners to meet both of these requirements. Steel is still widely used, but is not preferred for
general mountaineering, given other options. Basic carabiner construction affords the user several
different shapes. The oval, the D-shaped, and the pear-shaped carabiner are just some of the types
currently available. Most models can be made with or without a locking mechanism for the gate
opening (Figure 3-11). If the carabiner does have a locking mechanism, it is usually referred to as a
locking carabiner. When using a carabiner, great care should be taken to avoid loading the carabiner
on its minor axis and to avoid three-way loading (Figure 3-12).
Note: Great care should be used to ensure all carabiner gates are closed and locked during use.

(1) The major difference between the oval and the D-shaped carabiner is strength. Because of the
design of the D-shaped carabiner, the load is angled onto the spine of the carabiner thus keeping
it off the gate. The down side is that racking any gear or protection on the D-shaped carabiner
is difficult because the angle of the carabiner forces all the gear together making it impossible to
separate quickly.
(2) The pear-shaped carabiner, specifically the locking version, is excellent for clipping a descender
or belay device to the harness. They work well with the munter hitch belaying knot.
(3) Regardless of the type chosen, all carabiners should be UIAA tested. This testing is extensive
and tests the carabiner in three ways along its major axis, along its minor axis, and with the gate
open.
b.
Pitons. A piton is a metal pin that is hammered into a crack in the rock. They are described by their
thickness, design, and length (Figure 3-13). Pitons provide a secure anchor for a rope attached by a
carabiner. The many different kinds of pitons include: vertical, horizontal, wafer, and angle. They
are made of malleable steel, hardened steel, or other alloys. The strength of the piton is determined
by its placement rather than its rated tensile strength. The two most common types of pitons are:

800 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 3-11: Nonlocking and locking carabiners.


Figure 3-12: Major and minor axes and three-way loading.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 801


Figure 3-13: Various pitons.

blades, which hold when wedged into tight-fitting cracks, and angles, which hold blade compression
when wedged into a crack.

(1) Vertical Pitons. On vertical pitons, the blade and eye are aligned. These pitons are used in flush,
vertical cracks.
(2) Horizontal Pitons. On horizontal pitons, the eye of the piton is at right angles to the blade. These
pitons are used in flush, horizontal cracks and in offset or open-book type vertical or horizontal
cracks. They are recommended for use in vertical cracks instead of vertical pitons because the
torque on the eye tends to wedge the piton into place. This provides more holding power than
the vertical piton under the same circumstances.
(3) Wafer Pitons. These pitons are used in shallow, flush cracks. They have little holdingpower and
their weakest points are in the rings provided for the carabiner.
(4) Knife Blade Pitons. These are used in direct-aid climbing. They are small and fit into thin, shallow
cracks. They have a tapered blade that is optimum for both strength and holding power.
(5) Realized Ultimate Reality Pitons. Realized ultimate reality pitons (RURPs) are hatchet-shaped
pitons about 1-inch square. They are designed to bite into thin, shallow cracks.
(6) Angle Pitons. These are used in wide cracks that are flush or offset. Maximum strength is attained
only when the legs of the piton are in contact with the opposite sides of the crack.
(7) Bong Pitons. These are angle pitons that are more than 3.8 centimeters wide. Bongs are commonly
made of steel or aluminum alloy and usually contain holes to reduce weight and accommodate
carabiners. They have a high holding power and require less hammering than other pitons.
(8) Skyhook (Cliffhangers). These are small hooks that cling to tiny rock protrusions, ledges, or
flakes. Skyhooks require constant tension and are used in a downward pull direction. The
curved end will not straighten under body weight. The base is designed to prevent rotation and
aid stability.
c.
Piton Hammers. A piton hammer has a flat metal head; a handle made of wood, metal, or fiberglass;
and a blunt pick on the opposite side of the hammer (Figure 3-14). A safety lanyard of nylon cord,
webbing, or leather is used to attach it to the climber The lanyard should be long enough to allow
for full range of motion. Most hammers are approximately 25.5 centimeters long and weigh 12 to 25
ounces. The primary use for a piton hammer is to drive pitons, to be used as anchors, into the rock.
The piton hammer can also be used to assist in removing pitons, and in cleaning cracks and rock
surfaces to prepare for inserting the piton. The type selected should suit individual preference and
the intended use.

802 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 3-14: Piton hammer.

d.
Chocks. “Chocks” is a generic term used to describe the various types of artificial protection other
than bolts or pitons. Chocks are essentially a tapered metal wedge constructed in various sizes to
fit different sized openings in the rock (Figure 3-15). The design of a chock will determine whether
it fits into one of two categories: wedges or cams. A wedge holds by wedging into a constricting
crack in the rock. A cam holds by slightly rotating in a crack, creating a camming action that lodges
the chock in the crack or pocket. Some chocks are manufactured to perform either in the wedging
mode or the camming mode. One of the chocks that falls into the category of both a wedge and
cam is the hexagonal-shaped or “hex” chock. This type of chock is versatile and comes with either
a cable loop or is tied with cord or webbing. All chocks come in different sizes to fit varying widths
of cracks. Most chocks come with a wired loop that is stronger than cord and allows for easier
placement. Bigger chocks can be threaded with cord or webbing if the user ties the chock himself.
Care should be taken to place tubing in the chock before threading the cord. The cord used with
Figure 3-15: Chocks.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 803

chocks is designed to be stiffer and stronger than regular cord and is typically made of Kevlar. The
advantage of using a chock rather than a piton is that a climber can carry many different sizes and
use them repeatedly.

e.
Three-Point Camming Device. The three-point camming device’s unique design allows it to be used
both as a camming piece and a wedging piece (Figure 3-16). Because of this design it is extremely
versatile and, when used in the camming mode, will fit a wide range of cracks. The three-point camming
device comes in several different sizes with the smaller sizes working in pockets that no other
piece of gear would fit in.
f.
Spring-Loaded Camming Devices. Spring-loaded camming devices (SLCDs) (Figure 3-17) provide convenient,
reliable placement in cracks where standard chocks are not practical (parallel or flaring cracks
or cracks under roofs). SLCDs have three or four cams rotating around a single or double axis with a
rigid or semi-rigid point of attachment. These are placed quickly and easily, saving time and effort.
SLCDs are available in many sizes to accommodate different size cracks. Each fits a wide range of
crack widths due to the rotating cam heads. The shafts may be rigid metal or semi-rigid cable loops.
The flexible cable reduces the risk of stem breakage over an edge in horizontal placements.
g.
Chock Picks. Chock picks are primarily used to extract chocks from rock when the they become severely
wedged (Figure 3-18). They are also handy to clean cracks with. Made from thin metal, they can be purchased
or homemade. When using a chock pick to extract a chock be sure no force is applied directly
to the cable juncture. One end of the chock pick should have a hook to use on jammed SLCDs.
h.
Bolts. Bolts are screw-like shafts made from metal that are drilled into rock to provide protection
(Figure 3-19). The two types are contraction bolts and expansion bolts. Contraction bolts are
squeezed together when driven into a rock. Expansion bolts press around a surrounding sleeve
to form a snug fit into a rock. Bolts require drilling a hole into a rock, which is time-consuming,
exhausting, and extremely noisy. Once emplaced, bolts are the most secure protection for a multidirectional
pull. Bolts should be used only when chocks and pitons cannot be emplaced. A bolt is
hammered only when it is the nail or self-driving type.
Figure 3-16: Three-point camming device.


804 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 3-17: Spring-loaded camming devices.


Figure 3-18: Chock picks.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 805


Figure 3-19: Bolts and hangers.

(1) A hanger (for carabiner attachment) and nut are placed on the bolt. The bolt is then inserted and
driven into the hole. Because of this requirement, a hand drill must be carried in addition to a
piton hammer. Hand drills (also called star drills) are available in different sizes, brands, and
weights. A hand drill should have a lanyard to prevent loss.
(2) Self-driving bolts are quicker and easier to emplace. These require a hammer, bolt driver, and
drilling anchor, which is driven into the rock. A bolt and carrier are then secured to the emplaced
drilling anchor. All metal surfaces should be smooth and free of rust, corrosion, dirt, and moisture.
Burrs, chips, and rough spots should be filed smooth and wire-brushed or rubbed clean with
steel wool. Items that are cracked or warped indicate excessive wear and should be discarded.
i.
Belay Devices. Belay devices range from the least equipment intensive (the body belay) to high-tech
metal alloy pieces of equipment. Regardless of the belay device chosen, the basic principal remains
the same: friction around or through the belay device controls the ropes’ movement. Belay devices are
divided into three categories: the slot, the tuber, and the mechanical camming device (Figure 3-20).
Figure 3-20: Slot, tuber, mechanical camming device.


806 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

(1) The slot is a piece of equipment that attaches to a locking carabiner in the harness; a bight of
rope slides through the slot and into the carabiner for the belay. The most common slot type
belay device is the Sticht plate.
(2) The tuber is used exactly like the slot but its shape is more like a cone or tube.
(3) The mechanical camming device is a manufactured piece of equipment that attaches to the harness
with a locking carabiner. The rope is routed through this device so that when force is
applied the rope is cammed into a highly frictioned position.
j.
Descenders. One piece of equipment used for generations as a descender is the carabiner. A figureeight
is another useful piece of equipment and can be used in conjunction with the carabiner for
descending (Figure 3-21).
Note: All belay devices can also be used as descending devices.

k.
Ascenders. Ascenders may be used in other applications such as a personal safety or hauling line cam.
All modern ascenders work on the principle of using a cam-like device to allow movement in one
direction. Ascenders are primarily made of metal alloys and come in a variety of sizes (Figure 3-22).
For difficult vertical terrain, two ascenders work best. For lower angle movement, one ascender is
sufficient. Most manufacturers make ascenders as a right and left-handed pair.
l.
Pulleys. Pulleys are used to change direction in rope systems and to create mechanical advantage
in hauling systems. A pulley should be small, lightweight, and strong. They should accommodate
the largest diameter of rope being used. Pulleys are made with several bearings, different-sized
sheaves (wheel), and metal alloy sideplates (Figure 3-23). Plastic pulleys should always be avoided.
The sideplate should rotate on the pulley axle to allow the pulley to be attached at any point along
the rope. For best results, the sheave diameter must be at least four times larger than the rope’s
diameter to maintain high rope strength.
3-5. Snow and Ice Climbing Hardware. Snow and ice climbing hardware is the equipment that is particular
to operations in some mountainous terrain. Specific training on this type of equipment is essential for
safe use. Terrain that would otherwise be inaccessible—snowfields, glaciers, frozen waterfalls—can now
be considered avenues of approach using the snow and ice climbing gear listed in this paragraph.

a.
Ice Ax. The ice ax is one of the most important tools for the mountaineer operating on snow or ice.
The climber must become proficient in its use and handling. The versatility of the ax lends itself to
Figure 3-21: Figure-eights.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 807


Figure 3-22: Ascenders.


Figure 3-23: Pulley.

balance, step cutting, probing, self-arrest, belays, anchors, direct-aid climbing, and ascending and
descending snow and ice covered routes.

(1) Several specific parts comprise an ice ax: the shaft, head (pick and adze), and spike (Figure 3-24).
(a) The shaft (handle) of the ax comes in varying lengths (the primary length of the standard
mountaineering ax is 70 centimeters). It can be made of fiberglass, hollow aluminum, or
wood; the first two are stronger, therefore safer for mountaineering.
(b) The head of the ax, which combines the pick and the adze, can have different configurations.
The pick should be curved slightly and have teeth at least one-fourth of its length.
The adze, used for chopping, is perpendicular to the shaft. It can be flat or curved along its
length and straight or rounded from side to side. The head can be of one-piece construction
or have replaceable picks and adzes. The head should have a hole directly above the shaft
to allow for a leash to be attached.

808 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 3-24: Ice ax and ice hammers.

(c) The spike at the bottom of the ax is made of the same material as the head and comes in a
variety of shapes.
(2) As climbing becomes more technical, a shorter ax is much more appropriate, and adding a second
tool is a must when the terrain becomes vertical. The shorter ax has all the attributes of the
longer ax, but it is anywhere from 40 to 55 centimeters long and can have a straight or bent shaft
depending on the preference of the user.
b.
Ice Hammer. The ice hammer is as short or shorter than the technical ax (Figure 3-24). It is used for
pounding protection into the ice or pitons into the rock. The only difference between the ice ax and the
ice hammer is the ice hammer has a hammerhead instead of an adze. Most of the shorter ice tools have
a hole in the shaft to which a leash is secured, which provides a more secure purchase in the ice.
c.
Crampons. Crampons are used when the footing becomes treacherous. They have multiple spikes on
the bottom and spikes protruding from the front (Figure 3-25). Two types of crampons are available:
flexible and rigid. Regardless of the type of crampon chosen, fit is the most important factor associated
with crampon wear. The crampon should fit snugly on the boot with a minimum of 1 inch of
front point protruding. Straps should fit snugly around the foot and any long, loose ends should be
trimmed. Both flexible and rigid crampons come in pairs, and any tools needed for adjustment will
be provided by the manufacturer.
(1) The hinged or flexible crampon is best used when no technical ice climbing will be done. It
is designed to be used with soft, flexible boots, but can be attached to plastic mountaineering
boots. The flexible crampon gets its name from the flexible hinge on the crampon itself. All flexible
crampons are adjustable for length while some allow for width adjustment. Most flexible
crampons will attach to the boot by means of a strap system. The flexible crampon can be worn
with a variety of boot types.
(2) The rigid crampon, as its name implies, is rigid and does not flex. This type of crampon is
designed for technical ice climbing, but can be used on less vertical terrain. The rigid crampon
can only be worn with plastic mountaineering boots. Rigid crampons will have a toe and heel
bail attachment with a strap that wraps around the ankle.
d.
Ice Screws. Ice screws provide artificial protection for climbers and equipment for operations in icy
terrain. They are screwed into ice formations. Ice screws are made of chrome-molybdenum steel

Survival in Mountain Terrain 809


Figure 3-25: Crampons.

and vary in lengths from 11 centimeters to 40 centimeters (Figure 3-26). The eye is permanently
affixed to the top of the ice screw. The tip consists of milled or hand-ground teeth, which create
sharp points to grab the ice when being emplaced. The ice screw has right-hand threads to penetrate
the ice when turned clockwise.

(1) When selecting ice screws, choose a screw with a large thread count and large hollow opening.
The close threads will allow for ease in turning and better strength. The large hollow opening
will allow snow and ice to slide through when turning.

810 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 3-26: Ice screws.

•
Type I is 17 centimeters in length with a hollow inner tube.
•
Type II is 22 centimeters in length with a hollow inner tube.
•
Other variations are hollow alloy screws that have a tapered shank with external threads, which
are driven into ice and removed by rotation.
(2) Ice screws should be inspected for cracks, bends, and other deformities that may impair strength
or function. If any cracks or bends are noticed, the screw should be turned in. A file may be used
to sharpen the ice screw points. Steel wool should be rubbed on rusted surfaces and a thin coat
of oil applied when storing steel ice screws.
Note: Ice screws should always be kept clean and dry. The threads and teeth should be protected and kept sharp for
ease of application.

e.
Ice Pitons. Ice pitons are used to establish anchor points for climbers and equipment when conducting
operations on ice. They are made of steel or steel alloys (chrome-molybdenum), and are available
in various lengths and diameters (Figure 3-27). They are tubular with a hollow core and are
hammered into ice with an ice hammer. The eye is permanently fixed to the top of the ice piton. The
tip may be beveled to help grab the ice to facilitate insertion. Ice pitons are extremely strong when
placed properly in hard ice. They can, however, pull out easily on warm days and require a considerable
amount of effort to extract in cold temperatures.
Figure 3-27: Ice piton.


Survival in Mountain Terrain811

f.
Wired Snow Anchors. The wired snow anchor (or fluke) provides security for climbers and equipment
in operations involving steep ascents by burying the snow anchor into deep snow (Figure 3-28). The
fluted anchor portion of the snow anchor is made of aluminum. The wired portion is made of either
galvanized steel or stainless steel. Fluke anchors are available in various sizes; their holding ability
generally increases with size. They are available with bent faces, flanged sides, and fixed cables.
Common types are:
•
Type I is 22 by 14 centimeters. Minimum breaking strength of the swaged wire loop is 600
kilograms.
•
Type II is 25 by 20 centimeters. Minimum breaking strength of the swaged wire loop is 1,000
kilograms.
The wired snow anchor should be inspected for cracks, broken wire strands, and slippage of the wire
through the swage. If any cracks, broken wire strands, or slippage is noticed, the snow anchor should be
turned in.

g.
Snow Picket. The snow picket is used in constructing anchors in snow and ice (Figure 3-28). The
snow picket is made of a strong aluminum alloy 3 millimeters thick by 4 centimeters wide, and
45 to 90 centimeters long. They can be angled or T-section stakes. The picket should be inspected for
bends, chips, cracks, mushrooming ends, and other deformities. The ends should be filed smooth.
If bent or cracked, the picket should be turned in for replacement.
3-6. Sustainability Equipment. This paragraph describes all additional equipment not directly involved
with climbing. This equipment is used for safety (avalanche equipment, wands), bivouacs, movement, and
carrying gear. While not all of it will need to be carried on all missions, having the equipment available and
knowing how to use it correctly will enhance the unit’s capability in mountainous terrain.

a.
Snow Saw. The snow saw is used to cut into ice and snow. It can be used in step cutting, in shelter
construction, for removing frozen obstacles, and for cutting snow stability test pits. The special tooth
design of the snow saw easily cuts into frozen snow and ice. The blade is a rigid aluminum alloy
Figure 3-28: Snow anchors, flukes, and pickets.


812 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

of high strength about 3 millimeters thick and 38 centimeters long with a pointed end to facilitate
entry on the forward stroke. The handle is either wooden or plastic and is riveted to the blade for a
length of about 50 centimeters. The blade should be inspected for rust, cracks, warping, burrs, and
missing or dull teeth. A file can repair most defects, and steel wool can be rubbed on rusted areas.
The handle should be inspected for cracks, bends, and stability. On folding models, the hinge and
nuts should be secure. If the saw is beyond repair, it should not be used.

b.
Snow Shovel. The snow shovel is used to cut and remove ice and snow. It can be used for avalanche
rescue, shelter construction, step cutting, and removing obstacles. The snow shovel is made of a
special, lightweight aluminum alloy. The handle should be telescopic, folding, or removable to be
compact when not in use. The shovel should have a flat or rounded bottom and be of strong construction.
The shovel should be inspected for cracks, bends, rust, and burrs. A file and steel wool
can remove rust and put an edge on the blade of the shovel. The handle should be inspected for
cracks, bends, and stability. If the shovel is beyond repair, it should be turned in.
c.
Wands. Wands are used to identify routes, crevasses, snow-bridges, caches, and turns on snow and
glaciers. Spacing of wands depends on the number of turns, number of hazards identified, weather
conditions (and visibility), and number of teams in the climbing party. Carrying too many wands
is better than not having enough if they become lost. Wands are 1 to 1.25 meters long and made of
lightweight bamboo or plastic shafts pointed on one end with a plastic or nylon flag (bright enough
in color to see at a distance) attached to the other end. The shafts should be inspected for cracks,
bends, and deformities. The flag should be inspected for tears, frays, security to the shaft, fading,
and discoloration. If any defects are discovered, the wands should be replaced.
d.
Avalanche rescue equipment. Avalanche rescue equipment (Figure 3-29) includes the following:
(1)
Avalanche Probe. Although ski poles may be used as an emergency probe when searching for
a victim in an avalanche, commercially manufactured probes are better for a thorough search.
They are 9-millimeter thick shafts made of an aluminum alloy, which can be joined to probe up
to 360 centimeters. The shafts must be strong enough to probe through avalanche debris. Some
manufacturers of ski poles design poles that are telescopic and mate with other poles to create
an avalanche probe.
(2)
Avalanche Transceivers. These are small, compact radios used to identify avalanche burial sites. They
transmit electromagnetic signals that are picked up by another transceiver on the receive mode.
e.
Packs. Many types and brands of packs are used for mountaineering. The two most common types
are internal and external framed packs.
Figure 3-29: Avalanche rescue equipment.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 813

(1) Internal framed packs have a rigid frame within the pack that help it maintain its shape and
hug the back. This assists the climber in keeping their balance as they climb or ski. The weight
in an internal framed pack is carried low on the body assisting with balance. The body-hugging
nature of this type pack also makes it uncomfortable in warm weather.
(2) External framed packs suspend the load away from the back with a ladder-like frame. The
frame helps transfer the weight to the hips and shoulders easier, but can be cumbersome when
balance is needed for climbing and skiing.
(3) Packs come in many sizes and should be sized appropriately for the individual according to
manufacturer’s specifications. Packs often come with many unneeded features. A good rule of
thumb is: The simpler the pack, the better it will be.
f.
Stoves. When selecting a stove one must define its purpose: will the stove be used for heating, cooking
or both? Stoves or heaters for large elements can be large and cumbersome. Stoves for smaller
elements might just be used for cooking and making water, and are simple and lightweight. Stoves
are a necessity in mountaineering for cooking and making water from snow and ice. When choosing
a stove, factors that should be considered are weight, altitude and temperature where it will be
used, fuel availability, and its reliability.
(1) There are many choices in stove design and in fuel types. White gas, kerosene, and butane are
the common fuels used. All stoves require a means of pressurization to force the fuel to the
burner. Stoves that burn white gas or kerosene have a hand pump to generate the pressurization
and butane stoves have pressurized cartridges. All stoves need to vaporize the liquid fuel
before it is burned. This can be accomplished by burning a small amount of fuel in the burner
cup assembly, which will vaporize the fuel in the fuel line.
(2) Stoves should be tested and maintained prior to a mountaineering mission. They should be easy
to clean and repair during an operation. The reliability of the stove has a huge impact on the
success of the mission and the morale of personnel.
g.
Tents. When selecting a tent, the mission must be defined to determine the number of people the tent
will accommodate. The climate the tents will be used in is also of concern. A tent used for warmer
temperatures will greatly differ from tents used in a colder, harsher environment. Manufacturers of
tents offer many designs of different sizes, weights, and materials.
(1) Mountaineering tents are made out of a breathable or weatherproof material. A single-wall tent
allows for moisture inside the tent to escape through the tent’s material. A double-wall tent has
a second layer of material (referred to as a fly) that covers the tent. The fly protects against rain
and snow and the space between the fly and tent helps moisture to escape from inside. Before
using a new tent, the seams should be treated with seam sealer to prevent moisture from entering
through the stitching.
(2) The frame of a tent is usually made of an aluminum or carbon fiber pole. The poles are connected
with an elastic cord that allows them to extend, connect, and become long and rigid.
When the tent poles are secured into the tent body, they create the shape of the tent.
(3) Tents are rated by a “relative strength factor,” the speed of wind a tent can withstand before
the frame deforms. Temperature and expected weather for the mission should be determined
before choosing the tent.
h.
Skis. Mountaineering skis are wide and short. They have a binding that pivots at the toe and allows
for the heel to be free for uphill travel or locked for downhill. Synthetic skins with fibers on the
bottom can be attached to the bottom of the ski and allow the ski to travel forward and prevent
slipping backward. The skins aid in traveling uphill and slow down the rate of descents. Wax can
be applied to the ski to aid in ascents instead of skins. Skis can decrease the time needed to reach an
objective depending on the ability of the user. Skis can make crossing crevasses easier because of
the load distribution, and they can become a makeshift stretcher for casualties. Ski techniques can
be complicated and require thorough training for adequate proficiency.

814 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

i.
Snowshoes. Snowshoes are the traditional aid to snow travel that attach to most footwear and have
been updated into small, lightweight designs that are more efficient than older models. Snowshoes
offer a large displacement area on top of soft snow preventing tiresome post-holing. Some snowshoes
come equipped with a crampon like binding that helps in ascending steep snow and ice.
Snowshoes are slower than skis, but are better suited for mixed terrain, especially if personnel are
not experienced with the art of skiing. When carrying heavy packs, snowshoes can be easier to use
than skis.
j.
Ski poles. Ski poles were traditionally designed to assist in balance during skiing. They have become
an important tool in mountaineering for aid in balance while hiking, snowshoeing, and carrying
heavy packs. They can take some of the weight off of the lower body when carrying a heavy pack.
Some ski poles are collapsible for ease of packing when not needed (Figure 3-30). The basket at the
bottom prevents the pole from plunging deep into the snow and, on some models, can be detached
so the pole becomes an avalanche or crevasse probe. Some ski poles come with a self-arrest grip, but
should not be the only means of protection on technical terrain.
k.
Sleds. Sleds vary greatly in size, from the squad-size Ahkio, a component of the 10-man arctic tent
system, to the one-person skow. Regardless of the size, sleds are an invaluable asset during mountainous
operations when snow and ice is the primary surface on which to travel. Whichever sled
is chosen, it must be attachable to the person or people that will be pulling it. Most sleds are constructed
using fiberglass bottoms with or without exterior runners. Runners will aid the sled’s ability
to maintain a true track in the snow. The sled should also come with a cover of some sort—whether
nylon or canvas, a cover is essential for keeping the components in the sled dry. Great care should
be taken when packing the sled, especially when hauling fuel. Heavier items should be carried
towards the rear of the sled and lighter items towards the front.
l.
Headlamps. A headlamp is a small item that is not appreciated until it is needed. It is common to
need a light source and the use of both hands during limited light conditions in mountaineering
operations. A flashlight can provide light, but can be cumbersome when both hands are needed.
Most headlamps attach to helmets by means of elastic bands.
(1) When choosing a headlamp, ensure it is waterproof and the battery apparatus is small. All
components should be reliable in extreme weather conditions. When the light is being
packed, care should be taken that the switch doesn’t accidentally activate and use precious
battery life.
Figure 3-30: Collapsible ski poles.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 815

(2) The battery source should compliment the resupply available. Most lights will accept alkaline,
nickel-cadmium, or lithium batteries. Alkaline battery life diminishes quickly in cold temperatures,
nickel-cadmium batteries last longer in cold but require a recharging unit, and lithium batteries
have twice the voltage so modifications are required.
EQUIPMENT PACKING

Equipment brought on a mission is carried in the pack, worn on the body, or hauled in a sled (in winter).
Obviously, the rucksack and sled (or Ahkio) can hold much more than a climber can carry. They would
be used for major bivouac gear, food, water, first aid kits, climbing equipment, foul weather shells, stoves,
fuel, ropes, and extra ammunition and demolition materials, if needed.

3-7. Choice of Equipment. Mission requirements and unit SOP will influence the choice of gear carried but
the following lists provide a sample of what should be considered during mission planning.

a.
Personal Gear. Personal gear includes emergency survival kit containing signaling material, fire
starting material, food procurement material, and water procurement material. Pocket items should
include a knife, whistle, pressure bandage, notebook with pen or pencil, sunglasses, sunblock and
lip protection, map, compass and or altimeter.
b.
Standard Gear. Standard gear that can be individually worn or carried includes cushion sole socks;
combat boots or mountain boots, if available; BDU and cap; LCE with canteens, magazine pouches,
and first aid kit; individual weapon; a large rucksack containing waterproof coat and trousers, polypropylene
top, sweater, or fleece top; helmet; poncho; and sleeping bag.
CAUTION
Cotton clothing, due to its poor insulating and moisture-wicking characteristics, is virtually
useless in most mountain climates, the exception being hot, desert, or jungle mountain
environments. Cotton clothing should be replaced with synthetic fabric clothing.

c. Mountaineering Equipment and Specialized Gear. This gear includes:
•
Sling rope or climbing harness.
•
Utility cord(s).
•
Nonlocking carabiners.
•
Locking carabiner(s).
•
Rappelling gloves.
•
Rappel/belay device.
•
Ice ax.
•
Crampons.
•
Climbing rope, one per climbing team.
•
Climbing rack, one per climbing team.
d.
Day Pack. When the soldier plans to be away from the bivouac site for the day on a patrol or mountaineering
mission, he carries a light day pack. This pack should contain the following items:
•
Extra insulating layer: polypropylene, pile top, or sweater.
•
Protective layer: waterproof jacket and pants, rain suit, or poncho.
•
First aid kit.
•
Flashlight or headlamp.
•
Canteen.
•
Cold weather hat or scarf.
•
Rations for the time period away from the base camp.
•
Survival kit.

816 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

•
Sling rope or climbing harness.
•
Carabiners.
•
Gloves.
•
Climbing rope, one per climbing team.
•
Climbing rack, one per climbing team.
e.
Squad or Team Safety Pack. When a squad-sized element leaves the bivouac site, squad safety gear
should be carried in addition to individual day packs. This can either be loaded into one rucksack or
cross-loaded among the squad members. In the event of an injury, casualty evacuation, or unplanned
bivouac, these items may make the difference between success and failure of the mission.
•
Sleeping bag.
•
Sleeping mat.
•
Squad stove.
•
Fuel bottle.
f.
The Ten Essentials. Regardless of what equipment is carried, the individual military mountaineer
should always carry the “ten essentials” when moving through the mountains.
(1)
Map.
(2)
Compass, Altimeter, and or GPS.
(3)
Sunglasses and Sunscreen.
(a) In alpine or snow-covered sub-alpine terrain, sunglasses are a vital piece of equipment for
preventing snow blindness. They should filter 95 to 100 percent of ultraviolet light. Side
shields, which minimize the light entering from the side, should permit ventilation to help
prevent lens fogging. At least one extra pair of sunglasses should be carried by each independent
climbing team.
(b) Sunscreens should have an SPF factor of 15 or higher. For lip protection, a total UV blocking
lip balm that resists sweating, washing, and licking is best. This lip protection should be
carried in the chest pocket or around the neck to allow frequent reapplication.
(4)
Extra Food. One day’s worth extra of food should be carried in case of delay caused by bad
weather, injury, or navigational error.
(5)
Extra Clothing. The clothing used during the active part of a climb, and considered to be the
basic climbing outfit, includes socks, boots, underwear, pants, blouse, sweater or fleece jacket,
hat, gloves or mittens, and foul weather gear (waterproof, breathable outerwear or waterproof
rain suit).
(a) Extra clothing includes additional layers needed to make it through the long, inactive hours
of an unplanned bivouac. Keep in mind the season when selecting this gear.
•
Extra underwear to switch out with sweat-soaked underwear.
•
Extra hats or balaclavas.
•
Extra pair of heavy socks.
•
Extra pair of insulated mittens or gloves.
•
In winter or severe mountain conditions, extra insulation for the upper body and
the legs.
(b) To back up foul weather gear, bring a poncho or extra-large plastic trash bag. A reflective
emergency space blanket can be used for hypothermia first aid and emergency shelter.
Insulated foam pads prevent heat loss while sitting or lying on snow. Finally, a bivouac sack
can help by protecting insulating layers from the weather, cutting the wind, and trapping
essential body heat inside the sack.
(6)
Headlamp and or Flashlight. Headlamps provide the climber a hands-free capability, which
is important while climbing, working around the camp, and employing weapons systems.
Miniature flashlights can be used, but commercially available headlamps are best. Red lens
covers can be fabricated for tactical conditions. Spare batteries and spare bulbs should also
be carried.

Survival in Mountain Terrain817

(7)
First-aid Kit. Decentralized operations, the mountain environment steep, slick terrain and loose
rock combined with heavy packs, sharp tools, and fatigue requires each climber to carry his own
first-aid kit. Common mountaineering injuries that can be expected are punctures and abrasions
with severe bleeding, a broken bone, serious sprain, and blisters. Therefore, the kit should
contain at least enough material to stabilize these conditions. Pressure dressings, gauze pads,
elastic compression wrap, small adhesive bandages, butterfly bandages, moleskin, adhesive
tape, scissors, cleanser, latex gloves and splint material (if above tree line) should all be part of
the kit.
(8)
Fire Starter. Fire starting material is key to igniting wet wood for emergency campfires. Candles,
heat tabs, and canned heat all work. These can also be used for quick warming of water or soup
in a canteen cup. In alpine zones above tree line with no available firewood, a stove works as an
emergency heat source.
(9)
Matches and Lighter. Lighters are handy for starting fires, but they should be backed up by
matches stored in a waterproof container with a strip of sandpaper.
(10) Knife. A multipurpose pocket tool should be secured with cord to the belt, harness, or pack.
g. Other Essential Gear. Other essential gear may be carried depending on mission and environmental
considerations.
(1)
Water and Water Containers. These include wide-mouth water bottles for water collection; camelback
type water holders for hands-free hydration; and a small length of plastic tubing for water
procurement at snow-melt seeps and rainwater puddles on bare rock.
(2)
Ice Ax. The ice ax is essential for travel on snowfields and glaciers as well as snow-covered
terrain in spring and early summer. It helps for movement on steep scree and on brush and
heather covered slopes, as well as for stream crossings.
(3)
Repair Kit. A repair kit should include:
•
Stove tools and spare parts.
•
Duct tape.
•
Patches.
•
Safety pins.
•
Heavy-duty thread.
•
Awl and or needles.
•
Cord and or wire.
•
Small pliers (if not carrying a multipurpose tool).
•
Other repair items as needed.
(4)
Insect Repellent.
(5)
Signaling Devices.
(6)
Snow Shovel.
3-8. Tips on Packing. When loading the internal frame pack the following points should be considered.

a.
In most cases, speed and endurance are enhanced if the load is carried more by the hips (using the
waist belt) and less by the shoulders and back. This is preferred for movement over trails or less
difficult terrain. By packing the lighter, more compressible items (sleeping bag, clothing) in the bottom
of the rucksack and the heavier gear (stove, food, water, rope, climbing hardware, extra ammunition)
on top, nearer the shoulder blades, the load is held high and close to the back, thus placing
the most weight on the hips.
b. In rougher terrain it pays to modify the pack plan. Heavy articles of gear are placed lower in the
pack and close to the back, placing more weight on the shoulders and back. This lowers the climber’s
center of gravity and helps him to better keep his balance.
c.
Equipment that may be needed during movement should be arranged for quick access using either
external pockets or placing immediately underneath the top flap of the pack. As much as possible,

818 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

this placement should be standardized across the team so that necessary items can be quickly
reached without unnecessary unpacking of the pack in emergencies.

d. The pack and its contents should be soundly waterproofed. Clothing and sleeping bag are separately
sealed and then placed in the larger wet weather bag that lines the rucksack. Zip-lock plastic
bags can be used for small items, which are then organized into color-coded stuff sacks. A few
extra-large plastic garbage bags should be carried for a variety of uses: spare waterproofing, emergency
bivouac shelter, and water procurement, among others.
e.
The ice ax, if not carried in hand, should be stowed on the outside of the pack with the spike up and
the adze facing forward or to the outside, and be securely fastened. Mountaineering packs have
ice ax loops and buckle fastening systems for this. If not, the ice ax is placed behind one of the side
pockets, as stated above, and then tied in place.
f. Crampons should be secured to the outside rear of the pack with the points covered.
SECTION 4: ROPE MANAGEMENT AND KNOTS

The rope is a vital piece of equipment to the mountaineer. When climbing, rappelling, or building various
installations, the mountaineer must know how to properly use and maintain this piece of equipment. If the
rope is not managed or maintained properly, serious injury may occur. This chapter discusses common
rope terminology, management techniques, care and maintenance procedures, and knots.

