!!!USA+SURVIVAL((2)-part2)

Special Operations and Situations 281

Table 3-4: Survivability requirements for troops in urban buildings.


Fighting Positions. Survivability requirements for fighting positions for individuals, machine guns, and
antitank and antiaircraft weapons are summarized in Table 3-5.

Individual fighting positions. An upper floor area of a multistoried building generally provides sufficient
fields of fire, although corner windows can usually encompass more area. Protection from the possibility
of return fire from the streets requires that the soldier know the composition and thickness of the
building’s outer wall. Load bearing walls generally offer more protection than the curtain walls of framed
buildings. However, the relatively thin walls of a low brick building (only two-bricks thick or 8 inches) is
sometimes less effective than a 15-inch thick nonload bearing curtain wall of a high-rise framed structure.

The individual soldier is also concerned about the amount of overhead protection available. Therefore,
the soldier needs to know about the properties of roof, floor, and ceiling materials. These materials vary
with the type of building construction. In brick buildings, the material for the ceiling of the top floor is
far lighter than that for the next floor down that performs as both ceiling and floor, and thus is capable of
holding up the room’s live load.


282 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Table 3-5: Survivability requirements for fighting positions in urban buildings.



CHAPTER 4


Position Design Details



283


284 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 285



286 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 287



288 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 289



290 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 291



292 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 293



294 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 295



296 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 297



298 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 299



300 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 301



302 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 303



304 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 305



306 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 307



308 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 309



310 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 311



312 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 313



314 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 315



316 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 317



318 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 319



320 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 321



322 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 323



324 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 325



326 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 327



328 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 329



330 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 331



332 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 333



334 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 335



336 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 337



338 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 339



340 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Position Design Details 341



342 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



PART IV


Water, Food, Plants, Herbal
Remedies, and Dangerous
Plants and Animals



CHAPTER 1


Water Procurement


Water is one of your most urgent needs in a survival situation. You can‘t live long without it, especially in
hot areas where you lose water rapidly through perspiration. Even in cold areas, you need a minimum of
2 liters of water each day to maintain efficiency.

More than three-fourths of your body is composed of fluids. Your body loses fluid as a result of heat,
cold, stress, and exertion. To function effectively, you must replace the fluid your body loses. So, one of
your first goals is to obtain an adequate supply of water.

WATER SOURCES

Almost any environment has water present to some degree. Table 1-1 lists possible sources of water in
various environments. It also provides information on how to make the water potable.

Note: If you do not have a canteen, a cup, a can, or other type of container, improvise one from plastic
or water-resistant cloth. Shape the plastic or cloth into a bowl by pleating it. Use pins or other suitable
items—even your hands—to hold the pleats.

Table 1-1: Water sources in different environments.


345


346 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Table 1-1: (Continued)


If you do not have a reliable source to replenish your water supply, stay alert for ways in which your
environment can help you.


CAUTION
Do not substitute the fluids listed in Table 1-2 for water.

Heavy dew can provide water. Tie rags or tufts of fine grass around your ankles and walk through dewcovered
grass before sunrise. As the rags or grass tufts absorb the dew, wring the water into a container.
Repeat the process until you have a supply of water or until the dew is gone. Australian natives sometimes
mop up as much as a liter an hour this way.


Water Procurement 347

Table 1-1: (Continued)


Bees or ants going into a hole in a tree may point to a water-filled hole. Siphon the water with plastic
tubing or scoop it up with an improvised dipper. You can also stuff cloth in the hole to absorb the water
and then wring it from the cloth.

Water sometimes gathers in tree crotches or rock crevices. Use the above procedures to get the water. In
arid areas, bird droppings around a crack in the rocks may indicate water in or near the crack.

Green bamboo thickets are an excellent source of fresh water. Water from green bamboo is clear and
odorless. To get the water, bend a green bamboo stalk, tie it down, and cut off the top (Figure 1-1). The
water will drip freely during the night. Old, cracked bamboo may contain water.


CAUTION

Purify the water before drinking it.


348 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Table 1-2: The effects of substitute fluids.


Wherever you find banana or plantain trees, you can get water. Cut down the tree, leaving about a 30centimeter
stump, and scoop out the center of the stump so that the hollow is bowl-shaped. Water from the
roots will immediately start to fill the hollow. The first three fillings of water will be bitter, but succeeding
fillings will be palatable. The stump (Figure 1-2) will supply water for up to four days. Be sure to cover it
to keep out insects.

Some tropical vines can give you water. Cut a notch in the vine as high as you can reach, then cut the
vine off close to the ground. Catch the dropping liquid in a container or in your mouth (Figure 1-3).


CAUTION
Do not drink the liquid if it is sticky, milky, or bitter tasting.

The milk from green (unripe) coconuts is a good thirst quencher. However, the milk from mature coconuts
contains an oil that acts as a laxative. Drink in moderation only.

In the American tropics you may find large trees whose branches support air plants. These air plants
may hold a considerable amount of rainwater in their overlapping, thickly growing leaves. Strain the water
through a cloth to remove insects and debris.

You can get water from plants with moist pulpy centers. Cut off a section of the plant and squeeze or
smash the pulp so that the moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container.


Figure 1-1: Water from green bamboo.


Water Procurement 349


Figure 1-2: Water from plantain or banana tree stump.


Figure 1-3: Water from a vine.


350 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Plant roots may provide water. Dig or pry the roots out of the ground, cut them into short pieces, and
smash the pulp so that the moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container.

Fleshy leaves, stems, or stalks, such as bamboo, contain water. Cut or notch the stalks at the base of a
joint to drain out the liquid.

The following trees can also provide water:

•
Palms. Palms, such as the buri, coconut, sugar, rattan, and nips, contain liquid. Bruise a lower frond
and pull it down so the tree will “bleed” at the injury.
•
Traveler’s tree. Found in Madagascar, this tree has a cuplike sheath at the base of its leaves in which
water collects.
•
Umbrella tree. The leaf bases and roots of this tree of western tropical Africa can provide water.
•
Baobab tree. This tree of the sandy plains of northern Australia and Umbrella tree. The leaf bases
and roots of this tree of western tropical Africa can provide water.
•
Baobab tree. This tree of the sandy plains of northern Australia and Africa collects water in its
bottlelike trunk during the wet season. Frequently, you can find clear, fresh water in these trees
after weeks of dry weather.
CAUTION
Do not keep the sap from plants longer than 24 hours. It begins fermenting, becoming
dangerous as a water source.

STILL CONSTRUCTION

You can use stills in various areas of the world. They draw moisture from the ground and from plant material.
You need certain materials to build a still, and you need time to let it collect the water. It takes about24
hours to get 0.5 to 1 liter of water.

Aboveground Still. To make the aboveground still, you need a sunny slope on which to place the still, a
clear plastic bag, green leafy vegetation, and a small rock (Figure 1-4).


Figure 1-4: Aboveground solar water still.


Water Procurement 351

To make the still—

•
Fill the bag with air by turning the opening into the breeze or by “scooping” air into the bag.
•
Fill the plastic bag half to three-fourths full of green leafy vegetation. Be sure to remove all hard
sticks or sharp spines that might puncture the bag.
CAUTION
Do not use poisonous vegetation. It will provide poisonous liquid.

•
Place a small rock or similar item in the bag.
•
Close the bag and tie the mouth securely as close to the end of the bag as possible to keep the maximum
amount of air space. If you have a piece of tubing, a small straw, or a hollow reed, insert one
end in the mouth of the bag before you tie it securely. Then tie off or plug the tubing so that air will
not escape. This tubing will allow you to drain out condensed water without untying the bag.
•
Place the bag, mouth downhill, on a slope in full sunlight. Position the mouth of the bag slightly
higher than the low point in the bag.
•
Settle the bag in place so that the rock works itself into the low point in the bag.
To get the condensed water from the still, loosen the tie around the bag’s mouth and tip the bag so that
the water collected around the rock will drain out. Then retie the mouth securely and reposition the still
to allow further condensation.

Change the vegetation in the bag after extracting most of the water from it. This will ensure maximum
output of water.

Belowground Still. To make a belowground still, you need a digging tool, a container, a clear plastic sheet,
a drinking tube, and a rock (Figure 1-5).

Select a site where you believe the soil will contain moisture (such as a dry stream bed or a low spot
where rainwater has collected). The soil at this site should be easy to dig, and sunlight must hit the site
most of the day.


Figure 1-5: Belowground still.


352 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

To construct the still—

•
Dig a bowl-shaped hole about 1 meter across and 60 centimeters deep.
•
Dig a sump in the center of the hole. The sump’s depth and perimeter will depend on the size of the container
that you have to place in it. The bottom of the sump should allow the container to stand upright.
•
Anchor the tubing to the container’s bottom by forming a loose overhand knot in the tubing.
•
Place the container upright in the sump.
•
Extend the unanchored end of the tubing up, over, and beyond the lip of the hole.
•
Place the plastic sheet over the hole, covering its edges with soil to hold it in place.
•
Place a rock in the center of the plastic sheet.
•
Lower the plastic sheet into the hole until it is about 40 centimeters below ground level. It now
forms an inverted cone with the rock at its apex. Make sure that the cone’s apex is directly over your
container. Also make sure the plastic cone does not touch the sides of the hole because the earth will
absorb the condensed water.
•
Put more soil on the edges of the plastic to hold it securely in place and to prevent the loss of
moisture.
•
Plug the tube when not in use so that the moisture will not evaporate.
You can drink water without disturbing the still by using the tube as a straw.

You may want to use plants in the hole as a moisture source. If so, dig out additional soil from the sides
of the hole to form a slope on which to place the plants. Then proceed as above.

If polluted water is your only moisture source, dig a small trough outside the hole about 25 centimeters
from the still’s lip (Figure 1-6). Dig the trough about 25 centimeters deep and 8 centimeters wide. Pour the
polluted water in the trough. Be sure you do not spill any polluted water around the rim of the hole where
the plastic sheet touches the soil. The trough holds the polluted water and the soil filters it as the still draws
it. The water then condenses on the plastic and drains into the container. This process works extremely
well when your only water source is salt water.

You will need at least three stills to meet your individual daily water intake needs.

WATER PURIFICATION

Rainwater collected in clean containers or in plants is usually safe for drinking. However, purify water
from lakes, ponds, swamps, springs, or streams, especially the water near human settlements or in the


Figure 1-6: Belowground still to get potable water from polluted water.


Water Procurement 353

tropics. When possible, purify all water you got from vegetation or from the ground by using iodine or
chlorine, or by boiling.

Purify water by—

•
Using water purification tablets. (Follow the directions provided.)
•
Placing 5 drops of 2 percent tincture of iodine in a canteen full of clear water. If the canteen is full of
cloudy or cold water, use 10 drops. (Let the canteen of water stand for 30 minutes before drinking.)
•
Boiling water for 1 minute at sea level, adding 1 minute for each additional 300 meters above sea
level, or boil for 10 minutes no matter where you are.
By drinking nonpotable water you may contract diseases or swallow organisms that can harm you.
Examples of such diseases or organisms are—

•
Dysentery. Severe, prolonged diarrhea with bloody stools, fever, and weakness.
•
Cholera and typhoid. You may be susceptible to these diseases regardless of inoculations.
•
Flukes. Stagnant, polluted water—especially in tropical areas—often contains blood flukes. If you
swallow flukes, they will bore into the bloodstream, live as parasites, and cause disease.
•
Leeches. If you swallow a leech, it can hook onto the throat passage or inside the nose. It will suck
blood, create a wound, and move to another area. Each bleeding wound may become infected.
WATER FILTRATION DEVICES

If the water you find is also muddy, stagnant, and foul smelling, you can clear the water—

•
By placing it in a container and letting it stand for 12 hours.
•
By pouring it through a filtering system.
Note: These procedures only clear the water and make it more palatable. You will have to purify it.

To make a filtering system, place several centimeters or layers of filtering material such as sand, crushed
rock, charcoal, or cloth in bamboo, a hollow log, or an article of clothing (Figure 1-7).

Remove the odor from water by adding charcoal from your fire. Let the water stand for 45 minutes
before drinking it.


Figure 1-7: Water filtering systems.


CHAPTER 2


Food Procurement


After water, man’s most urgent requirement is food. In contemplating virtually any hypothetical survival
situation, the mind immediately turns to thoughts of food. Unless the situation occurs in an arid environment,
even water, which is more important to maintaining body functions, will almost always follow food
in our initial thoughts. The survivor must remember that the three essentials of survival—water, food,
and shelter–are prioritized according to the estimate of the actual situation. This estimate must not only be
timely but accurate as well. Some situations may well dictate that shelter precede both food and water.

ANIMALS FOR FOOD

Unless you have the chance to take large game, concentrate your efforts on the smaller animals, due to their
abundance. The smaller animal species are also easier to prepare. You must not know all the animal species
that are suitable as food. Relatively few are poisonous, and they make a smaller list to remember. What is
important is to learn the habits and behavioral patterns of classes of animals. For example, animals that
are excellent choices for trapping, those that inhabit a particular range and occupy a den or nest, those that
have somewhat fixed feeding areas, and those that have trails leading from one area to another. Larger,
herding animals, such as elk or caribou, roam vast areas and are somewhat more difficult to trap. Also, you
must understand the food choices of a particular species.

You can, with relatively few exceptions, eat anything that crawls, swims, walks, or flies. The first obstacle
is overcoming your natural aversion to a particular food source. Historically, people in starvation situations
have resorted to eating everything imaginable for nourishment. A person who ignores an otherwise
healthy food source due to a personal bias, or because he feels it is unappetizing, is risking his own survival.
Although it may prove difficult at first, a survivor must eat what is available to maintain his health.

Insects. The most abundant life-form on earth, insects are easily caught. Insects provide 65 to 80 percent
protein compared to 20 percent for beef. This fact makes insects an important, if not overly appetizing,
food source. Insects to avoid include all adults that sting or bite, hairy or brightly colored insects,
and caterpillars and insects that have a pungent odor. Also avoid spiders and common disease carriers
such as ticks, flies, and mosquitoes. See Chapter 3 for more information about dangerous insects and
arachnids.

Rotting logs lying on the ground are excellent places to look for a variety of insects including ants, termites,
beetles, and grubs, which are beetle larvae. Do not overlook insect nests on or in the ground. Grassy
areas, such as fields, are good areas to search because the insects are easily seen. Stones, boards, or other
materials lying on the ground provide the insects with good nesting sites. Check these sites. Insect larvae
are also edible. Insects such as beetles and grasshoppers that have a hard outer shell will have parasites.
Cook them before eating. Remove any wings and barbed legs also. You can eat most insects raw. The taste
varies from one species to another. Wood grubs are bland, while some species of ants store honey in their
bodies, giving them a sweet taste.

You can grind a collection of insects into a paste. You can mix them with edible vegetation. You can cook
them to improve their taste.

Worms. Worms (Annelidea) are an excellent protein source. Dig for them in damp humus soil or watch
for them on the ground after a rain. After capturing them, drop them into clean, potable water for a few
minutes. The worms will naturally purge or wash themselves out, after which you can eat them raw.

355


356 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Leeches. Leeches are blood-sucking creatures with a wormlike appearance. You find them in the tropics
and in temperate zones. You will certainly encounter them when swimming in infested waters or making
expedient water crossings. You can find them when passing through swampy, tropical vegetation and
bogs. You can also find them while cleaning food animals, such as turtles, found in fresh water. Leeches
can crawl into small openings; therefore, avoid camping in their habitats when possible. Keep your trousers
tucked in your boots. Check yourself frequently for leeches. Swallowed or eaten, leeches can be a great
hazard. It is therefore essential to treat water from questionable sources by boiling or using chemical water
treatments. Survivors have developed severe infections from wounds inside the throat or nose when sores
from swallowed leeches became infected.

Crustaceans. Freshwater shrimp range in size from 0.25 centimeter up to 2.5 centimeters. They can form
rather large colonies in mats of floating algae or in mud bottoms of ponds and lakes.

Crayfish are akin to marine lobsters and crabs. You can distinguish them by their hard exoskeleton and
five pairs of legs, the front pair having oversized pincers. Crayfish are active at night, but you can locate
them in the daytime by looking under and around stones in streams. You can also find them by looking in
the soft mud near the chimney-like breathing holes of their nests. You can catch crayfish by tying bits of
offal or internal organs to a string. When the crayfish grabs the bait, pull it to shore before it has a chance
to release the bait.

You find saltwater lobsters, crabs, and shrimp from the surf’s edge out to water 10 meters deep. Shrimp
may come to a light at night where you can scoop them up with a net. You can catch lobsters and crabs with
a baited trap or a baited hook. Crabs will come to bait placed at the edge of the surf, where you can trap or
net them. Lobsters and crabs are nocturnal and caught best at night.

Mollusks. This class includes octopuses and freshwater and saltwater shell fish such as snails, clams, mussels,
bivalves, barnacles, periwinkles, chitons, and sea urchins (Figure 2-1). You find bivalves similar to our
freshwater mussel and terrestrial and aquatic snails worldwide under all water conditions.

River snails or freshwater periwinkles are plentiful in rivers, streams, and lakes of northern coniferous
forests. These snails may be pencil point or globular in shape.

In fresh water, look for mollusks in the shallows, especially in water with a sandy or muddy bottom.
Look for the narrow trails they leave in the mud or for the dark elliptical slit of their open valves.

Near the sea, look in the tidal pools and the wet sand. Rocks along beaches or extending as reefs into
deeper water often bear clinging shellfish. Snails and limpets cling to rocks and seaweed from the low
water mark upward. Large snails, called chitons, adhere tightly to rocks above the surf line.

Mussels usually form dense colonies in rock pools, on logs, or at the base of boulders.


CAUTION

Mussels may be poisonous in tropical zones during the summer!

Steam, boil, or bake mollusks in the shell. They make excellent stews in combination with greens and tubers.


CAUTION
Do not eat shellfish that are not covered by water at high tide!

See chapter 5 for more information about dangerous shellfish.

Fish. Fish represent a good source of protein and fat. They offer some distinct advantages to the survivor
or evader. They are usually more abundant than mammal wildlife, and the ways to get them are silent. To
be successful at catching fish, you must know their habits. For instance, fish tend to feed heavily before a
storm. Fish are not likely to feed after a storm when the water is muddy and swollen. Light often attracts


Food Procurement 357


Figure 2-1: Edible Mollusks.

fish at night. When there is a heavy current, fish will rest in places where there is an eddy, such as near
rocks. Fish will also gather where there are deep pools, under overhanging brush, and in and around submerged
foliage, logs, or other objects that offer them shelter.

There are no poisonous freshwater fish. However, the catfish species has sharp, needlelike protrusions
on its dorsal fins and barbels. These can inflict painful puncture wounds that quickly become infected.

Cook all freshwater fish to kill parasites. Also cook saltwater fish caught within a reef or within the influence
of a freshwater source as a precaution. Any marine life obtained farther out in the sea will not contain
parasites because of the saltwater environment. You can eat these raw.

Many fish living in reefs near shore, or in lagoons and estuaries, are poisonous to eat, though some are
only seasonally dangerous. The majority are tropical fish; however, be wary of eating any unidentifiable
fish wherever you are. Some predatory fish, such as barracuda and snapper, may become toxic if the fish
they feed on in shallow waters are poisonous. The most poisonous types appear to have parrotlike beaks
and hard shell-like skins with spines and often can inflate their bodies like balloons. However, at certain
times of the year, indigenous populations consider the puffer a delicacy. See chapter 5, Dangerous Fish,
Mollusks, and Freshwater Animals for more information.


358 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Amphibians. Frogs and salamanders are easily found around bodies of fresh water. Frogs seldom move
from the safety of the water’s edge. At the first sign of danger, they plunge into the water and bury themselves
in the mud and debris. There are few poisonous species of frogs. Avoid any brightly colored frog or
one that has a distinct “X” mark on its back. Do not confuse toads with frogs. You normally find toads in
drier environments. Several species of toads secrete a poisonous substance through their skin as a defense
against attack. Therefore, to avoid poisoning, do not handle or eat toads.

Salamanders are nocturnal. The best time to catch them is at night using a light. They can range in size
from a few centimeters to well over 60 centimeters in length. Look in water around rocks and mud banks
for salamanders.

Reptiles. Reptiles are a good protein source and relatively easy to catch. You should cook them, but in an
emergency, you can eat them raw. Their raw flesh may transmit parasites, but because reptiles are coldblooded,
they do not carry the blood diseases of the warm-blooded animals. Another toxic meat is the flesh
of the hawksbill turtle. You recognize them by their down-turned bill and yellow polka dots on their neck
and front flippers. They weigh more than 275 kilograms and are unlikely to be captured.

The box turtle is a commonly encountered turtle that you should not eat. It feeds on poisonous mushrooms
and may build up a highly toxic poison in its flesh. Cooking does not destroy this toxin. Avoid the
hawksbill turtle, found in the Atlantic Ocean, because of its poisonous thorax gland. Poisonous snakes,
alligators, crocodiles, and large sea turtles present obvious hazards to the survivor. See chapter 4 for more
information about dangerous reptiles.

Birds. All species of birds are edible, although the flavor will vary considerably. You may skin fish-eating
birds to improve their taste. As with any wild animal, you must understand birds’ common habits to have
a realistic chance of capturing them. You can take pigeons, as well as some other species, from their roost
at night by hand. During the nesting season, some species will not leave the nest even when approached.
Knowing where and when the birds nest makes catching them easier (Table 2-1). Birds tend to have regular
flyways going from the roost to a feeding area, to water, and so forth. Careful observation should reveal
where these flyways are and indicate good areas for catching birds in nets stretched across the flyways
(Figure 2-2). Roosting sites and waterholes are some of the most promising areas for trapping or snaring.

Nesting birds present another food source—eggs. Remove all but two or three eggs from the clutch,
marking the on that you leave. The bird will continue to lay more eggs to fill the clutch. Continue removing
the fresh eggs, leaving the ones you marked.

Mammals. Mammals are excellent protein sources and, for Americans, the most tasty food source. There
are some drawbacks to obtaining mammals. In a hostile environment, the enemy may detect any traps
or snares placed on land. The amount of injury an animal can inflict is in direct proportion to its size. All
mammals have teeth and nearly all will bite in self-defense. Even a squirrel can inflict a serious wound and
any bite presents a serious risk of infection. Also, a mother can be extremely aggressive in defense of her
young. Any animal with no route of escape will fight when cornered.

All mammals are edible; however, the polar bear and bearded seal have toxic levels of vitamin A in their
livers. The platypus, native to Australia and Tasmania, is an egg-laying, semiaquatic mammal that has
poisonous glands. Scavenging mammals, such as the opossum, may carry diseases. Common sense tells
the survivor to avoid encounters with lions, bears, and other large or dangerous animals. You should also
avoid large grazing animals with horns, hooves, and great weight. Your actions may prevent unexpected
meetings. Move carefully through their environment. Do not attract large predators by leaving food lying
around your camp. Carefully survey the scene before entering water or forests.

Bats. Despite the legends, bats (Desmodus species) are a relatively small hazard to the survivor. There
are many bat varieties worldwide, but you find the true vampire bats only in Central and South America.
They are small, agile fliers that land on their sleeping victims, mostly cows and horses, to lap a blood meal
after biting their victim. Their saliva contains an anticoagulant that keeps the blood slowly flowing while
they feed. Only a small percentage of these bats actually carry rabies; however, avoid any sick or injured


Food Procurement 359

Table 2-1: Bird nesting places.


bat. They can carry other diseases and infections and will bite readily when handled. Taking shelter in
a cave occupied by bats, however, presents the much greater hazard of inhaling powdered bat dung, or
guano. Bat dung carries many organisms that can cause diseases. Eating thoroughly cooked flying foxes
or other bats presents no danger from rabies and other diseases, but again, the emphasis is on thorough
cooking.

TRAPS AND SNARES

For an unarmed survivor or evader, or when the sound of a rifle shot could be a problem, trapping or snaring
wild game is a good alternative. Several well-placed traps have the potential to catch much more game
than a man with a rifle is likely to shoot. To be effective with any type of trap or snare, you must—

• Be familiar with the species of animal you intend to catch.
• Be capable of constructing a proper trap.
• Not alarm the prey by leaving signs of your presence.
There are no catchall traps you can set for all animals. You must determine what species are in a given
area and set your traps specifically with those animals in mind. Look for the following

• Runs and trails.
• Tracks.
• Droppings.
• Chewed or rubbed vegetation.
• Nesting or roosting sites.
• Feeding and watering areas.
Position your traps and snares where there is proof that animals pass through. You must determine if
it is a “run” or a “trail.” A trail will show signs of use by several species and will be rather distinct. A run
is usually smaller and less distinct and will only contain signs of one species. You may construct a perfect


360 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 2-2: Catching birds in a net.

snare, but it will not catch anything if haphazardly placed in the woods. Animals have bedding areas,
water-holes, and feeding areas with trails leading from one to another. You must place snares and traps
around these areas to be effective.

For an evader in a hostile environment, trap and snare concealment is important. It is equally important,
however, not to create a disturbance that will alarm the animal and cause it to avoid the trap. Therefore, if
you must dig, remove all fresh dirt from the area. Most animals will instinctively avoid a pitfall-type trap.
Prepare the various parts of a trap or snare away from the site, carry them in, and set them up. Such actions
make it easier to avoid disturbing the local vegetation, thereby alerting the prey. Do not use freshly cut, live
vegetation to construct a trap or snare. Freshly cut vegetation will “bleed” sap that has an odor the prey
will be able to smell. It is an alarm signal to the animal.

You must remove or mask the human scent on and around the trap you set. Although birds do not have
a developed sense of smell, nearly all mammals depend on smell even more than on sight. Even the slightest
human scent on a trap will alarm the prey and cause it to avoid the area. Actually removing the scent
from a trap is difficult but masking it is relatively easy. Use the fluid from the gall and urine bladders of
previous kills. Do not use human urine. Mud, particularly from an area with plenty of rotting vegetation,
is also good. Use it to coat your hands when handling the trap and to coat the trap when setting it. In
nearly all parts of the world, animals know the smell of burned vegetation and smoke. It is only when a
fire is actually burning that they become alarmed. Therefore, smoking the trap parts is an effective means
to mask your scent. If one of the above techniques is not practical, and if time permits, allow a trap to
weather for a few days and then set it. Do not handle a trap while it is weathering. When you position
the trap, camouflage it as naturally as possible to prevent detection by the enemy and to avoid alarming
the prey.

Traps or snares placed on a trail or run should use channelization. To build a channel, construct a funnel-
shaped barrier extending from the sides of the trail toward the trap, with the narrowest part nearest
the trap. Channelization should be inconspicuous to avoid alerting the prey. As the animal gets to the trap,
it cannot turn left or right and continues into the trap. Few wild animals will back up, preferring to face
the direction of travel. Channelization does not have to be an impassable barrier. You only have to make
it inconvenient for the animal to go over or through the barrier. For best effect, the channelization should
reduce the trail’s width to just slightly wider than the targeted animal’s body. Maintain this constriction at
least as far back from the trap as the animal’s body length, then begin the widening toward the mouth of
the funnel.


Food Procurement 361

Use of Bait. Baiting a trap or snare increases your chances of catching an animal. When catching fish,
you must bait nearly all the devices. Success with an unbaited trap depends on its placement in a good
location. A baited trap can actually draw animals to it. The bait should be something the animal knows.
This bait, however, should not be so readily available in the immediate area that the animal can get it
close by. For example, baiting a trap with corn in the middle of a corn field would not be likely to work.
Likewise, if corn is not grown in the region, a corn-baited trap may arouse an animal’s curiosity and keep
it alerted while it ponders the strange food. Under such circumstances it may not go for the bait. One
bait that works well on small mammals is the peanut butter from a meal, ready-to-eat (MRE) ration. Salt
is also a good bait. When using such baits, scatter bits of it around the trap to give the prey a chance to
sample it and develop a craving for it. The animal will then overcome some of its caution before it gets
to the trap.