PREPARATION, CARE AND MAINTENANCE, INSPECTION, TERMINOLOGY

The service life of a rope depends on the frequency of use, applications (rappelling, climbing, rope installations),
speed of descent, surface abrasion, terrain, climate, and quality of maintenance. Any rope may fail
under extreme conditions (shock load, sharp edges, misuse).

4-1. Preparation. The mountaineer must select the proper rope for the task to be accomplished according
to type, diameter, length, and tensile strength. It is important to prepare all ropes before departing on a
mission. Avoid rope preparation in the field.

a.
Packaging. New rope comes from the manufacturer in different configurations boxed on a spool in
various lengths, or coiled and bound in some manner. Precut ropes are usually packaged in a protective
cover such as plastic or burlap . Do not remove the protective cover until the rope is ready
for use.
b.
Securing the Ends of the Rope: If still on a spool, the rope must be cut to the desired length. All ropes
will fray at the ends unless they are bound or seared. Both static and dynamic rope ends are secured
in the same manner. The ends must be heated to the melting point so as to attach the inner core
strands to the outer sheath. By fusing the two together, the sheath cannot slide backward or forward.
Ensure that this is only done to the ends of the rope. If the rope is exposed to extreme temperatures,
the sheath could be weakened, along with the inner core, reducing overall tensile strength. The ends
may also be dipped in enamel or lacquer for further protection.
4-2. Care and Maintenance. The rope is a climber’s lifeline. It must be cared for and used properly. These
general guidelines should be used when handling ropes.

a.
Do not step on or drag ropes on the ground unnecessarily. Small particles of dirt will be ground
between the inner strands and will slowly cut them.
b. While in use, do not allow the rope to come into contact with sharp edges. Nylon rope is easily
cut, particularly when under tension. If the rope must be used over a sharp edge, pad the edge for
protection.

Survival in Mountain Terrain 819

c.
Always keep the rope as dry as possible. Should the rope become wet, hang it in large loops off the
ground and allow it to dry. Never dry a rope with high heat or in direct sunlight.
d. Never leave a rope knotted or tightly stretched for longer than necessary. Over time it will reduce
the strength and life of the rope.
e. Never allow one rope to continuously rub over or against another. Allowing rope-on-rope contact
with nylon rope is extremely dangerous because the heat produced by the friction will cause the
nylon to melt.
f. Inspect the rope before each use for frayed or cut spots, mildew or rot, or defects in construction
(new rope).
g. The ends of the rope should be whipped or melted to prevent unraveling.
h. Do not splice ropes for use in mountaineering.
i. Do not mark ropes with paints or allow them to come in contact with oils or petroleum products.
Some of these will weaken or deteriorate nylon.
j. Never use a mountaineering rope for any purpose except mountaineering.
k. Each rope should have a corresponding rope log, which is also a safety record. It should annotate
use, terrain, weather, application, number of falls, dates, and so on, and should be annotated each
time the rope is used (Figure 4-1).
l. Never subject the rope to high heat or flame. This will significantly weaken it.
m.
All ropes should be washed periodically to remove dirt and grit, and rinsed thoroughly. Commercial
rope washers are made from short pieces of modified pipe that connect to any faucet. Pinholes
within the pipe force water to circulate around and scrub the rope as you slowly feed it through the
washer. Another method is to machine wash, on a gentle cycle, in cold water with a nylon safe soap,
never bleach or harsh cleansers. Ensure that only front loading washing machines are used to wash
ropes.
n.
Ultraviolet radiation (sunlight) tends to deteriorate nylon over long periods of time. This becomes
important if rope installations are left in place over a number of months.
Figure 4-1: Example of completed DA Form 5752-R.


820 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

o.
When not in use, ropes should be loosely coiled and hung on wooden pegs rather than nails or other
metal objects. Storage areas should be relatively cool with low humidity levels to prevent mildew
or rotting. Rope may also be loosely stacked and placed in a rope bag and stored on a shelf. Avoid
storage in direct sunlight, as the ultraviolet radiation will deteriorate the nylon over long periods.
4-3. Inspection. Ropes should be inspected before and after each use, especially when working around
loose rock or sharp edges.

a.
Although the core of the kernmantle rope cannot be seen, it is possible to damage the core without
damaging the sheath. Check a kernmantle rope by carefully inspecting the sheath before and after
use while the rope is being coiled. When coiling, be aware of how the rope feels as it runs through
the hands. Immediately note and tie off any lumps or depressions felt.
b. Damage to the core of a kernmantle rope usually consists of filaments or yarn breakage that results
in a slight retraction. If enough strands rupture, a localized reduction in the diameter of the rope
results in a depression that can be felt or even seen.
c.
Check any other suspected areas further by putting them under tension (the weight of one person
standing on a Prusik tensioning system is about maximum). This procedure will emphasize the
lump or depression by separating the broken strands and enlarging the dip. If a noticeable difference
in diameter is obvious, retire the rope immediately.
d. Many dynamic kernmantle ropes are quite soft. They may retain an indention occasionally after an
impact or under normal use without any trauma to the core. When damage is suspected, patiently
inspect the sheath for abnormalities. Damage to the sheath does not always mean damage to the
core. Inspect carefully.
4-4. Terminology. When using ropes, understanding basic terminology is important. The terms explained
in this section are the most commonly used in military mountaineering. (Figure 4-2 illustrates some of
these terms.)


Figure 4-2: Examples of roping terminology.


Survival in Mountain Terrain821

a.
Bight. A bight of rope is a simple bend of rope in which the rope does not cross itself.
b.
Loop. A loop is a bend of a rope in which the rope does cross itself.
c.
Half Hitch. A half hitch is a loop that runs around an object in such a manner as to lock or secure
itself.
d.
Turn. A turn wraps around an object, providing 360-degree contact.
e.
Round Turn. A round turn wraps around an object one and one-half times. A round turn is used to
distribute the load over a small diameter anchor (3 inches or less). It may also be used around larger
diameter anchors to reduce the tension on the knot, or provide added friction.
f.
Running End. A running end is the loose or working end of the rope.
g.
Standing Part. The standing part is the static, stationary, or nonworking end of the rope.
h.
Lay. The lay is the direction of twist used in construction of the rope.
i.
Pigtail. The pigtail (tail) is the portion of the running end of the rope between the safety knot and the
end of the rope.
j.
Dress. Dress is the proper arrangement of all the knot parts, removing unnecessary kinks, twists,
and slack so that all rope parts of the knot make contact.
COILING, CARRYING, THROWING

The ease and speed of rope deployment and recovery greatly depends upon technique and practice.

4-5. Coiling and Carrying The Rope. Use the butterfly or mountain coil to coil and carry the rope. Each is
easy to accomplish and results in a minimum amount of kinks, twists, and knots later during deployment.

a.
Mountain Coil. To start a mountain coil, grasp the rope approximately 1 meter from the end with one
hand. Run the other hand along the rope until both arms are outstretched. Grasping the rope firmly,
bring the hands together forming a loop, which is laid in the hand closest to the end of the rope. This
is repeated, forming uniform loops that run in a clockwise direction, until the rope is completely
coiled. The rope may be given a 1/4 twist as each loop is formed to overcome any tendency for the
rope to twist or form figure-eights.
(1) In finishing the mountain coil, form a bight approximately 30 centimeters long with the starting
end of the rope and lay it along the top of the coil. Uncoil the last loop and, using this length of
the rope, begin making wraps around the coil and the bight, wrapping toward the closed end of
the bight and making the first wrap bind across itself so as to lock it into place. Make six to eight
wraps to adequately secure the coil, and then route the end of the rope through the closed end
of the bight. Pull the running end of the bight tight, securing the coil.
(2) The mountain coil may be carried either in the pack (by forming a figure eight), doubling it and
placing it under the flap, or by placing it over the shoulder and under the opposite arm, slung
across the chest. (Figure 4-3 shows how to coil a mountain coil.)
b. Butterfly Coil. The butterfly coil is the quickest and easiest technique for coiling (Figure 4-4).
(1) Coiling. To start the double butterfly, grasp both ends of the rope and begin back feeding. Find
the center of the rope forming a bight. With the bight in the left hand, grasp both ropes and slide
the right hand out until there is approximately one arms length of rope. Place the doubled rope
over the head, draping it around the neck and on top of the shoulders. Ensure that it hangs no
lower than the waist. With the rest of the doubled rope in front of you, make doubled bights
placing them over the head in the same manner as the first bight. Coil alternating from side to
side (left to right, right to left) while maintaining equal-length bights. Continue coiling until
approximately two arm-lengths of rope remain. Remove the coils from the neck and shoulders
carefully, and hold the center in one hand. Wrap the two ends around the coils a minimum of
three doubled wraps, ensuring that the first wrap locks back on itself.
(2) Tie-off and Carrying. Take a doubled bight from the loose ends of rope and pass it through the
apex of the coils. Pull the loose ends through the doubled bight and dress it down. Place an

822 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 4-3: Mountain coil.


Figure 4-4: Butterfly coil.

overhand knot in the loose ends, dressing it down to the apex of the bight securing coils. Ensure
that the loose ends do not exceed the length of the coils. In this configuration the coiled rope is
secure enough for hand carrying or carrying in a rucksack, or for storage. (Figure 4-5 shows a
butterfly coil tie-off.)

c.
Coiling Smaller Diameter Rope. Ropes of smaller diameters may be coiled using the butterfly or mountain
coil depending on the length of the rope. Pieces 25 feet and shorter (also known as cordage, sling

Survival in Mountain Terrain 823


Figure 4-5: Butterfly coil tie-off.

rope, utility cord) may be coiled so that they can be hung from the harness. Bring the two ends of the
rope together, ensuring no kinks are in the rope. Place the ends of the rope in the left hand with the
two ends facing the body. Coil the doubled rope in a clockwise direction forming 6- to 8-inch coils
(coils may be larger depending on the length of rope) until an approximate 12-inch bight is left. Wrap
that bight around the coil, ensuring that the first wrap locks on itself. Make three or more wraps.
Feed the bight up through the bights formed at the top of the coil. Dress it down tightly. Now the
piece of rope may be hung from a carabiner on the harness.

d.
Uncoiling, Back-feeding, and Stacking. When the rope is needed for use, it must be uncoiled and stacked
on the ground properly to avoid kinks and snarls.
(1) Untie the tie-off and lay the coil on the ground. Back-feed the rope to minimize kinks and snarls.
(This is also useful when the rope is to be moved a short distance and coiling is not desired.)
Take one end of the rope in the left hand and run the right hand along the rope until both arms
are outstretched. Next, lay the end of the rope in the left hand on the ground. With the left hand,
re-grasp the rope next to the right hand and continue laying the rope on the ground.
(2) The rope should be laid or stacked in a neat pile on the ground to prevent it from becoming
tangled and knotted when throwing the rope, feeding it to a lead climber, and so on. This technique
can also be started using the right hand.
4-6. Throwing The Rope. Before throwing the rope, it must be properly managed to prevent it from tangling
during deployment. The rope should first be anchored to prevent complete loss of the rope over the
edge when it is thrown. Several techniques can be used when throwing a rope. Personal preference and
situational and environmental conditions should be taken into consideration when determining which
technique is best.


824 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

a. Back feed and neatly stack the rope into coils beginning with the anchored end of the rope working
toward the running end. Once stacked, make six to eight smaller coils in the left hand. Pick up
the rest of the larger coils in the right hand. The arm should be generally straight when throwing.
The rope may be thrown underhanded or overhanded depending on obstacles around the edge of
the site. Make a few preliminary swings to ensure a smooth throw. Throw the large coils in the right
hand first. Throw up and out. A slight twist of the wrist, so that the palm of the hand faces up as
the rope is thrown, allows the coils to separate easily without tangling. A smooth follow through is
essential. When a slight tug on the left hand is felt, toss the six to eight smaller coils out. This will
prevent the ends of the rope from becoming entangled with the rest of the coils as they deploy. As
soon as the rope leaves the hand, the thrower should sound off with a warning of “ROPE” to alert
anyone below the site.
b. Another technique may also be used when throwing rope. Anchor, back feed, and stack the rope
properly as described above. Take the end of the rope and make six to eight helmet-size coils in the
right hand (more may be needed depending on the length of the rope). Assume a “quarterback”
simulated stance. Aiming just above the horizon, vigorously throw the rope overhanded, up and
out toward the horizon. The rope must be stacked properly to ensure smooth deployment.
c.
When windy weather conditions prevail, adjustments must be made. In a strong cross wind, the
rope should be thrown angled into the wind so that it will land on the desired target. The stronger
the wind, the harder the rope must be thrown to compensate.
KNOTS

All knots used by a mountaineer are divided into four classes: Class I joining knots, Class II anchor knots,
Class III middle rope knots, and Class IV special knots. The variety of knots, bends, bights, and hitches is
almost endless. These classes of knots are intended only as a general guide since some of the knots discussed
may be appropriate in more than one class. The skill of knot tying can perish if not used and practiced. With
experience and practice, knot tying becomes instinctive and helps the mountaineer in many situations.

4-7. Square Knot. The square knot is used to tie the ends of two ropes of equal diameter (Figure 4-6). It is
a joining knot.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Holding one working end in each hand, place the working end in the right hand over the
one in the left hand.
Figure 4-6: Square knot.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 825

STEP 2. Pull it under and back over the top of the rope in the left hand.
STEP 3. Place the working end in the left hand over the one in the right hand and repeat STEP 2.
STEP 4. Dress the knot down and secure it with an overhand knot on each side of the square knot.


b.
Check points.
(1) There are two interlocking bights.
(2) The running end and standing part are on the same side of the bight formed by the other rope.
(3) The running ends are parallel to and on the same side of the standing ends with 4-inch minimum
pig tails after the overhand safeties are tied.
4-8. Fisherman’s Knot. The fisherman’s knot is used to tie two ropes of the same or approximately the
same diameter (Figure 4-7). It is a joining knot.

a. Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Tie an overhand knot in one end of the rope.
STEP 2. Pass the working end of the other rope through the first overhand knot. Tie an overhand
knot around the standing part of the first rope with the working end of the second rope.
STEP 3. Tightly dress down each overhand knot and tightly draw the knots together.
b. Checkpoints.
(1) The two separate overhand knots are tied tightly around the long, standing part of the opposing
rope.
(2) The two overhand knots are drawn snug.
(3) Ends of rope exit knot opposite each other with 4-inch pigtails.
4-9. Double Fisherman’s Knot. The double fisherman’s knot (also called double English or grapevine) is
used to tie two ropes of the same or approximately the same diameter (Figure 4-8). It is a joining knot.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. With the working end of one rope, tie two wraps around the standing part of another rope.
STEP 2. Insert the working end (STEP 1) back through the two wraps and draw it tight.
STEP 3. With the working end of the other rope, which contains the standing part (STEPS 1 and 2), tie
two wraps around the standing part of the other rope (the working end in STEP 1). Insert the working
end back through the two wraps and draw tight.
STEP 4. Pull on the opposing ends to bring the two knots together.
Figure 4-7: Fisherman’s knot.


826 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 4-8: Double fisherman’s knot.

b.
Checkpoints.
(1) Two double overhand knots securing each other as the standing parts of the rope are pulled apart.
(2) Four rope parts on one side of the knot form two “x” patterns, four rope parts on the other side
of the knot are parallel.
(3) Ends of rope exit knot opposite each other with 4-inch pigtails.
4-10. Figure-Eight Bend. The figure-eight bend is used to join the ends of two ropes of equal or unequal
diameter within 5-mm difference (Figure 4-9).

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Grasp the top of a 2-foot bight.
STEP 2. With the other hand, grasp the running end (short end) and make a 360-degree turn around
the standing end.
STEP 3. Place the running end through the loop just formed creating an in-line figure eight.
STEP 4. Route the running end of the other rope back through the figure eight starting from the
original rope’s running end. Trace the original knot to the standing end.
STEP 5. Remove all unnecessary twists and crossovers. Dress the knot down.
b.
Checkpoints.
(1) There is a figure eight with two ropes running side by side.
(2) The running ends are on opposite sides of the knot.
(3) There is a minimum 4-inch pigtail.
4-11. Water Knot. The water knot is used to attach two webbing ends (Figure 4-10). It is also called a ring
bend, overhand retrace, or tape knot. It is used in runners and harnesses and is a joining knot.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Tie an overhand knot in one of the ends.
STEP 2. Feed the other end back through the knot, following the path of the first rope in reverse.
STEP 3. Draw tight and pull all of the slack out of the knot. The remaining tails must extend at least
4 inches beyond the knot in both directions.

Survival in Mountain Terrain827


Figure 4-9: Figure-eight bend.


Figure 4-10: Water knot.

b. Checkpoints.
(1) There are two overhand knots, one retracing the other.
(2) There is no slack in the knot, and the working ends come out of the knot in opposite directions.
(3) There is a minimum 4-inch pigtail.

828 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

4-12. Bowline. The bowline is used to tie the end of a rope around an anchor. It may also be used to tie a
single fixed loop in the end of a rope (Figure 4-11). It is an anchor knot.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Bring the working end of the rope around the anchor, from right to left (as the climber faces
the anchor).
STEP 2. Form an overhand loop in the standing part of the rope (on the climber’s right) toward the
anchor.
STEP 3. Reach through the loop and pull up a bight.
STEP 4. Place the working end of the rope (on the climber’s left) through the bight, and bring it back
onto itself. Now dress the knot down.
STEP 5. Form an overhand knot with the tail from the bight.
b.
Checkpoints.
(1) The bight is locked into place by a loop.
(2) The short portion of the bight is on the inside and on the loop around the anchor (or inside the
fixed loop).
(3) There is a minimum 4-inch pigtail after tying the overhand safety.
4-13. Round Turn and Two Half Hitches. This knot is used to tie the end of a rope to an anchor, and it must
have constant tension (Figure 4-12). It is an anchor knot.


Figure 4-11: Bowline knot.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 829


Figure 4-12: Round turn and two half hitches.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Route the rope around the anchor from right to left and wrap down (must have two wraps
in the rear of the anchor, and one in the front). Run the loop around the object to provide 360-degree
contact, distributing the load over the anchor.
STEP 2. Bring the working end of the rope left to right and over the standing part, forming a half
hitch (first half hitch).
STEP 3. Repeat STEP 2 (last half hitch has a 4 inch pigtail).
STEP 4. Dress the knot down.
b.
Checkpoints.
(1) A complete round turn should exist around the anchor with no crosses.
(2) Two half hitches should be held in place by a diagonal locking bar with no less than a 4-inch
pigtail remaining.
4-14. Figure-Eight Retrace (Rerouted Figure-Eight). The figure-eight retrace knot produces the same result
as a figure-eight loop. However, by tying the knot in a retrace, it can be used to fasten the rope to trees
or to places where the loop cannot be used (Figure 4-13). It is also called a rerouted figure-eight and is an
anchor knot.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Use a length of rope long enough to go around the anchor, leaving enough rope to work with.
STEP 2. Tie a figure-eight knot in the standing part of the rope, leaving enough rope to go around
the anchor. To tie a figure-eight knot form a loop in the rope, wrap the working end around the
standing part, and route the working end through the loop. The finished knot is dressed loosely.
STEP 3. Take the working end around the anchor point.
STEP 4. With the working end, insert the rope back through the loop of the knot in reverse.
STEP 5. Keep the original figure eight as the outside rope and retrace the knot around the wrap and
back to the long-standing part.
STEP 6. Remove all unnecessary twists and crossovers; dress the knot down.


b.
Checkpoints
(1) A figure eight with a doubled rope running side by side, forming a fixed loop around a fixed
object or harness.
(2) There is a minimum 4-inch pigtail.

830 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 4-13: Figure-eight retrace.

4-15. Clove Hitch. The clove hitch is an anchor knot that can be used in the middle of the rope as well as
at the end (Figure 4-14). The knot must have constant tension on it once tied to prevent slipping. It can be
used as either an anchor or middle of the rope knot, depending on how it is tied.

a. Tying the Knot.
(1)
Middle of the Rope.
STEP 1. Hold rope in both hands, palms down with hands together. Slide the left hand to the left
from 20 to 25 centimeters.
STEP 2. Form a loop away from and back toward the right.
STEP 3. Slide the right hand from 20 to 25 centimeters to the right. Form a loop inward and back
to the left hand.
STEP 4. Place the left loop on top of the right loop. Place both loops over the anchor and pull
both ends of the rope in opposite directions. The knot is tied.
(2) End of the Rope.
Note: For instructional purposes, assume that the anchor is horizontal.
STEP 1. Place 76 centimeters of rope over the top of the anchor. Hold the standing end in the left hand.
With the right hand, reach under the horizontal anchor, grasp the working end, and bring it inward.
STEP 2. Place the working end of the rope over the standing end (to form a loop). Hold the loop in the
left hand. Place the working end over the anchor from 20 to 25 centimeters to the left of the loop.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 831


Figure 4-14: Clove hitch.

STEP 3. With the right hand, reach down to the left hand side of the loop under the anchor.
Grasp the working end of the rope. Bring the working end up and outward.
STEP 4. Dress down the knot.


b.
Checkpoints.
(1) The knot has two round turns around the anchor with a diagonal locking bar.
(2) The locking bar is facing 90 degrees from the direction of pull.
(3) The ends exit l80 degrees from each other.
(4) The knot has more than a 4-inch pigtail remaining.
4-16. Wireman’s Knot. The wireman’s knot forms a single, fixed loop in the middle of the rope (Figure 4-15).
It is a middle rope knot.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. When tying this knot, face the anchor that the tie-off system will be tied to. Take up the slack
from the anchor, and wrap two turns around the left hand (palm up) from left to right.
STEP 2. A loop of 30 centimeters is taken up in the second round turn to create the fixed loop of the
knot.
STEP 3. Name the wraps from the palm to the fingertips: heel, palm, and fingertip.
STEP 4. Secure the palm wrap with the right thumb and forefinger, and place it over the heel
wrap.
STEP 5. Secure the heel wrap and place it over the fingertip wrap.
STEP 6. Secure the fingertip wrap and place it over the palm wrap.
STEP 7. Secure the palm wrap and pull up to form a fixed loop.
STEP 8. Dress the knot down by pulling on the fixed loop and the two working ends.
STEP 9. Pull the working ends apart to finish the knot.

b.
Checkpoints.
(1) The completed knot should have four separate bights locking down on themselves with the
fixed loop exiting from the top of the knot and laying toward the near side anchor point.
(2) Both ends should exit opposite each other without any bends.
4-17. Directional Figure-Eight. The directional figure-eight knot forms a single, fixed loop in the middle of
the rope that lays back along the standing part of the rope (Figure 4-16). It is a middle rope knot.


832 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 4-15: Wireman’s knot.


Figure 4-16: Directional figure-eight.


Survival in Mountain Terrain833

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Face the far side anchor so that when the knot is tied, it lays inward.
STEP 2. Lay the rope from the far side anchor over the left palm. Make one wrap around the palm.
STEP 3. With the wrap thus formed, tie a figure-eight knot around the standing part that leads to
the far side anchor.
STEP 4. When dressing the knot down, the tail and the bight must be together.
b.
Checkpoints.
(1) The loop should be large enough to accept a carabiner but no larger than a helmet-size loop.
(2) The tail and bight must be together.
(3) The figure eight is tied tightly.
(4) The bight in the knot faces back toward the near side.
4-18. Bowline-on-a-Bight (Two-Loop Bowline)

The bowline-on-a-bight is used to form two fixed loops in the middle of a rope (Figure 4-17). It is a
middle rope knot.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Form a bight in the rope about twice as long as the finished loops will be.
STEP 2. Tie an overhand knot on a bight.
STEP 3. Hold the overhand knot in the left hand so that the bight is running down and outward.
STEP 4. Grasp the bight with the right hand; fold it back over the overhand knot so that the overhand
knot goes through the bight.
Figure 4-17: Bowline-on-a-bight.


834 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

STEP 5. From the end (apex) of the bight, follow the bight back to where it forms the cross in the
overhand knot. Grasp the two ropes that run down and outward and pull up, forming two loops.
STEP 6. Pull the two ropes out of the overhand knot and dress the knot down.
STEP 7. A final dress is required: grasp the ends of the two fixed loops and pull, spreading them
apart to ensure the loops do not slip.


b.
Checkpoints.
(1) There are two fixed loops that will not slip.
(2) There are no twists in the knot.
(3) A double loop is held in place by a bight.
4-19. Two-Loop Figure-Eight. The two-loop figure-eight is used to form two fixed loops in the middle of a
rope (Figure 4-18.) It is a middle rope knot.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Using a doubled rope, form an 18-inch bight in the left hand with the running end facing to
the left.
STEP 2. Grasp the bight with the right hand and make a 360-degree turn around the standing end
in a counterclockwise direction.
STEP 3. With the working end, form another bight and place that bight through the loop just formed
in the left hand.
STEP 4. Hold the bight with the left hand, and place the original bight (moving toward the left
hand) over the knot.
STEP 5. Dress the knot down.
b.
Checkpoints.
(1) There is a double figure-eight knot with two loops that share a common locking bar.
(2) The two loops must be adjustable by means of a common locking bar.
(3) The common locking bar is on the bottom of the double figure-eight knot.
4-20. Figure-Eight Loop (Figure-Eight-on-a-Bight). The figure-eight loop, also called the figure-eight-ona-
bight, is used to form a fixed loop in a rope (Figure 4-19). It is a middle of the rope knot.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Form a bight in the rope about as large as the diameter of the desired loop.
STEP 2. With the bight as the working end, form a loop in rope (standing part).
STEP 3. Wrap the working end around the standing part 360 degrees and feed the working end
through the loop. Dress the knot tightly.


Figure 4-18: Two-loop figure-eight.


Survival in Mountain Terrain835


Figure 4-19: Figure-eight loop.

b. Checkpoints.
(1) The loop is the desired size.
(2) The ropes in the loop are parallel and do not cross over each other.
(3) The knot is tightly dressed.
4-21. Prusik Knot. The Prusik knot is used to put a moveable rope on a fixed rope such as a Prusik ascent
or a tightening system. This knot can be tied as a middle or end of the rope Prusik. It is a specialty knot.

a. Tying the Knot.
(1)
Middle-of-the-Rope Prusik. The middle-of-the-rope Prusik knot can be tied with a short rope to a
long rope as follows (Figure 4-20):
STEP 1. Double the short rope, forming a bight, with the working ends even. Lay it over the long
rope so that the closed end of the bight is 12 inches below the long rope and the remaining part of
the rope (working ends) is the closest to the climber; spread the working end apart.
STEP 2. Reach down through the 12-inch bight. Pull up both of the working ends and lay them
over the long rope. Repeat this process making sure that the working ends pass in the middle
Figure 4-20: Middle-of-the-rope Prusik.


836 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

of the first two wraps. Now there are four wraps and a locking bar working across them on the
long rope.
STEP 3. Dress the wraps and locking bar down to ensure they are tight and not twisted. Tying an overhand
knot with both ropes will prevent the knot from slipping during periods of variable tension.


(2)
End-of-the-Rope Prusik (Figure 4-21).
STEP 1. Use an arm’s length of rope, and place it over the long rope.
STEP 2. Form a complete round turn in the rope.
STEP 3. Cross over the standing part of the short rope with the working end of the short rope.
STEP 4. Lay the working end under the long rope.
STEP 5. Form a complete round turn in the rope, working back toward the middle of the knot.
STEP 6. There are four wraps and a locking bar running across them on the long rope. Dress the
wraps and locking bar down. Ensure they are tight, parallel, and not twisted.
STEP 7. Finish the knot with a bowline to ensure that the Prusik knot will not slip out during
periods of varying tension.
b.
Checkpoints.
(1) Four wraps with a locking bar.
(2) The locking bar faces the climber.
(3) The knot is tight and dressed down with no ropes twisted or crossed.
(4) Other than a finger Prusik, the knot should contain an overhand or bowline to prevent slipping.
4-22. Bachman Knot. The Bachman knot provides a means of using a makeshift mechanized ascender
(Figure 4-22). It is a specialty knot.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Find the middle of a utility rope and insert it into a carabiner.
STEP 2. Place the carabiner and utility rope next to a long climbing rope.
STEP 3. With the two ropes parallel from the carabiner, make two or more wraps around the climbing
rope and through the inside portion of the carabiner.
Note: The rope can be tied into an etrier (stirrup) and used as a Prusik-friction principle ascender.

b.
Checkpoints.
(1) The bight of the climbing rope is at the top of the carabiner.
(2) The two ropes run parallel without twisting or crossing.
(3) Two or more wraps are made around the long climbing rope and through the inside portion of
the carabiner.
Figure 4-21: End-of-the-rope Prusik knot.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 837


Figure 4-22: Bachman knot.

4-23. Bowline-on-a-Coil. The bowline-on-a-coil is an expedient tie-in used by climbers when a climbing
harness is not available (Figure 4-23). It is a specialty knot.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. With the running end, place 3 feet of rope over your right shoulder. The running end is to
the back of the body.
STEP 2. Starting at the bottom of your rib cage, wrap the standing part of the rope around your body
and down in a clockwise direction four to eight times.
STEP 3. With the standing portion of the rope in your left hand, make a clockwise loop toward the
body. The standing portion is on the bottom.
STEP 4. Ensuring the loop does not come uncrossed, bring it up and under the coils between the
rope and your body.
STEP 5. Using the standing part, bring a bight up through the loop. Grasp the running end of the rope
with the right hand. Pass it through the bight from right to left and back on itself.
STEP 6. Holding the bight loosely, dress the knot down by pulling on the standing end.
STEP 7. Safety the bowline with an overhand around the top, single coil. Then, tie an overhand
around all coils, leaving a minimum 4-inch pigtail.
b.
Checkpoints.
(1) A minimum of four wraps, not crossed, with a bight held in place by a loop.
(2) The loop must be underneath all wraps.
(3) A minimum 4-inch pigtail after the second overhand safety is tied.
(4) Must be centered on the mid-line of the body.
4-24. Three-Loop Bowline. The three-loop bowline is used to form three fixed loops in the middle of a rope
(Figure 4-24). It is used in a self-equalizing anchor system. It is a specialty knot.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Form an approximate 24-inch bight.
STEP 2. With the right thumb facing toward the body, form a doubled loop in the standing part by
turning the wrist clockwise. Lay the loops to the right.

838 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 4-23: Bowline-on-a-coil.


Figure 4-24: Three-loop bowline.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 839

STEP 3. With the right hand, reach down through the loops and pull up a doubled bight from the
standing part of the rope.
STEP 4. Place the running end (bight) of the rope (on the left) through the doubled bight from left to
right and bring it back on itself. Hold the running end loosely and dress the knot down by pulling
on the standing parts.

STEP 5. Safety it off with a doubled overhand knot.

b.
Checkpoints.
(1) There are two bights held in place by two loops.
(2) The bights form locking bars around the standing parts.
(3) The running end (bight) must be on the inside of the fixed loops.
(4) There is a minimum 4-inch pigtail after the double overhand safety knot is tied.
4-25. Figure-Eight Slip Knot. The figure-eight slip knot forms an adjustable bight in a rope (Figure 4-25).
It is a specialty knot.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Form a 12-inch bight in the end of the rope.
STEP 2. Hold the center of the bight in the right hand. Hold the two parallel ropes from the bight in
the left hand about 12 inches up the rope.
STEP 3. With the center of the bight in the right hand, twist two complete turns clockwise.
STEP 4. Reach through the bight and grasp the long, standing end of the rope. Pull another bight
(from the long standing end) back through the original bight.
STEP 5. Pull down on the short working end of the rope and dress the knot down.
STEP 6. If the knot is to be used in a transport tightening system, take the working end of the rope
and form a half hitch around the loop of the figure eight knot.
b.
Checkpoints.
(1) The knot is in the shape of a figure eight.
(2) Both ropes of the bight pass through the same loop of the figure eight.
(3) The sliding portion of the rope is the long working end of the rope.
4-26. Transport Knot (Overhand Slip Knot/Mule Knot). The transport knot is used to secure the transport
tightening system (Figure 4-26). It is simply an overhand slip knot.


Figure 4-25: Figure-eight slip knot.


840 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 4-26: Transport knot.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Pass the running end of the rope around the anchor point passing it back under the standing
portion (leading to the far side anchor) forming a loop.
STEP 2. Form a bight with the running end of the rope. Pass over the standing portion and down
through the loop and dress it down toward the anchor point.
STEP 3. Secure the knot by tying a half hitch around the standing portion with the bight.
b.
Check Points.
(1) There is a single overhand slip knot.
(2) The knot is secured using a half hitch on a bight.
(3) The bight is a minimum of 12 inches long.
4-27. Kleimhiest Knot. The Kleimhiest knot provides a moveable, easily adjustable, high-tension knot
capable of holding extremely heavy loads while being pulled tight (Figure 4-27). It is a special-purpose
knot.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Using a utility rope or webbing, offset the ends by 12 inches. With the ends offset, find the
center of the rope and form a bight. Lay the bight over a horizontal rope.
STEP 2. Wrap the tails of the utility rope around the horizontal rope back toward the direction of
pull. Wrap at least four complete turns.
STEP 3. With the remaining tails of the utility rope, pass them through the bight (see STEP 1).
STEP 4. Join the two ends of the tail with a joining knot.
STEP 5. Dress the knot down tightly so that all wraps are touching.
Note: Spectra should not be used for the Kleimhiest knot. It has a low melting point and tends to slip.

b.
Checkpoints.
(1) The bight is opposite the direction of pull.
(2) All wraps are tight and touching.
(3) The ends of the utility rope are properly secured with a joining knot.
4-28. Frost Knot. The frost knot is used when working with webbing (Figure 4-28). It is used to create the
top loop of an etrier. It is a special-purpose knot.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 841


Figure 4-27: Kleimhiest knot.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Lap one end (a bight) of webbing over the other about 10 to 12 inches.
STEP 2. Tie an overhand knot with the newly formed triple-strand webbing; dress tightly.
b.
Checkpoints.
(1) The tails of the webbing run in opposite directions.
(2) Three strands of webbing are formed into a tight overhand knot.
(3) There is a bight and tail exiting the top of the overhand knot.
4-29. Girth Hitch. The girth hitch is used to attach a runner to an anchor or piece of equipment (Figure 4-29).
It is a special-purpose knot.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1: Form a bight.
STEP 2: Bring the runner back through the bight.
STEP 3: Cinch the knot tightly.
b.
Checkpoint.
(1) Two wraps exist with a locking bar running across the wraps.
(2) The knot is dressed tightly.
4-30. Munter Hitch. The munter hitch, when used in conjunction with a pear-shaped locking carabiner, is
used to form a mechanical belay (Figure 4-30).


842 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 4-28: Frost knot.


Figure 4-29: Girth hitch.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Hold the rope in both hands, palms down about 12 inches apart.
STEP 2. With the right hand, form a loop away from the body toward the left hand. Hold the loop
with the left hand.
STEP 3. With the right hand, place the rope that comes from the bottom of the loop over the top of
the loop.
STEP 4. Place the bight that has just been formed around the rope into the pear shaped carabiner.
Lock the locking mechanism.

Survival in Mountain Terrain843


Figure 4-30: Munter hitch.

b.
Check Points.
(1) A bight passes through the carabiner, with the closed end around the standing or running part
of the rope.
(2) The carabiner is locked.
4-31. Rappel Seat. The rappel seat is an improvised seat rappel harness made of rope (Figure 4-31). It usually
requires a sling rope 14 feet or longer.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Find the middle of the sling rope and make a bight.
STEP 2. Decide which hand will be used as the brake hand and place the bight on the opposite hip.
STEP 3. Reach around behind and grab a single strand of rope. Bring it around the waist to the front
and tie two overhands on the other strand of rope, thus creating a loop around the waist.
STEP 4. Pass the two ends between the legs, ensuring they do not cross.
STEP 5. Pass the two ends up under the loop around the waist, bisecting the pocket flaps on the
trousers. Pull up on the ropes, tightening the seat.
STEP 6. From rear to front, pass the two ends through the leg loops creating a half hitch on both
hips.
STEP 7. Bring the longer of the two ends across the front to the nonbrake hand hip and secure the
two ends with a square knot safetied with overhand knots. Tuck any excess rope in the pocket
below the square knot.

844 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 4-31: Rappel seat.

b. Check Points.
(1) There are two overhand knots in the front.
(2) The ropes are not crossed between the legs.
(3) A half hitch is formed on each hip.
(4) Seat is secured with a square knot with overhand safeties on the non-brake hand side.
(5) There is a minimum 4-inch pigtail after the overhand safeties are tied.

Survival in Mountain Terrain 845

4-32. Guarde Knot. The guarde knot (ratchet knot, alpine clutch) is a special purpose knot primarily used
for hauling systems or rescue (Figure 4-32). The knot works in only one direction and cannot be reversed
while under load.

a.
Tying the Knot.
STEP 1. Place a bight of rope into the two anchored carabiners (works best with two like carabiners,
preferably ovals).
STEP 2. Take a loop of rope from the non-load side and place it down into the opposite cararabiner
so that the rope comes out between the two carabiners.
b.
Check Points.
(1) When properly dressed, rope can only be pulled in one direction.
(2) The knot will not fail when placed under load.
Figure 4-32: Guarde knot.


846 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

SECTION 5: ANCHORS

This chapter discusses different types of anchors and their application in rope systems and climbing.
Proper selection and placement of anchors is a critical skill that requires a great deal of practice.
Failure of any system is most likely to occur at the anchor point. If the anchor is not strong enough
to support the intended load, it will fail. Failure is usually the result of poor terrain features selected
for the anchor point, or the equipment used in rigging the anchor was placed improperly or in
insufficient amounts. When selecting or constructing anchors, always try to make sure the anchor is
“bombproof.” A bombproof anchor is stronger than any possible load that could be placed on it. An
anchor that has more strength than the climbing rope is considered bombproof.

NATURAL ANCHORS

Natural anchors should be considered for use first. They are usually strong and often simple to construct
with minimal use of equipment. Trees, boulders, and other terrain irregularities are already in place and
simply require a method of attaching the rope. However, natural anchors should be carefully studied and
evaluated for stability and strength before use. Sometimes the climbing rope is tied directly to the anchor,
but under most circumstances a sling is attached to the anchor and then the climbing rope is attached to
the sling with a carabiner(s). (See paragraph 5-7 for slinging techniques.)

5-1. Trees. Trees are probably the most widely used of all natural anchors depending on the terrain and
geographical region (Figure 5-1). However, trees must be carefully checked for suitability.

a. In rocky terrain, trees usually have a shallow root system. This can be checked by pushing or tugging
on the tree to see how well it is rooted. Anchoring as low as possible to prevent excess leverage
on the tree may be necessary.
b. Use padding on soft, sap producing trees to keep sap off ropes and slings.
5-2. Boulders. Boulders and rock nubbins make ideal anchors (Figure 5-2). The rock can be firmly tapped
with a piton hammer to ensure it is solid. Sedimentary and other loose rock formations are not stable. Talus
and scree fields are an indicator that the rock in the area is not solid. All areas around the rock formation
that could cut the rope or sling should be padded.


Figure 5-1: Trees used as anchors.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 847


Figure 5-2: Boulders used as anchors.

5-3. Chockstones. A chockstone is a rock that is wedged in a crack because the crack narrows downward
(Figure 5-3). Chockstones should be checked for strength, security, and crumbling and should always be
tested before use. All chockstones must be solid and strong enough to support the load. They must have
maximum surface contact and be well tapered with the surrounding rock to remain in position.

a. Chockstones are often directional: they are secure when pulled in one direction but may pop out if
pulled in another direction.
b. A creative climber can often make his own chockstone by wedging a rock into position, tying a rope
to it, and clipping on a carabiner.
c.
Slings should not be wedged between the chockstone and the rock wall since a fall could cut the
webbing runner.
5-4. Rock Projections. Rock projections (sometimes called nubbins) often provide suitable protection
(Figure 5-4). These include blocks, flakes, horns, and spikes. If rock projections are used, their firmness


Figure 5-3: Chockstones.


848 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-4: Rock projections.

is important. They should be checked for cracks or weathering that may impair their firmness. If any of
these signs exist, the projection should be avoided.

5-5. Tunnels and Arches. Tunnels and arches are holes formed in solid rock and provide one of the more
secure anchor points because they can be pulled in any direction. A sling is threaded through the opening
hole and secured with a joining knot or girth hitch. The load-bearing hole must be strong and free of sharp
edges (pad if necessary).

5-6. Bushes and Shrubs. If no other suitable anchor is available, the roots of bushes can be used by routing
a rope around the bases of several bushes (Figure 5-5). As with trees, the anchoring rope is placed as low as
possible to reduce leverage on the anchor. All vegetation should be healthy and well rooted to the ground.

5-7. Slinging Techniques. Three methods are used to attach a sling to a natural anchor: drape, wrap, and
girth. Whichever method is used, the knot is set off to the side where it will not interfere with normal carabiner
movement. The carabiner gate should face away from the ground and open away from the anchor for easy


Figure 5-5: Bushes and shrubs.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 849

insertion of the rope. When a locking carabiner cannot be used, two carabiners are used with gates opposed.
Correctly opposed gates should open on opposite sides and form an “X” when opened (Figure 5-6).

a.
Drape. Drape the sling over the anchor (Figure 5-7). Untying the sling and routing it around the
anchor and then retying is still considered a drape.
b.
Wrap. Wrap the sling around the anchor and connect the two ends together with a carabiner(s) or
knot (Figure 5-8).
c.
Girth. Tie the sling around the anchor with a girth hitch (Figure 5-9). Although a girth hitch reduces
the strength of the sling, it allows the sling to remain in position and not slide on the anchor.
ANCHORING WITH THE ROPE

The climbing or installation rope can be tied directly to the anchor using several different techniques. This
requires less equipment, but also sacrifices some rope length to tie the anchor. The rope can be tied to the


Figure 5-6: Correctly opposed carabiners.


Figure 5-7: Drape.


850 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-8: Wrap.


Figure 5-9: Girth.

anchor using an appropriate anchor knot such as a bowline or a rerouted figure eight. Round turns can be
used to help keep the rope in position on the anchor. A tensionless anchor can be used in high-load installations
where tension on the attachment point and knot is undesirable.

5-8. Rope Anchor. When tying the climbing or installation rope around an anchor, the knot should be placed
approximately the same distance away from the anchor as the diameter of the anchor (Figure 5-10). The knot
shouldn’t be placed up against the anchor because this can stress and distort the knot under tension.

5-9. Tensionless Anchor. The tensionless anchor is used to anchor the rope on high-load installations
such as bridging and traversing (Figure 5-11). The wraps of the rope around the anchor absorb the tension
of the installation and keep the tension off the knot and carabiner. The anchor is usually tied with a


Survival in Mountain Terrain 851


Figure 5-10: Rope tied to anchor with anchor knot.


Figure 5-11: Tensionless anchor.

minimum of four wraps, more if necessary, to absorb the tension. A smooth anchor may require several
wraps, whereas a rough barked tree might only require a few. The rope is wrapped from top to bottom. A
fixed loop is placed into the end of the rope and attached loosely back onto the rope with a carabiner.

ARTIFICIAL ANCHORS

Using artificial anchors becomes necessary when natural anchors are unavailable. The art of choosing and
placing good anchors requires a great deal of practice and experience. Artificial anchors are available in


852 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

many different types such as pitons, chocks, hexcentrics, and SLCDs. Anchor strength varies greatly; the
type used depends on the terrain, equipment, and the load to be placed on it.

5-10. Deadman. A “deadman” anchor is any solid object buried in the ground and used as an anchor.

a.
An object that has a large surface area and some length to it works best. (A hefty timber, such as a railroad
tie, would be ideal.) Large boulders can be used, as well as a bundle of smaller tree limbs or poles.
As with natural anchors, ensure timbers and tree limbs are not dead or rotting and that boulders are
solid. Equipment, such as skis, ice axes, snowshoes, and ruck sacks, can also be used if necessary.
b. In extremely hard, rocky terrain (where digging a trench would be impractical, if not impossible) a
variation of the deadman anchor can be constructed by building above the ground. The sling is attached
to the anchor, which is set into the ground as deeply as possible. Boulders are then stacked on top of
it until the anchor is strong enough for the load. Though normally not as strong as when buried, this
method can work well for light-load installations as in anchoring a hand line for a stream crossing.
Note: Artificial anchors, such as pitons and bolts, are not widely accepted for use in all areas because of the scars
they leave on the rock and the environment. Often they are left in place and become unnatural, unsightly fixtures in
the natural environment. For training planning, local laws and courtesies should be taken into consideration for each
area of operation.

5-11. Pitons. Pitons have been in use for over 100 years. Although still available, pitons are not used as
often as other types of artificial anchors due primarily to their impact on the environment. Most climbers
prefer to use chocks, SLCDs and other artificial anchors rather than pitons because they do not scar the
rock and are easier to remove. Eye protection should always be worn when driving a piton into rock.

Note: The proper use and placement of pitons, as with any artificial anchor, should be studied, practiced, and tested
while both feet are firmly on the ground and there is no danger of a fall.

a.
Advantages. Some advantages in using pitons are:
•
Depending on type and placement, pitons can support multiple directions of pull.
•
Pitons are less complex than other types of artificial anchors.
•
Pitons work well in thin cracks where other types of artificial anchors do not.
b.
Disadvantages. Some disadvantages in using pitons are:
•
During military operations, the distinct sound created when hammering pitons is a tactical disadvantage.
•
Due to the expansion force of emplacing a piton, the rock could spread apart or break causing an
unsafe condition.
•
Pitons are more difficult to remove than other types of artificial anchors.
•
Pitons leave noticeable scars on the rock.
•
Pitons are easily dropped if not tied off when being used.
c.
Piton Placement. The proper positioning or placement of pitons is critical. (Figure 5-12 shows examples
of piton placement.) Usually a properly sized piton for a rock crack will fit one half to two thirds
into the crack before being driven with the piton hammer. This helps ensure the depth of the crack is
adequate for the size piton selected. As pitons are driven into the rock the pitch or sound that is made
will change with each hammer blow, becoming higher pitched as the piton is driven in.
(1) Test the rock for soundness by tapping with the hammer. Driving pitons in soft or rotten rock
is not recommended. When this type of rock must be used, clear the loose rock, dirt, and debris
from the crack before driving the piton completely in.
(2) While it is being driven, attach the piton to a sling with a carabiner (an old carabiner should be
used, if available) so that if the piton is knocked out of the crack, it will not be lost. The greater
the resistance overcome while driving the piton, the firmer the anchor will be. The holding

Survival in Mountain Terrain 853


Figure 5-12: Examples of piton placements.

power depends on the climber placing the piton in a sound crack, and on the type of rock. The
piton should not spread the rock, thereby loosening the emplacement.

Note: Pitons that have rings as attachment points might not display much change in sound as they are driven in
as long as the ring moves freely.

(3) Military mountaineers should practice emplacing pitons using either hand. Sometimes a piton
cannot be driven completely into a crack, because the piton is too long. Therefore, it should be
tied off using a hero-loop (an endless piece of webbing) (Figure 5-13). Attach this loop to the
piton using a girth hitch at the point where the piton enters the rock so that the girth hitch is
snug against the rock. Clip a carabiner into the loop.
d. Testing. To test pitons pull up about 1 meter of slack in the climbing rope or use a sling. Insert this
rope into a carabiner attached to the piton, then grasp the rope at least 1/2 meter from the carabiner.
Jerk vigorously upward, downward, to each side, and then outward while observing the piton
Figure 5-13: Hero-loop.


854 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

for movement. Repeat these actions as many times as necessary. Tap the piton to determine if the
pitch has changed. If the pitch has changed greatly, drive the piton in as far as possible. If the sound
regains its original pitch, the emplacement is probably safe. If the piton shows any sign of moving
or if, upon driving it, there is any question of its soundness, drive it into another place. Try to be in
a secure position before testing. This procedure is intended for use in testing an omni-directional
anchor (one that withstands a pull in any direction). When a directional anchor (pull in one direction)
is used, as in most free and direct-aid climbing situations, and when using chocks, concentrate
the test in the direction that force will be applied to the anchor.

e.
Removing Pitons. Attach a carabiner and sling to the piton before removal to eliminate the chance of
dropping and losing it. Tap the piton firmly along the axis of the crack in which it is located. Alternate
tapping from both sides while applying steady pressure. Pulling out on the attached carabiner
eventually removes the piton (Figure 5-14).
f. Reusing Pitons. Soft iron pitons that have been used, removed, and straightened may be reused, but
they must be checked for strength. In training areas, pitons already in place should not be trusted
since weather loosens them in time. Also, they may have been driven poorly the first time. Before
use, test them as described above and drive them again until certain of their soundness.
5-12. Chocks. Chock craft has been in use for many decades. A natural chockstone, having fallen and
wedged in a crack, provides an excellent anchor point. Sometimes these chockstones are in unstable positions,
but can be made into excellent anchors with little adjustment. Chock craft is an art that requires time
and technique to master—simple in theory, but complex in practice. Imagination and resourcefulness are
key principles to chock craft. The skilled climber must understand the application of mechanical advantage,
vectors, and other forces that affect the belay chain in a fall.

a.
Advantages. The advantages of using chocks are:
•
Tactically quiet installation and recovery.
•
Usually easy to retrieve and, unless severely damaged, are reusable.
•
Light to carry.
•
Easy to insert and remove.
•
Minimal rock scarring as opposed to pitons.
•
Sometimes can be placed where pitons cannot (expanding rock flakes where pitons would further
weaken the rock).
b.
Disadvantages. The disadvantages of using chocks are:
•
May not fit in thin cracks, which may accept pitons.
•
Often provide only one direction of pull.
•
Practice and experience necessary to become proficient in proper placement.
Figure 5-14: Piton removal.


Survival in Mountain Terrain855

c.
Placement. The principles of placing chocks are to find a crack with a constriction at some point,
place a chock of appropriate size above and behind the constriction, and set the chock by jerking
down on the chock loop (Figure 5-15). Maximum surface contact with a tight fit is critical. Chocks
are usually good for a single direction of pull.
(1) Avoid cracks that have crumbly (soft) or deteriorating rock, if possible. Some cracks may have
loose rock, grass, and dirt, which should be removed before placing the chock. Look for a constriction
point in the crack, then select a chock to fit it.
(2) When selecting a chock, choose one that has as much surface area as possible in contact with the
rock. A chock resting on one small crystal or point of rock is likely to be unsafe. A chock that sticks
partly out of the crack is avoided. Avoid poor protection. Ensure that the chock has a wire or runner
long enough; extra ropes, cord, or webbing may be needed to extend the length of the runner.
(3) End weighting of the placement helps to keep the protection in position. A carabiner often provides
enough weight.
(4) Parallel-sided cracks without constrictions are a problem. Chocks designed to be used in this
situation rely on camming principles to remain emplaced. Weighting the emplacement with
extra hardware is often necessary to keep the chocks from dropping out.
(a) Emplace the wedge-shaped chock above and behind the constriction; seat it with a sharp downward
tug.
(b) Place a camming chock with its narrow side into the crack, then rotate it to the attitude it will
assume under load; seat it with a sharp downward tug.
d.
Testing. After seating a chock, test it to ensure it remains in place. A chock that falls out when the
climber moves past it is unsafe and offers no protection. To test it, firmly pull the chock in every
anticipated direction of pull. Some chock placements fail in one or more directions; therefore, use
pairs of chocks in opposition.
5-13. Spring-Loaded Camming Device. The SLCD offers quick and easy placement of artificial protection.
It is well suited in awkward positions and difficult placements, since it can be emplaced with one hand. It
can usually be placed quickly and retrieved easily (Figure 5-16).


Figure 5-15: Chock placements.


856 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-16: SLCD placements.

a.
To emplace an SLCD hold the device in either hand like a syringe, pull the retractor bar back, place
the device into a crack, and release the retractor bar. The SLCD holds well in parallel-sided hand-
and fist-sized cracks. Smaller variations are available for finger-sized cracks.
b. Careful study of the crack should be made before selecting the device for emplacement. It should be
placed so that it is aligned in the direction of force applied to it. It should not be placed any deeper
than is needed for secure placement, since it may be impossible to reach the extractor bar for removal.
An SLCD should be extended with a runner and placed so that the direction of pull is parallel to the
shaft; otherwise, it may rotate and pull out. The versions that have a semi-rigid wire cable shaft allow
for greater flexibility and usage, without the danger of the shaft snapping off in a fall.
5-14. Bolts. Bolts are often used in fixed-rope installations and in aid climbing where cracks are not available.

a.
Bolts provide one of the most secure means of establishing protection. The rock should be inspected
for evidence of crumbling, flaking, or cracking, and should be tested with a hammer. Emplacing a
bolt with a hammer and a hand drill is a time-consuming and difficult process that requires drilling
a hole in the rock deeper than the length of the bolt. This normally takes more than 20 minutes for
one hole. Electric or even gas-powered drills can be used to greatly shorten drilling time. However,
their size and weight can make them difficult to carry on the climbing route.
b. A hanger (carrier) and nut are placed on the bolt, and the bolt is inserted and then driven into the
hole. A climber should never hammer on a bolt to test or “improve” it, since this permanently weakens
it. Bolts should be used with carriers, carabiners, and runners.

Survival in Mountain Terrain 857

c.
When using bolts, the climber uses a piton hammer and hand drill with a masonry bit for drilling
holes. Some versions are available in which the sleeve is hammered and turned into the rock (selfdrilling),
which bores the hole. Split bolts and expanding sleeves are common bolts used to secure
hangers and carriers (Figure 5-17). Surgical tubing is useful in blowing dust out of the holes. Nail
type bolts are emplaced by driving the nail with a hammer to expand the sleeve against the wall of
the drilled hole. Safety glasses should always be worn when emplacing bolts.
5-15. Equalizing Anchors. Equalizing anchors are made up of more than one anchor point joined together
so that the intended load is shared equally. This not only provides greater anchor strength, but also adds
redundancy or backup because of the multiple points.

a.
Self-equalizing Anchor. A self-equalizing anchor will maintain an equal load on each individual point
as the direction of pull changes (Figure 5-18). This is sometimes used in rappelling when the route
must change left or right in the middle of the rappel. A self-equalizing anchor should only be used
when necessary because if any one of the individual points fail, the anchor will extend and shockload
the remaining points or even cause complete anchor failure.
b.
Pre-equalized Anchor. A pre-equalized anchor distributes the load equally to each individual point
(Figure 5-19). It is aimed in the direction of the load. A pre-equalized anchor prevents extension
and shock-loading of the anchor if an individual point fails. An anchor is pre-equalized by tying an
overhand or figure-eight knot in the webbing or sling.
Note: When using webbing or slings, the angles of the webbing or slings directly affect the load placed on an
anchor. An angle greater than 90 degrees can result in anchor failure (Figure 5-20).


Figure 5-17: Bolt with expanding sleeve.


858 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-18: Self-equalizing anchors.


Figure 5-19: Pre-equalized anchor.


Figure 5-20: Effects of angles on an anchor.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 859

SECTION 6: CLIMBING

A steep rock face is a terrain feature that can be avoided most of the time through prior planning and
good route selection. Rock climbing can be time consuming, especially for a larger unit with a heavy
combat load. It can leave the climbing party totally exposed to weather, terrain hazards, and the
enemy for the length of the climb.

Sometimes steep rock cannot be avoided. Climbing relatively short sections of steep rock (one
or two pitches) may prove quicker and safer than using alternate routes. A steep rock route would
normally be considered an unlikely avenue of approach and, therefore, might be weakly defended or
not defended at all.

All personnel in a unit preparing for deployment to mountainous terrain should be trained in the
basics of climbing. Forward observers, reconnaissance personnel, and security teams are a few examples
of small units who may require rock climbing skills to gain their vantage points in mountainous
terrain. Select personnel demonstrating the highest degree of skill and experience should be trained
in roped climbing techniques. These personnel will have the job of picking and “fixing” the route for
the rest of the unit.

Rock climbing has evolved into a specialized “sport” with a wide range of varying techniques and
styles. This chapter focuses on the basics most applicable to military operations.

CLIMBING FUNDAMENTALS

A variety of refined techniques are used to climb different types of rock formations. The foundation
for all of these styles is the art of climbing. Climbing technique stresses climbing with the weight
centered over the feet, using the hands primarily for balance. It can be thought of as a combination
of the balanced movement required to walk a tightrope and the technique used to ascend a ladder.
No mountaineering equipment is required; however, the climbing technique is also used in roped
climbing.

6-1. Route Selection. The experienced climber has learned to climb with the “eyes.” Even before getting
on the rock, the climber studies all possible routes, or “lines,” to the top looking for cracks, ledges, nubbins,
and other irregularities in the rock that will be used for footholds and handholds, taking note of any
larger ledges or benches for resting places. When picking the line, he mentally climbs the route, rehearsing
the step-by-step sequence of movements that will be required to do the climb, ensuring himself that
the route has an adequate number of holds and the difficulty of the climb will be well within the limit of
his ability.

6-2. Terrain Selection for Training. Route selection for military climbing involves picking the easiest and
quickest possible line for all personnel to follow. However, climbing skill and experience can only be
developed by increasing the length and difficulty of routes as training progresses. In the training environment,
beginning lessons in climbing should be performed CLOSE to the ground on lower-angled rock with
plenty of holds for the hands and feet. Personnel not climbing can act as “otters” for those climbing. In later
lessons, a “top-rope” belay can be used for safety, allowing individuals to increase the length and difficulty
of the climb under the protection of the climbing rope.

6-3. Preparation. In preparation for climbing, the boot soles should be dry and clean. A small stick can be
used to clean out dirt and small rocks that might be caught between the lugs of the boot sole. If the soles
are wet or damp, dry them off by stomping and rubbing the soles on clean, dry rock. All jewelry should
be removed from the fingers. Watches and bracelets can interfere with hand placements and may become
damaged if worn while climbing. Helmets should be worn to protect the head from injury if an object, such
as a rock or climbing gear, falls from climbers above. Most climbing helmets are not designed to provide
protection from impact to the head if the wearer falls, but will provide a minimal amount of protection if a
climber comes in contact with the rock during climbing.


860 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


CAUTION
Rings can become caught on rock facial features and or lodged into cracks, which could
cause injuries during a slip or fall.

6-4. Spotting. Spotting is a technique used to add a level of safety to climbing without a rope. A second
man stands below and just outside of the climbers fall path and helps (spots) the climber to land safely if
he should fall. Spotting is only applicable if the climber is not going above the spotters head on the rock.
Beyond that height a roped climbing should be conducted. If an individual climbs beyond the effective
range of the spotter(s), he has climbed TOO HIGH for his own safety. The duties of the spotter are to help
prevent the falling climber from impacting the head and or spine, help the climber land feet first, and
reduce the impact of a fall.


CAUTION
The spotter should not catch the climber against the rock because additional injuries could
result. If the spotter pushes the falling climber into the rock, deep abrasions of the skin or
knee may occur. Ankle joints could be twisted by the fall if the climber’s foot remained
high on the rock. The spotter might be required to fully support the weight of the climber
causing injury to the spotter.

6-5. Climbing Technique. Climbing involves linking together a series of movements based on foot and
hand placement, weight shift, and movement. When this series of movements is combined correctly, a
smooth climbing technique results. This technique reduces excess force on the limbs, helping to minimize
fatigue. The basic principle is based on the five body parts described here.

a.
Five Body Parts. The five body parts used for climbing are the right hand, left hand, right foot, left
foot, and body (trunk). The basic principle to achieve smooth climbing is to move only one of the
five body parts at a time. The trunk is not moved in conjunction with a foot or in conjunction with
a hand, a hand is not moved in conjunction with a foot, and so on. Following this simple technique
forces both legs to do all the lifting simultaneously.
b.
Stance or Body Position. Body position is probably the single most important element to good technique.
A relaxed, comfortable stance is essential. (Figure 6-1 shows a correct climbing stance, and
Figure 6-2 shows an incorrect stance.) The body should be in a near vertical or erect stance with
the weight centered over the feet. Leaning in towards the rock will cause the feet to push outward,
away from the rock, resulting in a loss of friction between the boot sole and rock surface. The legs
are straight and the heels are kept low to reduce fatigue. Bent legs and tense muscles tire quickly.
If strained for too long, tense muscles may vibrate uncontrollably. This vibration, known as “Elvising”
or “sewing-machine leg” can be cured by straightening the leg, lowering the heel, or moving
on to a more restful position. The hands are used to maintain balance. Keeping the hands between
waist and shoulder level will reduce arm fatigue.
(1) Whenever possible, three points of contact are maintained with the rock. Proper positioning of
the hips and shoulders is critical. When using two footholds and one handhold, the hips and
shoulders should be centered over both feet. In most cases, as the climbing progresses, the body
is resting on one foot with two handholds for balance. The hips and shoulders must be centered
over the support foot to maintain balance, allowing the “free” foot to maneuver.
(2) The angle or steepness of the rock also determines how far away from the rock the hips and
shoulders should be. On low-angle slopes, the hips are moved out away from the rock to keep
the body in balance with the weight over the feet. The shoulders can be moved closer to the
rock to reach handholds. On steep rock, the hips are pushed closer to the rock. The shoulders

Survival in Mountain Terrain 861


Figure 6-1: Correct climbing stance-balanced over both feet.


Figure 6-2: Incorrect stance-stretched out.


862 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

are moved away from the rock by arching the back. The body is still in balance over the feet and
the eyes can see where the hands need to go. Sometimes, when footholds are small, the hips are
moved back to increase friction between the foot and the rock. This is normally done on quick,
intermediate holds. It should be avoided in the rest position as it places more weight on the
arms and hands. When weight must be placed on handholds, the arms should be kept straight
to reduce fatigue. Again, flexed muscles tire quickly.

c.
Climbing Sequence. The steps defined below provide a complete sequence of events to move the
entire body on the rock. These are the basic steps to follow for a smooth climbing technique. Performing
these steps in this exact order will not always be necessary because the nature of the route
will dictate the availability of hand and foot placements. The basic steps are weight, shift, and
movement (movement being either the foot, hand, or body). (A typical climbing sequence is shown
in Figure 6-3).
STEP ONE: Shift the weight from both feet to one foot. This will allow lifting of one foot with no
effect on the stance.
STEP TWO: Lift the unweighted foot and place it in a new location, within one to two feet of the
starting position, with no effect on body position or balance (higher placement will result in a potentially
higher lift for the legs to make, creating more stress, and is called a high step). The trunk does
not move during foot movement.
STEP THREE: Shift the weight onto both feet. (Repeat steps 1 through 3 for remaining foot.)
STEP FOUR: Lift the body into a new stance with both legs.
STEP FIVE: Move one hand to a new position between waist and head height. During this movement,
the trunk should be completely balanced in position and the removed hand should have no
effect on stability.
STEP SIX: Move the remaining hand as in Step 5.
Now the entire body is in a new position and ready to start the process again. Following these steps will
prevent lifting with the hands and arms, which are used to maintain stance and balance. If both legs are
bent, leg extension can be performed as soon as one foot has been moved. Hand movements can be delayed
until numerous foot movements have been made, which not only creates shorter lifts with the legs, but
may allow a better choice for the next hand movements because the reach will have increased.

(1) Many climbers will move more than one body part at a time, usually resulting in lifting the body
with one leg or one leg and both arms. This type of lifting is inefficient, requiring one leg to perform
the work of two or using the arms to lift the body. Proper climbing technique is lifting the
body with the legs, not the arms, because the legs are much stronger.
(2) When the angle of the rock increases, these movements become more critical. Holding or pulling
the body into the rock with the arms and hands may be necessary as the angle increases
(this is still not lifting with the arms). Many climbing routes have angles greater than ninety
degrees (overhanging) and the arms are used to support partial body weight. The same technique
applies even at those angles.
(3) The climber should avoid moving on the knees and elbows. Other than being uncomfortable,
even painful, to rest on, these bony portions of the limbs offer little friction and “feel” on the
rock.
6-6. Safety Precautions. The following safety precautions should be observed when rock climbing.

a.
While ascending a seldom or never traveled route, you may encounter precariously perched rocks.
If the rock will endanger your second, it may be possible to remove it from the route and trundle it,
tossing it down. This is extremely dangerous to climbers below and should not be attempted unless
you are absolutely sure no men are below. If you are not sure that the flight path is clear, do not
do it. Never dislodge loose rocks carelessly. Should a rock become loose accidentally, immediately

Survival in Mountain Terrain 863

Weight Shift onto right foot left foot moved
Weight Shift over both feet extending the body or
lifting the body With both legS
Figure 6-3: Typical climbing sequence.


864 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

moving the left hand Weight Shift to left foot
moving right foot Weight centered on
both feet
Figure 6-3: (Continued)



Survival in Mountain Terrain 865

right hand moved
Figure 6-3: (Continued)


shout the warning “ROCK” to alert climbers below. Upon hearing the warning, personnel should
seek immediate cover behind any rock bulges or overhangs available, or flatten themselves against
the rock to minimize exposure.

b. Should a climber fall, he should do his utmost to maintain control and not panic. If on a low-angle
climb, he may be able to arrest his own fall by staying in contact with the rock, grasping for any
possible hold available. He should shout the warning “FALLING” to alert personnel below.
CAUTION
Grasping at the rock in a fall can result in serious injuries to the upper body. If conducting

a roped climb, let the rope provide protection.

c.
When climbing close to the ground and without a rope, a spotter can be used for safety. The duties
of the spotter are to ensure the falling climber does not impact the head or spine, and to reduce the
impact of a fall.
d. Avoid climbing directly above or below other climbers (with the exception of spotters). When personnel
must climb at the same time, following the same line, a fixed rope should be installed.
e.
Avoid climbing with gloves on because of the decreased “feel” for the rock. The use of gloves in the
training environment is especially discouraged, while their use in the mountains is often mandatory
when it is cold. A thin polypropylene or wool glove is best for rock climbing, although heavier
cotton or leather work gloves are often used for belaying.

866 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

f. Be extremely careful when climbing on wet or moss-covered rock; friction on holds is greatly
reduced.
g. Avoid grasping small vegetation for handholds; the root systems can be shallow and will usually
not support much weight.
6-7. Margin of Safety. Besides observing the standard safety precautions, the climber can avoid catastrophe
by climbing with a wide margin of safety. The margin of safety is a protective buffer the climber
places between himself and potential climbing hazards. Both subjective (personnel-related) and objective
(environmental) hazards must be considered when applying the margin of safety. The leader must apply
the margin of safety taking into account the strengths and weaknesses of the entire team or unit.

a.
When climbing, the climber increases his margin of safety by selecting routes that are well within
the limit of his ability. When leading a group of climbers, he selects a route well within the ability
of the weakest member.
b. When the rock is wet, or when climbing in other adverse weather conditions, the climber’s ability is
reduced and routes are selected accordingly. When the climbing becomes difficult or exposed, the
climber knows to use the protection of the climbing rope and belays. A lead climber increases his
margin of safety by placing protection along the route to limit the length of a potential fall.
USE OF HOLDS

The climber should check each hold before use. This may simply be a quick, visual inspection if he knows
the rock to be solid. When in doubt, he should grab and tug on the hold to test it for soundness BEFORE
depending on it. Sometimes, a hold that appears weak can actually be solid as long as minimal force is
applied to it, or the force is applied in a direction that strengthens it. A loose nubbin might not be strong
enough to support the climber’s weight, but it may serve as an adequate handhold. Be especially careful
when climbing on weathered, sedimentary-type rock.

6-8. Climbing with the Feet. “Climb with the feet and use the hands for balance” is extremely important
to remember. In the early learning stages of climbing, most individuals will rely heavily on the arms,
forgetting to use the feet properly. It is true that solid handholds and a firm grip are needed in some
combination techniques; however, even the most strenuous techniques require good footwork and a quick
return to a balanced position over one or both feet. Failure to climb any route, easy or difficult, is usually
the result of poor footwork.

a.
The beginning climber will have a natural tendency to look up for handholds. Try to keep the hands
low and train your eyes to look down for footholds. Even the smallest irregularity in the rock can
support the climber once the foot is positioned properly and weight is committed to it.
b. The foot remains on the rock as a result of friction. Maximum friction is obtained from a correct
stance over a properly positioned foot. The following describes a few ways the foot can be positioned
on the rock to maximize friction.
(1)
Maximum Sole Contact. The principle of using full sole contact, as in mountain walking, also
applies in climbing. Maximum friction is obtained by placing as much of the boot sole on the
rock as possible. Also, the leg muscles can relax the most when the entire foot is placed on the
rock. (Figure 6-4 shows examples of maximum and minimum sole contact.)
(a) Smooth, low-angled rock (slab) and rock containing large “bucket” holds and ledges are
typical formations where the entire boot sole should be used.
(b) On some large holds, like bucket holds that extend deep into the rock, the entire foot cannot
be used. The climber may not be able to achieve a balanced position if the foot is stuck
too far underneath a bulge in the rock. In this case, placing only part of the foot on the
hold may allow the climber to achieve a balanced stance. The key is to use as much of the

Survival in Mountain Terrain 867


Figure 6-4: Examples of maximum and minimum sole contact.

boot sole as possible. Remember to keep the heels low to reduce strain on the lower leg
muscles.