If you set and bait a trap for one species but another species takes the bait without being caught, try to
determine what the animal was. Then set a proper trap for that animal, using the same bait.

Note: Once you have successfully trapped an animal, you will not only gain confidence in your ability,
you also will have resupplied yourself with bait for several more traps.

Trap and Snare Construction. Traps and snares crush, choke, hang, or entangle the prey. A single trap or
snare will commonly incorporate two or more of these principles. The mechanisms that provide power to
the trap are almost always very simple. The struggling victim, the force of gravity, or a bent sapling’s tension
provides the power.

The heart of any trap or snare is the trigger. When planning a trap or snare, ask yourself how it should
affect the prey, what is the source of power, and what will be the most efficient trigger. Your answers will
help you devise a specific trap for a specific species. Traps are designed to catch and hold or to catch and
kill. Snares are traps that incorporate a noose to accomplish either function.

Simple Snare. A simple snare (Figure 2-3) consists of a noose placed over a trail or den hole and attached to
a firmly planted stake. If the noose is some type of cordage placed upright on a game trail, use small twigs
or blades of grass to hold it up. Filaments from spider webs are excellent for holding nooses open. Make
sure the noose is large enough to pass freely over the animal’s head. As the animal continues to move, the
noose tightens around its neck. The more the animal struggles, the tighter the noose gets. This type of snare
usually does not kill the animal. If you use cordage, it may loosen enough to slip off the animal’s neck. Wire
is therefore the best choice for a simple snare.


Figure 2-3: Simple snare.


362 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Drag Noose. Use a drag noose on an animal run (Figure 2-4). Place forked sticks on either side of the run
and lay a sturdy crossmember across them. Tie the noose to the crossmember and hang it at a height above
the animal’s head. (Nooses designed to catch by the head should never be low enough for the prey to step
into with a foot.) As the noose tightens around the animal’s neck, the animal pulls the crossmember from
the forked sticks and drags it along. The surrounding vegetation quickly catches the crossmember and the
animal becomes entangled.

Twitch-Up. A twitch-up is a supple sapling, which, when bent over and secured with a triggering device,
will provide power to a variety of snares. Select a hardwood sapling along the trail. A twitch-up will work
much faster and with more force if you remove all the branches and foliage.

Twitch-Up Snare. A simple twitch-up snare uses two forked sticks, each with a long and short leg (Figure
2-5). Bend the twitch-up and mark the trail below it. Drive the long leg of one forked stick firmly into the
ground at that point. Ensure the cut on the short leg of this stick is parallel to the ground. Tie the long leg
of the remaining forked stick to a piece of cordage secured to the twitch-up. Cut the short leg so that it
catches on the short leg of the other forked stick. Extend a noose over the trail. Set the trap by bending the
twitch-up and engaging the short legs of the forked sticks. When an animal catches its head in the noose, it
pulls the forked sticks apart, allowing the twitch-up to spring up and hang the prey.

Note: Do not use green sticks for the trigger. The sap that oozes out could glue them together.

Squirrel Pole. A squirrel pole is a long pole placed against a tree in an area showing a lot of squirrel activity
(Figure 2-6). Place several wire nooses along the top and sides of the pole so that a squirrel trying to go up
or down the pole will have to pass through one or more of them. Position the nooses (5 to 6 centimeters in
diameter) about 2.5 centimeters off the pole. Place the top and bottom wire nooses 45 centimeters from the
top and bottom of the pole to prevent the squirrel from getting its feet on a solid surface. If this happens,
the squirrel will chew through the wire. Squirrels are naturally curious. After an initial period of caution,
they will try to go up or down the pole and will get caught in a noose. The struggling animal will soon fall


Figure 2-4: Drag noose.


Food Procurement 363


Figure 2-5: Twitch-up snare.


Figure 2-6: Squirrel pole.

from the pole and strangle. Other squirrels will soon follow and, in this way, you can catch several squirrels.
You can emplace multiple poles to increase the catch.

Ojibwa Bird Pole. An Ojibwa bird pole is a snare used by native Americans for centuries (Figure 2-7). To
be effective, place it in a relatively open area away from tall trees. For best results, pick a spot near feeding
areas, dusting areas, or watering holes. Cut a pole 1.8 to 2.1 meters long and trim away all limbs and foliage.
Do not use resinous wood such as pine. Sharpen the upper end to a point, then drill a small diameter
hole 5 to 7.5 centimeters down from the top. Cut a small stick 10 to 15 centimeters long and shape one end
so that it will almost fit into the hole. This is the perch. Plant the long pole in the ground with the pointed
end up. Tie a small weight, about equal to the weight of the targeted species, to a length of cordage. Pass
the free end of the cordage through the hole, and tie a slip noose that covers the perch. Tie a single


364 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 2-7: Ojibwa bird pole.

overhand knot in the cordage and place the perch against the hole. Allow the cordage to slip through the
hole until the overhand knot rests against the pole and the top of the perch. The tension of the overhand
knot against the pole and perch will hold the perch in position. Spread the noose over the perch, ensuring
it covers the perch and drapes over on both sides. Most birds prefer to rest on something above ground
and will land on the perch. As soon as the bird lands, the perch will fall, releasing the overhand knot and
allowing the weight to drop. The noose will tighten around the bird’s feet, capturing it. If the weight is too
heavy, it will cut the bird’s feet off, allowing it to escape.

Noosing Wand. A noose stick or “noosing wand” is useful for capturing roosting birds or small mammals
(Figure 2-8). It requires a patient operator. This wand is more a weapon than a trap. It consists of a pole (as
long as you can effectively handle) with a slip noose of wire or stiff cordage at the small end. To catch an
animal, you slip the noose over the neck of a roosting bird and pull it tight. You can also place it over a den
hole and hide in a nearby blind. When the animal emerges from the den, you jerk the pole to tighten the
noose and thus capture the animal. Carry a stout club to kill the prey.

Treadle Spring Snare. Use a treadle snare against small game on a trail (Figure 2-9). Dig a shallow hole in
the trail. Then drive a forked stick (fork down) into the ground on each side of the hole on the same side of
the trail. Select two fairly straight sticks that span the two forks. Position these two sticks so that their ends
engage the forks. Place several sticks over the hole in the trail by positioning one end over the lower horizontal
stick and the other on the ground on the other side of the hole. Cover the hole with enough sticks
so that the prey must step on at least one of them to set off the snare. Tie one end of a piece of cordage to a
twitch-up or to a weight suspended over a tree limb. Bend the twitch-up or raise the suspended weight to
determine where you will tie a 5 centimeter or so long trigger. Form a noose with the other end of the cordage.
Route and spread the noose over the top of the sticks over the hole. Place the trigger stick against the
horizontal sticks and route the cordage behind the sticks so that the tension of the power source will hold
it in place. Adjust the bottom horizontal stick so that it will barely hold against the trigger. As the animal
places its foot on a stick across the hole, the bottom horizontal stick moves down, releasing the trigger and


Figure 2-8: Noosing wand.


Food Procurement 365


Figure 2-9: Treadle spring snare.

allowing the noose to catch the animal by the foot. Because of the disturbance on the trail, an animal will
be wary. You must therefore use channelization.

Figure 4 Deadfall. The figure 4 is a trigger used to drop a weight onto a prey and crush it (Figure 2-10). The
type of weight used may vary, but it should be heavy enough to kill or incapacitate the prey immediately.
Construct the figure 4 using three notched sticks. These notches hold the sticks together in a figure 4 pattern
when under tension. Practice making this trigger beforehand; it requires close tolerances and precise
angles in its construction.

Paiute Deadfall. The Paiute deadfall is similar to the figure 4 but uses a piece of cordage and a catch stick
(Figure 2-11). It has the advantage of being easier to set than the figure 4. Tie one end of a piece of cordage
to the lower end of the diagonal stick. Tie the other end of the cordage to another stick about 5 centimeters


366 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 2-10: Figure 4 deadfall.


Figure 2-11: Paiute deadfall.

long. This 5-centimeter stick is the catch stick. Bring the cord halfway around the vertical stick with the
catch stick at a 90-degree angle. Place the bait stick with one end against the drop weight, or a peg driven
into the ground, and the other against the catch stick. When a prey disturbs the bait stick, it falls free,
releasing the catch stick. As the diagonal stick flies up, the weight falls, crushing the prey.

Bow Trap. A bow trap is one of the deadliest traps. It is dangerous to man as well as animals (Figure 2-12).
To construct this trap, build a bow and anchor it to the ground with pegs. Adjust the aiming point as you


Food Procurement 367


Figure 2-12: Bow trap.

anchor the bow. Lash a toggle stick to the trigger stick. Two upright sticks driven into the ground hold the
trigger stick in place at a point where the toggle stick will engage the pulled bow string. Place a catch stick
between the toggle stick and a stake driven into the ground. Tie a tripwire or cordage to the catch stick and
route it around stakes and across the game trail where you tie it off (as in Figure 2-12). When the prey trips
the trip wire, the bow looses an arrow into it. A notch in the bow serves to help aim the arrow.

WARNING
This is a lethal trap. Approach it with caution and from the rear only!
Pig Spear Shaft. To construct the pig spear shaft, select a stout pole about 2.5 meters long (Figure 2-13). At
the smaller end, firmly lash several small stakes. Lash the large end tightly to a tree along the game trail.
Tie a length of cordage to another tree across the trail. Tie a sturdy, smooth stick to the other end of the


Figure 2-13: Pig spear shaft.


368 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

cord. From the first tree, tie a trip wire or cord low to the ground, stretch it across the trail, and tie it to a
catch stick. Make a slip ring from vines or other suitable material. Encircle the trip wire and the smooth
stick with the slip ring. Emplace one end of another smooth stick within the slip ring and its other end
against the second tree. Pull the smaller end of the spear shaft across the trail and position it between the
short cord and the smooth stick. As the animal trips the tripwire, the catch stick pulls the slip ring off the
smooth sticks, releasing the spear shaft that springs across the trail and impales the prey against the tree.

WARNING
This is a lethal trap. Approach it with caution!
Bottle Trap. A bottle trap is a simple trap for mice and voles (Figure 2-14). Dig a hole 30 to 45 centimeters
deep that is wider at the bottom than at the top. Make the top of the hole as small as possible. Place a piece of
bark or wood over the hole with small stones under it to hold it up 2.5 to 5 centimeters off the ground. Mice
or voles will hide under the cover to escape danger and fall into the hole. They cannot climb out because of
the wall’s backward slope. Use caution when checking this trap; it is an excellent hiding place for snakes.

KILLING DEVICES

There are several killing devices that you can construct to help you obtain small game to help you survive.
The rabbit stick, the spear, the bow and arrow, and the sling are such devices.

Rabbit Stick. One of the simplest and most effective killing devices is a stout stick as long as your arm,
from fingertip to shoulder, called a “rabbit stick.” You can throw it either overhand or sidearm and with
considerable force. It is very effective against small game that stops and freezes as a defense.

Spear. You can make a spear to kill small game and to fish. Jab with the spear, do not throw it. See Figure 2-20.

Bow and Arrow. A good bow is the result of many hours of work. You can construct a suitable short-term
bow fairly easily. When it loses its spring or breaks, you can replace it. Select a hardwood stick about one
meter long that is free of knots or limbs. Carefully scrape the large end down until it has the same pull as


Figure 2-14: Bottle trap.


Food Procurement 369

the small end. Careful examination will show the natural curve of the stick. Always scrape from the side
that faces you, or the bow will break the first time you pull it. Dead, dry wood is preferable to green wood.
To increase the pull, lash a second bow to the first, front to front, forming an “X” when viewed from the
side. Attach the tips of the bows with cordage and only use a bowstring on one bow.

Select arrows from the straightest dry sticks available. The arrows should be about half as long as the
bow. Scrape each shaft smooth all around. You will probably have to straighten the shaft. You can bend an
arrow straight by heating the shaft over hot coals. Do not allow the shaft to scorch or burn. Hold the shaft
straight until it cools.

You can make arrowheads from bone, glass, metal, or pieces of rock. You can also sharpen and fire
harden the end of the shaft. To fire harden wood, hold it over hot coals, being careful not to burn or scorch
the wood.

You must notch the ends of the arrows for the bowstring. Cut or file the notch; do not split it. Fletching
(adding feathers to the notched end of an arrow) improves the arrow’s flight characteristics, but is not necessary
on a field-expedient arrow.

Sling. You can make a sling by tying two pieces of cordage, about sixty centimeters long, at opposite ends
of a palm-sized piece of leather or cloth. Place a rock in the cloth and wrap one cord around the middle
finger and hold in your palm. Hold the other cord between the forefinger and thumb. To throw the rock,
spin the sling several times in a circle and release the cord between the thumb and forefinger. Practice to
gain proficiency. The sling is very effective against small game. See Part V, Chapter 2 for more information
about slings and arrows of outrageous fortune.

FISHING DEVICES

You can make your own fishhooks, nets and traps and use several methods to obtain fish in a survival
situation.

Improvised Fishhooks. You can make field-expedient fishhooks from pins, needles, wire, small nails, or
any piece of metal. You can also use wood, bone, coconut shell, thorns, flint, seashell, or tortoise shell. You
can also make fish hooks from any combination of these items (Figure 2-15).

To make a wooden hook, cut a piece of hardwood about 2.5 centimeters long and about 6 millimeters
in diameter to form the shank. Cut a notch in one end in which to place the point. Place the point (piece of
bone, wire, nail) in the notch. Hold the point in the notch and tie securely so that it does not move out of
position. This is a fairly large hook. To make smaller hooks, use smaller material.