(2)
Edging. The edging technique is used where horizontal crack systems and other irregularities in
the rock form small, well-defined ledges. The edge of the boot sole is placed on the ledge for the
foothold. Usually, the inside edge of the boot or the edge area around the toes is used. Whenever
possible, turn the foot sideways and use the entire inside edge of the boot. Again, more sole
contact equals more friction and the legs can rest more when the heel is on the rock. (Figure 6-5
shows examples of the edging technique).
(a) On smaller holds, edging with the front of the boot, or toe, may be used. Use of the toe is most
tiring because the heel is off the rock and the toes support the climber’s weight. Remember
to keep the heel low to reduce fatigue. Curling and stiffening the toes in the boot increases
support on the hold. A stronger position is usually obtained on small ledges by turning the
foot at about a 45-degree angle, using the strength of the big toe and the ball of the foot.
(b) Effective edging on small ledges requires stiff-soled footwear. The stiffer the sole, the better
the edging capability. Typical mountain boots worn by the US military have a relatively flexible
lugged sole and, therefore, edging ability on smaller holds will be somewhat limited.
(3)
Smearing. When footholds are too small to use a good edging technique, the ball of the foot can
be “smeared” over the hold. The smearing technique requires the boot to adhere to the rock by
deformation of the sole and by friction. Rock climbing shoes are specifically designed to maximize
friction for smearing; some athletic shoes also work well. The Army mountain boot, with

868 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 6-5: Examples of edging technique.

its softer sole, usually works better for smearing than for edging. Rounded, down-sloping ledges
and low-angled slab rock often require good smearing technique. (Figure 6-6 shows examples
of the smearing technique.)

(a) Effective smearing requires maximum friction between the foot and the rock. Cover as
much of the hold as possible with the ball of the foot. Keeping the heel low will not only
reduce muscle strain, but will increase the amount of surface contact between the foot and
the rock.
(b) Sometimes flexing the ankles and knees slightly will place the climber’s weight more
directly over the ball of the foot and increase friction; however, this is more tiring and
should only be used for quick, intermediate holds. The leg should be kept straight whenever
possible.
(4)
Jamming. The jamming technique works on the same principal as chock placement. The foot is
set into a crack in such a way that it “jams” into place, resisting a downward pull. The jamming
technique is a specialized skill used to climb vertical or near vertical cracks when no other holds
are available on the rock face. The technique is not limited to just wedging the feet; fingers,
hands, arms, even the entire leg or body are all used in the jamming technique, depending on
the size of the crack. Jam holds are described in this text to broaden the range of climbing skills.
Jamming holds can be used in a crack while other hand/foot holds are used on the face of the
Figure 6-6: Examples of the smearing technique.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 869

rock. Many cracks will have facial features, such as edges, pockets, and soon, inside and within
reach. Always look or feel for easier to use features. (Figure 6-7 shows examples of jamming.)

(a) The foot can be jammed in a crack in different ways. It can be inserted above a constriction
and set into the narrow portion, or it can be placed in the crack and turned, like a camming
device, until it locks in place tight enough to support the climber’s weight. Aside from these
two basic ideas, the possibilities are endless. The toes, ball of the foot, or the entire foot can
be used. Try to use as much of the foot as possible for maximum surface contact. Some positions
are more tiring, and even more painful on the foot, than others. Practice jamming the
foot in various ways to see what offers the most secure, restful position.
(b) Some foot jams may be difficult to remove once weight has been committed to them, especially
if a stiffer sole boot is used. The foot is less likely to get stuck when it is twisted or
“cammed” into position. When removing the boot from a crack, reverse the way it was
placed to prevent further constriction.
6-9. Using the Hands. The hands can be placed on the rock in many ways. Exactly how and where to position
the hands and arms depends on what holds are available, and what configuration will best support
the current stance as well as the movement to the next stance. Selecting handholds between waist and
shoulder level helps in different ways. Circulation in the arms and hands is best when the arms are kept
low. Secondly, the climber has less tendency to “hang” on his arms when the handholds are at shoulder
level and below. Both of these contribute to a relaxed stance and reduce fatigue in the hands and arms.

a.
As the individual climbs, he continually repositions his hands and arms to keep the body in balance,
with the weight centered over the feet. On lower-angled rock, he may simply need to place the
hands up against the rock and extend the arm to maintain balance; just like using an ice ax as a third
point of contact in mountain walking. Sometimes, he will be able to push directly down on a large
hold with the palm of the hand. More often though, he will need to “grip” the rock in some fashion
and then push or pull against the hold to maintain balance.
b.
As stated earlier, the beginner will undoubtedly place too much weight on the hands and arms.
If we think of ourselves climbing a ladder, our body weight is on our legs. Our hands grip, and
our arms pull on each rung only enough to maintain our balance and footing on the ladder.
Ideally, this is the amount of grip and pull that should be used in climbing. Of course, as the
foot jam foot jammed into poSition,
heel iS puShed to the right
both feet jammed
Figure 6-7: Examples of jamming.


870 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

size and availability of holds decreases, and the steepness of the rock approaches the vertical,
the grip must be stronger and more weight might be placed on the arms and handholds for brief
moments. The key is to move quickly from the smaller, intermediate holds to the larger holds
where the weight can be placed back on the feet allowing the hands and arms to relax. The following
describes some of the basic handholds and how the hand can be positioned to maximize
grip on smaller holds.

(1)
Push Holds. Push holds rely on the friction created when the hand is pushed against the rock.
Most often a climber will use a push hold by applying “downward pressure” on a ledge or nubbin.
This is fine, and works well; however, the climber should not limit his use of push holds
to the application of down pressure. Pushing sideways, and on occasion, even upward on less
obvious holds can prove quite secure. Push holds often work best when used in combination
with other holds. Pushing in opposite directions and “push-pull” combinations are excellent
techniques. (Figure 6-8 shows examples of push holds).
(a) An effective push hold does not necessarily require the use of the entire hand. On smaller
holds, the side of the palm, the fingers, or the thumb may be all that is needed to support
the stance. Some holds may not feel secure when the hand is initially placed on them. The
hold may improve or weaken during the movement. The key is to try and select a hold that
will improve as the climber moves past it.
(b) Most push holds do not require much grip; however, friction might be increased by taking
advantage of any rough surfaces or irregularities in the rock. Sometimes the strength of the
Figure 6-8: Examples of push holds.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 871

hold can be increased by squeezing, or “pinching,” the rock between the thumb and fingers
(see paragraph on pinch holds).

(2)
Pull Holds. Pull holds, also called “cling holds,” which are grasped and pulled upon, are probably
the most widely used holds in climbing. Grip plays more of a role in a pull hold, and, therefore,
it normally feels more secure to the climber than a push hold. Because of this increased feeling
of security, pull holds are often overworked. These are the holds the climber has a tendency to
hang from. Most pull holds do not require great strength, just good technique. Avoid the “death
grip” syndrome by climbing with the feet. (Figure 6-9 shows examples of pull holds.)
(a) Like push holds, pressure on a pull hold can be applied straight down, sideways, or upward.
Again, these are the holds the climber tends to stretch and reach for, creating an unbalanced
stance. Remember to try and keep the hands between waist and shoulder level, making use
of intermediate holds instead of reaching for those above the head.
(b) Pulling sideways on vertical cracks can be very secure. There is less tendency to hang from
“side-clings” and the hands naturally remain lower. The thumb can often push against one
pull hold
pull hold
With thumb aSSiSt pulling With thumb
adding preSSure to
index finger poSition
doWncling
Sidecling With oppoSing
thumb preSSure
oppoSing SideclingS
Figure 6-9: Examples of pull holds.


872 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

side of the crack, in opposition to the pull by the fingers, creating a stronger hold. Both
hands can also be placed in the same crack, with the hands pulling in opposite directions.
The number of possible combinations is limited only by the imagination and experience of
the climber.

(c) Friction and strength of a pull hold can be increased by the way the hand grips the rock.
Normally, the grip is stronger when the fingers are closed together; however, sometimes
more friction is obtained by spreading the fingers apart and placing them between irregularities
on the rock surface. On small holds, grip can often be improved by bending the fingers
upward, forcing the palm of the hand to push against the rock. This helps to hold the
finger tips in place and reduces muscle strain in the hand. Keeping the forearm up against
the rock also allows the arm and hand muscles to relax more.
(d) Another technique that helps to strengthen a cling hold for a downward pull is to press
the thumb against the side of the index finger, or place it on top of the index finger and
press down. This hand configuration, known as a “ring grip,” works well on smaller
holds.
(3)
Pinch Holds. Sometimes a small nubbin or protrusion in the rock can be “squeezed” between
the thumb and fingers. This technique is called a pinch hold. Friction is applied by increasing
the grip on the rock. Pinch holds are often overlooked by the novice climber because they feel
insecure at first and cannot be relied upon to support much body weight. If the climber has his
weight over his feet properly, the pinch hold will work well in providing balance. The pinch
hold can also be used as a gripping technique for push holds and pull holds. (Figure 6-10 shows
examples of pinch holds.)
(4)
Jam Holds. Like foot jams, the fingers and hands can be wedged or cammed into a crack so
they resist a downward or outward pull. Jamming with the fingers and hands can be painful
and may cause minor cuts and abrasions to tender skin. Cotton tape can be used to protect the
fingertips, knuckles, and the back of the hand; however, prolonged jamming technique requiring
hand taping should be avoided. Tape also adds friction to the hand in jammed position.
(Figure 6-11 shows examples of jam holds.)
(a) The hand can be placed in a crack a number of ways. Sometimes an open hand can be
inserted and wedged into a narrower portion of the crack. Other times a clenched fist will
provide the necessary grip. Friction can be created by applying cross pressure between the
fingers and the back of the hand. Another technique for vertical cracks is to place the hand
in the crack with the thumb pointed either up or down. The hand is then clenched as much
as possible. When the arm is straightened, it will twist the hand and tend to cam it into
pinch hold pinch hold large pinch hold
Figure 6-10: Examples of pinch holds.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 873

fiSt jam fiSt jam
hand jam, thumb doWn
finger jam, fingerS
cammed & locked
hand jamhand jam, thumb
tucked into palm
for tight fit
finger jam finger jam
Figure 6-11: Examples of jam holds.


874 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

place. This combination of clenching and camming usually produces the most friction, and
the most secure hand jam in vertical cracks.

(b) In smaller cracks, only the fingers will fit. Use as many fingers as the crack will allow. The
fingers can sometimes be stacked in some configuration to increase friction. The thumb is
usually kept outside the crack in finger jams and pressed against the rock to increase friction
or create cross pressure. In vertical cracks it is best to insert the fingers with the thumb
pointing down to make use of the natural camming action of the fingers that occurs when
the arm is twisted towards a normal position.
(c) Jamming technique for large cracks, or “off widths,” requiring the use of arm, leg, and body
jams, is another technique. To jam or cam an arm, leg, or body into an off width, the principle
is the same as for fingers, hands, or feet—you are making the jammed appendage “fatter”
by folding or twisting it inside the crack. For off widths, you may place your entire arm
inside the crack with the arm folded and the palm pointing outward. The leg can be used,
from the calf to the thigh, and flexed to fit the crack. Routes requiring this type of climbing
should be avoided as the equipment normally used for protection might not be large
enough to protect larger cracks and openings. However, sometimes a narrower section may
be deeper in the crack allowing the use of “normal” size protection.
6-10. Combination Techniques. The positions and holds previously discussed are the basics and the ones
most common to climbing. From these fundamentals, numerous combination techniques are possible. As the
climber gains experience, he will learn more ways to position the hands, feet, and body in relation to the holds
available; however, he should always strive to climb with his weight on his feet from a balanced stance.

a.
Sometimes, even on an easy route, the climber may come upon a section of the rock that defies the
basic principles of climbing. Short of turning back, the only alternative is to figure out some combination
technique that will work. Many of these type problems require the hands and feet to work
in opposition to one another. Most will place more weight on the hands and arms than is desirable,
and some will put the climber in an “out of balance” position. To make the move, the climber may
have to “break the rules” momentarily. This is not a problem and is done quite frequently by experienced
climbers. The key to using these type of combination techniques is to plan and execute them
deliberately, without lunging or groping for holds, yet quickly, before the hands, arms, or other
body parts tire. Still, most of these maneuvers require good technique more than great strength,
though a certain degree of hand and arm strength certainly helps.
b. Combination possibilities are endless. The following is a brief description of some of the more common
techniques.
(1)
Change Step. The change step, or hop step, can be used when the climber needs to change position
of the feet. It is commonly used when traversing to avoid crossing the feet, which might put
the climber in an awkward position. To prevent an off balance situation, two solid handholds
should be used. The climber simply places his weight on his handholds while here positions
the feet. He often does this with a quick “hop,” replacing the lead foot with the trail foot on the
same hold. Keeping the forearms against the rock during the maneuver takes some of the strain
off the hands, while at the same time strengthening the grip on the holds.
(2)
Mantling. Mantling is a technique that can be used when the distance between the holds increases
and there are no immediate places to move the hands or feet. It does require a ledge (mantle)
or projection in the rock that the climber can press straight down upon. (Figure 6-12 shows the
mantling sequence.)
(a) When the ledge is above head height, mantling begins with pull holds, usually “hooking”
both hands over the ledge. The climber pulls himself up until his head is above the hands,
where the pull holds become push holds. He elevates himself until the arms are straight
and he can lock the elbows to relax the muscles. Rotating the hands inward during the

Survival in Mountain Terrain 875

uSe pull holdS until the
armS are Straight and
the elboWS can be locked
move one hand
forWard for balance
Work toeS up the
rock until armS are
extended
roll onto arm and
begin lifting other foot
bring one foot up
maintain balance While
placing other foot
begin to Walk aWay
before Standing
maintain balance While
placing other foot
Figure 6-12: Mantling sequence.


876 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

transition to push holds helps to place the palms more securely on the ledge. Once the arms
are locked, a foot can be raised and placed on the ledge. The climber may have to remove
one hand to make room for the foot. Mantling can be fairly strenuous; however, most individuals
should be able to support their weight, momentarily, on one arm if they keep it
straight and locked. With the foot on the ledge, weight can be taken off the arms and the
climber can grasp the holds that were previously out of reach. Once balanced over the foot,
he can stand up on the ledge and plan his next move.

(b) Pure mantling uses arm strength to raise the body; however, the climber can often smear the
balls of the feet against the rock and “walk” the feet up during the maneuver to take some of
the weight off the arms. Sometimes edges will be available for short steps in the process.
(3)
Undercling. An “undercling” is a classic example of handholds and footholds working in opposition
(Figure 6-13). It is commonly used in places where the rock projects outward, forming a bulge or
small overhang. Underclings can be used in the tops of buckets, also. The hands are placed “palmsup”
underneath the bulge, applying an upward pull. Increasing this upward pull creates a counterforce,
or body tension, which applies more weight and friction to the footholds. The arms and legs
should be kept as straight as possible to reduce fatigue. The climber can often lean back slightly in the
undercling position, enabling him to see above the overhang better and search for the next hold.
(4)
Lieback. The “lieback” is another good example of the hands working in opposition to the feet.
The technique is often used in a vertical or diagonal crack separating two rock faces that come
together at, more or less, a right angle (commonly referred to as a dihedral). The crack edge
closest to the body is used for handholds while the feet are pressed against the other edge. The
climber bends at the waist, putting the body into an L-shaped position. Leaning away from the
crack on two pull holds, body tension creates friction between the feet and the hands. The feet
must be kept relatively high to maintain weight, creating maximum friction between the sole
Figure 6-13: Undercling.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 877

and the rock surface. Either full sole contact or the smearing technique can be used, whichever
seems to produce the most friction.

(a) The climber ascends a dihedral by alternately shuffling the hands and feet upward. The
lieback technique can be extremely tiring, especially when the dihedral is near vertical. If
the hands and arms tire out before completing the sequence, the climber will likely fall. The
arms should be kept straight throughout the entire maneuver so the climber’s weight is
pulling against bones and ligaments, rather than muscle. The legs should be straightened
whenever possible.
(b) Placing protection in a lieback is especially tiring. Look for edges or pockets for the feet in
the crack or on the face for a better position to place protection from, or for a rest position.
Often, a lieback can be avoided with closer examination of the available face features. The
lieback can be used alternately with the jamming technique, or vice versa, for variation or
to get past a section of a crack with difficult or nonexistent jam possibilities. The lieback can
sometimes be used as a face maneuver (Figure 6-14).
(5)
Stemming. When the feet work in opposition from a relatively wide stance, the maneuver is
known as stemming. The stemming technique can sometimes be used on faces, as well as in a
dihedral in the absence of solid handholds for the lieback (Figure 6-15).
(a) The classic example of stemming is when used in combination with two opposing push
holds in wide, parallel cracks, known as chimneys. Chimneys are cracks in which the walls
are at least 1 foot apart and just big enough to squeeze the body into. Friction is created by
pushing outward with the hands and feet on each side of the crack. The climber ascends
the chimney by alternately moving the hands and feet up the crack (Figure 6-16). Applying
pressure with the back and bottom is usually necessary in wider chimneys. Usually, full
sole contact of the shoes will provide the most friction, although smearing may work best
in some instances. Chimneys that do not allow a full stemming position can be negotiated
Figure 6-14: Lieback on a face.


878 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 6-15: Stemming on a face.

using the arms, legs, or body as an integral contact point. This technique will often feel more
secure since there is more body to rock contact.

(b) The climber can sometimes rest by placing both feet on the same side of the crack, forcing
the body against the opposing wall. The feet must be kept relatively high up under the body
so the force is directed sideways against the walls of the crack. The arms should be straightened
with the elbows locked whenever possible to reduce muscle strain. The climber must
ensure that the crack does not widen beyond the climbable width before committing to the
maneuver. Remember to look for face features inside chimneys for more security in the
climb.
(c) Routes requiring this type of climbing should be avoided as the equipment normally used
for protection might not be large enough to protect chimneys. However, face features, or a
much narrower crack irotection.
(6)
Slab Technique. A slab is a relatively smooth, low-angled rock formation that requires a slightly
modified climbing technique (Figure 6-17). Since slab rock normally contains few, if any holds,
the technique requires maximum friction and perfect balance over the feet.
(a) On lower-angled slab, the climber can often stand erect and climb using full sole contact
and other mountain walking techniques. On steeper slab, the climber will need to apply
good smearing technique. Often, maximum friction cannot be attained on steeper slab from
an erect stance. The climber will have to flex the ankles and knees so his weight is placed
more directly over the balls of the feet. He may then have to bend at the waist to place the
hands on the rock, while keeping the hips over his feet.
(b) The climber must pay attention to any changes in slope angle and adjust his body accordingly.
Even the slightest change in the position of the hips over the feet can mean the

Survival in Mountain Terrain 879

begin With one foot
and the back
bring other foot
into poSition
feet oppoSing back reSt poSition
Figure 6-16: Chimney sequence.


880 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

begin climbing again exiting chimney
Figure 6-16: (Continued)



Figure 6-17: Slab technique.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 881

difference between a good grip or a quick slip. The climber should also take advantage of
any rough surfaces, or other irregularities in the rock he can place his hands or feet on, to
increase friction.

(7)
Down Climbing. Descending steep rock is normally performed using a roped method; however,
the climber may at some point be required to down climb a route. Even if climbing ropes and
related equipment are on hand, down climbing easier terrain is often quicker than taking the
time to rig a rappel point. Also, a climber might find himself confronted with difficulties part
way up a route that exceed his climbing ability, or the abilities of others to follow. Whatever the
case may be, down climbing is a skill well worth practicing.
CAUTION
1. Down climbing can inadvertently lead into an unforeseen dangerous position on a
descent. When in doubt, use a roped descent.
2. Down climbing is accomplished at a difficulty level well below the ability of the climber.
When in doubt, use a roped descent.
(a) On easier terrain, the climber can face outward, away from the rock, enabling him to see
the route better and descend quickly. As the steepness and difficulty increase, he can often
turn sideways, still having a good view of the descent route, but being better able to use the
hands and feet on the holds available. On the steepest terrain, the climber will have to face
the rock and down climb using good climbing techniques.
(b) Down climbing is usually more difficult than ascending a given route. Some holds will
be less visible when down climbing, and slips are more likely to occur. The climber must
often lean well away from the rock to look for holds and plan his movements. More weight
is placed on the arms and handholds at times to accomplish this, as well as to help lower
the climber to the next foothold. Hands should be moved to holds as low as waist level to
give the climber more range of movement with each step. If the handholds are too high, he
may have trouble reaching the next foothold. The climber must be careful not to overextend
himself, forcing a release of his handholds before reaching the next foothold.
CAUTION
Do not drop from good handholds to a standing position. A bad landing could lead to
injured ankles or a fall beyond the planned landing area.


(c) Descending slab formations can be especially tricky. The generally lower angle of slab rock
may give the climber a false sense of security, and a tendency to move too quickly. Down
climbing must be slow and deliberate, as in ascending, to maintain perfect balance and
weight distribution over the feet. On lower-angle slab the climber may be able to stand
more or less erect, facing outward or sideways, and descend using good flat foot technique.
The climber should avoid the tendency to move faster, which can lead to uncontrollable
speed.
(d) On steeper slab, the climber will normally face the rock and down climb, using the same
smearing technique as for ascending. An alternate method for descending slab is to face away
from the rock in a “crab” position (Figure 6-18). Weight is still concentrated over the feet,
but may be shifted partly onto the hands to increase overall friction. The climber is able to
maintain full sole contact with the rock and see the entire descent route. Allowing the buttocks
to “drag behind” on the rock will decrease the actual weight on the footholds, reducing

882 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 6-18: Descending slab in the crab position.

friction, and leading to the likelihood of a slip. Facing the rock, and down-climbing with good

smearing technique, is usually best on steeper slab.

ROPED CLIMBING

When the angle, length, and difficulty of the proposed climbing route surpasses the ability of the climbers’
safety margin (possibly on class 4 and usually on class 5 terrain), ropes must be used to proceed.
Roped climbing is only safe if accomplished correctly. Reading this manual does not constitute skill with
ropes—much training and practice is necessary. Many aspects of roped climbing take time to understand
and learn. Ropes are normally not used in training until the basic principles of climbing are covered.

Note: A rope is completely useless for climbing unless the climber knows how to use it safely.

6-11. Typing-in to the Climbing Rope. Over the years, climbers have developed many different knots
and procedures for tying-in to the climbing rope. Some of the older methods of tying directly into the
rope require minimal equipment and are relatively easy to inspect; however, they offer little support to
the climber, may induce further injuries, and may even lead to strangulation in a severe fall. A severe fall,
where the climber might fall 20 feet or more and be left dangling on the end of the rope, is highly unlikely
in most instances, especially for most personnel involved in military climbing. Tying directly into the
rope is perfectly safe for many roped party climbs used in training on lower-angled rock. All climbers
should know how to properly tie the rope around the waist in case a climbing harness is unavailable.

6-12. Presewn Harnesses. Although improvised harnesses are made from readily available materials and
take little space in the pack or pocket, presewn harnesses provide other aspects that should be considered.
No assembly is required, which reduces preparation time for roped movement. All presewn harnesses
provide a range of adjustability. These harnesses have a fixed buckle that, when used correctly, will not fail
before the nylon materials connected to it. However, specialized equipment, such as a presewn harness,
reduce the flexibility of gear. Presewn harnesses are bulky, also.


Survival in Mountain Terrain883

a.
Seat Harness. Many presewn seat harnesses are available with many different qualities separating
them, including cost.
(1) The most notable difference will be the amount and placement of padding. The more padding
the higher the price and the more comfort. Gear loops sewn into the waist belt on the sides and
in the back are a common feature and are usually strong enough to hold quite a few carabiners
and or protection. The gear loops will vary in number from one model/manufacturer to
another.
(2) Although most presewn seat harnesses have a permanently attached belay loop connecting the
waist belt and the leg loops, the climbing rope should be run around the waist belt and leg loop
connector. The presewn belay loop adds another link to the chain of possible failure points and
only gives one point of security whereas running the rope through the waist belt and leg loop
connector provides two points of contact.
(3) If more than two men will be on the rope, connect the middle position(s) to the rope with a carabiner
routed the same as stated in the previous paragraph.
(4) Many manufactured seat harnesses will have a presewn loop of webbing on the rear. Although
this loop is much stronger than the gear loops, it is not for a belay anchor. It is a quick attachment
point to haul an additional rope.
b.
Chest Harness. The chest harness will provide an additional connecting point for the rope, usually in
the form of a carabiner loop to attach a carabiner and rope to. This type of additional connection will
provide a comfortable hanging position on the rope, but otherwise provides no additional protection
from injury during a fall (if the seat harness is fitted correctly).
(1) A chest harness will help the climber remain upright on the rope during rappelling or ascending
a fixed rope, especially while wearing a heavy pack. (If rappelling or ascending long or multiple
pitches, let the pack hang on a drop cord below the feet and attached to the harness tie-in point.)
(2) The presewn chest harnesses available commercially will invariably offer more comfort or performance
features, such as padding, gear loops, or ease of adjustment, than an improvised chest
harness.
c.
Full-Body Harness. Full-body harnesses incorporate a chest and seat harness into one assembly. This
is the safest harness to use as it relocates the tie-in point higher, at the chest, reducing the chance of
an inverted position when hanging on the rope. This is especially helpful when moving on ropes
with heavy packs. A full-body harness only affects the body position when hanging on the rope and
will not prevent head injury in a fall.
CAUTION
This type of harness does not prevent the climber from falling headfirst. Body position
during a fall is affected only by the forces that generated the fall, and this type of harness
promotes an upright position only when hanging on the rope from the attachment point.

6-13. Improvised Harnesses. Without the use of a manufactured harness, many methods are still available
for attaching oneself to a rope. Harnesses can be improvised using rope or webbing and knots.

a.
Swami Belt. The swami belt is a simple, belt-only harness created by wrapping rope or webbing
around the waistline and securing the ends. One-inch webbing will provide more comfort. Although
an effective swami belt can be assembled with a minimum of one wrap, at least two wraps are recommended
for comfort, usually with approximately ten feet of material. The ends are secured with
an appropriate knot.
b.
Bowline-on-a-Coil. Traditionally, the standard method for attaching oneself to the climbing rope was
with a bowline-on-a-coil around the waist. The extra wraps distribute the force of a fall over a larger
area of the torso than a single bowline would, and help prevent the rope from riding up over the rib

884 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

cage and under the armpits. The knot must be tied snugly around the narrow part of the waist, just
above the bony portions of the hips (pelvis). Avoid crossing the wraps by keeping them spread over
the waist area. “Sucking in the gut” a bit when making the wraps will ensure a snug fit.

(1) The bowline-on-a-coil can be used to tie-in to the end of the rope (Figure 6-19). The end man
should have a minimum of four wraps around the waist before completing the knot.
(2) The bowline-on-a-coil is a safe and effective method for attaching to the rope when the terrain
is low-angled, WITHOUT THE POSSIBILITY OF A SEVERE FALL. When the terrain becomes
steeper, a fall will generate more force on the climber and this will be felt through the coils of
this type of attachment. A hard fall will cause the coils to ride up against the ribs. In a severe fall,
any tie-in around the waist only could place a “shock load” on the climber’s lower back. Even in
a relatively short fall, if the climber ends up suspended in mid-air and unable to regain footing
on the rock, the rope around the waist can easily cut off circulation and breathing in a relatively
short time.
(3) The climbing harness distributes the force of a fall over the entire pelvic region, like a parachute
harness. Every climber should know how to tie some sort of improvised climbing harness from
sling material. A safe, and comfortable, seat/chest combination harness can be tied from oneinch
tubular nylon.
c.
Improvised Seat Harness. A seat harness can be tied from a length of webbing approximately 25 feet
long (Figure 6-20).
(1) Locate the center of the rope. Off to one side, tie two fixed loops approximately 6 inches apart
(overhand loops). Adjust the size of the loops so they fit snugly around the thigh. The loops are
tied into the sling “off center” so the remaining ends are different lengths. The short end should
be approximately 4 feet long (4 to 5 feet for larger individuals).
(2) Slip the leg loops over the feet and up to the crotch, with the knots to the front. Make one complete
wrap around the waist with the short end, wrapping to the outside, and hold it in place on
the hip. Keep the webbing flat and free of twists when wrapping.
(3) Make two to three wraps around the waist with the long end in the opposite direction (wrapping
to the outside), binding down on the short end to hold it in place. Grasping both ends,
Figure 6-19: Tying-in with a bowline-on-a-coil.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 885


Figure 6-20: Improvised seat and chest harness.

adjust the waist wraps to a snug fit. Connect the ends with the appropriate knot between the
front and one side so you will be able to see what you are doing.

d.
Improvised Chest Harness. The chest harness can be tied from rope or webbing, but remember that
with webbing, wider is better and will be more comfortable when you load this harness. Remember
as you tie this harness that the remaining ends will need to be secured so choose the best length.
Approximately 6 to 10 feet usually works.
(1) Tie the ends of the webbing together with the appropriate knot, making a sling 3 to 4 feet long.
(2) Put a single twist into the sling, forming two loops.
(3) Place an arm through each loop formed by the twist, just as you would put on a jacket, and drape
the sling over the shoulders. The twist, or cross, in the sling should be in the middle of the back.
(4) Join the two loops at the chest with a carabiner. The water knot should be set off to either side
for easy inspection (if a pack is to be worn, the knot will be uncomfortable if it gets between
the body and the pack). The chest harness should fit just loose enough to allow necessary
clothing and not to restrict breathing or circulation. Adjust the size of the sling if necessary.

886 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

e.
Improvised Full-Body Harness. Full-body harnesses incorporate a chest and seat harness into one
assembly.
(1) The full-body harness is the safest harness because it relocates the tie-in point higher, at the
chest, reducing the chance of an inverted hanging position on the rope. This is especially helpful
when moving on ropes with heavy packs. A full-body harness affects the body position only
when hanging on the rope.
CAUTION
A full-body harness does not prevent falling head first; body position in a fall is caused
by the forces that caused the fall.

(2) Although running the rope through the carabiner of the chest harness does, in effect, create a
type of full-body harness, it is not a true full-body harness until the chest harness and the seat
harness are connected as one piece. A true full-body harness can be improvised by connecting
the chest harness to the seat harness, but not by just tying the rope into both—the two harnesses
must be “fixed” as one harness. Fix them together with a short loop of webbing or rope so that
the climbing rope can be connected directly to the chest harness and your weight is supported
by the seat harness through the connecting material.
f.
Attaching the Rope to the Improvised Harness. The attachment of the climbing rope to the harness is a
CRITICAL LINK. The strength of the rope means nothing if it is attached poorly, or incorrectly, and
comes off the harness in a fall. The climber ties the end of the climbing rope to the seat harness with
an appropriate knot. If using a chest harness, the standing part of the rope is then clipped into the
chest harness carabiner. The seat harness absorbs the main force of the fall, and the chest harness
helps keep the body upright.
CAUTION
The knot must be tied around all the waist wraps and the 6-inch length of webbing
between the leg loops.

(1) A middleman must create a fixed loop to tie in to. A rethreaded figure-eight loop tied on a
doubled rope or the three loop bowline can be used. If using the three loop bowline, ensure
the end, or third loop formed in the knot, is secured around the tie-in loops with an overhand
knot. The standing part of the rope going to the lead climber is clipped into the chest harness
carabiner.
Note: The climbing rope is not clipped into the chest harness when belaying.

(2) The choice of whether to tie-in with a bowline-on-a-coil or into a climbing harness depends
entirely on the climber’s judgment, and possibly the equipment available. A good rule of thumb
is: “Wear a climbing harness when the potential for severe falls exists and for all travel over
snow-covered glaciers because of the crevasse fall hazard.”
(3) Under certain conditions many climbers prefer to attach the rope to the seat harness with a locking
carabiner, rather than tying the rope to it. This is a common practice for moderate snow and
ice climbing, and especially for glacier travel where wet and frozen knots become difficult to
untie.
CAUTION
Because the carabiner gate may be broken or opened by protruding rocks during a fall,
tie the rope directly to the harness for maximum safety.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 887

BELAY TECHNIQUES

Tying-in to the climbing rope and moving as a member of a rope team increases the climber’s margin of
safety on difficult, exposed terrain. In some instances, such as when traveling over snow-covered glaciers,
rope team members can often move at the same time, relying on the security of a tight rope and “team arrest”
techniques to halt a fall by any one member. On steep terrain, however, simultaneous movement only helps
to ensure that if one climber falls, he will jerk the other rope team members off the slope. For the climbing
rope to be of any value on steep rock climbs, the rope team must incorporate “belays” into the movement.

Belaying is a method of managing the rope in such a way that, if one person falls, the fall can be halted
or “arrested” by another rope team member (belayer). One person climbs at a time, while being belayed
from above or below by another. The belayer manipulates the rope so that friction, or a “brake,” can be
applied to halt a fall. Belay techniques are also used to control the descent of personnel and equipment on
fixed rope installations, and for additional safety on rappels and stream crossings.

Belaying is a skill that requires practice to develop proficiency. Setting up a belay may at first appear
confusing to the beginner, but with practice, the procedure should become “second nature.” If confronted
with a peculiar problem during the setup of a belay, try to use common sense and apply the basic principles
stressed throughout this text.

Remember the following key points:

•
Select the best possible terrain features for the position and use terrain to your advantage.
•
Use a well braced, sitting position whenever possible.
•
Aim and anchor the belay for all possible load directions.
•
Follow the “minimum” rule for belay anchors-2 for a downward pull, 1 for an upward pull.
•
Ensure anchor attachments are aligned, independent, and snug.
•
Stack the rope properly.
•
Choose a belay technique appropriate for the climbing.
•
Use a guide carabiner for rope control in all body belays.
•
Ensure anchor attachments, guide carabiner (if applicable), and rope running to the climber are all
on the guidehand side.
•
The brake hand remains on the rope when belaying.
CAUTION
Never remove the brake hand from the rope while belaying. If the brake hand is removed,
there is no belay.

•
Ensure you are satisfied with your position before giving the command “BELAY ON.”
•
The belay remains in place until the climber gives the command “OFF BELAY.”
CAUTION
The belay remains in place from the time the belayer commands “BELAY ON“ until the
climber commands “OFF BELAY.”

6-14. Procedure for Managing the Rope. A number of different belay techniques are used in modern climbing,
ranging from the basic “body belays” to the various “mechanical belays,” which incorporate some
type of friction device.

a.
Whether the rope is wrapped around the body, or run through a friction device, the rope management
procedure is basically the same. The belayer must be able to perform three basic functions:
manipulate the rope to give the climber slack during movement, take up rope to remove excess
slack, and apply the brake to halt a fall.

888 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

b. The belayer must be able to perform all three functions while maintaining “total control” of the rope
at all times. Total control means the brake hand is NEVER removed from the rope. When giving
slack, the rope simply slides through the grasp of the brake hand, at times being fed to the climber
with the other “feeling” or guide hand. Taking up rope, however, requires a certain technique to
ensure the brake hand remains on the rope at all times. The following procedure describes how to
take up excess rope and apply the brake in a basic body belay.
(1) Grasping the rope with both hands, place it behind the back and around the hips. The hand on
the section of rope between the belayer and the climber would be the guide hand. The other
hand is the brake hand.
(2) Take in rope with the brake hand until the arm is fully extended. The guide hand can also help
to pull in the rope (Figure 6-21, step 1).
(3) Holding the rope in the brake hand, slide the guide hand out, extending the arm so the guide
hand is farther away from the body than the brake hand (Figure 6-21, step 2).
(4) Grasp both parts of the rope, to the front of the brake hand, with the guide hand (Figure 6-21,
step 3).
(5) Slide the brake hand back towards the body (Figure 6-21, step 4).
(6) Repeat step 5 of Figure 6-21. The brake can be applied at any moment during the procedure. It is
applied by wrapping the rope around the front of the hips while increasing grip with the brake
hand (Figure 6-21, step 6).
6-15. Choosing a Belay Technique. The climber may choose from a variety of belay techniques. A method
that works well in one situation may not be the best choice in another. The choice between body belays and
mechanical belays depends largely on equipment available, what the climber feels most comfortable with,
and the amount of load, or fall force, the belay may have to absorb. The following describes a few of the
more widely used techniques, and the ones most applicable to military mountaineering.