Figure 2-15: Improvised fishhooks.


370 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

A gorge is a small shaft of wood, bone, metal, or other material. It is sharp on both ends and notched in
the middle where you tie cordage. Bait the gorge by placing a piece of bait on it lengthwise. When the fish
swallows the bait, it also swallows the gorge.

Stakeout. A stakeout is a fishing device you can use in a hostile environment (Figure 2-16). To construct a
stakeout, drive two supple saplings into the bottom of the lake, pond, or stream with their tops just below
the water surface. Tie a cord between them and slightly below the surface. Tie two short cords with hooks
or gorges to this cord, ensuring that they cannot wrap around the poles or each other. They should also not
slip along the long cord. Bait the hooks or gorges.

Gill Net. If a gill net is not available, you can make one using parachute suspension line or similar material
(Figure 2-17). Remove the core lines from the suspension line and tie the easing between two trees. Attach
several core lines to the easing by doubling them over and tying them with prusik knots or girth hitches.
The length of the desired net and the size of the mesh determine the number of core lines used and the
space between them. Starting at one end of the easing, tie the second and the third core lines together using
an overhand knot. Then tie the fourth and fifth, sixth and seventh, and so on, until you reach the last core


Figure 2-16: Stakeout.


Figure 2-17: Making a gill net.


Food Procurement 371

line. You should now have all core lines tied in pairs with a single core line hanging at each end. Start the
second row with the first core line, tie it to the second, the third to the fourth, and so on.

To keep the rows even and to regulate the size of the mesh, tie a guideline to the trees. Position the
guideline on the opposite side of the net you are working on. Move the guideline down after completing
each row. The lines will always hang in pairs and you always tie a cord from one pair to a cord from an
adjoining pair. Continue tying rows until the net is the desired width. Thread a suspension line easing
along the bottom of the net to strengthen it. Use the gill net as shown in Figure 2-18.

Fish Traps. You may trap fish using several methods (Figure 2-19). Fish baskets are one method. You construct
them by lashing several sticks together with vines into a funnel shape. You close the top, leaving a
hole large enough for the fish to swim through.

You can also use traps to catch saltwater fish, as schools regularly approach the shore with the incoming
tide and often move parallel to the shore. Pick a location at high tide and build the trap at low tide. On
rocky shores, use natural rock pools. On coral islands, use natural pools on the surface of reefs by blocking
the openings as the tide recedes. On sandy shores, use sandbars and the ditches they enclose. Build the trap
as a low stone wall extending outward into the water and forming an angle with the shore.

Spearfishing. If you are near shallow water (about waist deep) where the fish are large and plentiful, you
can spear them. To make a spear, cut a long, straight sapling (Figure 2-20). Sharpen the end to a point or
attach a knife, jagged piece of bone, or sharpened metal. You can also make a spear by splitting the shaft
a few inches down from the end and inserting a piece of wood to act as a spreader. You then sharpen the
two separated halves to points. To spear fish, find an area where fish either gather or where there is a fish
run. Place the spear point into the water and slowly move it toward the fish. Then, with a sudden push,
impale the fish on the stream bottom. Do not try to lift the fish with the spear, as it will probably slip off
and you will lose it; hold the spear with one hand and grab and hold the fish with the other. Do not throw
the spear, especially if the point is a knife. You cannot afford to lose a knife in a survival situation. Be alert
to the problems caused by light refraction when looking at objects in the water.


Figure 2-18: Setting a gill net in the stream.


372 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 2-19: Various types of fish traps.


Figure 2-20: Types of spear points.


Food Procurement 373

Chop Fishing. At night, in an area with a good fish density, you can use a light to attract fish. Then, armed
with a machete or similar weapon, you can gather fish using the back side of the blade to strike them. Do
not use the sharp side as you will cut them in two pieces and end up losing some of the fish.

Fish Poison. Another way to catch fish is by using poison. Poison works quickly. It allows you to remain
concealed while it takes effect. It also enables you to catch several fish at one time. When using fish poison,
be sure to gather all of the affected fish, because many dead fish floating downstream could arouse
suspicion. Some plants that grow in warm regions of the world contain rotenone, a substance that stuns or
kills cold-blooded animals but does not harm persons who eat the animals. The best place to use rotenone,
or rotenone-producing plants, is in ponds or the headwaiters of small streams containing fish. Rotenone
works quickly on fish in water 21 degrees C (70 degrees F) or above. The fish rise helplessly to the surface.
It works slowly in water 10 to 21 degrees C (50 to 70 degrees F) and is ineffective in water below 10 degrees
C (50 degrees F). The plants in Figure 2-21, used as indicated, will stun or kill fish:

•
Anamirta cocculus: This woody vine grows in southern Asia and on islands of the South Pacific.
Crush the bean-shaped seeds and throw them in the water.
•
Croton tiglium: This shrub or small tree grows in waste areas on islands of the South Pacific. It bears
seeds in three angled capsules. Crush the seeds and throw them into the water.
•
Barringtonia: These large trees grow near the sea in Malaya and parts of Polynesia. They bear a
fleshy one-seeded fruit. Crush the seeds and bark and throw into the water.
•
Derris eliptica: This large genus of tropical shrubs and woody vines is the main source of commercially
produced rotenone. Grind the roots into a powder and mix with water. Throw a large quantity
of the mixture into the water.
•
Duboisia: This shrub grows in Australia and bears white clusters of flowers and berrylike fruit.
Crush the plants and throw them into the water.
•
Tephrosia: This species of small shrubs, which bears beanlike pods, grows throughout the tropics.
Crush or bruise bundles of leaves and stems and throw them into the water.
•
Lime: You can get lime from commercial sources and in agricultural areas that use large quantities
of it. You may produce your own by burning coral or seashells. Throw the lime into the water.
•
Nut husks: Crush green husks from butternuts or black walnuts. Throw the husks into the water.
PREPARATION OF FISH AND GAME FOR COOKING AND STORAGE

You must know how to prepare fish and game for cooking and storage in a survival situation. Improper
cleaning or storage can result in inedible fish or game.

Fish. Do not eat fish that appears spoiled. Cooking does not ensure that spoiled fish will be edible. Signs
of spoilage are—

•
Sunken eyes.
•
Peculiar odor.
•
Suspicious color. (Gills should be red to pink. Scales should be a pronounced shade of gray, not
faded.)
•
Dents stay in the fish’s flesh after pressing it with your thumb.
•
Slimy, rather than moist or wet body.
•
Sharp or peppery taste.
Eating spoiled or rotten fish may cause diarrhea, nausea, cramps, vomiting, itching, paralysis, or a metallic
taste in the mouth. These symptoms appear suddenly, one to six hours after eating. Induce vomiting if
symptoms appear.


374 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 2-21: Fish-poisoning plants.

Fish spoils quickly after death, especially on a hot day. Prepare fish for eating as soon as possible after
catching it. Cut out the gills and large blood vessels that lie near the spine. Gut fish that is more than 10
centimeters long. Scale or skin the fish.

You can impale a whole fish on a stick and cook it over an open fire. However, boiling the fish with the
skin on is the best way to get the most food value. The fats and oil are under the skin and, by boiling, you
can save the juices for broth. You can use any of the methods used to cook plant food to cook fish. Pack fish
into a ball of clay and bury it in the coals of a fire until the clay hardens. Break open the clay ball to get to
the cooked fish. Fish is done when the meat flakes off. If you plan to keep the fish for later, smoke or fry it.
To prepare fish for smoking, cut off the head and remove the backbone.

Snakes. To skin a snake, first cut off its head and bury it. Then cut the skin down the body 15 to 20 centimeters
(Figure 2-22). Peel the skin back, then grasp the skin in one hand and the body in the other and pull


Food Procurement 375


Figure 2-22: Cleaning a snake.

apart. On large, bulky snakes it may be necessary to slit the belly skin. Cook snakes in the same manner as
small game. Remove the entrails and discard. Cut the snake into small sections and boil or roast it.

Birds. After killing the bird, remove its feathers by either plucking or skinning. Remember, skinning
removes some of the food value. Open up the body cavity and remove its entrails, saving the craw (in
seed-eating birds), heart, and liver. Cut off the feet. Cook by boiling or roasting over a spit. Before cooking
scavenger birds, boil them at least 20 minutes to kill parasites.

Skinning and Butchering Game. Bleed the animal by cutting its throat. If possible, clean the carcass near a stream.
Place the carcass belly up and split the hide from throat to tail, cutting around all sexual organs (Figure 2-23).
Remove the musk glands at points A and B to avoid tainting the meat. For smaller mammals, cut the hide around
the body and insert two fingers under the hide on both sides of the cut and pull both pieces off (Figure 2-24).

Note: When cutting the hide, insert the knife blade under the skin and turn the blade up so that only the
hide gets cut. This will also prevent cutting hair and getting it on the meat.


Figure 2-23: Skinning and butchering large game.


376 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Remove the entrails from smaller game by splitting the body open and pulling them out with the fingers.
Do not forget the chest cavity. For larger game, cut the gullet away from the diaphragm. Roll the
entrails out of the body. Cut around the anus, then reach into the lower abdominal cavity, grasp the lower
intestine, and pull to remove. Remove the urine bladder by pinching it off and cutting it below the fingers.
If you spill urine on the meat, wash it to avoid tainting the meat. Save the heart and liver. Cut these open
and inspect for signs of worms or other parasites. Also inspect the liver’s color; it could indicate a diseased
animal. The liver’s surface should be smooth and wet and its color deep red or purple. If the liver appears
diseased, discard it. However, a diseased liver does not indicate you cannot eat the muscle tissue.

Cut along each leg from above the foot to the previously made body cut. Remove the hide by pulling it
away from the carcass, cutting the connective tissue where necessary. Cut off the head and feet.

Cut larger game into manageable pieces. First, slice the muscle tissue connecting the front legs to the
body. There are no bones or joints connecting the front legs to the body on four-legged animals. Cut the
hindquarters off where they join the body. You must cut around a large bone at the top of the leg and cut
to the ball and socket hip joint. Cut the ligaments around the joint and bend it back to separate it. Remove
the large muscles (the tenderloin) that lie on either side of the spine.

Separate the ribs from the backbone. There is less work and less wear on your knife if you break the ribs
first, then cut through the breaks.

Cook large meat pieces over a spit or boil them. You can stew or boil smaller pieces, particularly those
that remain attached to bone after the initial butchering, as soup or broth. You can cook body organs such
as the heart, liver, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys using the same methods as for muscle meat. You can also
cook and eat the brain. Cut the tongue out, skin it, boil it until tender, and eat it.

Smoking Meat. To smoke meat, prepare an enclosure around a fire (Figure 2-25). Two ponchos snapped
together will work. The fire does not need to be big or hot. The intent is to produce smoke, not heat. Do not
use resinous wood in the fire because its smoke will ruin the meat. Use hardwoods to produce good smoke.
The wood should be somewhat green. If it is too dry, soak it. Cut the meat into thin slices, no more than 6
centimeters thick, and drape them over a framework. Make sure none of the meat touches another piece.
Keep the poncho enclosure around the meat to hold the smoke and keep a close watch on the fire. Do not let
the fire get too hot. Meat smoked overnight in this manner will last about 1 week. Two days of continuous
smoking will preserve the meat for 2 to 4 weeks. Properly smoked meat will look like a dark, curled, brittle
stick and you can eat it without further cooking. You can also use a pit to smoke meat (Figure 2-26).

Drying Meat. To preserve meat by drying, cut it into 6-millimeter strips with the grain. Hang the meat
strips on a rack in a sunny location with good air flow. Keep the strips out of the reach of animals and cover
them to keep blowflies off. Allow the meat to dry thoroughly before eating. Properly dried meat will have
a dry, crisp texture and will not feel cool to the touch.


Figure 2-24: Skinning small game.


Food Procurement 377


Figure 2-25: Smoking meat.


Figure 2-26: Smoking meat over a pit.

Other Preservation Methods. You can also preserve meats using the freezing or brine and salt methods.

Freezing. In cold climates, you can freeze and keep meat indefinitely. Freezing is not a means of preparing
meat. You must still cook it before eating.

Brine and Salt. You can preserve meat by soaking it thoroughly in a saltwater solution. The solution must
cover the meat. You can also use salt by itself. Wash off the salt before cooking.


CHAPTER 3


Dangerous Insects and Arachnids


Insects are often overlooked as a danger to the survivor. More people in the United States die each year
from bee stings, and resulting anaphylactic shock, than from snake bites. A few other insects are venomous
enough to kill, but often the greatest danger is the transmission of disease.


CAUTION
Scorpions sting with their tails, causing local pain, swelling, possible incapacitation, and
death.


379


380 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Dangerous Insects and Arachnids 381



382 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Dangerous Insects and Arachnids 383



CHAPTER 4


Poisonous Snakes and Lizards


If you fear snakes, it is probably because you are unfamiliar with them or you have wrong information
about them. There is no need for you to fear snakes if you know—

• Their habits.
• How to identify the dangerous kinds.
• Precautions to take to prevent snakebite.
• What actions to take in case of snakebite.
For a man wearing shoes and trousers and living in a camp, the danger of being bitten by a poisonous
snake is small compared to the hazards of malaria, cholera, dysentery, or other diseases.

Nearly all snakes avoid man if possible. Reportedly, however, a few—the king cobra of Southeast Asia,
the bushmaster and tropical rattlesnake of South America, and the mamba of Africa—sometimes aggressively
attack man, but even these snakes do so only occasionally. Most snakes get out of the way and are
seldom seen.

WAYS TO AVOID SNAKEBITE

Snakes are widely distributed. They are found in all tropical, subtropical, and most temperate regions.
Some species of snakes have specialized glands that contain a toxic venom and long hollow fangs to inject
their venom.