Figure 6-21: Managing the rope.


Survival in Mountain Terrain889

a.
Body Belay. The basic body belay is the most widely used technique on moderate terrain. It uses
friction between the rope and the clothed body as the rope is pressured across the clothing. It is
the simplest belay, requiring no special equipment, and should be the first technique learned by all
climbers. A body belay gives the belayer the greatest “feel” for the climber, letting him know when
to give slack or take up rope. Rope management in a body belay is quick and easy, especially for
beginners, and is effective in snow and ice climbing when ropes often become wet, stiff, and frozen.
The body belay, in its various forms, will hold low to moderate impact falls well. It has been known
to arrest some severe falls, although probably not without inflicting great pain on the belayer.
CAUTION
The belayer must ensure he is wearing adequate clothing to protect his body from rope
burns when using a body belay. Heavy duty cotton or leather work gloves can also be
worn to protect the hands.

(1)
Sitting Body Belay. The sitting body belay is the preferred position and is usually the most secure
(Figure 6-22). The belayer sits facing the direction where the force of a fall will likely come from,
using terrain to his advantage, and attempts to brace both feet against the rock to support his
position. It is best to sit in a slight depression, placing the buttocks lower than the feet, and
straightening the legs for maximum support. When perfectly aligned, the rope running to the
climber will pass between the belayer’s feet, and both legs will equally absorb the force of a fall.
Sometimes, the belayer may not be able to sit facing the direction he would like, or both feet
cannot be braced well. The leg on the “guide hand” side should then point towards the load,
bracing the foot on the rock when possible. The belayer can also “straddle” a large tree or rock
nubbin for support, as long as the object is solid enough to sustain the possible load.
Figure 6-22: Sitting body belay.


890 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

(2)
Standing Body Belay. The standing body belay is used on smaller ledges where there is no room
for the belayer to sit (Figure 6-23). What appears at first to be a fairly unstable position can actually
be quite secure when belay anchors are placed at or above shoulder height to support the
stance when the force will be downward.
(a) For a body belay to work effectively, the belayer must ensure that the rope runs around the
hips properly, and remains there under load when applying the brake. The rope should run
around the narrow portion of the pelvic girdle, just below the bony high points of the hips.
If the rope runs too high, the force of a fall could injure the belayer’s midsection and lower
rib cage. If the rope runs too low, the load may pull the rope below the buttocks, dumping
the belayer out of position. It is also possible for a strong upward or downward pull to strip
the rope away from the belayer, rendering the belay useless.
(b) To prevent any of these possibilities from happening, the belay rope is clipped into a carabiner
attached to the guide hand side of the seat harness (or bowline-on-a-coil). This “guide
carabiner” helps keep the rope in place around the hips and prevents loss of control in
upward or downward loads (Figure 6-24).
b.
Mechanical Belay. A mechanical belay must be used whenever there is potential for the lead climber
to take a severe fall. The holding power of a belay device is vastly superior to any body belay
under high loads. However, rope management in a mechanical belay is more difficult to master and
requires more practice. For the most part, the basic body belay should be totally adequate on a typical
military route, as routes used during military operations should be the easiest to negotiate.
(1)
Munter Hitch. The Munter hitch is an excellent mechanical belay technique and requires only
a rope and a carabiner (Figure 6-25). The Munter is actually a two-way friction hitch. The
Munter hitch will flip back and forth through the carabiner as the belayer switches from
giving slack to taking up rope. The carabiner must be large enough, and of the proper design,
to allow this function. The locking pear-shaped carabiner, or pearabiner, is designed for the
Munter hitch.
Figure 6-23: Standing body belay.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 891


Figure 6-24: Guide carabiner for rope control in a body belay.


Figure 6-25: Munter hitch.


892 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

(a) The Munter hitch works exceptionally well as a lowering belay off the anchor. As a climbing
belay, the carabiner should be attached to the front of the belayer’s seat harness. The hitch
is tied by forming a loop and a bight in the rope, attaching both to the carabiner. It’s fairly
easy to place the bight on the carabiner backwards, which forms an obvious, useless hitch.
Put some tension on the Munter to ensure it is formed correctly, as depicted in the following
illustrations.
(b) The Munter hitch will automatically “lock-up” under load as the brake hand grips the rope.
The brake is increased by pulling the slack rope away from the body, towards the load. The
belayer must be aware that flipping the hitch DOES NOT change the function of the hands.
The hand on the rope running to the climber, or load, is always the guide hand.
(2)
Figure-Eight Device. The figure-eight device is a versatile piece of equipment and, though developed
as a rappel device, has become widely accepted as an effective mechanical belay device
(Figure 6-26). The advantage of any mechanical belay is friction required to halt a fall is applied
on the rope through the device, rather than around the belayer’s body. The device itself provides
rope control for upward and downward pulls and excellent friction for halting severe
falls. The main principle behind the figure-eight device in belay mode is the friction developing
on the rope as it reaches and exceeds the 90-degree angle between the rope entering the device
and leaving the device. As a belay device, the figure-eight works well for both belayed climbing
and for lowering personnel and equipment on fixed-rope installations.
(a) As a climbing belay, a bight placed into the climbing rope is run through the “small eye” of
the device and attached to a locking carabiner at the front of the belayer’s seat harness. A
short, small diameter safety rope is used to connect the “large eye” of the figure eight to the
locking carabiner for control of the device. The guide hand is placed on the rope running
to the climber. Rope management is performed as in a body belay. The brake is applied by
pulling the slack rope in the brake hand towards the body, locking the rope between the
device and the carabiner.
(b) As a lowering belay, the device is normally attached directly to the anchor with the rope
routed as in rappelling.
Note: Some figure-eight descenders should not be used as belay devices due to their construction and design.
Always refer to manufacturer’s specifications and directions before use.


Figure 6-26: Figure-eight device.


Survival in Mountain Terrain893

(3)
Mechanical Camming Device. The mechanical camming device has an internal camming action that
begins locking the rope in place as friction is increased. Unlike the other devices, the mechanical
camming device can stop a falling climber without any input from the belayer. A few other
devices perform similarly to this, but have no moving parts. Some limitations to these type
devices are minimum and maximum rope diameters.
(4)
Other Mechanical Belay Devices. There are many other commercially available mechanical belay
devices. Most of these work with the same rope movement direction and the same braking principle.
The air traffic controller (ATC), slotted plate, and other tube devices are made in many different
shapes. These all work on the same principle as the figure-eight device friction increases
on the rope as it reaches and exceeds the 90-degree angle between the rope entering the device
and leaving the device.
6-16. Establishing a Belay. A belay can be established using either a direct or indirect connection. Each
type has advantages and disadvantages. The choice will depend on the intended use of the belay.

a.
Direct Belay. The direct belay removes any possible forces from the belayer and places this force
completely on the anchor. Used often for rescue installations or to bring a second climber up to a
new belay position in conjunction with the Munter hitch, the belay can be placed above the belayer’s
stance, creating a comfortable position and ease of applying the brake. Also, if the second falls
or weights the rope, the belayer is not locked into a position. Direct belays provide no shock-absorbing
properties from the belayer’s attachment to the system as does the indirect belay; therefore, the
belayer is apt to pay closer attention to the belaying process.
b.
Indirect Belay. An indirect belay, the most commonly used, uses a belay device attached to the belayer’s
harness. This type of belay provides dynamic shock or weight absorption by the belayer if the
climber falls or weights the rope, which reduces the direct force on the anchor and prevents a severe
shock load to the anchor.
6-17. Setting Up a Belay. In rock climbing, climbers must sometimes make do with marginal protection
placements along a route, but belay positions must be made as “bombproof” as possible. Additionally, the
belayer must set up the belay in relation to where the fall force will come from and pay strict attention to
proper rope management for the belay to be effective. All belay positions are established with the anchor
connection to the front of the harness. If the belay is correctly established, the belayer will feel little or no
force if the climber falls or has to rest on the rope. Regardless of the actual belay technique used, five basic
steps are required to set up a sound belay.

a.
Select Position and Stance. Once the climbing line is picked, the belayer selects his position. It’s
best if the position is off to the side of the actual line, putting the belayer out of the direct
path of a potential fall or any rocks kicked loose by the climber. The position should allow the
belayer to maintain a comfortable, relaxed stance, as he could be in the position for a fairly
long time. Large ledges that allow a well braced, sitting stance are preferred. Look for belay
positions close to bombproof natural anchors. The position must at least allow for solid artificial
placements.
b.
Aim the Belay. With the belay position selected, the belay must now be “aimed.” The belayer determines
where the rope leading to the climber will run and the direction the force of a fall will likely
come from. When a lead climber begins placing protection, the fall force on the belayer will be in
some upward direction, and in line with the first protection placement. If this placement fails under
load, the force on the belay could be straight down again. The belayer must aim his belay for all
possible load directions, adjusting his position or stance when necessary. The belay can be aimed
through an anchor placement to immediately establish an upward pull; however, the belayer must
always be prepared for the more severe downward fall force in the event intermediate protection
placements fail.

894 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

c.
Anchor the Belay. For a climbing belay to be considered bombproof, the belayer must be attached to
a solid anchor capable of withstanding the highest possible fall force. A solid natural anchor would
be ideal, but more often the belayer will have to place pitons or chocks. A single artificial placement
should never be considered adequate for anchoring a belay (except at ground level). Multiple
anchor points capable of supporting both upward and downward pulls should be placed. The rule
of thumb is to place two anchors for a downward pull and one anchor for an upward pull as a
MINIMUM. The following key points also apply to anchoring belays.
(1) Each anchor must be placed in line with the direction of pull it is intended to support.
(2) Each anchor attachment must be rigged “independently” so a failure of one will not shock load
remaining placements or cause the belayer to be pulled out of position.
(3) The attachment between the anchor and the belayer must be snug to support the stance. Both
belayer’s stance and belay anchors should absorb the force of a fall.
(4) It is best for the anchors to be placed relatively close to the belayer with short attachments.
If the climber has to be tied-off in an emergency, say after a severe fall, the belayer can
attach a Prusik sling to the climbing rope, reach back, and connect the sling to one of the
anchors. The load can be placed on the Prusik and the belayer can come out of the system
to render help.
(5) The belayer can use either a portion of the climbing rope or slings of the appropriate length to
connect himself to the anchors. It’s best to use the climbing rope whenever possible, saving the
slings for the climb. The rope is attached using either figure eight loops or clove hitches. Clove
hitches have the advantage of being easily adjusted. If the belayer has to change his stance at
some point, he can reach back with the guide hand and adjust the length of the attachment
through the clove hitch as needed.
(6) The anchor attachments should also help prevent the force of a fall from “rotating” the belayer
out of position. To accomplish this, the climbing rope must pass around the “guide-hand side”
of the body to the anchors. Sling attachments are connected to the belayer’s seat harness (or
bowline-on-a-coil) on the guide-hand side.
(7) Arrangement of rope and sling attachments may vary according to the number and location of
placements. Follow the guidelines set forth and remember the key points for belay anchors; “in
line”, “independent”, and “snug”. Figure 6-27 shows an example of a common arrangement,
attaching the rope to the two “downward” anchors and a sling to the “upward” anchor. Note
how the rope is connected from one of the anchors back to the belayer. This is not mandatory,
but often helps “line-up” the second attachment.
d.
Stack the Rope. Once the belayer is anchored into position, he must stack the rope to ensure it is free
of twists and tangles that might hinder rope management in the belay. The rope should be stacked
on the ground, or on the ledge, where it will not get caught in cracks or nubbins as it is fed out to
the climber.
(1) On small ledges, the rope can be stacked on top of the anchor attachments if there is no other
place to lay it, but make sure to stack it carefully so it won’t tangle with the anchored portion of
the rope or other slings. The belayer must also ensure that the rope will not get tangled around
his legs or other body parts as it “feeds” out.
(2) The rope should never be allowed to hang down over the ledge. If it gets caught in the rock
below the position, the belayer may have to tie-off the climber and come out of the belay to free
the rope; a time-consuming and unnecessary task. The final point to remember is the rope must
be stacked “from the belayer’s end” so the rope running to the climber comes off the “top” of
the stacked pile.
e.
Attach the Belay. The final step of the procedure is to attach the belay. With the rope properly stacked,
the belayer takes the rope coming off the top of the pile, removes any slack between himself and the
climber, and applies the actual belay technique. If using a body belay, ensure the rope is clipped into
the guide carabiner.

Survival in Mountain Terrain 895


Figure 6-27: Anchoring a belay.

(1) The belayer should make one quick, final inspection of his belay. If the belay is set up correctly,
the anchor attachments, guide carabiner if applicable, and the rope running to the climber will
all be on the “guide hand” side, which is normally closest to the rock (Figure 6-28). If the climber
takes a fall, the force, if any, should not have any negative effect on the belayer’s involvement in
the system. The brake hand is out away from the slope where it won’t be jammed between the
body and the rock. The guide hand can be placed on the rock to help support the stance when
applying the brake.
(2) When the belayer is satisfied with his position, he gives the signal, “BELAY ON!”. When belaying
the “second”, the same procedure is used to set up the belay. Unless the belay is aimed for an
upward pull, the fall force is of course downward and the belayer is usually facing away from
the rock, the exception being a hanging belay on a vertical face. If the rope runs straight down
to the climber and the anchors are directly behind the position, the belayer may choose to brake
with the hand he feels most comfortable with. Anchor attachments, guide carabiner, and rope
running to the climber through the guide hand must still be aligned on the same side to prevent
the belayer from being rotated out of position, unless the belayer is using an improvised harness
and the anchor attachment is at the rear.
6-18. Top-Rope Belay. A “top-rope” is a belay setup used in training to protect a climber while climbing on
longer, exposed routes. A solid, bombproof anchor is required at the top of the pitch. The belayer is positioned
either on the ground with the rope running through the top anchor and back to the climber, or at
the top at the anchor. The belayer takes in rope as the climber proceeds up the rock. If this is accomplished
with the belayer at the bottom, the instructor can watch the belayer while he coaches the climber through
the movements.


896 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 6-28: Belay setup.


CAUTION
Do not use a body belay for top-rope climbing. The rope will burn the belayer if the
climber has to be lowered.

CLIMBING COMMANDS

Communication is often difficult during a climb. As the distance between climber and belayer increases,
it becomes harder to distinguish one word from another and the shortest sentence may be heard as nothing
more than jumbled syllables. A series of standard voice commands were developed over the years to
signal the essential rope management functions in a belayed climb. Each command is concise and sounds
a bit different from another to reduce the risk of a misunderstanding between climber and belayer. They
must be pronounced clearly and loudly so they can be heard and understood in the worst conditions.

6-19. Verbal Commands. Table 6-1 lists standard rope commands and their meanings in sequence as they
would normally be used on a typical climb. (Note how the critical “BELAY” commands are reversed so
they sound different and will not be confused.)

6-20. Rope Tug Commands. Sometimes the loudest scream cannot be heard when the climber and belayer
are far apart. This is especially true in windy conditions, or when the climber is around a corner, above an
overhang, or at the back of a ledge. It may be necessary to use a series of “tugs” on the rope in place of the
standard voice commands. To avoid any possible confusion with interpretation of multiple rope tug commands,
use only one.

a.
While a lead climb is in progress, the most important command is “BELAY ON.” This command
is given only by the climber when the climber is anchored and is prepared for the second to begin

Survival in Mountain Terrain 897

Table 6-1: Rope commands.



898 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

climbing. With the issue of this command, the second knows the climber is anchored and the second
prepares to climb.

b. For a rope tug command, the leader issues three distinct tugs on the rope AFTER anchoring and
putting the second on belay. This is the signal for “BELAY ON” and signals the second to climb
when ready. The new belayer keeps slack out of the rope.
ROPED CLIMBING METHODS

In military mountaineering, the primary mission of a roped climbing team is to “fix” a route with some
type of rope installation to assist movement of less trained personnel in the unit. This duty falls upon the
most experienced climbers in the unit, usually working in two- or three-man groups or teams called assault
climbing teams. Even if the climbing is for another purpose, roped climbing should be performed whenever
the terrain becomes difficult and exposed.

6-21. Top-Roped Climbing. Top-roped climbing is used for training purposes only. This method of climbing
is not used for movement due to the necessity of pre-placing anchors at the top of a climb. If you can
easily access the top of a climb, you can easily avoid the climb itself.

a.
For training, top-roped climbing is valuable because it allows climbers to attempt climbs above their
skill level and or to hone present skills without the risk of a fall. Top-roped climbing may be used to
increase the stamina of a climber training to climb longer routes as well as for a climber practicing
protection placements.
b. The belayer is positioned either at the base of a climb with the rope running through the top anchor
and back to the climber or at the top at the anchor. The belayer takes in rope as the climber moves
up the rock, giving the climber the same protection as a belay from above. If this is accomplished
with the belayer at the bottom, the instructor is able to keep an eye on the belayer while he coaches
the climber through the movements.
6-22. Lead Climbing. A lead climb consists of a belayer, a leader or climber, rope(s), and webbing or hardware
used to establish anchors or protect the climb. As he climbs the route, the leader emplaces “intermediate”
anchors, and the climbing rope is connected to these anchors with a carabiner. These “intermediate”
anchors protect the climber against a fall—thus the term “protecting the climb.”

Note: Intermediate anchors are commonly referred to as “protection,” “pro,” “pieces,” “pieces of pro,” “pro placements,”
and so on. For standardization within this publication, these specific anchors will be referred to as “protection;”
anchors established for other purposes, such as rappel points, belays, or other rope installations, will be referred to as
“anchors.”


CAUTION
During all lead climbing, each climber in the team is either anchored or being belayed.

a.
Lead climbing with two climbers is the preferred combination for movement on technically difficult
terrain. Two climbers are at least twice as fast as three climbers, and are efficient for installing
a “fixed rope,” probably the most widely used rope installation in the mountains. A group
of three climbers are typically used on moderate snow, ice, and snow-covered glaciers where the
rope team can often move at the same time, stopping occasionally to set up belays on particularly
difficult sections. A group or team of three climbers is sometimes used in rock climbing because
of an odd number of personnel, a shortage of ropes (such as six climbers and only two ropes),
or to protect and assist an individual who has little or no experience in climbing and belaying.

Survival in Mountain Terrain 899

Whichever technique is chosen, a standard roped climbing procedure is used for maximum speed
and safety.

b. When the difficulty of the climbing is within the “leading ability” of both climbers, valuable time
can be saved by “swinging leads.” This is normally the most efficient method for climbing multipitch
routes. The second finishes cleaning the first pitch and continues climbing, taking on the role
of lead climber. Unless he requires equipment from the other rack or desires a break, he can climb
past the belay and immediately begin leading. The belayer simply adjusts his position, re-aiming
the belay once the new leader begins placing protection. Swinging leads, or “leapfrogging,” should
be planned before starting the climb so the leader knows to anchor the upper belay for both upward
and downward pulls during the setup.
c.
The procedures for conducting a lead climb with a group of two are relatively simple. The most
experienced individual is the “lead” climber or leader, and is responsible for selecting the route.
The leader must ensure the route is well within his ability and the ability of the second. The lead
climber carries most of the climbing equipment in order to place protection along the route and set
up the next belay. The leader must also ensure that the second has the necessary equipment, such as
a piton hammer, nut tool, etc., to remove any protection that the leader may place.
(1) The leader is responsible for emplacing protection frequently enough and in such a manner that,
in the event that either the leader or the second should fall, the fall will be neither long enough
nor hard enough to result in injury. The leader must also ensure that the rope is routed in a way
that will allow it to run freely through the protection placements, thus minimizing friction, or
“rope drag”.
(2) The other member of the climbing team, the belayer (sometimes referred to as the “second”),
is responsible for belaying the leader, removing the belay anchor, and retrieving the protection
placed by the leader between belay positions (also called “cleaning the pitch”).
(3) Before the climb starts, the second will normally set up the first belay while the leader is arranging
his rack. When the belay is ready, the belayer signals, “BELAY ON”, affirming that the belay
is “on” and the rope will be managed as necessary. When the leader is ready, he double checks
the belay. The leader can then signal, “CLIMBING”, only as a courtesy, to let the belayer know he
is ready to move. The belayer can reply with “CLIMB”, again, only as a courtesy, reaffirming that
the belay is “on” and the rope will be managed as necessary. The leader then begins climbing.
(4) While belaying, the second must pay close attention to the climber’s every move, ensuring that
the rope runs free and does not inhibit the climber’s movements. If he cannot see the climber, he
must “feel” the climber through the rope. Unless told otherwise by the climber, the belayer can
slowly give slack on the rope as the climber proceeds on the route. The belayer should keep just
enough slack in the rope so the climber does not have to pull it through the belay. If the climber
wants a tighter rope, it can be called for. If the belayer notices too much slack developing in the
rope, the excess rope should be taken in quickly. It is the belayer’s responsibility to manage the
rope, whether by sight or feel, until the climber tells him otherwise.
(5) As the leader protects the climb, slack will sometimes be needed to place the rope through the
carabiner (clipping), in a piece of protection above the tie-in point on the leader’s harness. In this
situation, the leader gives the command “SLACK” and the belayer gives slack, (if more slack is
needed the command will be repeated). The leader is able to pull a bight of rope above the tie-in
point and clip it into the carabiner in the protection above. When the leader has completed the
connection, or the clip, the command “TAKE ROPE” is given by the leader and the belayer takes
in the remaining slack.
(6) The leader continues on the route until either a designated belay location is reached or he is at
the end of or near the end of the rope. At this position, the leader sets an anchor, connects to the
anchor and signals “OFF BELAY”. The belayer prepares to climb by removing all but at least
one of his anchors and secures the remaining equipment. The belayer remains attached to at
least one anchor until the command “BELAY ON” is given.

900 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

d. When the leader selects a particular route, he must also determine how much, and what types, of
equipment might be required to safely negotiate the route. The selected equipment must be carried
by the leader. The leader must carry enough equipment to safely protect the route, additional
anchors for the next belay, and any other items to be carried individually such as rucksacks or individual
weapons.
(1) The leader will assemble, or “rack,” the necessary equipment onto his harness or onto slings
around the head and shoulder. A typical leader “rack” consists of:
• Six to eight small wired stoppers on a carabiner.
• Four to six medium to large wired stoppers on a carabiner.
• Assorted hexentrics, each on a separate carabiner.
• SLCDs of required size, each on a separate carabiner.
• Five to ten standard length runners, with two carabiners on each.
• Two to three double length runners, with two carabiners on each.
•
Extra carabiners.
•
Nut tool.
Note: The route chosen will dictate, to some degree, the necessary equipment. Members of a climbing team may
need to consolidate gear to climb a particular route.

(2) The belayer and the leader both should carry many duplicate items while climbing.
• Short Prusik sling.
• Long Prusik sling.
•
Cordellette.
• 10 feet of 1-inch webbing.
• 20 feet of 1-inch webbing.
• Belay device (a combination belay/rappel device is multifunctional).
• Rappel device (a combination belay/rappel device is multifunctional).
• Large locking carabiner (pear shape carabiners are multifunctional).
•
Extra carabiners.
• Nut tool (if stoppers are carried).
Note: If using an over the shoulder gear sling, place the items in order from smallest to the front and largest to
the rear.

e.
Leading a difficult pitch is the most hazardous task in roped climbing. The lead climber may be
exposed to potentially long, hard falls and must exercise keen judgment in route selection, placement
of protection, and routing of the climbing rope through the protection. The leader should try
to keep the climbing line as direct as possible to the next belay to allow the rope to run smoothly
through the protection with minimal friction. Protection should be placed whenever the leader feels
he needs it, and BEFORE moving past a difficult section.
CAUTION
The climber must remember he will fall twice the distance from his last piece of protection
before the rope can even begin to stop him.

(1)
Placing Protection. Generally, protection is placed from one stable position to the next. The anchor
should be placed as high as possible to reduce the potential fall distance between placements. If
the climbing is difficult, protection should be placed more frequently. If the climbing becomes
easier, protection can be placed farther apart, saving hardware for difficult sections. On some
routes an extended diagonal or horizontal movement, known as a traverse, is required. As the
leader begins this type of move, he must consider the second’s safety as well as his own. The
potential fall of the second will result in a pendulum swing if protection is not adequate to prevent
this. The danger comes from any objects in the swinging path of the second.

Survival in Mountain Terrain901


CAUTION
Leader should place protection prior to, during, and upon completion of any traverse.
This will minimize the potential swing, or pendulum, for both the leader and second if
either should fall.


(2)
Correct Clipping Technique. Once an anchor is placed, the climber “clips” the rope into the carabiner
(Figure 6-29). As a carabiner hangs from the protection, the rope can be routed through
the carabiner in two possible ways. One way will allow the rope to run smoothly as the climber
moves past the placement; the other way will often create a dangerous situation in which the
rope could become “unclipped” from the carabiner if the leader were to fall on this piece of
protection. In addition, a series of incorrectly clipped carabiners may contribute to rope drag.
When placing protection, the leader must ensure the carabiner on the protection does not hang
with the carabiner gate facing the rock; when placing protection in a crack ensure the carabiner
gate is not facing into the crack.
•
Grasp the rope with either hand with the thumb pointing down the rope towards the belayer.
•
Pull enough rope to reach the carabiner with a bight.
•
Note the direction the carabiner is hanging from the protection.
•
Place the bight into the carabiner so that, when released, the rope does not cause the carabiner
to twist.
(a) If the route changes direction, clipping the carabiner will require a little more thought.
Once leaving that piece of protection, the rope may force the carabiner to twist if not correctly
clipped. If the clip is made correctly, a rotation of the clipped carabiner to ensure
that the gate is not resting against the rock may be all that is necessary.
Figure 6-29: Clipping on to protection.


902 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


CAUTION
Ensure the carabiner gate is not resting against a protrusion or crack edge in the rock
surface; the rock may cause the gate to open.


(b) Once the rope is clipped into the carabiner, the climber should check to see that it is
routed correctly by pulling on the rope in the direction it will travel when the climber
moves past that position.
(c) Another potential hazard peculiar to leading should be eliminated before the climber
continues. The carabiner is attached to the anchor or runner with the gate facing away
from the rock and opening down for easy insertion of the rope. However, in a leader
fall, it is possible for the rope to run back over the carabiner as the climber falls below
the placement. If the carabiner is left with the gate facing the direction of the route there
is a chance that the rope will open the gate and unclip itself entirely from the placement.
To prevent this possibility, the climber should ensure that after the clip has been made,
the gate is facing away from the direction of the route. There are two ways to accomplish
this: determine which direction the gate will face before the protection or runner
is placed or once clipped, rotate the carabiner upwards 180 degrees. This problem is
more apt to occur if bent gate carabiners are used. Straight gate ovals or “Ds” are less
likely to have this problem and are stronger and are highly recommended. Bent gate
carabiners are easier to clip the rope into and are used mostly on routes with bolts
preplaced for protection. Bent gate carabiners are not recommended for many climbing
situations.
(3)
Reducing Rope Drag; Using Runners. No matter how direct the route, the climber will often
encounter problems with “rope drag” through the protection positions. The friction created
by rope drag will increase to some degree every time the rope passes through a carabiner, or
anchor. It will increase dramatically if the rope begins to “zigzag” as it travels through the
carabiners. To prevent this, the placements should be positioned so the rope creates a smooth,
almost straight line as it passes through the carabiners (Figure 6-30). Minimal rope drag is an
inconvenience; severe rope drag may actually pull the climber off balance, inducing a fall.
CAUTION
Rope drag can cause confusion when belaying the second or follower up to a new belay
position. Rope drag can be mistaken for the climber, causing the belayer to not take in the
necessary slack in the rope and possibly resulting in a serious fall.


(a) If it is not possible to place all the protection so the carabiners form a straight line as
the rope moves through, you should “extend” the protection (Figure 6-31). Do this by
attaching an appropriate length sling, or runner, to the protection to extend the rope
connection in the necessary direction. The runner is attached to the protection’s carabiner
while the rope is clipped into a carabiner at the other end of the runner. Extending
placements with runners will allow the climber to vary the route slightly while the rope
continues to run in a relatively straight line.
(b) Not only is rope drag a hindrance, it can cause undue movement of protection as the rope
tightens between any “out of line” placements. Rope drag through chock placements can
be dangerous. As the climber moves above the placements, an outward or upward pull
from rope drag may cause correctly set chocks to pop out, even when used “actively”.
Most all chocks placed for leader protection should be extended with a runner, even if the
line is direct, to eliminate the possibility of movement.

Survival in Mountain Terrain 903


Figure 6-30: Use of slings on protection.


Figure 6-31: Use of slings to extend placement positions.


904 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

(c) Wired chocks are especially prone to wiggling loose as the rope pulls on the stiff cable
attachment. All wired chocks used for leader protection should be extended to reduce
the chance of the rope pulling them out (Figure 6-32). Some of the larger chocks, such as
roped Hexentrics and Tri-Cams, have longer slings pre-attached that will normally serve
as an adequate runner for the placement. Chocks with smaller sling attachments must
often be extended with a runner. Many of today’s chocks are manufactured with presewn
webbing installed instead of cable.
(d) When a correctly placed piton is used for protection, it will normally not be affected by
rope drag. A correctly placed piton is generally a multi-directional anchor, therefore,
rope drag through pitons will usually only affect the leader’s movements but will continue
to protect as expected.
(e) Rope drag will quite often move SLCDs out of position, or “walk” them deeper into the
crack than initially placed, resulting in difficult removal or inability to remove them at
all. Furthermore, most cases of SLCD movement result in the SLCD moving to a position
that does not provide protection in the correct direction or no protection at all due to the
lobes being at different angles from those at the original position.
Note: Any placement extended with a runner will increase the distance of a potential fall by the actual length of the
sling. Try to use the shortest runners possible, ensuring they are long enough to function properly.

f. Belaying the follower is similar to belaying a top-roped climb in that the follower is not able to fall
any farther than rope stretch will allow. This does not imply there is no danger in following. Sharp
rocks, rock fall, and inadequately protected traverses can result in damage to equipment or injury
to the second.
g. Following, or seconding, a leader has a variety of responsibilities. The second has to issue commands
to the leader, as well as follow the leader’s commands. Once the lead climber reaches a good
belay position, he immediately establishes an anchor and connects to it. When this is completed he
can signal “OFF BELAY” to the belayer. The second can now remove the leader’s belay and prepare
to climb. The second must remain attached to at least one of the original anchors while the leader
is preparing the next belay position. The removed materials and hardware can be organized and
secured on the second’s rack in preparation to climb.
(1) When the leader has established the new belay position and is ready to belay the follower, the
“new” belayer signals “BELAY ON.” The second, now the climber, removes any remaining anchor
hardware/materials and completes any final preparations. The belayer maintains tension on the
Figure 6-32: Use of sling on a wired stopper.


Survival in Mountain Terrain 905

rope, unless otherwise directed, while the final preparations are taking place, since removal of
these remaining anchors can introduce slack into the rope. When the second is ready, he can, as a
courtesy, signal “CLIMBING,” and the leader can, again as a courtesy, reply with “CLIMB.”

(2) Upon signaling “BELAY ON,” the belayer must remove and keep all slack from the rope. (This
is especially important as in many situations the belayer cannot see the follower. A long pitch
induces weight and sometimes “drag” on the rope and the belayer above will have difficulty
distinguishing these from a rope with no slack.)
h. When removing protection, the man cleaning the pitch should rack it properly to facilitate the
exchange and or arrangement of equipment at the end of the pitch. When removing the protection,
or “cleaning the pitch,” SLCDs or chocks may be left attached to the rope to prevent loss if they are
accidentally dropped during removal. If necessary, the hardware can remain on the rope until the
second reaches a more secure stance. If removing a piton, the rope should be unclipped from the
piton to avoid the possibility of damaging the rope with a hammer strike.
(1) The second may need to place full body weight on the rope to facilitate use of both hands for
protection removal by giving the command “TENSION.” The second must also ensure that he
does not climb faster than the rope is being taken in by the belayer. If too much slack develops,
he should signal “TAKE ROPE” and wait until the excess is removed before continuing the
climb. Once the second completes the pitch, he should immediately connect to the anchor. Once
secured, he can signal “OFF BELAY.” The leader removes the belay, while remaining attached to
an anchor. The equipment is exchanged or organized in preparation for the next pitch or climb.
(2) When the difficulty of the climbing is within the “leading ability” of both climbers, valuable
time can be saved by “swinging leads.” This is normally the most efficient method for climbing
multi-pitch routes. The second finishes cleaning the first pitch and continues climbing, taking
on the role of lead climber. Unless he requires equipment from the belayer or desires a break,
he can climb past the belay and immediately begin leading. The belayer simply adjusts his
position, re-aiming the belay once the new leader begins placing protection. Swinging leads, or
“leap frogging,” should be planned before starting the climb so the leader knows to anchor the
upper belay for both upward and downward pulls during the setup.
6-23. Aid Climbing. When a route is too difficult to free climb and is unavoidable, if the correct equipment
is available you might aid climb the route. Aid climbing consists of placing protection and putting full
body weight on the piece. This allows you to hang solely on the protection you place, giving you the ability
to ascend more difficult routes than you can free climb. Clean aid consists of using SLCDs and chocks, and
is the simplest form of aid climbing.

a.
Equipment. Aid climbing can be accomplished with various types of protection. Regardless of the
type of protection used, the method of aid climbing is the same. In addition to the equipment for
free climbing, other specialized equipment will be needed.
(1)
Pitons. Pitons are used the same as for free climbing. Most piton placements will require the use
of both hands. Piton usage will usually leave a scar in the rock just by virtue of the hardness of
the piton and the force required to set it with a hammer. Swinging a hammer to place pitons
will lead to climber fatigue sooner than clean aid. Since pitons are multidirectional, the strength
of a well-placed piton is more secure than most clean aid protection. Consider other forms of
protection when noise could be hazardous to tactics.
(2)
Bolts. Bolts are used when no other protection will work. They are a more permanent form of
protection and more time is needed to place them. Placing bolts creates more noise whether
drilled by hand or by motorized drill. Bolts used in climbing are a multi-part expanding system
pounded into predrilled holes and then tightened to the desired torque with a wrench or other
tool. Bolts are used in many ways in climbing today. The most common use is with a hanger
attached and placed for anchors in face climbing. However, bolts can be used for aid climbing,
with or without the hanger.

906 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

(a) Placing bolts for aid climbing takes much more time than using pitons or clean aid. Bolting
for aid climbing consists of consecutive bolts about 2 feet apart. Drilling a deep enough
hole takes approximately thirty minutes with a hand drill and up to two minutes with a
powered hammer drill. A lot of time and work is expended in a short distance no matter
how the hole is drilled. (The weight of a powered hammer drill becomes an issue in itself.)
Noise will also be a factor in both applications. A constant pounding with a hammer on
the hand drill or the motorized pounding of the powered drill may alert the enemy to the
position. The typical climbing bolt/hanger combination normally is left in the hole where
it was placed.
(b) Other items that can be used instead of the bolt/hanger combination are the removable and
reusable “spring-loaded removable bolts” such as rivets (hex head threaded bolts sized to
fit tightly into the hole and pounded in with a hammer), split-shaft rivets, and some piton
sizes that can be pounded into the holes. When using rivets or bolts without a hanger, place
a loop of cable over the head and onto the shaft of the rivet or bolt and attach a carabiner to
the other end of the loop (a stopper with the chock slid back will suffice). Rivet hangers are
available that slide onto the rivet or bolt after it is placed and are easily removed for reuse.
Easy removal means a slight loss of security while in use.
(3)
SLCDs. SLCDs are used the same as for free climbing, although in aid climbing, full bodyweight
is applied to the SLCD as soon as it is placed.
(4) Chocks. Chocks are used the same as for free climbing, although in aid climbing, weight is
applied to the chock as soon as it is placed.
(5) Daisy Chains. Daisy chains are tied or presewn loops of webbing with small tied or presewn
loops approximately every two inches. The small loops are just large enough for two or three
carabiners. Two daisy chains should be girth-hitched to the tie-in point in the harness.
(6) Etriers (or Aiders). Etriers (aiders) are tied or presewn webbing loops with four to six tied or
presewn internal loops, or steps, approximately every 12 inches. The internal loops are large
enough to easily place one booted foot into. At least two etriers (aiders) should be connected by
carabiner to the free ends of the daisy chains.
(7) Fifi Hook. A fifi hook is a small, smooth-surfaced hook strong enough for body weight. The fifi
hook should be girth-hitched to the tie-in point in the harness and is used in the small loops of
the daisy chain. A carabiner can be used in place of the fifi hook, although the fifi hook is simpler
and adequate.
(8) Ascenders. Ascenders are mechanical devices that will move easily in one direction on the rope,
but will lock in place if pushed or pulled the other direction. (Prusiks can be used but are more
difficult than ascenders.)
b.
Technique. The belay will be the same as in normal lead climbing and the rope will be routed through
the protection the same way also. The big difference is the movement up the rock. With the daisy
chains, aiders, and fifi hook attached to the rope tie-in point of the harness as stated above, and
secured temporarily to a gear loop or gear sling, the climb continues as follows:
(1) The leader places the first piece of protection as high as can safely be reached and attaches the
appropriate sling/carabiner.
(2) Attach one daisy chain/aider group to the newly placed protection.
(3) Clip the rope into the protection, (the same as for normal lead climbing).
(4) Insure the protection is sound by weighting it gradually; place both feet, one at a time, into the
steps in the aider, secure your balance by grasping the top of the aider with your hands.
(5) When both feet are in the aider, move up the steps until your waist is no higher than the top of
the aider.
(6) Place the fifi hook (or substituted carabiner) into the loop of the daisy chain closest to the daisy
chain/aider carabiner, this effectively shortens the daisy chain; maintain tension on the daisy
chain as the hook can fall out of the daisy chain loop if it is unweighted.

Survival in Mountain Terrain 907

Note: Moving the waist higher than the top of the aider is possible, but this creates a potential for a fall to occur
even though you are on the aider and “hooked” close to the protection with the daisy chain. As the daisy chain tie-in
point on the harness moves above the top of the aider, you are no longer supported from above by the daisy chain, you
are now standing above your support. From this height, the fifi hook can easily fall out of the daisy chain loop if it is
unweighted. If this happens, you could fall the full length of the daisy chain resulting in a static fall on the last piece
of protection placed.

(7) Release one hand from the aider and place the next piece of protection, again, as high as you can
comfortably reach; if using pitons or bolts you may need both hands free- “lean” backwards slowly,
and rest your upper body on the daisy chain that you have “shortened” with the fifi hook.
(8) Clip the rope into the protection.
(9) Attach the other daisy chain/aider group to the next piece of protection.
(10) Repeat entire process until climb is finished.
c.
Seconding. When the pitch is completed, the belayer will need to ascend the route. To ascend the
route, use ascenders instead of Prusiks; ascenders are much faster and safer than Prusiks. Attach
each ascender to a daisy chain/aider group with carabiners. To adjust the maximum reach/height
of the ascenders on the rope, adjust the effective length of the daisy chains with a carabiner the same
as with the fifi hook; the typical height will be enough to hold the attached ascender in the hand at
nose level. When adjusted to the correct height, the arms need not support much body weight. If the
ascender is too high, you will have difficulty reaching and maintaining a grip on the handle.
(1) Unlike lead climbing, there will be a continuous load on the rope during the cleaning of the
route; this would normally increase the difficulty of removing protection. To make this easier,
as you approach the protection on the ascenders, move the ascenders, one at a time, above the
piece. When your weight is on the rope above the piece, you can easily unclip and remove the
protection.
CAUTION
If both ascenders should fail while ascending the pitch, a serious fall could result. To prevent
this possibility, tie-in short on the rope every 10-20 feet by tying a figure eight loop
and clipping it into the harness with a separate locking carabiner as soon as the ascent is
started. After ascending another 20 feet, repeat this procedure. Do not unclip the previous
figure eight until the new knot is attached to another locking carabiner. Clear each
knot as you unclip it.

Notes: 1. Ensure the loops formed by the short tie-ins do not catch on anything below as you ascend.

2. I f the nature of the rock will cause the “hanging loop” of rope, formed by tying in at the end of the rope,
to get caught as you move upward, do not tie into the end of the rope.
(2) Seconding an aid pitch can be done in a similar fashion as seconding free-climbed pitches. The
second can be belayed from above as the second “climbs” the protection. However, the rope is
unclipped from the protection before the aider/daisy chain is attached.
d.
Seconding Through a Traverse. While leading an aid traverse, the climber is hanging on the protection
placed in front of the current position. If the second were to clean the section by hanging on the rope
while cleaning, the protection will be pulled in more than one direction, possibly resulting in the
protection failing. To make this safer and easier, the second should hang on the protection just as the
leader did. As the second moves to the beginning of the traverse, one ascender/daisy chain/aider
group is removed from the rope and clipped to the protection with a carabiner, (keep the ascenders
attached to the daisy chain/aider group for convenience when the traverse ends). The second will
negotiate the traverse by leapfrogging the daisy chain/aider groups on the next protection just as
the leader did. Cleaning is accomplished by removing the protection; a sit is passed when all weight
is removed from it. This is in effect a self-belay. The second maintains a shorter safety tie-in on the

908 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

rope than for vertical movement to reduce the possibility of a lengthy pendulum if the protection
should pull before intended.

e.
Clean Aid Climbing. Clean aid climbing consists of using protection placed without a hammer or drill
involvement: chocks, SLCDs, hooks, and other protection placed easily by hand. This type of aid
climbing will normally leave no trace of the climb when completed. When climbing the aiders on
clean aid protection, ensure the protection does not “move” from its original position.
(1) Hooks are any device that rests on the rock surface without a camming or gripping action.
Hooks are just what the name implies, a curved piece of hard steel with a hole in one end for
webbing attachment. The hook blade shape will vary from one model to another, some have
curved or notched “blades” to better fit a certain crystal shape on a face placement. These
types of devices, due to their passive application, are only secure while weighted by the
climber.
(2) Some featureless sections of rock can be negotiated with hook use, although bolts can be used.
Hook usage is faster and quieter but the margin of safety is not there unless hooks are alternated
with more active forms of protection. If the last twenty foot section of a route is negotiated with
hooks, a forty foot fall could result.
6-24. Three-Man Climbing Team. Often times a movement on steep terrain will require a team of more
than two climbers, which involves more difficulties. A four-man team (or more) more than doubles the
difficulty found in three men climbing together. A four-man team should be broken down into two groups
of two unless prevented by a severe lack of gear.

a.
Given one rope, a three-man team is at a disadvantage on a steep, belayed climb. It takes at least twice
as long to climb an average length pitch because of the third climber and the extra belaying required.
The distance between belay positions will be halved if only one rope is used because one climber must
tie in at the middle of the rope. Two ropes are recommended for a team of three climbers.
Note: Time and complications will increase when a three-man team uses only one rope. For example: a 100-foot
climb with a 150-foot rope would normally require two belays for two climbers; a 100-foot climb with a 150-foot rope
would require six belays for three climbers.

b. At times a three-man climb may be unavoidable and personnel should be familiar with the procedure.
Although a team of three may choose from many different methods, only two are described
below. If the climb is only one pitch, the methods will vary.
CAUTION
When climbing with a team of three, protected traverses will require additional time. The
equipment used to protect the traverse must be left in place to protect both the second
and third climbers.

(1) The first method can be used when the belay positions are not large enough for three men.
If using one rope, two climbers tie in at each end and the other at the mid point. When using
two ropes, the second will tie in at one end of both ropes, and the other two climbers will each
tie in to the other ends. The most experienced individual is the leader, or number 1 climber.
The second, or number 2 climber, is the stronger of the remaining two and will be the belayer
for both number 1 and number 3. Number 3 will be the last to climb. Although the number 3
climber does no belaying in this method, each climber should be skilled in the belay techniques
required. The sequence for this method (in one pitch increments) is as follows (repeated until
the climb is complete):
(a) Number 1 ascends belayed by number 2. Number 2 belays the leader up the first pitch while
number 3 is simply anchored to the rock for security (unless starting off at ground level) and

Survival in Mountain Terrain 909

manages the rope between himself and number 2. When the leader completes the pitch, he
sets up the next belay and belays number 2 up.

(b) Number 2 ascends belayed by number 1, and cleans the route (except for traverses). Number
2 returns the hardware to the leader and belays him up the next pitch. When the leader
completes this pitch, he again sets up a new belay. When number 2 receives “OFF BELAY”
from the leader, he changes ropes and puts number 3 on belay. He should not have to
change anchor attachments because the position was already aimed for a downward as well
as an upward pull when he belayed the leader.
(c) Number 3 ascends belayed by number 2. When number 3 receives “BELAY ON,” he removes
his anchor and climbs to number 2’s position. When the pitch is completed he secures himself
to one of number 2’s belay anchors. When number 1’s belay is ready, he brings up number
2 while number 3 remains anchored for security. Number 2 again cleans the pitch and
the procedure is continued until the climb is completed.
(d) In this method, number 3 performs no belay function. He climbs when told to do so by number
2. When number 3 is not climbing, he remains anchored to the rock for security. The standard
rope commands are used; however, the number 2 climber may include the trailing climber’s
name or number in the commands to avoid confusion as to who should be climbing.
(e) Normally, only one climber would be climbing at a time; however, the number 3 climber
could ascend a fixed rope to number 2’s belay position using proper ascending technique,
with no effect on the other two members of the team. This would save time for a team of
three, since number 2 would not have to belay number 3 and could be either belaying number
1 to the next belay or climbing to number 1. If number 3 is to ascend a fixed rope to the
next belay position, the rope will be loaded with number 3’s weight, and positioned directly
off the anchors established for the belay. The rope should be located so it does not contact
any sharp edges. The rope to the ascending number 3 could be secured to a separate anchor,
but this would require additional time and gear.
(2) The second method uses either two ropes or a doubled rope, and number 2 and number 3 climb
simultaneously. This requires either a special belay device that accepts two ropes, such as the
tuber type, or with two Munter hitches. The ropes must travel through the belay device(s) without
affecting each other.
(a) As the leader climbs the pitch, he will trail a second rope or will be tied in with a figure eight
in the middle of a doubled rope. The leader reaches the next belay position and establishes
the anchor and then places both remaining climbers on belay. One remaining climber will
start the ascent toward the leader and the other will start when a gap of at least 10 feet is
created between the two climbers. The belayer will have to remain alert for differences in
rope movement and the climbers will have to climb at the same speed. One of the “second”
climbers also cleans the pitch.
(b) Having at least two experienced climbers in this team will also save time. The belayer will
have additional requirements to meet as opposed to having just one second. The possible
force on the anchor will be twice that of one second. The second that is not cleaning the pitch
can climb off route, but staying on route will usually prevent a possible swing if stance is
not maintained.

CHAPTER 5


Sea Survival


Perhaps the most difficult survival situation to be in is sea survival. Short- or long-term survival
depends upon rations and equipment available and your ingenuity. You must be resourceful to
survive.

Water covers about 75 percent of the earth’s surface, with about 70 percent being oceans and seas.
You can assume that you will sometime cross vast expanses of water. There is always the chance that
the plane or ship you are on will become crippled by such hazards as storms, collision, fire, or war.

THE OPEN SEA

As a survivor on the open sea, you will face waves and wind. You may also face extreme heat or cold. To
keep these environmental hazards from becoming serious problems, take precautionary measures as soon
as possible. Use the available resources to protect yourself from the elements and from heat or extreme
cold and humidity.

Protecting yourself from the elements meets only one of your basic needs. You must also be able to obtain
water and food. Satisfying these three basic needs will help prevent serious physical and psychological
problems. However, you must know how to treat health problems that may result from your situation.

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES

Your survival at sea depends upon—

•
Your knowledge of and ability to use the available survival equipment.
•
Your special skills and ability to apply them to cope with the hazards you face.
•
Your will to live.
When you board a ship or aircraft, find out what survival equipment is on board, where it is stowed,
and what it contains. For instance, how many life preservers and lifeboats or rafts are on board? Where are
they located? What type of survival equipment do they have? How much food, water, and medicine do
they contain? How many people are they designed to support?

If you are responsible for other personnel on board, make sure you know where they are and they know
where you are.

DOWN AT SEA

If you are in an aircraft that goes down at sea, take the following actions once you clear the aircraft. Whether
you are in the water or in a raft—

•
Get clear and upwind of the aircraft as soon as possible, but stay in the vicinity until the aircraft
sinks.
•
Get clear of fuel-covered water in case the fuel ignites.
•
Try to find other survivors.
911


912 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

A search for survivors usually takes place around the entire area of and near the crash site. Missing
personnel may be unconscious and floating low in the water. Figure 5-1 illustrates rescue procedures.

The best technique for rescuing personnel from the water is to throw them a life preserver attached to a
line. Another is to send a swimmer (rescuer) from the raft with a line attached to a flotation device that will
support the rescuer’s weight. This device will help conserve a rescuer’s energy while recovering the survivor.
The least acceptable technique is to send an attached swimmer without flotation devices to retrieve a
survivor. In all cases, the rescuer wears a life preserver. A rescuer should not underestimate the strength of
a panic-stricken person in the water. A careful approach can prevent injury to the rescuer.

When the rescuer approaches a survivor in trouble from behind, there is little danger the survivor will
kick, scratch, or grab him. The rescuer swims to a point directly behind the survivor and grasps the life
preserver’s backstrap. The rescuer uses the sidestroke to drag the survivor to the raft.


Figure 5-1: Rescue from Water.


Sea Survival 913

If you are in the water, make your way to a raft. If no rafts are available, try to find a large piece of floating
debris to cling to. Relax; a person who knows how to relax in ocean water is in very little danger of drowning.
The body’s natural buoyancy will keep at least the top of the head above water, but some movement
is needed to keep the face above water.

Floating on your back takes the least energy. Lie on your back in the water, spread your arms and legs,
and arch your back. By controlling your breathing in and out, your face will always be out of the water and
you may even sleep in this position for short periods. Your head will be partially submerged, but your face
will be above water. If you cannot float on your back or if the sea is too rough, float facedown in the water
as shown in Figure 5-2.

The following are the best swimming strokes during a survival situation:

•
Dog paddle. This stroke is excellent when clothed or wearing a life jacket. Although slow in speed, it
requires very little energy.
•
Breaststroke. Use this stroke to swim underwater, through oil or debris, or in rough seas. It is probably
the best stroke for long-range swimming: it allows you to conserve your energy and maintain
a reasonable speed.
•
Sidestroke. It is a good relief stroke because you use only one arm to maintain momentum and buoyancy.
•
Backstroke. This stroke is also an excellent relief stroke. It relieves the muscles that you use for other
strokes. Use it if an underwater explosion is likely.
If you are in an area where surface oil is burning—

•
Discard your shoes and buoyant life preserver.
Note: If you have an uninflated life preserver, keep it.

•
Cover your nose, mouth, and eyes and quickly go underwater.
•
Swim underwater as far as possible before surfacing to breathe.
Figure 5-2: Floating position.


914 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

•
Before surfacing to breathe and while still underwater, use your hands to push burning fluid away
from the area where you wish to surface. Once an area is clear of burning liquid, you can surface
and take a few breaths. Try to face downwind before inhaling.
•
Submerge feet first and continue as above until clear of the flames.
If you are in oil-covered water that is free of fire, hold your head high to keep the oil out of your eyes.
Attach your life preserver to your wrist and then use it as a raft.

If you have a life preserver, you can stay afloat for an indefinite period. In this case, use the “HELP”
body position: Heat Escaping Lessening Posture (HELP). Remain still and assume the fetal position to help
you retain body heat. You lose about 50 percent of your body heat through your head. Therefore, keep
your head out of the water. Other areas of high heat loss are the neck, the sides, and the groin. Figure 5-3
illustrates the HELP position.

If you are in a raft—

•
Check the physical condition of all on board. Give first aid if necessary. Take seasickness pills if
available. The best way to take these pills is to place them under the tongue and let them dissolve.
There are also suppositories or injections against seasickness. Vomiting, whether from seasickness
or other causes, increases the danger of dehydration.
•
Try to salvage all floating equipment—rations; canteens, thermos jugs, and other containers; clothing;
seat cushions; parachutes; and anything else that will be useful to you. Secure the salvaged
items in or to your raft. Make sure the items have no sharp edges that can puncture the raft.
•
If there are other rafts, lash the rafts together so they are about 7.5 meters apart. Be ready to draw
them closer together if you see or hear an aircraft. It is easier for an aircrew to spot rafts that are
close together rather than scattered.
Figure 5-3: HELP position.


Sea Survival 915

•
Remember, rescue at sea is a cooperative effort. Use all available visual or electronic signaling
devices to signal and make contact with rescuers. For example, raise a flag or reflecting material on
an oar as high as possible to attract attention.
•
Locate the emergency radio and get it into operation. Operating instructions are on it. Use the
emergency transceiver only when friendly aircraft are likely to be in the area.
•
Have other signaling devices ready for instant use. If you are in enemy territory, avoid using a signaling
device that will alert the enemy. However, if your situation is desperate, you may have to
signal the enemy for rescue if you are to survive.
•
Check the raft for inflation, leaks, and points of possible chafing. Make sure the main buoyancy
chambers are firm (well rounded) but not overly tight (Figure 5-4). Check inflation regularly. Air
expands with heat; therefore, on hot days, release some air and add air when the weather cools.
•
Decontaminate the raft of all fuel. Petroleum will weaken its surfaces and break down its glued
joints.
•
Throw out the sea anchor, or improvise a drag from the raft’s case, bailing bucket, or a roll of clothing.
A sea anchor helps you stay close to your ditching site, making it easier for searchers to find
you if you have relayed your location. Without a sea anchor, your raft may drift over 160 kilometers
in a day, making it much harder to find you. You can adjust the sea anchor to act as a drag to slow
down the rate of travel with the current, or as a means to travel with the current. You make this
adjustment by opening or closing the sea anchor’s apex. When open, the sea anchor (Figure 5-5)
acts as a drag that keeps you in the general area. When closed, it forms a pocket for the current to
strike and propels the raft in the current’s direction.
Additionally, adjust the sea anchor so that when the raft is on the wave’s crest, the sea anchor is in the
wave’s trough (Figure 5-6).

•
Wrap the sea anchor rope with cloth to prevent its chafing the raft. The anchor also helps to keep
the raft headed into the wind and waves.
•
In stormy water, rig the spray and windshield at once. In a 20-man raft, keep the canopy erected at
all times. Keep your raft as dry as possible. Keep it properly balanced. All personnel should stay
seated, the heaviest one in the center.
Figure 5-4: Inflating raft.


916 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-5: Sea anchor.


Figure 5-6: Deployment of the sea anchor.

•
Calmly consider all aspects of your situation and determine what you and your companions must
do to survive. Inventory all equipment, food, and water. Waterproof items that salt water may
affect. These include compasses, watches, sextant, matches, and lighters. Ration food and water.
•
Assign a duty position to each person: for example, water collector, food collector, lookout, radio
operator, signaler, and water bailers. Note: Lookout duty should not exceed 2 hours. Keep in mind and
remind others that cooperation is one of the keys to survival.
•
Keep a log. Record the navigator’s last fix, the time of ditching, the names and physical condition
of personnel, and the ration schedule. Also record the winds, weather, direction of swells, times of
sunrise and sunset, and other navigational data.
•
If you are down in unfriendly waters, take special security measures to avoid detection. Do not travel
in the daytime. Throw out the sea anchor and wait for nightfall before paddling or hoisting sail.
Keep low in the raft; stay covered with the blue side of the camouflage cloth up. Be sure a passing

Sea Survival 917

ship or aircraft is friendly or neutral before trying to attract its attention. If the enemy detects you
and you are close to capture, destroy the log book, radio, navigation equipment, maps, signaling
equipment, and firearms. Jump overboard and submerge if the enemy starts strafing.

•
Decide whether to stay in position or to travel. Ask yourself, “How much information was signaled
before the accident? Is your position known to rescuers? Do you know it yourself? Is the weather
favorable for a search? Are other ships or aircraft likely to pass your present position? How many
days supply of food and water do you have?”
COLD WEATHER CONSIDERATIONS

If you are in a cold climate—

•
Put on an antiexposure suit. If unavailable, put on any extra clothing available. Keep clothes loose
and comfortable.
•
Take care not to snag the raft with shoes or sharp objects. Keep the repair kit where you can readily
reach it.
•
Rig a windbreak, spray shield, and canopy.
•
Try to keep the floor of the raft dry. Cover it with canvas or cloth for insulation.
•
Huddle with others to keep warm, moving enough to keep the blood circulating. Spread an extra
tarpaulin, sail, or parachute over the group.
•
Give extra rations, if available, to men suffering from exposure to cold.
The greatest problem you face when submerged in cold water is death due to hypothermia. When you
are immersed in cold water, hypothermia occurs rapidly due to the decreased insulating quality of wet
clothing and the result of water displacing the layer of still air that normally surrounds the body. The rate
of heat exchange in water is about 25 times greater than it is in air of the same temperature. Table 5-1 lists
life expectancy times for immersion in water.

Your best protection against the effects of cold water is to get into the life raft, stay dry, and insulate
your body from the cold surface of the bottom of the raft. If these actions are not possible, wearing an
antiexposure suit will extend your life expectancy considerably. Remember, keep your head and neck out
of the water and well insulated from the cold water’s effects when the temperature is below 19 degrees C.
Wearing life preservers increases the predicted survival time as body position in the water increases the
chance of survival.

HOT WEATHER CONSIDERATIONS

If you are in a hot climate—

•
Rig a sunshade or canopy. Leave enough space for ventilation.
•
Cover your skin, where possible, to protect it from sunburn. Use sunburn cream, if available, on all
exposed skin. Your eyelids, the back of your ears, and the skin under your chin sunburn easily.
RAFT PROCEDURES

Most of the rafts in the U.S. Army and Air Force inventories can satisfy the needs for personal protection,
mode of travel, and evasion and camouflage.

Note: Before boarding any raft, remove and tether (attach) your life preserver to yourself or the raft. Ensure there
are no other metallic or sharp objects on your clothing or equipment that could damage the raft. After boarding the
raft, don your life preserver again.

One-Man Raft. The one-man raft has a main cell inflation. If the CO2 bottle should malfunction or if the
raft develops a leak, you can inflate it by mouth.


918 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Table 5-1: Life expectancy times for immersion in water.


The spray shield acts as a shelter from the cold, wind, and water. In some cases, this shield serves as
insulation. The raft’s insulated bottom limits the conduction of cold thereby protecting you from hypothermia
(Figure 5-7).

You can travel more effectively by inflating or deflating the raft to take advantage of the wind or current.
You can use the spray shield as a sail while the ballast buckets serve to increase drag in the water. You may
use the sea anchor to control the raft’s speed and direction.

There are rafts developed for use in tactical areas that are black. These rafts blend with the sea’s background.
You can further modify these rafts for evasion by partially deflating them to obtain a lower profile.

A lanyard connects the one-man raft to a parachutist (survivor) landing in the water. You (the survivor)
inflate it upon landing. You do not swim to the raft, but pull it to you via the lanyard. The raft may hit the
water upside down, but you can right it by approaching the side to which the bottle is attached and flipping
the raft over. The spray shield must be in the raft to expose the boarding handles. Follow the steps
outlined in the note under raft procedures above when boarding the raft (Figure 5-8).

If you have an arm injury, the best way to board is by turning your back to the small end of the raft,
pushing the raft under your buttocks, and lying back. Another way to board the raft is to push down on its
small end until one knee is inside and lie forward (Figure 5-9).


Figure 5-7: One-man raft with spray shield.


Sea Survival 919


Figure 5-8: Boarding the one-man raft.

In rough seas, it may be easier for you to grasp the small end of the raft and, in a prone position, to kick
and pull yourself into the raft. When you are lying face down in the raft, deploy and adjust the sea anchor.
To sit upright, you may have to disconnect one side of the seat kit and roll to that side. Then you adjust the
spray shield. There are two variations of the one-man raft; the improved model incorporates an inflatable
spray shield and floor that provide additional insulation. The spray shield helps keep you dry and warm
in cold oceans and protects you from the sun in the hot climates (Figure 5-10).

Seven-Man Raft. Some multiplace aircraft carry the seven-man raft. It is a component of the survival drop
kit (Figure 5-11). This raft may inflate upside down and require you to right the raft before boarding.
Always work from the bottle side to prevent injury if the raft turns over. Facing into the wind, the wind
provides additional help in righting the raft. Use the handles on the inside bottom of the raft for boarding
(Figure 5-12).

Use the boarding ramp if someone holds down the raft’s opposite side. If you don’t have help, again
work from the bottle side with the wind at your back to help hold down the raft. Follow the steps outlined
in the note under raft procedures above. Then grasp an oarlock and boarding handle, kick your legs to get
your body prone on the water, and then kick and pull yourself into the raft. If you are weak or injured, you
may partially deflate the raft to make boarding easier (Figure 5-13).

Use the hand pump to keep the buoyancy chambers and cross seat firm. Never overinflate the raft.

Twenty- or Twenty-Five-Man Rafts. You may find 20- or 25-man rafts in multiplace aircraft (Figures 5-14
and 5-15). You will find them in accessible areas of the fuselage or in raft compartments. Some may be
automatically deployed from the cockpit, while others may need manual deployment. No matter how the
raft lands in the water, it is ready for boarding. A lanyard connects the accessory kit to the raft and you
retrieve the kit by hand. You must manually inflate the center chamber with the hand pump. Board the
20- or 25-man raft from the aircraft, if possible. If not, board in the following manner:


Figure 5-9: Boarding the one-man raft (other methods).


920 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-10: One-man raft with spray shield inflated.


Figure 5-11: Seven-man raft.


Sea Survival 921


Figure 5-12: Method of righting craft.


Figure 5-13: Method of barding seven-man raft.

•
Approach the lower boarding ramp.
•
Remove your life preserver and tether it to yourself so that it trails behind you.
•
Grasp the boarding handles and kick your legs to get your body into a prone position on the water’s
surface; then kick and pull until you are inside the raft.
An incompletely inflated raft will make boarding easier. Approach the intersection of the raft and ramp,
grasp the upper boarding handle, and swing one leg onto the center of the ramp, as in mounting a horse
(Figure 5-16).

Immediately tighten the equalizer clamp upon entering the raft to prevent deflating the entire raft in
case of a puncture (Figure 5-17).


922 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-14: Twenty-man raft.

Use the pump to keep these rafts’ chambers and center ring firm. They should be well rounded but not
overly tight.

SAILING RAFTS

Rafts do not have keels, therefore, you can’t sail them into the wind. However, anyone can sail a raft downwind.
You can successfully sail multiplace (except 20- to 25-man) rafts 10 degrees off from the direction of
the wind. Do not try to sail the raft unless land is near. If you decide to sail and the wind is blowing toward a
desired destination, fully inflate the raft, sit high, take in the sea anchor, rig a sail, and use an oar as a rudder.

In a multiplace (except 20- to 25-man) raft, erect a square sail in the bow using the oars and their extensions
as the mast and crossbar (Figure 5-18). You may use a waterproof tarpaulin or parachute material for
the sail.

If the raft has no regular mast socket and step, erect the mast by tying it securely to the front cross seat
using braces. Pad the bottom of the mast to prevent it from chafing or punching a hole through the floor,
whether or not there is a socket. The heel of a shoe, with the toe wedged under the seat, makes a good
improvised mast step. Do not secure the corners of the lower edge of the sail. Hold the lines attached to the
corners with your hands so that a gust of wind will not rip the sail, break the mast, or capsize the raft.

Take every precaution to prevent the raft from turning over. In rough weather, keep the sea anchor away
from the bow. Have the passengers sit low in the raft, with their weight distributed to hold the upwind side
down. To prevent falling out, they should also avoid sitting on the sides of the raft or standing up. Avoid
sudden movements without warning the other passengers. When the sea anchor is not in use, tie it to the
raft and stow it in such a manner that it will hold immediately if the raft capsizes.


Sea Survival 923


Figure 5-15: Twenty-five-man raft.

WATER

Water is your most important need. With it alone, you can live for ten days or longer, depending on your
will to live. When drinking water, moisten your lips, tongue, and throat before swallowing.

Short Water Rations. When you have a limited water supply and you can’t replace it by chemical or
mechanical means, use the water efficiently. Protect freshwater supplies from seawater contamination.
Keep your body well shaded, both from overhead sun and from reflection off the sea surface. Allow ventilation
of air; dampen your clothes during the hottest part of the day. Do not exert yourself. Relax and sleep
when possible. Fix your daily water ration after considering the amount of water you have, the output of
solar stills and desalting kit, and the number and physical condition of your party.

If you don’t have water, don’t eat. If your water ration is two liters or more per day, eat any part of your
ration or any additional food that you may catch, such as birds, fish, shrimp. Anxiety and the life raft’s
motion may cause nausea. If you eat when nauseated, you may lose your food immediately. If nauseated,
rest and relax as much as you can, and take only water.

To reduce your loss of water through perspiration, soak your clothes in the sea and wring them out
before putting them on again. Don’t overdo this during hot days when no canopy or sun shield is available.
This is a trade-off between cooling and saltwater boils and rashes that will result.

Be careful not to get the bottom of the raft wet.

Watch the clouds and be ready for any chance of showers. Keep the tarpaulin handy for catching water.
If it is encrusted with dried salt, wash it in seawater. Normally, a small amount of seawater mixed with
rain will hardly be noticeable and will not cause any physical reaction. In rough seas you cannot get uncontaminated
fresh water.

At night, secure the tarpaulin like a sunshade, and turn up its edges to collect dew. It is also possible to collect
dew along the sides of the raft using a sponge or cloth. When it rains, drink as much as you can hold.


924 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-16: Boarding the 20-man raft.


Figure 5-17: Immediate action-multiplace raft.

Solar Still. When solar stills are available, read the instructions and set them up immediately. Use as many
stills as possible, depending on the number of men in the raft and the amount of sunlight available. Secure
solar stills to the raft with care. This type of solar still only works on flat, calm seas.

Desalting Kits. When desalting kits are available in addition to solar stills, use them only for immediate
water needs or during long overcast periods when you cannot use solar stills. In any event, keep desalting
kits and emergency water stores for periods when you cannot use solar stills or catch rainwater.

Water from Fish. Drink the aqueous fluid found along the spine and in the eyes of large fish. Carefully cut
the fish in half to get the fluid along the spine and suck the eye. If you are so short of water that you need


Sea Survival 925


Figure 5-18: Sail construction.

to do this, then do not drink any of the other body fluids. These other fluids are rich in protein and fat and
will use up more of your reserve water in digestion than they supply.

Sea Ice. In arctic waters, use old sea ice for water. This ice is bluish, has rounded corners, and splinters easily.
It is nearly free of salt. New ice is gray, milky, hard, and salty. Water from icebergs is fresh, but icebergs
are dangerous to approach. Use them as a source of water only in emergencies.

Sleep and rest are the best ways of enduring periods of reduced water and food intake. However, make
sure that you have enough shade when napping during the day. If the sea is rough, tie yourself to the raft,
close any cover, and ride out the storm as best you can. Relax is the keyword—at least try to relax.

FOOD PROCUREMENT

In the open sea, fish will be the main food source. There are some poisonous and dangerous ocean fish, but, in
general, when out of sight of land, fish are safe to eat. Nearer the shore there are fish that are both dangerous
and poisonous to eat. There are some fish, such as the red snapper and barracuda, that are normally edible
but poisonous when taken from the waters of atolls and reefs. Flying fish will even jump into your raft!

Fish. When fishing, do not handle the fishing line with bare hands and never wrap it around your hands
or tie it to a life raft. The salt that adheres to it can make it a sharp cutting edge, an edge dangerous both to


926 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


the raft and your hands. Wear gloves, if they are available, or use a cloth to handle fish and to avoid injury
from sharp fins and gill covers.

In warm regions, gut and bleed fish immediately after catching them. Cut fish that you do not eat immediately
into thin, narrow strips and hang them to dry. A well-dried fish stays edible for several days. Fish
not cleaned and dried may spoil in half a day. Fish with dark meat are very prone to decomposition. If you
do not eat them all immediately, do not eat any of the leftovers. Use the leftovers for bait.

Never eat fish that have pale, shiny gills, sunken eyes, flabby skin and flesh, or an unpleasant odor. Good
fish show the opposite characteristics. Sea fish have a saltwater or clean fishy odor. Do not confuse eels
with sea snakes that have an obviously scaly body and strongly compressed, paddle-shaped tail. Both eels
and sea snakes are edible, but you must handle the latter with care because of their poisonous bites. The
heart, blood, intestinal wall, and liver of most fish are edible. Cook the intestines. Also edible are the partly
digested smaller fish that you may find in the stomachs of large fish. In addition, sea turtles are edible.

Shark meat is a good source of food whether raw, dried, or cooked. Shark meat spoils very rapidly due to
the high concentration of urea in the blood, therefore, bleed it immediately and soak it in several changes of
water. People prefer some shark species over others. Consider them all edible except the Greenland shark
whose flesh contains high quantities of vitamin A. Do not eat the livers, due to high vitamin A content.