Poisonous Snakes of the Americas

• American Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix)
• Bushmaster (Lachesis mutus)
• Coral snake (Micrurus fulvius)
• Cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus)
• Fer-de-lance (Bothrops atrox)
• Rattlesnake (Crotalus species)
Poisonous Snakes of Europe

• Common adder (Vipers berus)
• Pallas’ viper (Agkistrodon halys)
Poisonous Snakes of Africa and Asia

• Boomslang (Dispholidus typus)
• Cobra (Naja species)
• Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica)
• Green tree pit viper (Trimeresurus gramineus)
• Habu pit viper (Trimeresurus flavoviridis)
• Krait (Bungarus caeruleus)
385


386 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

•
Malayan pit viper (Callaselasma rhodostoma)
•
Mamba (Dendraspis species)
•
Puff adder (Bitis arietans)
•
Rhinoceros viper (Bitis nasicornis)
•
Russell’s viper (Vipera russellii)
•
Sand viper (Cerastes vipera)
•
Saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus)
•
Wagler’s pit viper (Trimeresurus wagleri)
Poisonous Snakes of Australasia

•
Death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus)
•
Taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus)
•
Tiger snake (Notechis scutatus)
•
Yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platurus)
The polar regions are free of snakes due to their inhospitable environments. Other areas considered to
be free of poisonous snakes are New Zealand, Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Ireland, Polynesia, and
Hawaii.

There are no infallible rules for expedient identification of poisonous snakes in the field, because the
guidelines all require close observation or manipulation of the snake’s body. The best strategy is to leave all
snakes alone. Where snakes are plentiful and poisonous species are present, the risk of their bites negates
their food value.

Although venomous snakes use their venom to secure food, they also use it for self-defense. Human
accidents occur when you don’t see or hear the snake, when you step on them, or when you walk too close
to them.

Follow these simple rules to reduce the chance of accidental snakebite:

•
Don’t sleep next to brush, tall grass, large boulders, or trees. They provide hiding places for snakes.
Place your sleeping bag in a clearing. Use mosquito netting tucked well under the bag. This netting
should provide a good barrier.
•
Don’t put your hands into dark places, such as rock crevices, heavy brush, or hollow logs, without
first investigating.
•
Don’t step over a fallen tree. Step on the log and look to see if there is a snake resting on the other
side.
•
Don’t walk through heavy brush or tall grass without looking down. Look where you are
walking.
•
Don’t pick up any snake unless you are absolutely positive it is not venomous.
•
Don’t pick up freshly killed snakes without first severing the head. The nervous system may still be
active and a dead snake can deliver a bite.
SNAKE GROUPS

Snakes dangerous to man usually fall into two groups: proteroglypha and solenoglypha. Their fangs and
their venom best describe these two groups (Table 4-1).

Fangs. The proteroglypha have, in front of the upper jaw and preceding the ordinary teeth, permanently
erect fangs. These fangs are called fixed fangs.

The solenoglypha have erectile fangs; that is, fangs they can raise to an erect position. These fangs are
called folded fangs.


Poisonous Snakes and Lizards 387

Table 4-1: Snake group characteristics.


Venom. The fixed-fang snakes (proteroglypha) usually have neurotoxic venoms. These venoms affect the
nervous system, making the victim unable to breathe.

The folded-fang snakes (solenoglypha) usually have hemotoxic venoms. These venoms affect the circulatory
system, destroying blood cells, damaging skin tissues, and causing internal hemorrhaging.

Remember, however, that most poisonous snakes have both neurotoxic and hemotoxic venom. Usually
one type of venom in the snake is dominant and the other is weak.

Poisonous Versus Nonpoisonous Snakes. No single characteristic distinguishes a poisonous snake from a
harmless one except the presence of poison fangs and glands. Only in dead specimens can you determine
the presence of these fangs and glands without danger.

DESCRIPTIONS OF POISONOUS SNAKES

There are many different poisonous snakes throughout the world. It is unlikely you will see many except
in a zoo. This manual describes only a few poisonous snakes. You should, however, be able to spot a poisonous
snake if you—

• Learn about the two groups of snakes and the families in which they fall (Table 4-2).
• Examine the pictures and read the descriptions of snakes in this appendix.
Viperidae. The viperidae or true vipers usually have thick bodies and heads that are much wider than
their necks (Figure 4-1). However, there are many different sizes, markings, and colorations.

This snake group has developed a highly sophisticated means for delivering venom. They have long,
hollow fangs that perform like hypodermic needles. They deliver their venom deep into the wound.

The fangs of this group of snakes are movable. These snakes fold their fangs into the roof of their mouths.
When they strike, their fangs come forward, stabbing the victim. The snake controls the movement of its
fangs; fang movement is not automatic. The venom is usually hemotoxic. There are, however, several species
that have large quantities of neurotoxic elements, thus making them even more dangerous. The vipers
are responsible for many human fatalities around the world.

Crotalidae. The crotalids, or pit vipers (Figure 4-2), may be either slender or thick-bodied. Their heads are
usually much wider than their necks. These snakes take their name from the deep pit located between the
eye and the nostril. They are commonly brown with dark blotches, though some kinds are green.

Rattlesnakes, copperheads, cottonmouths, and several species of dangerous snakes from Central and
South America, Asia, China, and India fall into the pit viper group. The pit is a highly sensitive organ
capable of picking up the slightest temperature variance. Most pit vipers are nocturnal. They hunt for food
at night with the aid of these specialized pits that let them locate prey in total darkness. Rattlesnakes are
the only pit vipers that possess a rattle at the tip of the tail.

India has about 12 species of these snakes. You find them in trees or on the ground in all types of terrain.
The tree snakes are slender; the ground snakes are heavy-bodied. All are dangerous.

China has a pit viper similar to the cottonmouth found in North America. You find it in the rocky areas
of the remote mountains of South China. It reaches a length of 1.4 meters but is not vicious unless irritated.


388 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Table 4-2: Clinical effects of snake bites.


Figure 4-1: Positive identification of vipers.


Poisonous Snakes and Lizards 389


Figure 4-2: Positive identification of pit vipers.

You can also find a small pit viper, about 45 centimeters long, on the plains of eastern China. It is too small
to be dangerous to a man wearing shoes.

There are about 27 species of rattlesnakes in the United States and Mexico. They vary in color and may
or may not have spots or blotches. Some are small while others, such as the diamondbacks, may grow to

2.5 meters long.
There are five kinds of rattlesnakes in Central and South America, but only the tropical rattlesnake is
widely distributed. The rattle on the tip of the tail is sufficient identification for a rattlesnake.
Most will try to escape without a fight when approached, but there is always a chance one will
strike at a passerby. They do not always give a warning; they may strike first and rattle afterwards
or not at all.

The genus Trimeresurus is a subgroup of the crotalidae. These are Asian pit vipers. These pit vipers
are normally tree-loving snakes with a few species living on the ground. They basically have the same
characteristics of the crotalidae–slender build and very dangerous. Their bites usually are on the upper
extremities—head, neck, and shoulders. Their venom is largely hemotoxic.

Elapidae. A group of highly dangerous snakes with powerful neurotoxic venom that affects the nervous
system, causing respiratory paralysis. Included in this family are coral snakes, cobras, mambas, and all the
Australian venomous snakes. The coral snake is small and has caused human fatalities. The Australian
death adder, tiger, taipan, and king brown snakes are among the most venomous in the world, causing
many human fatalities.

Only by examining a dead snake can you positively determine if it is a cobra or a near relative (Figure 4-3).
On cobras, kraits, and coral snakes, the third scale on the upper lip touches both the nostril scale and the
eye. The krait also has a row of enlarged scales down its ridged back.

You can find the cobras of Africa and the Near East in almost any habitat. One kind may live in or near
water, another in trees. Some are aggressive and savage. The distance a cobra can strike in a forward direction
is equal to the distance its head is raised above the ground. Some cobras, however, can spit venom a
distance of 3 to 3.5 meters. This venom is harmless unless it gets into your eyes; then it may cause blindness
if not washed out immediately. Poking around in holes and rock piles is dangerous because of the chance
of encountering a spitting cobra.

Laticaudinae and Hydrophidae. A subfamily of elapidae, these snakes are specialized in that they found
a better environment in the oceans. Why they are in the oceans is not clear to science.


390 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 4-3: Positive identification of cobras, kraits, and coral snakes.

Sea snakes differ in appearance from other snakes in that they have an oarlike tail to aid in swimming.
Some species of sea snakes have venom several times more toxic than the cobra’s. Because of their marine
environment, sea snakes seldom come in contact with humans. The exceptions are fishermen who capture
these dangerous snakes in fish nets and scuba divers who swim in waters where sea snakes are found.

There are many species of sea snakes. They vary greatly in color and shape. Their scales distinguish
them from eels that have no scales.

Sea snakes occur in salt water along the coasts throughout the Pacific. There are also sea snakes on the
east coast of Africa and in the Persian Gulf. There are no sea snakes in the Atlantic Ocean.

There is no need to fear sea snakes. They have not been known to attack a man swimming. Fishermen
occasionally get bit by a sea snake caught in a net. The bite is dangerous.

Colubridae. The largest group of snakes worldwide. In this family there are species that are rear-fanged;
however, most are completely harmless to man. They have a venom-producing gland and enlarged,
grooved rear fangs that allow venom to flow into the wound. The inefficient venom apparatus and the
specialized venom is effective on cold-blooded animals (such as frogs and lizards) but not considered a
threat to human life. The boomslang and the twig snake of Africa have, however, caused human deaths.

Table 4-3:

Viperidae • Rhinoceros viper

• Russell’s viper
• Common adder
• Sand viper
• Long-nosed adder
• Saw-scaled viper
• Gaboon viper
• Ursini’s viper
• Horned desert viper
• McMahon’s viper
Elapidae

• Mole viper
• Palestinian viper • Australian copperhead
• Puff adder • Common cobra

Poisonous Snakes and Lizards 391

Table 4-3: (Continued)

•
Coral snake
•
Death adder
•
Egyptian cobra
•
Green mamba
•
King cobra
•
Krait
•
Taipan
•
Tiger snake
Crotallidae

•
American copperhead
•
Boomslang
•
Bush viper
•
Bushmaster
•
Cottonmouth
•
Easter diamondback
rattlesnake
•
Eyelash pit viper
LIZARDS

•
Fer-de-lance
•
Green tre pit viper
•
Habu pit viper
•
Jumping ciper
•
Malayan pit viper
•
Mojave rattlesnake
•
Pallas’ viper
•
Tropical rattlesnake
•
Wagler’s pit viper
•
Western diamondback
rattlesnake
Hydrophilidae

•
Banded sea snake
•
Yellow-bellied sea snake
There is little to fear from lizards as long as you follow the same precautions as for avoiding snakebite.
Usually, there are only two poisonous lizards: the Gila monster and the Mexican beaded lizard. The venom
of both these lizards is neurotoxic. The two lizards are in the same family, and both are slow moving with
a docile nature. The komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis), although not poisonous, can be dangerous
due to its large size. These lizards can reach lengths of 3 meters and weigh over 115 kilograms. Do not try
to capture this lizard.


392 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

POISONOUS SNAKES OF THE AMERICAS



American copperhead

Agkistrodon contortrix

Description: Chestnut color dominates overall, with darker crossbands of rich browns that become narrower
on top and widen at the bottom. The top of the head is a coppery color.

Characteristics: Very common over much of its range, with a natural camouflage ability to blend in the
environment. Copperheads are rather quiet and inoffensive in disposition but will defend themselves vigorously.
Bites occur when the snakes are stepped on or when a victim is lying next to one. A copperhead
lying on a bed of dead leaves becomes invisible. Its venom is hemotoxic.

Habitat: Found in wooded and rocky areas and mountainous regions.

Length: Average 60 centimeters, maximum 120 centimeters.

Distribution: Eastern Gulf States, Texas, Arkansas, Maryland, North Florida, Illinois, Oklahoma, Kansas,
Ohio, New York, Alabama, Tennessee, and Massachusetts.


Poisonous Snakes and Lizards 393


Bushmaster

Lachesis mutus

Description: The body hue is rather pale brown or pinkish, with a series of large bold dark brown or black
blotches extending along the body. Its scales are extremely rough.

Characteristics: The world’s largest pit viper has a bad reputation. This huge venomous snake is not common
anywhere in its range. It lives in remote and isolated habitats and is largely nocturnal in its feeding
habits; it seldom bites anyone, so few bites are recorded. A bite from one would indeed be very serious and
fatal if medical aid was not immediately available. Usually, the bites occur in remote, dense jungles, many
kilometers and several hours or even days away from medical help. Bushmaster fangs are long. In large
bushmasters, they can measure 3.8 centimeters. Its venom is a powerful hemotoxin.

Habitat: Found chiefly in tropical forests in their range.

Length: Average 2.1 meters, maximum 3.7 meters.

Distribution: Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Trinidad, and Brazil.


394 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Coral snake

Micrurus fulvius

Description: Beautifully marked with bright blacks, reds, and yellows. To identify the species, remember

that when red touches yellow it is a coral snake.
Characteristics: Common over range, but secretive in its habits, therefore seldom seen. It has short fangs
that are fixed in an erect position. It often chews to release its venom into a wound. Its venom is very powerful.
The venom is neurotoxic, causing respiratory paralysis in the victim, who succumbs to suffocation.

Habitat: Found in a variety of habitats including wooded areas, swamps, palmetto and scrub areas. Coral
snakes often venture into residential locations.

Length: Average 60 centimeters, maximum 115 centimeters.
Distribution: Southeast North Carolina, Gulf States, west central Mississippi, Florida, Florida Keys, and
west to Texas. Another genus of coral snake is found in Arizona. Coral snakes are also found throughout
Central and most of South America.


Cottonmouth

Agkistrodon piscivorus

Description: Colors are variable. Adults are uniformly olive brown or black. The young and subadults are

strongly crossbanded with dark brown.
Characteristics: These dangerous semiaquatic snakes closely resemble harmless water snakes that have the
same habitat. Therefore, it is best to leave all water snakes alone. Cottonmouths often stand their ground.
An aroused cottonmouth will draw its head close to its body and open its mouth showing its white interior.
Cottonmouth venom is hemotoxic and potent. Bites are prone to gangrene.