Fishing Aids. You can use different materials to make fishing aids as described in the following paragraphs:


•
Fishing line. Use pieces of tarpaulin or canvas. Unravel the threads and tie them together in short
lengths in groups of three or more threads. Shoelaces and parachute suspension line also work well.
•
Fish hooks. No survivor at sea should be without fishing equipment but if you are, improvise hooks
as shown in Part IV, Chapter 2.
•
Fish lures. You can fashion lures by attaching a double hook to any shiny piece of metal.
•
Grapple. Use grapples to hook seaweed. You may shake crabs, shrimp, or small fish out of the
seaweed. These you may eat or use for bait. You may eat seaweed itself, but only when you have
plenty of drinking water. Improvise grapples from wood. Use a heavy piece of wood as the main
shaft, and lash three smaller pieces to the shaft as grapples.
•
Bait. You can use small fish as bait for larger ones. Scoop the small fish up with a net. If you don’t
have a net, make one from cloth of some type. Hold the net under the water and scoop upward. Use
all the guts from birds and fish for bait. When using bait, try to keep it moving in the water to give
it the appearance of being alive.
Helpful Fishing Hints. Your fishing should be successful if you remember the following important
hints:

•
Be extremely careful with fish that have teeth and spines.
•
Cut a large fish loose rather than risk capsizing the raft. Try to catch small rather than large fish.

Sea Survival927

•
Do not puncture your raft with hooks or other sharp instruments.
•
Do not fish when large sharks are in the area.
•
Watch for schools of fish; try to move close to these schools.
•
Fish at night using a light. The light attracts fish.
•
In the daytime, shade attracts some fish. You may find them under your raft.
•
Improvise a spear by tying a knife to an oar blade. This spear can help you catch larger fish, but you
must get them into the raft quickly or they will slip off the blade. Also, tie the knife very securely or
you may lose it.
•
Always take care of your fishing equipment. Dry your fishing lines, clean and sharpen the hooks,
and do not allow the hooks to stick into the fishing lines.
Birds. As stated in Part IV, Chapter 2, all birds are edible. Eat any birds you can catch. Sometimes birds
may land on your raft, but usually they are cautious. You may be able to attract some birds by towing a
bright piece of metal behind the raft. This will bring the bird within shooting range, provided you have a
firearm.

If a bird lands within your reach, you may be able to catch it. If the birds do not land close enough or
land on the other end of the raft, you may be able to catch them with a bird noose. Bait the center of the
noose and wait for the bird to land. When the bird’s feet are in the center of the noose, pull it tight.

Use all parts of the bird. Use the feathers for insulation, the entrails and feet for bait, and so on. Use your
imagination.

Medical Problems Associated With Sea Survival. At sea, you may become seasick, get saltwater sores, or
face some of the same medical problems that occur on land, such as dehydration or sunburn. These problems
can become critical if left untreated.

Seasickness. Seasickness is the nausea and vomiting caused by the motion of the raft. It can result in—

•
Extreme fluid loss and exhaustion.
•
Loss of the will to survive.
•
Others becoming seasick.
•
Attraction of sharks to the raft.
•
Unclean conditions.
To treat seasickness—

•
Wash both the patient and the raft to remove the sight and odor of vomit.
•
Keep the patient from eating food until his nausea is gone.
•
Have the patient lie down and rest.
•
Give the patient seasickness pills if available. If the patient is unable to take the pills orally, insert
them rectally for absorption by the body.
Note: Some survivors have said that erecting a canopy or using the horizon as a focal point helped overcome seasickness.
Others have said that swimming alongside the raft for short periods helped, but extreme care must be taken
if swimming.

Saltwater Sores. These sores result from a break in skin exposed to saltwater for an extended period. The
sores may form scabs and pus. Do not open or drain. Flush the sores with fresh water, if available, and
allow to dry. Apply an antiseptic, if available.

Immersion Rot, Frostbite, and Hypothermia. These problems are similar to those encountered in cold
weather environments. Symptoms and treatment are the same as covered in Chapter 3, “Cold Weather
Survival.”


928 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Blindness/Headache. If flame, smoke, or other contaminants get in the eyes, flush them immediately with
salt water, then with fresh water, if available. Apply ointment, if available. Bandage both eyes 18 to 24
hours, or longer if damage is severe. If the glare from the sky and water causes your eyes to become bloodshot
and inflamed, bandage them lightly. Try to prevent this problem by wearing sunglasses. Improvise
sunglasses if necessary.

Constipation. This condition is a common problem on a raft. Do not take a laxative, as this will cause further
dehydration. Exercise as much as possible and drink an adequate amount of water, if available.

Difficult Urination. This problem is not unusual and is due mainly to dehydration. It is best not to treat it,
as it could cause further dehydration.

Sunburn. Sunburn is a serious problem in sea survival. Try to prevent sunburn by staying in shade and
keeping your head and skin covered. Use cream or Chap Stick from your first aid kit. Remember, reflection
from the water also causes sunburn.

SHARKS

Whether you are in the water or in a boat or raft, you may see many types of sea life around you. Some
may be more dangerous than others. Generally, sharks are the greatest danger to you. Other animals such
as whales, porpoises, and stingrays may look dangerous, but really pose little threat in the open sea.

Of the many hundreds of shark species, only about 20 species are known to attack man. The most dangerous
are the great white shark, the hammerhead, the make, and the tiger shark. Other sharks known to attack
man include the gray, blue, lemon, sand, nurse, bull, and oceanic white tip sharks. Consider any shark
longer than 1 meter dangerous.

There are sharks in all oceans and seas of the world. While many live and feed in the depths of the sea,
others hunt near the surface. The sharks living near the surface are the ones you will most likely see. Their
dorsal fins frequently project above the water. Sharks in the tropical and subtropical seas are far more
aggressive than those in temperate waters.

All sharks are basically eating machines. Their normal diet is live animals of any type, and they will
strike at injured or helpless animals. Sight, smell, or sound may guide them to their prey. Sharks have an
acute sense of smell and the smell of blood in the water excites them. They are also very sensitive to any
abnormal vibrations in the water. The struggles of a wounded animal or swimmer, underwater explosions,
or even a fish struggling on a fish line will attract a shark.

Sharks can bite from almost any position; they do not have to turn on their side to bite. The jaws of
some of the larger sharks are so far forward that they can bite floating objects easily without twisting to
the side.

Sharks may hunt alone, but most reports of attacks cite more than one shark present. The smaller sharks
tend to travel in schools and attack in mass. Whenever one of the sharks finds a victim, the other sharks
will quickly join it. Sharks will eat a wounded shark as quickly as their prey.

Sharks feed at all hours of the day and night. Most reported shark contacts and attacks were during daylight,
and many of these have been in the late afternoon. Some of the measures that you can take to protect
yourself against sharks when you are in the water are—

•
Stay with other swimmers. A group can maintain a 360-degree watch. A group can either frighten or
fight off sharks better than one man.
•
Always watch for sharks. Keep all your clothing on, to include your shoes. Historically, sharks have
attacked the unclothed men in groups first, mainly in the feet. Clothing also protects against abrasions
should the shark brush against you.
•
Avoid urinating. If you must, only do so in small amounts. Let it dissipate between discharges. If
you must defecate, do so in small amounts and throw it as far away from you as possible. Do the
same if you must vomit.

Sea Survival 929

If a shark attack is imminent while you are in the water, splash and yell just enough to keep the shark at
bay. Sometimes yelling underwater or slapping the water repeatedly will scare the shark away. Conserve
your strength for fighting in case the shark attacks.

If attacked, kick and strike the shark. Hit the shark on the gills or eyes if possible. If you hit the shark on
the nose, you may injure your hand if it glances off and hits its teeth.

When you are in a raft and see sharks—

•
Do not fish. If you have hooked a fish, let it go. Do not clean fish in the water.
•
Do not throw garbage overboard.
•
Do not let your arms, legs, or equipment hang in the water.
•
Keep quiet and do not move around.
•
Dispose of all dead as soon as possible. If there are many sharks in the area, conduct the disposal at
night.
When you are in a raft and a shark attack is imminent, hit the shark with anything you have, except your
hands. You will do more damage to your hands than the shark. If you strike with an oar, be careful not to
lose or break it.

DETECTING LAND

You should watch carefully for any signs of land. There are many indicators that land is near.

A fixed cumulus cloud in a clear sky or in a sky where all other clouds are moving often hovers over or
slightly downwind from an island.

In the tropics, the reflection of sunlight from shallow lagoons or shelves of coral reefs often causes a
greenish tint in the sky.

In the arctic, light-colored reflections on clouds often indicate ice fields or snow-covered land. These
reflections are quite different from the dark gray ones caused by open water.

Deep water is dark green or dark blue. Lighter color indicates shallow water, which may mean land is
near.

At night, or in fog, mist, or rain, you may detect land by odors and sounds. The musty odor of mangrove
swamps and mud flats carry a long way. You hear the roar of surf long before you see the surf. The continued
cries of seabirds coming from one direction indicate their roosting place on nearby land.

There usually are more birds near land than over the open sea. The direction from which flocks fly at
dawn and to which they fly at dusk may indicate the direction of land. During the day, birds are searching
for food and the direction of flight has no significance.

Mirages occur at any latitude, but they are more likely in the tropics, especially during the middle
of the day. Be careful not to mistake a mirage for nearby land. A mirage disappears or its appearance
and elevation change when viewed from slightly different heights.

You may be able to detect land by the pattern of the waves (refracted) as they approach land (Figure 5-19).
By traveling with the waves and parallel to the slightly turbulent area marked “X” on the illustration, you
should reach land.

RAFTING OR BEACHING TECHNIQUES

Once you have found land, you must get ashore safely. To raft ashore, you can usually use the one-man raft
without danger. However, going ashore in a strong surf is dangerous. Take your time. Select your landing
point carefully.

Try not to land when the sun is low and straight in front of you. Try to land on the lee side of an island
or on a point of land jutting out into the water. Keep your eyes open for gaps in the surf line, and head for
them. Avoid coral reefs and rocky cliffs. There are no coral reefs near the mouths of freshwater streams.


930 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-19: Wave patterns about an island.

Avoid rip currents or strong tidal currents that may carry you far out to sea. Either signal ashore for help
or sail around and look for a sloping beach where the surf is gentle.

If you have to go through the surf to reach shore, take down the mast. Keep your clothes and shoes on to
avoid severe cuts. Adjust and inflate your life vest. Trail the sea anchor over the stern using as much line as
you have. Use the oars or paddles and constantly adjust the sea anchor to keep a strain on the anchor line.
These actions will keep the raft pointed toward shore and prevent the sea from throwing the stern around
and capsizing you. Use the oars or paddles to help ride in on the seaward side of a large wave.

The surf may be irregular and velocity may vary, so modify your procedure as conditions demand. A
good method of getting through the surf is to have half the men sit on one side of the raft, half on the other,
facing away from each other. When a heavy sea bears down, half should row (pull) toward the sea until the
crest passes; then the other half should row (pull) toward the shore until the next heavy sea comes along.

Against a strong wind and heavy surf, the raft must have all possible speed to pass rapidly through the
oncoming crest to avoid being turned broadside or thrown end over end. If possible, avoid meeting a large
wave at the moment it breaks.

If in a medium surf with no wind or offshore wind, keep the raft from passing over a wave so rapidly
that it drops suddenly after topping the crest. If the raft turns over in the surf, try to grab hold of it and
ride it in.

As the raft nears the beach, ride in on the crest of a large wave. Paddle or row hard and ride in to the beach
as far as you can. Do not jump out of the raft until it has grounded, then quickly get out and beach it.

If you have a choice, do not land at night. If you have reason to believe that people live on the shore, lay
away from the beach, signal, and wait for the inhabitants to come out and bring you in.

If you encounter sea ice, land only on large, stable floes. Avoid icebergs that may capsize and small
floes or those obviously disintegrating. Use oars and hands to keep the raft from rubbing on the edge of
the ice. Take the raft out of the water and store it well back from the floe’s edge. You may be able to use it
for shelter. Keep the raft inflated and ready for use. Any floe may break up without warning.

SWIMMING ASHORE

If rafting ashore is not possible and you have to swim, wear your shoes and at least one thickness of clothing.
Use the sidestroke or breaststroke to conserve strength.

If the surf is moderate, ride in on the back of a small wave by swimming forward with it. Dive to a shallow
depth to end the ride just before the wave breaks.


Sea Survival 931

In high surf, swim toward shore in the trough between waves. When the seaward wave approaches, face
it and submerge. After it passes, work toward shore in the next trough. If caught in the undertow of a large
wave, push off the bottom or swim to the surface and proceed toward shore as above.

If you must land on a rocky shore, look for a place where the waves rush up onto the rocks. Avoid
places where the waves explode with a high, white spray. Swim slowly when making your approach.
You will need your strength to hold on to the rocks. You should be fully clothed and wear shoes to reduce
injury.

After selecting your landing point, advance behind a large wave into the breakers. Face toward shore
and take a sitting position with your feet in front, 60 to 90 centimeters (2 or 3 feet) lower than your
head. This position will let your feet absorb the shock when you land or strike submerged boulders
or reefs. If you do not reach shore behind the wave you picked, swim with your hands only. As the
next wave approaches, take a sitting position with your feet forward. Repeat the procedure until you
land.

Water is quieter in the lee of a heavy growth of seaweed. Take advantage of such growth. Do not swim
through the seaweed; crawl over the top by grasping the vegetation with overhand movements.

Cross a rocky or coral reef as you would land on a rocky shore. Keep your feet close together and your
knees slightly bent in a relaxed sitting posture to cushion the blows against the coral.

PICKUP OR RESCUE

On sighting rescue craft approaching for pickup (boat, ship, conventional aircraft, or helicopter),
quickly clear any lines (fishing lines, desalting kit lines) or other gear that could cause entanglement
during rescue. Secure all loose items in the raft. Take down canopies and sails to ensure a safer pickup.
After securing all items, put on your helmet, if available. Fully inflate your life preserver. Remain in the
raft, unless otherwise instructed, and remove all equipment except the preservers. If possible, you will
receive help from rescue personnel lowered into the water. Remember, follow all instructions given by
the rescue personnel.

• If the helicopter recovery is unassisted, do the following before pickup:
• Secure all the loose equipment in the raft, accessory bag, or in pockets.
• Deploy the sea anchor, stability bags, and accessory bag.
• Partially deflate the raft and fill it with water.
• Unsnap the survival kit container from the parachute harness.
• Grasp the raft handhold and roll out of the raft.
• Allow the recovery device or the cable to ground out on the water’s surface.
• Maintain the handhold until the recovery device is in your other hand.
• Mount the recovery device, avoiding entanglement with the raft.
• Signal the hoist operator for pickup.
SEASHORES

Search planes or ships do not always spot a drifting raft or swimmer. You may have to land along the coast
before being rescued. Surviving along the seashore is different from open sea survival. Food and water are
more abundant and shelter is obviously easier to locate and construct.

If you are in friendly territory and decide to travel, it is better to move along the coast than to go inland.
Do not leave the coast except to avoid obstacles (swamps and cliffs) or unless you find a trail that you know
leads to human habitation.

In time of war, remember that the enemy patrols most coastlines. These patrols may cause problems
for you if you land on a hostile shore. You will have extremely limited travel options in this situation.
Avoid all contact with other humans, and make every effort to cover all tracks you leave on the
shore.


932 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

SPECIAL HEALTH HAZARDS

Coral, poisonous and aggressive fish, crocodiles, sea urchins, sea biscuits, sponges, anemones, and tides
and undertow pose special health hazards.

Coral. Coral, dead or alive, can inflict painful cuts. There are hundreds of water hazards that can cause
deep puncture wounds, severe bleeding, and the danger of infection. Clean all coral cuts thoroughly. Do
not use iodine to disinfect any coral cuts. Some coral polyps feed on iodine and may grow inside your flesh
if you use iodine.

Poisonous Fish. Many reef fish have toxic flesh. For some species, the flesh is always poisonous, for other
species, only at certain times of the year. The poisons are present in all parts of the fish, but especially in
the liver, intestines, and eggs.

Fish toxins are water soluble—no amount of cooking will neutralize them. They are tasteless, therefore
the standard edibility tests are useless. Birds are least susceptible to the poisons. Therefore, do not think
that because a bird can eat a fish, it is a safe species for you to eat.

The toxins will produce a numbness of the lips, tongue, toes, and tips of the fingers, severe itching, and
a clear reversal of temperature sensations. Cold items appear hot and hot items cold. There will probably
also be nausea, vomiting, loss of speech, dizziness, and a paralysis that eventually brings death.

In addition to fish with poisonous flesh, there are those that are dangerous to touch. Many stingrays
have a poisonous barb in their tail. There are also species that can deliver an electric shock. Some reef fish,
such as stonefish and toadfish, have venomous spines that can cause very painful although seldom fatal
injuries. The venom from these spines causes a burning sensation or even an agonizing pain that is out of
proportion to the apparent severity of the wound. Jellyfish, while not usually fatal, can inflict a very painful
sting if it touches you with its tentacles. See Part IV, Chapter 5 for details on particularly dangerous fish
of the sea and seashore.

Aggressive Fish. You should also avoid some ferocious fish. The bold and inquisitive barracuda has attacked
men wearing shiny objects. It may charge lights or shiny objects at night. The sea bass, which can grow to

1.7 meters, is another fish to avoid. The moray eel, which has many sharp teeth and grows to 1.5 meters,
can also be aggressive if disturbed.
Sea Snakes. Sea snakes are venomous and sometimes found in mid ocean. They are unlikely to bite unless
provoked. Avoid them.

Crocodiles. Crocodiles inhabit tropical saltwater bays and mangrove-bordered estuaries and range up to
65 kilometers into the open sea. Few remain near inhabited areas. You commonly find crocodiles in the
remote areas of the East Indies and Southeast Asia. Consider specimens over 1 meter long dangerous, especially
females guarding their nests. Crocodile meat is an excellent source of food when available.

Sea Urchins, Sea Biscuits, Sponges, and Anemones. These animals can cause extreme, though seldom fatal,
pain. Usually found in tropical shallow water near coral formations, sea urchins resemble small, round
porcupines. If stepped on, they slip fine needles of lime or silica into the skin, where they break off and
fester. If possible, remove the spines and treat the injury for infection. The other animals mentioned inflict
injury similarly.

Tides and Undertow. These are another hazard to contend with. If caught in a large wave’s undertow, push
off the bottom or swim to the surface and proceed shoreward in a trough between waves. Do not fight
against the pull of the undertow. Swim with it or perpendicular to it until it loses strength, then swim for
shore.

Food. Obtaining food along a seashore should not present a problem. There are many types of seaweed
and other plants and animal life you can easily find and eat. See Part IV, Chapters 2 and 6 for more information.



Sea Survival 933

Mollusks. Mussels, limpets, clams, sea snails, octopuses, squids, and sea slugs are all edible. Shellfish will
usually supply most of the protein eaten by coastal survivors. Avoid the blue-ringed octopus and cone
shells (described in Part IV, Chapter 5). Also beware of “red tides” that make mollusks poisonous. Apply
the edibility test on each species before eating.

Worms. Coastal worms are generally edible, but it is better to use them for fish bait. Avoid bristle worms
that look like fuzzy caterpillars. Also avoid tubeworms that have sharp-edged tubes. Arrow worms, alias
amphioxus, are not true worms. You find them in the sand and are excellent either fresh or dried.

Crabs, Lobsters, and Barnacles. These animals are seldom dangerous to man and are an excellent food
source. The pincers of larger crabs or lobsters can crush a man’s finger. Many species have spines on their
shells, making it preferable to wear gloves when catching them. Barnacles can cause scrapes or cuts and are
difficult to detach from their anchor, but the larger species are an excellent food source.

Sea Urchins. These are common and can cause painful injuries when stepped on or touched. They are also
a good source of food. Handle them with gloves, and remove all spines.

Sea Cucumbers. This animal is an important food source in the Indo-Pacific regions. Use them whole after
evisceration or remove the five muscular strips that run the length of its body. Eat them smoked, pickled,
or cooked.


CHAPTER 6


Water Crossings


In a survival situation, you may have to cross a water obstacle. It may be in the form of a river, a stream, a lake, a bog,
quicksand, quagmire, or muskeg. Even in the desert, flash floods occur, making streams an obstacle. Whatever it is,
you need to know how to cross it safely.

RIVERS AND STREAMS

You can apply almost every description to rivers and streams. They may be shallow or deep, slow or fast
moving, narrow or wide. Before you try to cross a river or stream, develop a good plan.

Your first step is to look for a high place from which you can get a good view of the river or stream. From
this place, you can look for a place to cross. If there is no high place, climb a tree. Good crossing locations
include—

•
A level stretch where it breaks into several channels. Two or three narrow channels are usually
easier to cross than a wide river.
•
A shallow bank or sandbar. If possible, select a point upstream from the bank or sandbar so that the
current will carry you to it if you lose your footing.
•
A course across the river that leads downstream so that you will cross the current at about a
45-degree angle.
The following areas possess potential hazards; avoid them, if possible:

•
Obstacles on the opposite side of the river that might hinder your travel. Try to select the spot from which
travel will be the safest and easiest.
•
A ledge of rocks that crosses the river. This often indicates dangerous rapids or canyons.
•
A deep or rapid waterfall or a deep channel. Never try to ford a stream directly above or even close to
such hazards.
•
Rocky places. You may sustain serious injuries from slipping or falling on rocks. Usually, submerged
rocks are very slick, making balance extremely difficult. An occasional rock that breaks the current,
however, may help you.
•
An estuary of a river. An estuary is normally wide, has strong currents, and is subject to tides. These
tides can influence some rivers many kilometers from their mouths. Go back upstream to an easier
crossing site.
•
Eddies. An eddy can produce a powerful backward pull downstream of the obstruction causing the
eddy and pull you under the surface.
The depth of a fordable river or stream is no deterrent if you can keep your footing. In fact, deep water
sometimes runs more slowly and is therefore safer than fast-moving shallow water. You can always dry
your clothes later, or if necessary, you can make a raft to carry your clothing and equipment across the
river.

You must not try to swim or wade across a stream or river when the water is at very low temperatures.
This swim could be fatal. Try to make a raft of some type. Wade across if you can get only your feet wet.
Dry them vigorously as soon as you reach the other bank.

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936 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

RAPIDS

If necessary, you can safely cross a deep, swift river or rapids. To swim across a deep, swift river, swim
with the current, never fight it. Try to keep your body horizontal to the water. This will reduce the danger
of being pulled under.

In fast, shallow rapids, lie on your back, feet pointing downstream, finning your hands alongside your
hips. This action will increase buoyancy and help you steer away from obstacles. Keep your feet up to
avoid getting them bruised or caught by rocks.

In deep rapids, lie on your stomach, head downstream, angling toward the shore whenever you can.
Watch for obstacles and be careful of backwater eddies and converging currents, as they often contain
dangerous swirls. Converging currents occur where new watercourses enter the river or where water has
been diverted around large obstacles such as small islands.

To ford a swift, treacherous stream, apply the following steps:

•
Remove your pants and shirt to lessen the water’s pull on you. Keep your footgear on to protect
your feet and ankles from rocks. It will also provide you with firmer footing.
•
Tie your pants and other articles to the top of your rucksack or in a bundle, if you have no pack.
This way, if you have to release your equipment, all your articles will be together. It is easier to find
one large pack than to find several small items.
•
Carry your pack well up on your shoulders and be sure you can easily remove it, if necessary. Not
being able to get a pack off quickly enough can drag even the strongest swimmers under.
•
Find a strong pole about 7.5 centimeters in diameter and 2.1 to 2.4 meters long to help you ford the
stream. Grasp the pole and plant it firmly on your upstream side to break the current. Plant your
feet firmly with each step, and move the pole forward a little downstream from its previous position,
but still upstream from you. With your next step, place your foot below the pole. Keep the pole
well slanted so that the force of the current keeps the pole against your shoulder (Figure 6-1).
•
Cross the stream so that you will cross the downstream current at a 45-degree angle.
Using this method, you can safely cross currents usually too strong for one person to stand against. Do
not concern yourself about your pack’s weight, as the weight will help rather than hinder you in fording
the stream.

If there are other people with you, cross the stream together. Ensure that everyone has prepared
their pack and clothing as outlined above. Position the heaviest person on the downstream end of the
pole and the lightest on the upstream end. In using this method, the upstream person breaks the current,
and those below can move with relative ease in the eddy formed by the upstream person. If the
upstream person gets temporarily swept off his feet, the others can hold steady while he regains his
footing (Figure 6-2).


Figure 6-1: One man crossing swift stream.


Water Crossings 937


Figure 6-2: Several men crossing swift stream.

If you have three or more people and a rope available, you can use the technique shown in Figure 6-3 to
cross the stream. The length of the rope must be three times the width of the stream.

RAFTS

If you have two ponchos, you can construct a brush raft or an Australian poncho raft. With either of these
rafts, you can safely float your equipment across a slow-moving stream or river.

Brush Raft. The brush raft, if properly constructed, will support about 115 kilograms. To construct it, use
ponchos, fresh green brush, two small saplings, and rope or vine as follows (Figure 6-4):

•
Push the hood of each poncho to the inner side and tightly tie off the necks using the drawstrings.
•
Attach the ropes or vines at the corner and side grommets of each poncho. Make sure they are long
enough to cross to and tie with the others attached at the opposite corner or side.
•
Spread one poncho on the ground with the inner side up. Pile fresh, green brush (no thick branches)
on the poncho until the brush stack is about 45 centimeters high. Pull the drawstring up through
the center of the brush stack.
•
Make an X-frame from two small saplings and place it on top of the brush stack. Tie the X-frame
securely in place with the poncho drawstring.
•
Pile another 45 centimeters of brush on top of the X-frame, then compress the brush slightly.
•
Pull the poncho sides up around the brush and, using the ropes or vines attached to the corner or
side grommets, tie them diagonally from corner to corner and from side to side.
•
Spread the second poncho, inner side up, next to the brush bundle.
•
Roll the brush bundle onto the second poncho so that the tied side is down. Tie the second
poncho around the brush bundle in the same manner as you tied the first poncho around the
brush.
•
Place it in the water with the tied side of the second poncho facing up.
Australian Poncho Raft. If you do not have time to gather brush for a brush raft, you can make an Australian
poncho raft. This raft, although more waterproof than the poncho brush raft, will only float about
35 kilograms of equipment. To construct this raft, use two ponchos, two rucksacks, two 1.2-meter poles or
branches, and ropes, vines, bootlaces, or comparable material as follows (Figure 6-5):


938 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 6-3: Individuals tied together to cross stream.

•
Push the hood of each poncho to the inner side and tightly tie off the necks using the drawstrings.
•
Spread one poncho on the ground with the inner side up. Place and center the two 1.2-meter poles
on the poncho about 45 centimeters apart.
•
Place your rucksacks or packs or other equipment between the poles. Also place other items that
you want to keep dry between the poles. Snap the poncho sides together.
•
Use your buddy’s help to complete the raft. Hold the snapped portion of the poncho in the air and
roll it tightly down to the equipment. Make sure you roll the full width of the poncho.
•
Twist the ends of the roll to form pigtails in opposite directions. Fold the pigtails over the bundle
and tie them securely in place using ropes, bootlaces, or vines.
•
Spread the second poncho on the ground, inner side up. If you need more buoyancy, place some
fresh green brush on this poncho.
•
Place the equipment bundle, tied side down, on the center of the second poncho. Wrap the second
poncho around the equipment bundle following the same procedure you used for wrapping the
equipment in the first poncho.

Water Crossings 939


Figure 6-4: Brush raft.

•
Tie ropes, bootlaces, vines, or other binding material around the raft about 30 centimeters from the
end of each pigtail. Place and secure weapons on top of the raft.
•
Tie one end of a rope to an empty canteen and the other end to the raft. This will help you to tow the raft.
Poncho Donut Raft. Another type of raft is the poncho donut raft. It takes more time to construct than the
brush raft or Australian poncho raft, but it is effective. To construct it, use one poncho, small saplings, willow
or vines, and rope, bootlaces, or other binding material (Figure 6-6) as follows:

•
Make a framework circle by placing several stakes in the ground that roughly outline an inner and
outer circle.
•
Using young saplings, willow, or vines, construct a donut ring within the circles of stakes.
•
Wrap several pieces of cordage around the donut ring about 30 to 60 centimeters apart and tie them
securely.
Figure 6-5: Australian poncho raft.


940 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 6-6: Poncho donut raft.

•
Push the poncho’s hood to the inner side and tightly tie off the neck using the drawstring. Place the
poncho on the ground, inner side up.
•
Place the donut ring on the center of the poncho. Wrap the poncho up and over the donut ring and
tie off each grommet on the poncho to the ring.
•
Tie one end of a rope to an empty canteen and the other end to the raft. This rope will help you to
tow the raft.
When launching any of the above rafts, take care not to puncture or tear it by dragging it on the ground.
Before you start to cross the river or stream, let the raft lay on the water a few minutes to ensure that it
floats.

If the river is too deep to ford, push the raft in front of you while you are swimming. The design of the
above rafts does not allow them to carry a person’s full body weight. Use them as a float to get you and
your equipment safely across the river or stream.

Be sure to check the water temperature before trying to cross a river or water obstacle. If the water is
extremely cold and you are unable to find a shallow fording place in the river, do not try to ford it. Devise
other means for crossing. For instance, you might improvise a bridge by felling a tree over the river. Or you
might build a raft large enough to carry you and your equipment. For this, however, you will need an axe,
a knife, a rope or vines, and time.

Log Raft. You can make a raft using any dry, dead, standing trees for logs. However, spruce trees found in
polar and subpolar regions make the best rafts.

A simple method for making a raft is to use pressure bars lashed securely at each end of the raft to hold
the logs together (Figure 6-7).


Figure 6-7: Use of pressure bars.


Water Crossings 941

FLOTATION DEVICES

If the water is warm enough for swimming and you do not have the time or materials to construct one of
the poncho-type rafts, you can use various flotation devices to negotiate the water obstacle. Some items
you can use for flotation devices are—

•
Trousers. Knot each trouser leg at the bottom and close the fly. With both hands, grasp the waistband
at the sides and swing the trousers in the air to trap air in each leg. Quickly press the sides of the
waistband together and hold it underwater so that the air will not escape. You now have water wings
to keep you afloat as you cross the body of water. Note: Wet the trousers before inflating to trap the air
better. You may have to reinflate the trousers several times when crossing a large body of water.
•
Empty containers. Lash together empty gas cans, water jugs, ammo cans, boxes, or other items that
will trap or hold air. Use them as water wings. Use this type of flotation device only in a slow-moving
river or stream.
•
Plastic bags and ponchos. Fill two or more plastic bags with air and secure them together at the opening.
Use your poncho and roll green vegetation tightly inside it so that you have a roll at least 20
centimeters in diameter. Tie the ends of the roll securely. You can wear it around your waist or
across one shoulder and under the opposite arm.
•
Logs. Use a stranded drift log if one is available, or find a log near the water to use as a float. Be sure
to test the log before starting to cross. Some tree logs, palm for example, will sink even when the
wood is dead. Another method is to tie two logs about 60 centimeters apart. Sit between the logs
with your back against one and your legs over the other (Figure 6-8).
•
Cattails. Gather stalks of cattails and tie them in a bundle 25 centimeters or more in diameter. The
many air cells in each stalk cause a stalk to float until it rots. Test the cattail bundle to be sure it will
support your weight before trying to cross a body of water.
There are many other flotation devices that you can devise by using some imagination. Just make sure
to test the device before trying to use it.

OTHER WATER OBSTACLES

Other water obstacles that you may face are bogs, quagmire, muskeg, or quicksand. Do not try to walk across
these. Trying to lift your feet while standing upright will make you sink deeper. Try to bypass these obstacles.
If you are unable to bypass them, you may be able to bridge them using logs, branches, or foliage.

A way to cross a bog is to lie face down, with your arms and legs spread. Use a flotation device or form
pockets of air in your clothing. Swim or pull your way across moving slowly and trying to keep your body
horizontal.


Figure 6-8: Log flotation.


942 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

In swamps, the areas that have vegetation are usually firm enough to support your weight. However,
vegetation will usually not be present in open mud or water areas. If you are an average swimmer, however,
you should have no problem swimming, crawling, or pulling your way through miles of bog or
swamp.

Quicksand is a mixture of sand and water that forms a shifting mass. It yields easily to pressure and
sucks down and engulfs objects resting on its surface. It varies in depth and is usually localized. Quicksand
commonly occurs on flat shores, in silt-choked rivers with shifting watercourses, and near the mouths of
large rivers. If you are uncertain whether a sandy area is quicksand, toss a small stone on it. The stone will
sink in quicksand. Although quicksand has more suction than mud or muck, you can cross it just as you
would cross a bog. Lie face down, spread your arms and legs, and move slowly across.

VEGETATION OBSTACLES

Some water areas you must cross may have underwater and floating plants that will make swimming difficult.
However, you can swim through relatively dense vegetation if you remain calm and do not thrash
about. Stay as near the surface as possible and use the breaststroke with shallow leg and arm motion.
Remove the plants around you as you would clothing. When you get tired, float or swim on your back
until you have rested enough to continue with the breaststroke.

The mangrove swamp is another type of obstacle that occurs along tropical coastlines. Mangrove trees
or shrubs throw out many prop roots that form dense masses. To get through a mangrove swamp, wait
for low tide. If you are on the inland side, look for a narrow grove of trees and work your way seaward
through these. You can also try to find the bed of a waterway or creek through the trees and follow it to the
sea. If you are on the seaward side, work inland along streams or channels. Be on the lookout for crocodiles
that you find along channels and in shallow water. If there are any near you, leave the water and scramble
over the mangrove roots. While crossing a mangrove swamp, it is possible to gather food from tidal pools
or tree roots.

To cross a large swamp area, construct some type of raft.


CHAPTER 7


Survival in Nuclear, Biological, and
Chemical Environments


Nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons have become potential realities on any modern battlefield.
Recent experience in Afghanistan, Cambodia, and other areas of conflict has proved the use of chemical
and biological weapons (such as mycotoxins). The war fighting doctrine of the NATO and Warsaw Pact
nations addresses the use of both nuclear and chemical weapons. The potential use of these weapons
intensifies the problems of survival because of the serious dangers posed by either radioactive fallout or
contamination produced by persistent biological or chemical agents.

You must use special precautions if you expect to survive in these man-made hazards. If you are subjected
to any of the effects of nuclear, chemical, or biological warfare, the survival procedures recommended
in this chapter may save your life. This chapter presents some background information on each
type of hazard so that you may better understand the true nature of the hazard. Awareness of the hazards,
knowledge of this chapter, and application of common sense should keep you alive.

THE NUCLEAR ENVIRONMENT

Prepare yourself to survive in a nuclear environment. Know how to react to a nuclear hazard.

Effects of Nuclear Weapons. The effects of nuclear weapons are classified as either initial or residual.
Initial effects occur in the immediate area of the explosion and are hazardous in the first minute after the
explosion. Residual effects can last for days or years and cause death. The principal initial effects are blast
and radiation.

Blast. Defined as the brief and rapid movement of air away from the explosion’s center and the pressure
accompanying this movement. Strong winds accompany the blast. Blast hurls debris and personnel, collapses
lungs, ruptures eardrums, collapses structures and positions, and causes immediate death or injury
with its crushing effect.

Thermal Radiation. The heat and light radiation a nuclear explosion’s fireball emits. Light radiation consists
of both visible light and ultraviolet and infrared light. Thermal radiation produces extensive fires,
skin burns, and flash blindness.

Nuclear Radiation. Nuclear radiation breaks down into two categories—initial radiation and residual radiation.

Initial nuclear radiation consists of intense gamma rays and neutrons produced during the first minute
after the explosion. This radiation causes extensive damage to cells throughout the body. Radiation damage
may cause headaches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and even death, depending on the radiation dose
received. The major problem in protecting yourself against the initial radiation’s effects is that you may
have received a lethal or incapacitating dose before taking any protective action. Personnel exposed to
lethal amounts of initial radiation may well have been killed or fatally injured by blast or thermal radiation.

Residual radiation consists of all radiation produced after one minute from the explosion. It has more
effect on you than initial radiation. A discussion of residual radiation follows.

Types of Nuclear Bursts. There are three types of nuclear bursts—airburst, surface burst, and subsurface
burst. The type of burst directly affects your chances of survival. A subsurface burst occurs completely

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944 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

underground or underwater. Its effects remain beneath the surface or in the immediate area where the surface
collapses into a crater over the burst’s location. Subsurface bursts cause you little or no radioactive hazard
unless you enter the immediate area of the crater. No further discussion of this type of burst will take place.

An airburst occurs in the air above its intended target. The airburst provides the maximum radiation
effect on the target and is, therefore, most dangerous to you in terms of immediate nuclear effects.

A surface burst occurs on the ground or water surface. Large amounts of fallout result, with serious
long-term effects for you. This type of burst is your greatest nuclear hazard.

Nuclear Injuries. Most injuries in the nuclear environment result from the initial nuclear effects of the
detonation. These injuries are classed as blast, thermal, or radiation injuries. Further radiation injuries may
occur if you do not take proper precautions against fallout. Individuals in the area near a nuclear explosion
will probably suffer a combination of all three types of injuries.

Blast Injuries. Blast injuries produced by nuclear weapons are similar to those caused by conventional
high-explosive weapons. Blast overpressure can produce collapsed lungs and ruptured internal organs.
Projectile wounds occur as the explosion’s force hurls debris at you. Large pieces of debris striking you will
cause fractured limbs or massive internal injuries. Blast overpressure may throw you long distances, and
you will suffer severe injury upon impact with the ground or other objects. Substantial cover and distance
from the explosion are the best protection against blast injury. Cover blast injury wounds as soon as possible
to prevent the entry of radioactive dust particles.

Thermal Injuries. The heat and light the nuclear fireball emits causes thermal injuries. First-, second-, or
third-degree burns may result. Flash blindness also occurs. This blindness may be permanent or temporary
depending on the degree of exposure of the eyes. Substantial cover and distance from the explosion
can prevent thermal injuries. Clothing will provide significant protection against thermal injuries. Cover
as much exposed skin as possible before a nuclear explosion. First aid for thermal injuries is the same as
first aid for burns. Cover open burns (second- or third-degree) to prevent the entry of radioactive particles.
Wash all burns before covering.

Radiation Injuries. Neutrons, gamma radiation, alpha radiation, and beta radiation cause radiation injuries.
Neutrons are high-speed, extremely penetrating particles that actually smash cells within your body.
Gamma radiation is similar to X rays and is also a highly penetrating radiation. During the initial fireball
stage of a nuclear detonation, initial gamma radiation and neutrons are the most serious threat. Beta and
alpha radiation are radioactive particles normally associated with radioactive dust from fallout.

They are short-range particles and you can easily protect yourself against them if you take precautions.
See Bodily Reactions to Radiation, below, for the symptoms of radiation injuries.

Residual Radiation. Residual radiation is all radiation emitted after 1 minute from the instant of the nuclear
explosion. Residual radiation consists of induced radiation and fallout.

Induced Radiation. It describes a relatively small, intensely radioactive area directly underneath the nuclear
weapon’s fireball. The irradiated earth in this area will remain highly radioactive for an extremely long
time. You should not travel into an area of induced radiation.

Fallout. Fallout consists of radioactive soil and water particles, as well as weapon fragments. During a
surface detonation, or if an airburst’s nuclear fireball touches the ground, large amounts of soil and water
are vaporized along with the bomb’s fragments, and forced upward to altitudes of 25,000 meters or more.
When these vaporized contents cool, they can form more than 200 different radioactive products. The
vaporized bomb contents condense into tiny radioactive particles that the wind carries and they fall back
to earth as radioactive dust. Fallout particles emit alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Alpha and beta radiation
are relatively easy to counteract, and residual gamma radiation is much less intense than the gamma
radiation emitted during the first minute after the explosion. Fallout is your most significant radiation
hazard, provided you have not received a lethal radiation dose from the initial radiation.


Survival in Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Environments 945

Bodily Reactions to Radiation. The effects of radiation on the human body can be broadly classed as either
chronic or acute. Chronic effects are those that occur some years after exposure to radiation. Examples
are cancer and genetic defects. Chronic effects are of minor concern in so far as they affect your immediate
survival in a radioactive environment. On the other hand, acute effects are of primary importance to
your survival. Some acute effects occur within hours after exposure to radiation. These effects result from
the radiation’s direct physical damage to tissue. Radiation sickness and beta burns are examples of acute
effects. Radiation sickness symptoms include nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, fatigue, weakness, and loss of
hair. Penetrating beta rays cause radiation burns; the wounds are similar to fire burns.

Recovery Capability. The extent of body damage depends mainly on the part of the body exposed to
radiation and how long it was exposed, as well as its ability to recover. The brain and kidneys have little
recovery capability. Other parts (skin and bone marrow) have a great ability to recover from damage.

Usually, a dose of 600 centigrams (cgys) to the entire body will result in almost certain death. If only
your hands received this same dose, your overall health would not suffer much, although your hands
would suffer severe damage.

External and Internal Hazards. An external or an internal hazard can cause body damage. Highly penetrating
gamma radiation or the less penetrating beta radiation that causes burns can cause external damage.
The entry of alpha or beta radiation-emitting particles into the body can cause internal damage. The
external hazard produces overall irradiation and beta burns. The internal hazard results in irradiation of
critical organs such as the gastrointestinal tract, thyroid gland, and bone. A very small amount of radioactive
material can cause extreme damage to these and other internal organs. The internal hazard can enter
the body either through consumption of contaminated water or food or by absorption through cuts or
abrasions. Material that enters the body through breathing presents only a minor hazard. You can greatly
reduce the internal radiation hazard by using good personal hygiene and carefully decontaminating your
food and water.

Symptoms. The symptoms of radiation injuries include nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting. The severity of
these symptoms is due to the extreme sensitivity of the gastrointestinal tract to radiation. The severity of
the symptoms and the speed of onset after exposure are good indicators of the degree of radiation damage.
The gastrointestinal damage can come from either the external or the internal radiation hazard.

Countermeasures Against Penetrating External Radiation. Knowledge of the radiation hazards discussed
earlier is extremely important in surviving in a fallout area. It is also critical to know how to protect yourself
from the most dangerous form of residual radiation—penetrating external radiation.

The means you can use to protect yourself from penetrating external radiation are time, distance, and
shielding. You can reduce the level of radiation and help increase your chance of survival by controlling
the duration of exposure. You can also get as far away from the radiation source as possible. Finally you
can place some radiation-absorbing or shielding material between you and the radiation.

Time. Time is important to you, as the survivor, in two ways. First, radiation dosages are cumulative. The
longer you are exposed to a radioactive source, the greater the dose you will receive. Obviously, spend as
little time in a radioactive area as possible. Second, radioactivity decreases or decays over time. This concept
is known as radioactive half-life. Thus, a radioactive element decays or loses half of its radioactivity
within a certain time. The rule of thumb for radioactivity decay is that it decreases in intensity by a factor of
ten for every sevenfold increase in time following the peak radiation level. For example, if a nuclear fallout
area had a maximum radiation rate of 200 cgys per hour when fallout is complete, this rate would fall to 20
cgys per hour after 7 hours; it would fall still further to 2 cgys per hour after 49 hours. Even an untrained
observer can see that the greatest hazard from fallout occurs immediately after detonation, and that the
hazard decreases quickly over a relatively short time. As a survivor, try to avoid fallout areas until the
radioactivity decays to safe levels. If you can avoid fallout areas long enough for most of the radioactivity
to decay, you enhance your chance of survival.


946 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Distance. Distance provides very effective protection against penetrating gamma radiation because
radiation intensity decreases by the square of the distance from the source. For example, if exposed to
1,000 cgys of radiation standing 30 centimeters from the source, at 60 centimeters, you would only receive
250 cgys. Thus, when you double the distance, radiation decreases to (0.5)2 or 0.25 the amount. While this
formula is valid for concentrated sources of radiation in small areas, it becomes more complicated for large
areas of radiation such as fallout areas.

Shielding. Shielding is the most important method of protection from penetrating radiation. Of the three
countermeasures against penetrating radiation, shielding provides the greatest protection and is the easiest
to use under survival conditions. Therefore, it is the most desirable method. If shielding is not possible,
use the other two methods to the maximum extent practical.

Shielding actually works by absorbing or weakening the penetrating radiation, thereby reducing the
amount of radiation reaching your body. The denser the material, the better the shielding effect. Lead, iron,
concrete, and water are good examples of shielding materials.

Special Medical Aspects. The presence of fallout material in your area requires slight changes in first aid
procedures. You must cover all wounds to prevent contamination and the entry of radioactive particles.
You must first wash burns of beta radiation, then treat them as ordinary burns. Take extra measures to
prevent infection. Your body will be extremely sensitive to infections due to changes in your blood chemistry.
Pay close attention to the prevention of colds or respiratory infections. Rigorously practice personal
hygiene to prevent infections. Cover your eyes with improvised goggles to prevent the entry of particles.

Shelter. As stated earlier, the shielding material’s effectiveness depends on its thickness and density. An
ample thickness of shielding material will reduce the level of radiation to negligible amounts.

The primary reason for finding and building a shelter is to get protection against the high-intensity
radiation levels of early gamma fallout as fast as possible. Five minutes to locate the shelter is a good
guide. Speed in finding shelter is absolutely essential. Without shelter, the dosage received in the first
few hours will exceed that received during the rest of a week in a contaminated area. The dosage received
in this first week will exceed the dosage accumulated during the rest of a lifetime spent in the same contaminated
area.

Shielding Materials. The thickness required to weaken gamma radiation from fallout is far less than that
needed to shield against initial gamma radiation. Fallout radiation has less energy than a nuclear detonation’s
initial radiation. For fallout radiation, a relatively small amount of shielding material can provide
adequate protection. Figure 7-1 gives an idea of the thickness of various materials needed to reduce
residual gamma radiation transmission by 50 percent. The principle of half-value layer thickness is useful
in understanding the absorption of gamma radiation by various materials. According to this principle, if 5
centimeters of brick reduce the gamma radiation level by one-half, adding another 5 centimeters of brick
(another half-value layer) will reduce the intensity by another half, namely, to one-fourth the original
amount. Fifteen centimeters will reduce gamma radiation fallout levels to one-eighth its original amount,
20 centimeters to one-sixteenth, and so on. Thus, a shelter protected by 1 meter of dirt would reduce a
radiation intensity of 1,000 cgys per hour on the outside to about 0.5 cgy per hour inside the shelter.

Natural Shelters. Terrain that provides natural shielding and easy shelter construction is the ideal location
for an emergency shelter. Good examples are ditches, ravines, rocky outcropping, hills, and river banks. In
level areas without natural protection, dig a fighting position or slit trench.

Trenches. When digging a trench, work from inside the trench as soon as it is large enough to cover part
of your body thereby not exposing all your body to radiation. In open country, try to dig the trench from
a prone position, stacking the dirt carefully and evenly around the trench. On level ground, pile the dirt
around your body for additional shielding.

Depending upon soil conditions, shelter construction time will vary from a few minutes to a few hours.
If you dig as quickly as possible, you will reduce the dosage you receive.


Survival in Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Environments 947


Figure 7-1: Thickness of materials to reduce gamma radiation

Other Shelters. While an underground shelter covered by 1 meter or more of earth provides the best protection
against fallout radiation, the following unoccupied structures (in order listed) offer the next best
protection:

•
Caves and tunnels covered by more than 1 meter of earth.
•
Storm or storage cellars.
•
Culverts.
•
Basements or cellars of abandoned buildings.
•
Abandoned buildings made of stone or mud.
Roofs. It is not mandatory that you build a roof on your shelter. Build one only if the materials are readily
available with only a brief exposure to outside contamination. If building a roof would require extended
exposure to penetrating radiation, it would be wiser to leave the shelter roofless. A roof’s sole function is
to reduce radiation from the fallout source to your body. Unless you use a thick roof, a roof provides very
little shielding.

You can construct a simple roof from a poncho anchored down with dirt, rocks, or other refuse from
your shelter. You can remove large particles of dirt and debris from the top of the poncho by beating it
off from the inside at frequent intervals. This cover will not offer shielding from the radioactive particles
deposited on the surface, but it will increase the distance from the fallout source and keep the shelter area
from further contamination.

Shelter Site Selection and Preparation. To reduce your exposure time and thereby reduce the dosage
received, remember the following factors when selecting and setting up a shelter:

•
Where possible, seek a crude, existing shelter that you can improve. If none is available, dig a
trench.
•
Dig the shelter deep enough to get good protection, then enlarge it as required for comfort.
•
Cover the top of the fighting position or trench with any readily available material and a thick
layer of earth, if you can do so without leaving the shelter. While a roof and camouflage are both
desirable, it is probably safer to do without them than to expose yourself to radiation outside your
fighting position.

948 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

•
While building your shelter, keep all parts of your body covered with clothing to protect it against
beta burns.
•
Clean the shelter site of any surface deposit using a branch or other object that you can discard. Do
this cleaning to remove contaminated materials from the area you will occupy. The cleaned area
should extend at least 1.5 meters beyond your shelter’s area.
•
Decontaminate any materials you bring into the shelter. These materials include grass or foliage
that you use as insulation or bedding, and your outer clothing (especially footgear). If the weather
permits and you have heavily contaminated outer clothing, you may want to remove it and bury
it under a foot of earth at the end of your shelter. You may retrieve it later (after the radioactivity
decays) when leaving the shelter. If the clothing is dry, you may decontaminate it by beating or
shaking it outside the shelter’s entrance to remove the radioactive dust. You may use any body of
water, even though contaminated, to rid materials of excess fallout particles. Simply dip the material
into the water and shake it to get rid of the excess water. Do not wring it out, this action will
trap the particles.
•
If at all possible and without leaving the shelter, wash your body thoroughly with soap and water,
even if the water on hand may be contaminated. This washing will remove most of the harmful
radioactive particles that are likely to cause beta burns or other damage. If water is not available,
wipe your face and any other exposed skin surface to remove contaminated dust and dirt. You may
wipe your face with a clean piece of cloth or a handful of uncontaminated dirt. You get this uncontaminated
dirt by scraping off the top few inches of soil and using the “clean” dirt.
•
Upon completing the shelter, lie down, keep warm, and sleep and rest as much as possible while in
the shelter.
•
When not resting, keep busy by planning future actions, studying your maps, or making the shelter
more comfortable and effective.
•
Don’t panic if you experience nausea and symptoms of radiation sickness. Your main danger from
radiation sickness is infection. There is no first aid for this sickness. Resting, drinking fluids, taking
any medicine that prevents vomiting, maintaining your food intake, and preventing additional
exposure will help avoid infection and aid recovery. Even small doses of radiation can cause these
symptoms which may disappear in a short time.
Exposure Timetable. The following timetable provides you with the information needed to avoid receiving
serious dosage and still let you cope with survival problems:

•
Complete isolation from 4 to 6 days following delivery of the last weapon.
•
A very brief exposure to procure water on the third day is permissible, but exposure should not
exceed 30 minutes.
•
One exposure of not more than 30 minutes on the seventh day.
•
One exposure of not more than 1 hour on the eighth day.
•
Exposure of 2 to 4 hours from the ninth day through the twelfth day.
•
Normal operation, followed by rest in a protected shelter, from the thirteenth day on.
•
In all instances, make your exposures as brief as possible. Consider only mandatory requirements
as valid reasons for exposure. Decontaminate at every stop.
The times given above are conservative. If forced to move after the first or second day, you may do so,
Make sure that the exposure is no longer than absolutely necessary.

Water Procurement. In a fallout-contaminated area, available water sources may be contaminated. If
you wait at least 48 hours before drinking any water to allow for radioactive decay to take place and
select the safest possible water source, you will greatly reduce the danger of ingesting harmful amounts
of radioactivity.


Survival in Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Environments 949

Although many factors (wind direction, rainfall, sediment) will influence your choice in selecting water
sources, consider the following guidelines.

Safest Water Sources. Water from springs, wells, or other underground sources that undergo natural filtration
will be your safest source. Any water found in the pipes or containers of abandoned houses or stores
will also be free from radioactive particles. This water will be safe to drink, although you will have to take
precautions against bacteria in the water.

Snow taken from 15 or more centimeters below the surface during the fallout is also a safe source of
water.

Streams and Rivers. Water from streams and rivers will be relatively free from fallout within several days
after the last nuclear explosion because of dilution. If at all possible, filter such water before drinking to get
rid of radioactive particles. The best filtration method is to dig sediment holes or seepage basins along the
side of a water source. The water will seep laterally into the hole through the intervening soil that acts as a
filtering agent and removes the contaminated fallout particles that settled on the original body of water. This
method can remove up to 99 percent of the radioactivity in water. You must cover the hole in some way in
order to prevent further contamination. See Part IV, Chapter 1, Illustration 1-7 for examples of water filters.

Standing Water. Water from lakes, pools, ponds, and other standing sources is likely to be heavily contaminated,
though most of the heavier, long-lived radioactive isotopes will settle to the bottom. Use the
settling technique to purify this water. First, fill a bucket or other deep container three-fourths full with
contaminated water. Then take dirt from a depth of 10 or more centimeters below the ground surface and
stir it into the water. Use about 2.5 centimeters of dirt for every 10 centimeters of water. Stir the water until
you see most dirt particles suspended in the water. Let the mixture settle for at least 6 hours. The settling
dirt particles will carry most of the suspended fallout particles to the bottom and cover them. You can then
dip out the clear water. Purify this water using a filtration device.

Additional Precautions. As an additional precaution against disease, treat all water with water purification
tablets from your survival kit or boil it.

Food Procurement. Although it is a serious problem to obtain edible food in a radiation-contaminated
area, it is not impossible to solve. You need to follow a few special procedures in selecting and preparing
rations and local foods for use. Since secure packaging protects your combat rations, they will be perfectly
safe for use. Supplement your rations with any food you can find on trips outside your shelter. Most processed
foods you may find in abandoned buildings are safe for use after decontaminating them. These
include canned and packaged foods after removing the containers or wrappers or washing them free of
fallout particles. These processed foods also include food stored in any closed container and food stored
in protected areas (such as cellars), if you wash them before eating. Wash all food containers or wrappers
before handling them to prevent further contamination.

If little or no processed food is available in your area, you may have to supplement your diet with local
food sources. Local food sources are animals and plants.

Animals as a Food Source. Assume that all animals, regardless of their habitat or living conditions, were
exposed to radiation. The effects of radiation on animals are similar to those on humans. Thus, most of the
wild animals living in a fallout area are likely to become sick or die from radiation during the first month
after the nuclear explosion. Even though animals may not be free from harmful radioactive materials, you
can and must use them in survival conditions as a food source if other foods are not available. With careful
preparation and by following several important principles, animals can be safe food sources.

First, do not eat an animal that appears to be sick. It may have developed a bacterial infection as a result
of radiation poisoning. Contaminated meat, even if thoroughly cooked, could cause severe illness or death
if eaten.

Carefully skin all animals to prevent any radioactive particles on the skin or fur from entering the body.
Do not eat meat close to the bones and joints as an animal’s skeleton contains over 90 percent of the


950 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

radioactivity. The remaining animal muscle tissue, however, will be safe to eat. Before cooking it, cut the
meat away from the bone, leaving at least a 3-millimeter thickness of meat on the bone. Discard all internal
organs (heart, liver, and kidneys) since they tend to concentrate beta and gamma radioactivity.

Cook all meat until it is very well done. To be sure the meat is well done, cut it into less than 13-millimeterthick
pieces before cooking. Such cuts will also reduce cooking time and save fuel.

The extent of contamination in fish and aquatic animals will be much greater than that of land animals.
This is also true for water plants, especially in coastal areas. Use aquatic food sources only in conditions of
extreme emergency.

All eggs, even if laid during the period of fallout, will be safe to eat. Completely avoid milk from any
animals in a fallout area because animals absorb large amounts of radioactivity from the plants they eat.

Plants as a Food Source. Plant contamination occurs by the accumulation of fallout on their outer surfaces
or by absorption of radioactive elements through their roots. Your first choice of plant food should be
vegetables such as potatoes, turnips, carrots, and other plants whose edible portion grows underground.
These are the safest to eat once you scrub them and remove their skins.

Second in order of preference are those plants with edible parts that you can decontaminate by washing
and peeling their outer surfaces. Examples are bananas, apples, tomatoes, prickly pears, and other such
fruits and vegetables.

Any smooth-skinned vegetable, fruit, or plant that you cannot easily peel or effectively decontaminate
by washing will be your third choice of emergency food.

The effectiveness of decontamination by scrubbing is inversely proportional to the roughness of the
fruit’s surface. Smooth-surfaced fruits have lost 90 percent of their contamination after washing, while
washing rough-surfaced plants removes only about 50 percent of the contamination.

You eat rough-surfaced plants (such as lettuce) only as a last resort because you cannot effectively decontaminate
them by peeling or washing.

Other difficult foods to decontaminate by washing with water include dried fruits (figs, prunes, peaches,
apricots, pears) and soya beans.

In general, you can use any plant food that is ready for harvest if you can effectively decontaminate it.
Growing plants, however, can absorb some radioactive materials through their leaves as well as from the
soil, especially if rains have occurred during or after the fallout period. Avoid using these plants for food
except in an emergency.

BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS

The use of biological agents is real. Prepare yourself for survival by being proficient in the tasks identified in
your Soldier’s Manuals of Common Tasks (SMCTs). Know what to do to protect yourself against these agents.

Biological Agents and Effects. Biological agents are microorganisms that can cause disease among personnel,
animals, or plants. They can also cause the deterioration of material. These agents fall into two broad
categories—pathogens (usually called germs) and toxins. Pathogens are living microorganisms that cause
lethal or incapacitating diseases. Bacteria, rickettsiae, fungi, and viruses are included in the pathogens.
Toxins are poisons that plants, animals, or microorganisms produce naturally. Possible biological warfare
toxins include a variety of neurotoxic (affecting the central nervous system) and cytotoxic (causing cell
death) compounds.

Germs. Germs are living organisms. Some nations have used them in the past as weapons. Only a few
germs can start an infection, especially if inhaled into the lungs. Because germs are so small and weigh so
little, the wind can spread them over great distances; they can also enter unfiltered or nonairtight places.
Buildings and bunkers can trap them thus causing a higher concentration. Germs do not affect the body
immediately. They must multiply inside the body and overcome the body’s defenses—a process called the
incubation period. Incubation periods vary from several hours to several months, depending on the germ.


Survival in Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Environments 951

Most germs must live within another living organism (host), such as your body, to survive and grow.
Weather conditions such as wind, rain, cold, and sunlight rapidly kill germs.

Some germs can form protective shells, or spores, to allow survival outside the host. Spore-producing
agents are a long-term hazard you must neutralize by decontaminating infected areas or personnel. Fortunately,
most live agents are not spore-producing. These agents must find a host within roughly a day of
their delivery or they die. Germs have three basic routes of entry into your body: through the respiratory
tract, through a break in the skin, and through the digestive tract. Symptoms of infection vary according
to the disease.

Toxins. Toxins are substances that plants, animals, or germs produce naturally. These toxins are what
actually harm man, not bacteria. Botulin, which produces botulism, is an example. Modern science has
allowed large-scale production of these toxins without the use of the germ that produces the toxin. Toxins
may produce effects similar to those of chemical agents. Toxic victims may not, however, respond to first
aid measures used against chemical agents. Toxins enter the body in the same manner as germs. However,
some toxins, unlike germs, can penetrate unbroken skin. Symptoms appear almost immediately, since
there is no incubation period. Many toxins are extremely lethal, even in very small doses. Symptoms may
include any of the following:

•
Dizziness.
•
Mental confusion.
•
Blurred or double vision.
•
Numbness or tingling of skin.
•
Paralysis.
•
Convulsions.
•
Rashes or blisters.
•
Coughing.
•
Fever.
•
Aching muscles.
•
Tiredness.
•
Nausea, vomiting, and/or diarrhea.
•
Bleeding from body openings.
•
Blood in urine, stool, or saliva.
•
Shock.
•
Death.
Detection of Biological Agents. Biological agents are, by nature, difficult to detect. You cannot detect
them by any of the five physical senses. Often, the first sign of a biological agent will be symptoms of the
victims exposed to the agent. Your best chance of detecting biological agents before they can affect you is
to recognize their means of delivery. The three main means of delivery are—

•
Bursting-type munitions. These may be bombs or projectiles whose burst causes very little damage.
The burst will produce a small cloud of liquid or powder in the immediate impact area. This cloud
will disperse eventually; the rate of dispersion depends on terrain and weather conditions.
•
Spray tanks or generators. Aircraft or vehicle spray tanks or ground-level aerosol generators produce
an aerosol cloud of biological agents.
•
Vectors. Insects such as mosquitoes, fleas, lice, and ticks deliver pathogens. Large infestations of
these insects may indicate the use of biological agents.
Another sign of a possible biological attack is the presence of unusual substances on the ground or on
vegetation, or sick-looking plants, crops, or animals.


952 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Influence of Weather and Terrain. Your knowledge of how weather and terrain affect the agents can
help you avoid contamination by biological agents. Major weather factors that affect biological agents are
sunlight, wind, and precipitation. Aerosol sprays will tend to concentrate in low areas of terrain, similar to
early morning mist.

Sunlight contains visible and ultraviolet solar radiation that rapidly kills most germs used as biological
agents. However, natural or man-made cover may protect some agents from sunlight. Other man-made
mutant strains of germs may be resistant to sunlight.

High wind speeds increase the dispersion of biological agents, dilute their concentration, and dehydrate
them. The further downwind the agent travels, the less effective it becomes due to dilution and death of
the pathogens. However, the downwind hazard area of the biological agent is significant and you cannot
ignore it.

Precipitation in the form of moderate to heavy rain tends to wash biological agents out of the air, reducing
downwind hazard areas. However, the agents may still be very effective where they were deposited
on the ground.

Protection Against Biological Agents. While you must maintain a healthy respect for biological agents,
there is no reason for you to panic. You can reduce your susceptibility to biological agents by maintaining
current immunizations, avoiding contaminated areas, and controlling rodents and pests. You must
also use proper first aid measures in the treatment of wounds and only safe or properly decontaminated
sources of food and water. You must ensure that you get enough sleep to prevent a run-down condition.
You must always use proper field sanitation procedures.

Assuming you do not have a protective mask, always try to keep your face covered with some type of
cloth to protect yourself against biological agent aerosols. Dust may contain biological agents; wear some
type of mask when dust is in the air.

Your uniform and gloves will protect you against bites from vectors (mosquitoes and ticks) that carry
diseases. Completely button your clothing and tuck your trousers tightly into your boots. Wear a chemical
protective overgarment, if available, as it provides better protection than normal clothing. Covering your
skin will also reduce the chance of the agent entering your body through cuts or scratches. Always practice
high standards of personal hygiene and sanitation to help prevent the spread of vectors.

Bathe with soap and water whenever possible. Use germicidal soap, if available. Wash your hair and
body thoroughly, and clean under your fingernails. Clean teeth, gums, tongue, and the roof of your
mouth frequently. Wash your clothing in hot, soapy water if you can. If you cannot wash your clothing,
lay it out in an area of bright sunlight and allow the light to kill the microorganisms. After a toxin attack,
decontaminate yourself as if for a chemical attack using the M258A2 kit (if available) or by washing with
soap and water.

Shelter. You can build expedient shelters under biological contamination conditions using the same
techniques described in Part III. However, you must make slight changes to reduce the chance of biological
contamination. Do not build your shelter in depressions in the ground. Aerosol sprays tend to
concentrate in these depressions. Avoid building your shelter in areas of vegetation, as vegetation provides
shade and some degree of protection to biological agents. Avoid using vegetation in constructing
your shelter. Place your shelter’s entrance at a 90-degree angle to the prevailing winds. Such placement
will limit the entry of airborne agents and prevent air stagnation in your shelter. Always keep your
shelter clean.

Water Procurement. Water procurement under biological conditions is difficult but not impossible. Whenever
possible, try to use water that has been in a sealed container. You can assume that the water inside the
sealed container is not contaminated. Wash the water container thoroughly with soap and water or boil it
for at least 10 minutes before breaking the seal.

If water in sealed containers is not available, your next choice, only under emergency conditions, is
water from springs. Again, boil the water for at least 10 minutes before drinking. Keep the water covered


Survival in Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Environments 953

while boiling to prevent contamination by airborne pathogens. Your last choice, only in an extreme emergency,
is to use standing water. Vectors and germs can survive easily in stagnant water. Boil this water
as long as practical to kill all organisms. Filter this water through a cloth to remove the dead vectors. Use
water purification tablets in all cases.

Food Procurement. Food procurement, like water procurement, is not impossible, but you must take special
precautions. Your combat rations are sealed, and you can assume they are not contaminated. You can
also assume that sealed containers or packages of processed food are safe. To ensure safety, decontaminate
all food containers by washing with soap and water or by boiling the container in water for 10 minutes.

You consider supplementing your rations with local plants or animals only in extreme emergencies. No matter
what you do to prepare the food, there is no guarantee that cooking will kill all the biological agents. Use
local food only in life or death situations. Remember, you can survive for a long time without food, especially
if the food you eat may kill you!

If you must use local food, select only healthy-looking plants and animals. Do not select known carriers
of vectors such as rats or other vermin. Select and prepare plants as you would in radioactive areas.
Prepare animals as you do plants. Always use gloves and protective clothing when handling animals
or plants. Cook all plant and animal food by boiling only. Boil all food for at least 10 minutes to kill all
pathogens. Do not try to fry, bake, or roast local food. There is no guarantee that all infected portions have
reached the required temperature to kill all pathogens. Do not eat raw food.

CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENTS

Chemical agent warfare is real. It can create extreme problems in a survival situation, but you can overcome
the problems with the proper equipment, knowledge, and training. As a survivor, your first line of
defense against chemical agents is your proficiency in individual nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC)
training, to include donning and wearing the protective mask and overgarment, personal decontamination,
recognition of chemical agent symptoms, and individual first aid for chemical agent contamination.
The SMCTs cover these subjects. If you are not proficient in these skills, you will have little chance of surviving
a chemical environment.

Detection of Chemical Agents. The best method for detecting chemical agents is the use of a chemical
agent detector. If you have one, use it. However, in a survival situation, you will most likely have to rely
solely on the use of all of your physical senses. You must be alert and able to detect any clues indicating
the use of chemical warfare. General indicators of the presence of chemical agents are tears, difficult
breathing, choking, itching, coughing, and dizziness. With agents that are very hard to detect, you must
watch for symptoms in fellow survivors. Your surroundings will provide valuable clues to the presence
of chemical agents; for example, dead animals, sick people, or people and animals displaying abnormal
behavior.

Your sense of smell may alert you to some chemical agents, but most will be odorless. The odor of newly
cut grass or hay may indicate the presence of choking agents. A smell of almonds may indicate blood
agents.

Sight will help you detect chemical agents. Most chemical agents in the solid or liquid state have some
color. In the vapor state, you can see some chemical agents as a mist or thin fog immediately after the bomb
or shell bursts. By observing for symptoms in others and by observing delivery means, you may be able
to have some warning of chemical agents. Mustard gas in the liquid state will appear as oily patches on
leaves or on buildings.

The sound of enemy munitions will give some clue to the presence of chemical weapons. Muffled shell
or bomb detonations are a good indicator.

Irritation in the nose or eyes or on the skin is an urgent warning to protect your body from chemical
agents. Additionally, a strange taste in food, water, or cigarettes may serve as a warning that they have
been contaminated.


954 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Protection Against Chemical Agents. As a survivor, always use the following general steps, in the order
listed, to protect yourself from a chemical attack:

• Use protective equipment.
• Give quick and correct self-aid when contaminated.
• Avoid areas where chemical agents exist.
• Decontaminate your equipment and body as soon as possible.
Your protective mask and overgarment are the key to your survival. Without these, you stand very little
chance of survival. You must take care of these items and protect them from damage. You must practice
and know correct self-aid procedures before exposure to chemical agents. The detection of chemical agents
and the avoidance of contaminated areas is extremely important to your survival. Use whatever detection
kits may be available to help in detection. Since you are in a survival situation, avoid contaminated areas
at all costs. You can expect no help should you become contaminated. If you do become contaminated,
decontaminate yourself as soon as possible using proper procedures.

Shelter. If you find yourself in a contaminated area, try to move out of the area as fast as possible. Travel
crosswind or upwind to reduce the time spent in the downwind hazard area. If you cannot leave the area
immediately and have to build a shelter, use normal shelter construction techniques, with a few changes.
Build the shelter in a clearing, away from all vegetation. Remove all topsoil in the area of the shelter to
decontaminate the area. Keep the shelter’s entrance closed and oriented at a 90-degree angle to the prevailing
wind. Do not build a fire using contaminated wood—the smoke will be toxic. Use extreme caution
when entering your shelter so that you will not bring contamination inside.

Water Procurement. As with biological and nuclear environments, getting water in a chemical environment
is difficult. Obviously, water in sealed containers is your best and safest source. You must protect this
water as much as possible. Be sure to decontaminate the containers before opening.

If you cannot get water in sealed containers, try to get it from a closed source such as underground
water pipes. You may use rainwater or snow if there is no evidence of contamination. Use water from
slow-moving streams, if necessary, but always check first for signs of contamination, and always filter the
water as described under nuclear conditions. Signs of water source contamination are foreign odors such
as garlic, mustard, geranium, or bitter almonds; oily spots on the surface of the water or nearby; and the
presence of dead fish or animals. If these signs are present, do not use the water. Always boil or purify the
water to prevent bacteriological infection.

Food Procurement. It is extremely difficult to eat while in a contaminated area. You will have to break the
seal on your protective mask to eat. If you eat, find an area in which you can safely unmask. The safest
source of food is your sealed combat rations. Food in sealed cans or bottles will also be safe. Decontaminate
all sealed food containers before opening, otherwise you will contaminate the food.

If you must supplement your combat rations with local plants or animals, do not use plants from contaminated
areas or animals that appear to be sick. When handling plants or animals, always use protective
gloves and clothing.