Habitat: Found in swamps, lakes, rivers, and ditches.
Length: Average 90 centimeters, maximum 1.8 meters.
Distribution: Southeast Virginia, west central Alabama, south Georgia, Illinois, east central Kentucky,

south central Oklahoma, Texas, North and South Carolina, Florida, and the Florida Keys.


Poisonous Snakes and Lizards 395


Eastern diamondback rattlesnake

Crotalus adamanteus

Description: Diamonds are dark brown or black, outlined by a row of cream or yellowish scales. Ground
color is olive to brown.

Characteristics: The largest venomous snake in the United States. Large individual snakes can have fangs
that measure 2.5 centimeters in a straight line. This species has a sullen disposition, ready to defend itself
when threatened. Its venom is potent and hemotoxic, causing great pain and damage to tissue.

Habitat: Found in palmettos and scrubs, swamps, pine woods, and flatwoods. It has been observed swimming
many miles out in the Gulf of Mexico, reaching some of the islands off the Florida coast.

Length: Average 1.4 meters, maximum 2.4 meters.

Distribution: Coastal areas of North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, Florida, and the Florida Keys.


Eyelash pit viper

Bothrops schlegeli

Description: Identified by several spiny scales over each eye. Color is highly variable, from bright yellow
over its entire body to reddish-yellow spots throughout the body.

Characteristics: Arboreal snake that seldom comes to the ground. It feels more secure in low-hanging trees
where it looks for tree frogs and birds. It is a dangerous species because most of its bites occur on the upper
extremities. It has an irritable disposition. It will strike with little provocation. Its venom is hemotoxic,
causing severe tissue damage. Deaths have occurred from the bites of these snakes.

Habitat: Tree-loving species found in rain forests; common on plantations and in palm trees.

Length: Average 45 centimeters, maximum 75 centimeters.

Distribution: Southern Mexico, throughout Central America, Columbia, Ecuador, and Venezuela.


396 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Fer-de-lance

Bothrops atrox

There are several closely related species in this group. All are very dangerous to man.

Description: Variable coloration, from gray to olive, brown, or reddish, with dark triangles edged with
light scales. Triangles are narrow at the top and wide at the bottom.
Characteristics: This highly dangerous snake is responsible for a high mortality rate.
It has an irritable disposition, ready to strike with little provocation. The female fer-de-lance is highly pro


lific, producing up to 60 young born with a dangerous bite. The venom of this species is hemotoxic, painful,
and hemorrhagic (causing profuse internal bleeding). The venom causes massive tissue destruction.
Habitat: Found on cultivated land and farms, often entering houses in search of rodents.
Length: Average 1.4 meters, maximum 2.4 meters.
Distribution: Southern Mexico, throughout Central and South America.



Jumping viper

Bothrops nummifer

Description: It has a stocky body. Its ground color varies from brown to gray and it has dark brown or
black dorsal blotches. It has no pattern on its head.

Characteristics: It is chiefly a nocturnal snake. It comes out in the early evening hours to feed on lizards,
rodents, and frogs. As the name implies, this species can strike with force as it actually leaves the ground.
Its venom is hemotoxic. Humans have died from the bites inflicted by large jumping vipers. They often
hide under fallen logs and piles of leaves and are difficult to see.

Habitat: Found in rain forests, on plantations, and on wooded hillsides.

Length: Average 60 centimeters, maximum 120 centimeters.

Distribution: Southern Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Panama, and El Salvador.


Poisonous Snakes and Lizards 397


Mojave rattlesnake

Crotalus scutulatus

Description: This snake’s entire body is a pallid or sandy odor with darker diamond-shaped markings

bordered by lighter-colored scales and black bands around the tail.
Characteristics: Although this rattlesnake is of moderate size, its bite is very serious. Its venom has quantities
of neurotoxic elements that affect the central nervous system. Deaths have resulted from this snake’s
bite.

Habitat: Found in arid regions, deserts, and rocky hillsides from sea level to 2400-meter elevations.
Length: Average 75 centimeters, maximum 1.2 meters.
Distribution: Mojave Desert in California, Nevada, southwest Arizona, and Texas into Mexico.


Tropical rattlesnake

Crotalus terrificus

Description: Coloration is light to dark brown with a series of darker rhombs or diamonds bordered by a

buff color.
Characteristics: Extremely dangerous with an irritable disposition, ready to strike with little or no warning
(use of its rattle). This species has a highly toxic venom containing neurotoxic and hemotoxic components
that paralyze the central nervous system and cause great damage to tissue.

Habitat: Found in sandy places, plantations, and dry hillsides.
Length: Average 1.4 meters, maximum 2.1 meters.
Distribution: Southern Mexico, Central America, and Brazil to Argentina.


398 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Western diamondback rattlesnake

Crotalus atrox

Description: The body is a light buff color with darker brown diamond-shaped markings. The tail has
heavy black and white bands.

Characteristics: This bold rattlesnake holds its ground. When coiled and rattling, it is ready to defend
itself. It injects a large amount of venom when it bites, making it one of the most dangerous snakes. Its
venom is hemotoxic, causing considerable pain and tissue damage.

Habitat: It is a very common snake over its range. It is found in grasslands, deserts, woodlands, and
canyons.

Length: Average 1.5 meters, maximum 2 meters.

Distribution: Southeast California, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.

POISONOUS SNAKES OF EUROPE


Common adder

Vipera berus

Description: Its color is variable. Some adult specimens are completely black while others have a dark
zigzag pattern running along the back.

Characteristics: The common adder is a small true viper that has a short temper and often strikes without
hesitation. Its venom is hemotoxic, destroying blood cells and causing tissue damage. Most injuries occur
to campers, hikers, and field workers.

Habitat: Common adders are found in a variety of habitats, from grassy fields to rocky slopes, and on
farms and cultivated lands.

Length: Average 45 centimeters, maximum 60 centimeters.

Distribution: Very common throughout most of Europe.


Poisonous Snakes and Lizards 399


Long-nosed adder

Vipera ammodytes

Description: Coloration is gray, brown, or reddish with a dark brown or black zigzag pattern running the
length of its back. A dark stripe is usually found behind each eye.

Characteristics: A small snake commonly found in much of its range. The term “long-nosed” comes from
the projection of tiny scales located on the tip of its nose. This viper is responsible for many bites. Deaths
have been recorded. Its venom is hemotoxic, causing severe pain and massive tissue damage. The rate of
survival is good with medical aid.

Habitat: Open fields, cultivated lands, farms, and rocky slopes.

Length: Average 45 centimeters, maximum 90 centimeters.

Distribution: Italy, Yugoslavia, northern Albania, and Romania.


Pallas’ viper

Agkistrodon halys

Description: Coloration is gray, tan, or yellow, with markings similar to those of the American copperhead.
Characteristics: This snake is timid and rarely strikes. Its venom is hemotoxic but rarely fatal.
Habitat: Found in open fields, hillsides, and farming regions.
Length: Average 45 centimeters, maximum 90 centimeters.
Distribution: Throughout southeastern Europe.


400 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Ursini’s viper

Vipera ursinii

Description: The common adder, long-nosed adder, and Ursini’s viper basically have the same coloration
and dorsal zigzag pattern. The exception among these adders is that the common adder and Ursini’s viper
lack the projection of tiny scales on the tip of the nose.

Characteristics: These little vipers have an irritable disposition. They will readily strike when approached.
Their venom is hemotoxic. Although rare, deaths from the bites of these vipers have been recorded.

Habitat: Meadows, farmlands, rocky hillsides, and open, grassy fields.

Length: Average 45 centimeters, maximum 90 centimeters.

Distribution: Most of Europe, Greece, Germany, Yugoslavia, France, Italy, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria,
and Albania.

POISONOUS SNAKES OF AFRICA AND ASIA


Boomslang

Dispholidus typus

Description: Coloration varies but is generally green or brown, which makes it very hard to see in its

habitat.
Characteristics: Will strike if molested. Its venom is hemotoxic; even small amounts cause severe hemorrhaging,
making it dangerous to man.


Habitat: Found in forested areas. It will spend most of its time in trees or looking for chameleons and other
prey in bushes.
Length: Generally less than 60 centimeters.
Distribution: Found throughout sub-Saharan Africa.



Poisonous Snakes and Lizards 401


Bush viper

Atheris squamiger

Description: Often called leaf viper, its color varies from ground colors of pale green to olive, brown, or
rusty brown. It uses it prehensile tail to secure itself to branches.

Characteristics: An arboreal species that often comes down to the ground to feed on small rodents. It is
not aggressive, but it will defend itself when molested or touched. Its venom is hemotoxic; healthy adults
rarely die from its bite.

Habitat: Found in rain forests and woodlands bordering swamps and forests. Often found in trees, lowhanging
branches, or brush.

Length: Average 45 centimeters, maximum 75 centimeters.

Distrubition: Most of Africa, Angola, Cameroon, Uganda, Kenya, and Zaire.


Common cobra

Naja naja

Description: Also known as the Asiatic cobra. Usually slate gray to brown overall. The back of the hood
may or may not have a pattern.

Characteristics: A very common species responsible for many deaths each year. When aroused or threatened,
the cobra will lift its head off the ground and spread its hood, making it more menacing. Its venom is
highly neurotoxic, causing respiratory paralysis with some tissue damage. The cobra would rather retreat
if possible, but if escape is shut off, it will be a dangerous creature to deal with.

Habitat: Found in any habitat cultivated farms, swamps, open fields, and human dwelling where it searches
for rodents.

Length: Average 1.2 meters, maximum 2.1 meters.

Distribution: All of Asia.


402 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Egyptian cobra

Naja haje

Description: Yellowish, dark brown, or black uniform top with brown crossbands. Its head is sometimes
black.

Characteristics: It is extremely dangerous. It is responsible for many human deaths. Once aroused or
threatened, it will attack and continue the attack until it feels an escape is possible. Its venom is neurotoxic
and much stronger than the common cobra. Its venom causes paralysis and death due to respiratory failure.


Habitat: Cultivated farmlands, open fields, and arid countrysides. It is often seen around homes searching
for rodents.

Length: Average 1.5 meters, maximum 2.5 meters.

Distribution: Africa, Iraq, Syria, and Saudi Arabia.


Gaboon viper

Bitis gabonica

Description: Pink to brown with a vertebral series of elongated yellowish or light brown spots connected
by hourglass-shaped markings on each side. It has a dark brown stripe behind each eye. This dangerous
viper is almost invisible on the forest floor. A 1.8-meter-long Gaboon viper could weigh 16 kilograms.

Characteristics: The largest and heaviest of all true vipers, having a very large triangular head. It comes
out in the evening to feed. Fortunately, it is not aggressive, but it will stand its ground if approached. It
bites when molested or stepped on. Its fangs are enormous, often measuring 5 centimeters long. It injects a
large amount of venom when it strikes. Its venom is neurotoxic and hemotoxic.

Habitat: Dense rain forests. Occasionally found in open country.

Length: Average 1.2 meters, maximum 1.8 meters.

Distribution: Most of Africa.


Poisonous Snakes and Lizards 403


Green mamba

Dendraspis angusticeps

Description: Most mambas are uniformly bright green over their entire body. The black mamba, the largest
of the species, is uniformly olive to black.

Characteristics: The mamba is the dreaded snake species of Africa. Treat it with great respect. It is considered
one of the most dangerous snakes known. Not only is it highly venomous but it is aggressive and its
victim has little chance to escape from a bite. Its venom is highly neurotoxic.

Habitat: Mambas are at home in brush, trees, and low-hanging branches looking for birds, a usual diet for
this species.

Length: Average 1.8 meters, maximum 3.7 meters.

Distribution: Most of Africa.


Green tree pit viper

Trimeresurus gramineus

Description: Uniform bright or dull green with light yellow on the facial lips.
Characteristics: A small arboreal snake of some importance, though not considered a deadly species. It is

a dangerous species because most of its bites occur in the head, shoulder, and neck areas. It seldom comes
to the ground. It feeds on young birds, lizards, and tree frogs.
Habitat: Found in dense rain forests and plantations.
Length: Average 45 centimeters, maximum 75 centimeters.
Distribution: India, Burma, Malaya, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, China, Indonesia, and For


mosa.


404 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Habu pit viper

Trimeresurus flavoviridis

Description: Light brown or olive-yellow with black markings and a yellow or greenish-white belly.

Characteristics: This snake is responsible for biting many humans and its bite could be fatal. It is an irritable
species ready to defend itself. Its venom is hemotoxic, causing pain and considerable tissue damage.
Habitat: Found in a variety of habitats, ranging from lowlands to mountainous regions. Often encountered

in old houses and rock walls surroundings buildings.
Length: Average 1 meter, maximum 1.5 meters.
Distribution: Okinawa and neighboring islands and Kyushu.


Horned desert viper

Cerastes cerastes

Description: Pale buff color with obscure markings and a sharp spine (scale) over each eye.
Characteristics: As with all true vipers that live in the desert, it finds refuge by burrowing in the heat of
the day, coming out at night to feed. It is difficult to detect when buried; therefore, many bites result from

the snake being accidentally stepped on. Its venom is hemotoxic, causing severe damage to blood cells and
tissue.
Habitat: Only found in very arid places within its range.
Length: Average 45 centimeters, maximum 75 centimeters.
Distribution: Arabian Peninsula, Africa, Iran, and Iraq.


Poisonous Snakes and Lizards 405


King cobra

Ophiophagus hannah

Description: Uniformly olive, brown, or green with ringlike crossbands of black.

Characteristics: Although it is the largest venomous snake in the world and it has a disposition to go with
this honor, it causes relatively few bites on humans. It appears to have a degree of intelligence. It avoids
attacking another venomous snake for fear of being bitten. It feeds exclusively on harmless species. The
female builds a nest then deposits her eggs. Lying close by, she guards the nest and is highly aggressive
toward anything that closely approaches the nest. Its venom is a powerful neurotoxin. Without medical
aid, death is certain for its victims.

Habitat: Dense jungle and cultivated fields.

Length: Average 3.5 meters, maximum 5.5 meters.

Distibution: Thailand, southern China, Malaysia Peninsula, and Phillipines.


Krait

Bungarus caeruleus

Description: Black or bluish-black with white narrow crossbands and a narrow head.

Characteristics: Kraits are found only in Asia. This snake is of special concern to man. It is deadly—about
15 times more deadly than the common cobra. It is active at night and relatively passive during the day.
The native people often step on kraits while walking through their habitats. The krait has a tendency to
seek shelter in sleeping bags, boots, and tents. Its venom is a powerful neurotoxin that causes respiratory
failure.

Habitat: Open fields, human settlements, and dense jungle.

Length: Average 90 centimeters, maximum 1.5 meters.

Distribution: India, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan.


406 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Levant viper

Vipera lebetina

Description: Gray to pale brown with large dark brown spots on the top of the back and a “ ^ “ mark on
top of the head.

Characteristics: This viper belongs to a large group of true vipers. Like its cousins, it is large and dangerous.
Its venom is hemotoxic. Many deaths have been reported from bites of this species. It is a strong snake
with an irritable disposition; it hisses loudly when ready to strike.

Habitat: Varies greatly, from farmlands to mountainous areas.

Length: Average 1 meter, maximum 1.5 meters.

Distribution: Greece, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Turkey, Afganistan, lower portion of the former USSR, and
Saudi Arabia.


Malayan pit viper

Callaselasma rhostoma

Description: Reddish running into pink tinge toward the belly with triangular-shaped, brown markings
bordered with light-colored scales. The base of the triangular-shaped markings end at the midline. It has
dark brown, arrow-shaped markings on the top and each side of its head.

Characteristics: This snake has long fangs, is ill-tempered, and is responsible for many bites. Its venom is
hemotoxic, destroying blood cells and tissue, but a victim’s chances of survival are good with medical aid.
This viper is a ground dweller that moves into many areas in search of food. The greatest danger is in stepping
on the snake with bare feet.

Habitat: Rubber plantations, farms, rural villages, and rain forests.

Length: Average 60 centimeters, maximum 1 meter.

Distribution: Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Java, Sumatra, Malaysia, Vietnam, Burma, and China.


Poisonous Snakes and Lizards 407


McMahon’s viper

Eristicophis macmahonii

Description: Sandy buff color dominates the body with darker brown spots on the side of the body. Its

nose shield is broad, aiding in burrowing.
Characteristics: Very little is known about this species. It apparently is rare or seldom seen. This viper is
very irritable; it hisses, coils, and strikes at any intruder that ventures too close. Its venom is highly hemotoxic,
causing great pain and tissue damage.

Habitat: Arid or semidesert. It hides during the day’s sun, coming out only at night to feed on rodents.
Length: Average 45 centimeters, maximum 1 meter.
Distribution: West Pakistan and Afghanistan.


Mole viper or burrowing viper

Atracaspis microlepidota

Description: Uniformly black or dark brown with a small, narrow head.

Characteristics: A viper that does not look like one. It is small in size, and its small head does not indicate
the presence of venom glands. It has a rather inoffensive disposition; however, it will quickly turn and bite
if restrained or touched. Its venom is a potent hemotoxin for such a small snake. Its fangs are exceptionally
long. A bite can result even when picking it up behind the head. It is best to leave this snake alone.

Habitat: Agricultural areas and arid localities

Length: Average 55 centimeters, maximum 75 centimeters

Distribution: Sudan, Ethiopia, Somaliland, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, Cameroon, Niger, Congo, and
Urundi.


408 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Palestinian viper

Vipera palaestinae

Description: Olive to rusty brown with a dark V-shaped mark on the head and a brown, zigzag band along
the back.

Characteristics: The Palestinian viper is closely related to the Russell’s viper of Asia. Like its cousin, it is
extremely dangerous. It is active and aggressive at night but fairly placid during the day. When threatened
or molested, it will tighten its coils, hiss loudly, and strike quickly.

Habitat: Arid regions, but may be found around barns and stables. It has been seen entering houses in
search of rodents.

Length: Average 0.8 meter, maximum 1.3 meters.

Distribution: Turkey, Syria, Palestine, Israel, Lebanon, and Jordan.


Puff adder

Bitis arietans

Description: Yellowish, light brown, or orange with chevron-shaped dark brown or black bars.

Characteristics: The puff adder is the second largest of the dangerous vipers. It is one of the most common
snakes in Africa. It is largely nocturnal, hunting at night and seeking shelter during the day’s heat. It is
not shy when approached. It draws its head close to its coils, makes a loud hissing sound, and is quick to
strike any intruder. Its venom is strongly hemotoxic, destroying bloods cells and causing extensive tissue
damage.

Habitat: Arid regions to swamps and dense forests. Common around human settlements.

Length: Average 12 meters, maximum 1.8 meters.

Distribution: Most of Africa, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan.


Poisonous Snakes and Lizards 409


Rhinoceros viper or river jack

Bitis nasicornis

Description: Brightly colored with purplish to reddish-brown markings and black and light olive markings
along the back. On its head it has a triangular marking that starts at the tip of the nose. It has a pair of
long horns (scales) on the tip of its nose.

Characteristics: Its appearance is awesome; its horns and very rough scales give it a sinister look. It has an
irritable disposition. It is not aggressive but will stand its ground ready to strike if disturbed. Its venom is
neurotoxic and hemotoxic.

Habitat: Rain forests, along waterways, and in swamps.

Length: Average 75 centimeters, maximum 1 meter.

Distribution: Equatorial Africa.


Russell’s viper

Vipera rus sellii

Description: Light brown body with three rows of dark brown or black splotches bordered with white or
yellow extending its entire length.

Characteristics: This dangerous species is abundant over its entire range. It is responsible for more human
fatalities than any other venomous snake. It is irritable. When threatened, it coils tightly, hisses, and strikes
with such speed that its victim has little chance of escaping. Its hemotoxic venom is a powerful coagulant,
damaging tissue and blood cells.

Habitat: Variable, from farmlands to dense rain forests. It is commonly found around human settlements.

Length: Average 1 meter, maximum 1.5 meters

Distribution: Sri Lanka, south China, India, Malaysian Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and surrounding
islands.


410 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Sand viper

Cerastes vipera

Description: Usually uniformly very pallid, with three rows of darker brown spots.
Characteristics: A very small desert dweller that can bury itself in the sand during the day’s heat. It is noc


turnal, coming out at night to feed on lizards and small desert rodents. It has a short temper and will strike
several times. Its venom is hemotoxic.
Habitat: Restricted to desert areas.
Length: Average 45 centimeters, maximum 60 centimeters.
Distribution: Northern Sahara, Algeria, Egypt, Sudan, Nigeria, Chad, Somalia, and central Africa.


Saw-scaled viper

Echis carinatus

Description: Color is light buff with shades of brown, dull red, or gray. Its sides have a white or light-colored
pattern. Its head usually has two dark stripes that start behind the eye and extend to the rear.

Characteristics: A small but extremely dangerous viper. It gets the name saw-scaled from rubbing the
sides of its body together, producing a rasping sound. This ill-tempered snake will attack any intruder. Its
venom is highly hemotoxic and quite potent. Many deaths are attributed to this species.

Habitat: Found in a variety of environments. It is common in rural settlements, cultivated fields, arid
regions, barns, and rock walls.

Length: Average 45 centimeters, maximum 60 centimeters.

Distribution: Asia, Syria, India, Africa, Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Jordan, Lebanon, Sri Lanka,
Algeria, Egypt, and Israel.


Poisonous Snakes and Lizards 411


Wagler’s pit viper or temple viper

Trimeresurus wagleri

Description: Green with white crossbands edged with blue or purple. It has two dorsal lines on both sides
of its head.

Characteristics: It is also known as the temple viper because certain religious cults have placed venomous
snakes in their temples. Bites are not uncommon for the species; fortunately, fatalities are very rare. It has
long fangs. Its venom is hemotoxic causing cell and tissue destruction. It is an arboreal species and its bites
often occur on the upper extremities.

Habitat: Dense rain forests, but often found near human settlements.

Length: Average 60 centimeters, maximum 100 centimeters.

Distribution: Malaysian Peninsula and Archipelago, Indonesia, Borneo, the Philippines. and Ryuku
Islands.

POISONOUS SNAKES OF AUSTRALASIA


Australian copperhead

Denisonia superba

Description: Coloration is reddish brown to dark brown. A few from Queensland are black.

Characteristics: Rather sluggish disposition but will bite if stepped on. When angry, rears its head a few
inches from the ground with its neck slightly arched. Its venom is neurotoxic.
Habitat: Swamps.
Length: Average 1.2 meters, maximum 1.8 meters.
Distribution: Tasmania, South Australia, Queensland, and Kangaroo Island.


412 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Death adder

Acanthophis antarcticus

Description: Reddish, yellowish, or brown color with distinct dark brown crossbands. The end of its tail
is black, ending in a hard spine.

Characteristics: When aroused, this highly dangerous snake will flatten its entire body, ready to strike
over a short distance. It is nocturnal, hiding by day and coming out to feed at night. Although it has the
appearance of a viper, it is related to the cobra family. Its venom is a powerful neurotoxin; it causes mortality
in about 50 percent of the victims, even with treatment.

Habitat: Usually found in arid regions, fields, and wooded lands.

Length: Average 45 centimeters, maximum 90 centimeters.

Distribution: Australia, New Guinea, and Moluccas.


Taipan

Oxyuranus scutellatus

Description: Generally uniformly olive or dark brown, the head is somewhat darker brown.

Characteristics: Considered one of the most deadly snakes. It has an aggressive disposition. When aroused,
it can display a fearsome appearance by flattening its head, raising it off the ground, waving it back and
forth, and suddenly striking with such speed that the victim may receive several bites before it retreats.
Its venom is a powerful neurotoxin, causing respiratory paralysis. Its victim has little chance for recovery
without prompt medical aid.

Habitat: At home in a variety of habitats, it is found from the savanna forests to the inland plains.

Length: Average 1.8 meters, maximum 3.7 meters.

Distribution: Northern Australia and southern New Guinea.


Poisonous Snakes and Lizards 413


Tiger snake

Notechis scutatus

Description: Olive to dark brown above with yellowish or olive belly and crossbands. The subspecies in

Tasmania and Victoria is uniformly black.
Characteristics: It is the most dangerous snake in Australia. It is very common and bites many humans. It
has a very potent neurotoxic venom that attacks the nervous system. When aroused, it is aggressive and
attacks any intruder. It flattens its neck making a narrow band.

Habitat: Found in many habitats from arid regions to human settlements along waterways to grasslands.
Length: Average 1.2 meters, maximum 1.8 meters.
Distribution: Australia, Tasmania, Bass Strait islands, and New Guinea.

POISONOUS SEA SNAKES


Banded sea snake

Laticauda colubrina

Description: Smooth-scaled snake that is a pale shade of blue with black bands. Its oarlike tail provides
propulsion in swimming.

Characteristics: Most active at night, swimming close to shore and at times entering tide pools. Its venom
is a very strong neurotoxin. Its victims are usually fishermen who untangle these deadly snakes from large
fish nets.

Habitat: Common in all oceans, absent in the Atlantic Ocean.

Length: Average 75 centimeters, maximum 1.2 meters.

Distribution: Coastal waters of New Guinea, Pacific islands, the Philippines, Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka,
and Japan.


414 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Yellow-bellied sea snake

Pelamis platurus

Description: Upper part of body is black or dark brown and lower part is bright yellow.

Characteristics: A highly venomous snake belonging to the cobra family. This snake is truly of the pelagic
species—it never leaves the water to come to shore. It has an oarlike tail to aid its swimming. This species
is quick to defend itself. Sea snakes do not really strike, but deliberately turn and bite if molested. A small
amount of their neurotoxic venom can cause death.

Habitat: Found in all oceans except the Atlantic Ocean.

Length: Average 0.7 meter, maximum 1.1 meters.

Distribution: Throughout the Pacific Ocean from many of the Pacific islands to Hawaii and to the coast of
Costa Rica and Panama.


Poisonous Snakes and Lizards 415

POISONOUS LIZARDS



Gila monster

Heloderma suspectum

Description: Robust, with a large head and a heavy tail. Its body is covered with beadlike scales. It is
capable of storing fat against lean times when food is scarce. Its color is striking in rich blacks laced with
yellow or pinkish scales.

Characteristics: Not an aggressive lizard, but it is ready to defend itself when provoked. If approached too
closely, it will turn toward the intruder with its mouth open. If it bites, it hangs on tenaciously and must be
pried off. Its venom glands and grooved teeth are on its bottom jaw.

Habitat: Found in arid areas, coming out at night or early morning hours in search of small rodents and
bird eggs. During the heat of the day it stays under brush or rocks.

Length: Average 30 centimeters, maximum 50 centimeters.

Distribution: Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, northern Mexico, and extreme corner of southeast
California.


416 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Mexican beaded lizard

Heloderma horridum

Description: Less colorful than its cousin, the gila monster. It has black or pale yellow bands or is entirely
black.

Characteristics: Very strong legs let this lizard crawl over rocks and dig burrows. It is short-tempered. It
will turn and open its mouth in a threatening manner when molested. Its venom is hemotoxic and potentially
dangerous to man.

Habitat: Found in arid or desert areas, often in rocky hillsides, coming out during evening and early morning
hours.

Length: Average 60 centimeters, maximum 90 centimeters.

Distribution: Mexico through Central America.


CHAPTER 5


Dangerous Fish and Mollusks


Since fish and mollusks may be one of your major sources of food, it is wise to know which ones are dangerous
to you should you catch them. Know which ones are dangerous, what the dangers of the various
fish are, what precautions to take, and what to do if you are injured by one of these fish.

Fish and mollusks will present a danger in one of three ways: by attacking and biting you, by injecting
toxic venom into you through its venomous spines or tentacles, and through eating fish or mollusks whose
flesh is toxic.

The danger of actually encountering one of these dangerous fish is relatively small, but it is still significant.
Any one of these fish can kill you. Avoid them if at all possible.

DANGERS IN RIVERS

Common sense will tell you to avoid confrontations with hippopotami, alligators, crocodiles, and other
large river creatures. There are, however, a few smaller river creatures with which you should be cautious.

Electric Eel. Electric eels (Electrophorus electricus) may reach 2 meters in length and 20 centimeters in diameter.
Avoid them. They are capable of generating up to 500 volts of electricity in certain organs in their body.
They use this shock to stun prey and enemies. Normally, you find these eels in the Orinoco and Amazon
River systems in South America. They seem to prefer shallow waters that are more highly oxygenated and
provide more food. They are bulkier than our native eels. Their upper body is dark gray or black, with a
lighter-colored underbelly.

Piranha. Piranhas (Serrasalmo species) are another hazard of the Orinoco and Amazon River systems, as
well as the Paraguay River Basin, where they are native. These fish vary greatly in size and coloration,
but usually have a combination of orange undersides and dark tops. They have white, razor-sharp teeth
that are clearly visible. They may be as long as 50 centimeters. Use great care when crossing waters where
they live. Blood attracts them. They are most dangerous in shallow waters during the dry season.

Turtle. Be careful when handling and capturing large freshwater turtles, such as the snapping turtles and
soft-shelled turtles of North America and the matamata and other turtles of South America. All of these
turtles will bite in self-defense and can amputate fingers and toes.

Platypus. The platypus or duckbill (Ornithorhyncus anatinus) is the only member of its family and is easily
recognized. It has a long body covered with grayish, short hair, a tail like a beaver, and a bill like a duck.
Growing up to 60 centimeters in length, it may appear to be a good food source, but this egg-laying mammal,
the only one in the world, is very dangerous. The male has a poisonous spur on each hind foot that can inflict
intensely painful wounds. You find the platypus only in Australia, mainly along mud banks on waterways.

FISH THAT ATTACK MAN

The shark is usually the first fish that comes to mind when considering fish that attack man. Other fish also
fall in this category, such as the barracuda, the moray eel, and the piranha.

Sharks. Whether you are in the water or in a boat or raft, you may see many types of sea life around you.
Some may be more dangerous than others. Generally, sharks are the greatest danger to you. Other animals
such as whales, porpoises, and stingrays may look dangerous, but really pose little threat in the open sea.

417


418 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Of the many hundreds of shark species, only about 20 species are known to attack man. The most dangerous
are the great white shark, the hammerhead, the make, and the tiger shark. Other sharks known to
attack man include the gray, blue, lemon, sand, nurse, bull, and oceanic white tip sharks. See Figure 5-1 for
illustrations of sharks. Consider any shark longer than 1 meter dangerous.

There are sharks in all oceans and seas of the world. While many live and feed in the depths of the sea,
others hunt near the surface. The sharks living near the surface are the ones you will most likely see. Their
dorsal fins frequently project above the water. Sharks in the tropical and subtropical seas are far more
aggressive than those in temperate waters.

All sharks are basically eating machines. Their normal diet is live animals of any type, and they will
strike at injured or helpless animals. Sight, smell, or sound may guide them to their prey. Sharks have an
acute sense of smell and the smell of blood in the water excites them. They are also very sensitive to any


Figure 5-1: Sharks.


Dangerous Fish and Mollusks 419

abnormal vibrations in the water. The struggles of a wounded animal or swimmer, underwater explosions,
or even a fish struggling on a fish line will attract a shark.

Sharks can bite from almost any position; they do not have to turn on their side to bite. The jaws of some
of the larger sharks are so far forward that they can bite floating objects easily without twisting to the side.

Sharks may hunt alone, but most reports of attacks cite more than one shark present. The smaller sharks
tend to travel in schools and attack in mass. Whenever one of the sharks finds a victim, the other sharks
will quickly join it. Sharks will eat a wounded shark as quickly as their prey.

Sharks feed at all hours of the day and night. Most reported shark contacts and attacks were during daylight,
and many of these have been in the late afternoon. Some of the measures that you can take to protect
yourself against sharks when you are in the water are—

•
Stay with other swimmers. A group can maintain a 360-degree watch. A group can either frighten
or fight off sharks better than one man.
•
Always watch for sharks. Keep all your clothing on, to include your shoes. Historically, sharks have
attacked the unclothed men in groups first, mainly in the feet. Clothing also protects against abrasions
should the shark brush against you.
•
Avoid urinating. If you must, only do so in small amounts. Let it dissipate between discharges. If
you must defecate, do so in small amounts and throw it as far away from you as possible. Do the
same if you must vomit.
If a shark attack is imminent while you are in the water, splash and yell just enough to keep the shark at
bay. Sometimes yelling underwater or slapping the water repeatedly will scare the shark away. Conserve
your strength for fighting in case the shark attacks.

If attacked, kick and strike the shark. Hit the shark on the gills or eyes if possible. If you hit the shark on
the nose, you may injure your hand if it glances off and hits its teeth.

When you are in a raft and see sharks—

•
Do not fish. If you have hooked a fish, let it go. Do not clean fish in the water.
•
Do not throw garbage overboard.
•
Do not let your arms, legs, or equipment hang in the water.
•
Keep quiet and do not move around.
•
Bury all dead as soon as possible. If there are many sharks in the area, conduct the burial at night.
When you are in a raft and a shark attack is imminent, hit the shark with anything you have, except your
hands. You will do more damage to your hands than the shark. If you strike with an oar, be careful not to
lose or break it.

If bitten by a shark, the most important measure for you to take is to stop the bleeding quickly. Blood in
the water attracts sharks. Get yourself or the victim into a raft or to shore as soon as possible. If in the water,
form a circle around the victim (if not alone), and stop the bleeding with a tourniquet.

Other Ferocious Fish. In salt water, other ferocious fish include the barracuda, sea bass, and moray eel
(Figure 5-2). The sea bass is usually an open water fish. It is dangerous due to its large size. It can remove
large pieces of flesh from a human. Barracudas and moray eels have been known to attack man and inflict
vicious bites. Be careful of these two species when near reefs and in shallow water. Moray eels are very
aggressive when disturbed.

VENOMOUS FISH AND INVERTEBRATES

There are several species of venomous fish and invertebrates, all of which live in salt water. All of these are
capable of injecting poisonous venom through spines located in their fins, tentacles, or bites. Their venoms
cause intense pain and are potentially fatal. If injured by one of these fish or invertebrates, treat the injury
as for snakebite.


420 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-2: Ferocious fish.

Stingrays inhabit shallow water, especially in the tropics and in temperate regions as well. All have distinctive
ray shape but coloration may make them hard to spot unless they are swimming. The venomous,
barbed spines in their tails can cause severe or fatal injury. When moving about in shallow water, wear some
form of footwear and shuffle your feet along the bottom, rather than picking up your feet and stepping.

Rabbitfish are found predominantly on reefs in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. They average about
30 centimeters long and have very sharp spines in their fins. The spines are venomous and can inflict intense


Figure 5-3: Stingray (Dasyatidae species).


Dangerous Fish and Mollusks 421


Figure 5-4: Rabbitfish (Siganidae species).

pain. Rabbitfish are considered edible by native peoples where the fish are found, but deaths occur from
careless handling. Seek other nonpoisonous fish to eat if possible.

Scorpion fish or Zebra fish live mainly in the reefs in the Pacific and Indian oceans, and occasionally in
the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. They vary from 30 to 90 centimeters long, are unusually reddish in
coloration, and have long, wavy fins and spines. They inflict an intensely painful sting.

The siganus fish is small, about 10 to 15 centimeters long, and looks much like a small tuna. It has
venomous spines in its dorsal and ventral fins. These spines can inflict painful stings.


Figure 5-5: Scorpion fish or Zebra fish (Scorpaenidae species).


Figure 5-6: Siganus fish.


422 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-7: Stonefish (Synanceja species).

Stonefish are found in the tropical waters of the Pacific and Indian oceans. Averaging about 30 centimeters
in length, their subdued colors and lumpy shape provide them with exceptional camouflage. When
stepped on, the fins in the dorsal spine inflict an extremely painful and sometimes fatal wound.

Tang or surgeonfish average 20 to 25 centimeters in length, with a deep body, small mouth, and bright
coloration. They have scalpellike spines on the side of the tail that cause fatal and extremely painful wounds
including infection, envenomation, and blood loss.

Toadfish are found in the tropical waters of the Gulf Coast of the United States and along both coasts of
South and Central America. They are between 17.5 and 25 centimeters long and have a dull color and large
mouths. They bury themselves in the sand and may be easily stepped on. They have very sharp, extremely
poisonous spines on the dorsal fin (back).

The weever fish is a tropical fish that is fairly slim and about 30 centimeters long. Its gills and all fins
have venomous spines that cause a painful wound. They are found off the coasts of Europe, Africa, and
the Mediterranean.

This small octopus is usually found on the Great Barrier Reef off eastern Australia. It is grayish-white
with iridescent blue ringlike markings. This octopus usually will not bite unless stepped on or handled. Its
bite is extremely poisonous and frequently lethal.

Although it resembles a jellyfish, the Portuguese man-of-war is actually a colony of sea animals. Mainly
found in tropical regions, the Gulf Stream current can carry it as far as Europe. It is also found as far south as
Australia. The pink or purple floating portion of the man-of-war may be as small as 15 centimeters, but the
tentacles can reach 12 meters in length. These tentacles inflict a painful and incapacitating sting, but the sting
is rarely fatal. Avoid the tentacles of any jellyfish, even if washed up on the beach and apparently dead.


Figure 5-8: Tang or surgeonfish (Acanthuridae species).


Dangerous Fish and Mollusks 423

Figure 5-9: Toadfish (Batrachoidiae species).
Figure 5-10: Weever fish (Trachinidae species).


Figure 5-11: Blue-ringed octopus (Hapalochlaena lunulata).


424 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-12: Portuguese man-of-war (Physalis species).

These cone-shaped shells have smooth, colorful mottling and long, narrow openings in the base of the
shell. They live under rocks, in crevices or coral reefs, and along rocky shore of protected bays in tropical
areas. All have tiny teeth that are similar to hypodermic needles. They can inject an extremely poisonous
venom that acts very swiftly, causing acute pain, swelling, paralysis, blindness, and possible death within
hours. Avoid handling all cone shells.


Figure 5-13: Cone shells (Conidae species).

These shells are found in both temperate and tropical waters. They are similar to cone shells but much
thinner and longer. They poison in the same way as cone shells, but the venom is slightly less poisonous.


Figure 5-14: Terebra shells or Auger shells (Terebridae species).


Dangerous Fish and Mollusks 425

These cone-shaped shells have smooth, colorful mottling and long, narrow openings in the base of the
shell. They live under rocks, in crevices or coral reefs, and along rocky shore of protected bays in tropical
areas. All have tiny teeth that are similar to hypodermic needles. They can inject an extremely poisonous
venom that acts very swiftly, causing acute pain, swelling, paralysis, blindness, and possible death within
hours. Avoid handling all cone shells.

These shells are found in both temperate and tropical waters. They are similar to cone shells but much
thinner and longer. They poison in the same way as cone shells, but the venom is slightly less poisonous.

FISH WITH TOXIC FLESH

There are no simple rules to tell edible fish from those with poisonous flesh. The most common toxic fish
are shown in Figure 5-15. All of these fish contain various types of poisonous substances or toxins in their
flesh and are dangerous to eat. They have the following common characteristics:

•
Most live in shallow water around reefs or lagoons.
•
Many have boxy or round bodies with hard shell-like skins covered with bony plates or spines.
They have small parrotlike mouths, small gills, and small or absent belly fins. Their names suggest
their shape.
Blowfish or puffer (Tetraodontidae species) are more tolerant of coldwater. You find them along tropical
and temperate coasts worldwide, even in some of the rivers of Southeast Asia and Africa. Stout-bodied
and round, many of these fish have short spines and can inflate themselves into a ball when alarmed or
agitated. Their blood, liver, and gonads are so toxic that as little as 28 milligrams (1 ounce) can be fatal.
These fish vary in color and size, growing up to 75 centimeters in length.

The triggerfish (Balistidae species) occur in great variety, mostly in tropical seas. They are deep-bodied
and compressed, resembling a seagoing pancake up to 60 centimeters in length, with large and sharp
dorsal spines. Avoid them all, as many have poisonous flesh.

Although most people avoid them because of their ferocity, they occasionally eat barracuda (Sphyraena
barracuda). These predators of mostly tropical seas can reach almost 1.5 meters in length and have attacked
humans without provocation. They occasionally carry the poison ciguatera in their flesh, making them
deadly if consumed.

In addition to the above fish and their characteristics, red snapper fish may carry ciguatera, a toxin that
accumulates in the systems of fish that feed on tropical marine reefs.

Without specific local information, take the following precautions:

•
Be very careful with fish taken from normally shallow lagoons with sandy or broken coral bottoms.
Reef-feeding species predominate and some may be poisonous.
•
Avoid poisonous fish on the leeward side of an island. This area of shallow water consists of patches
of living corals mixed with open spaces and may extend seaward for some distance. Many different
types of fish inhabit these shallow waters, some of which are poisonous.
•
Do not eat fish caught in any area where the water is unnaturally discolored. This may be indicative
of plankton that cause various types of toxicity in plankton-feeding fish.
•
Try fishing on the windward side or in deep passages leading from the open sea to the lagoon,
but be careful of currents and waves. Live coral reefs drop off sharply into deep water and form
a dividing line between the suspected fish of the shallows and the desirable deepwater species.
Deepwater fish are usually not poisonous. You can catch the various toxic fish even in deep water.
Discard all suspected reef fish, whether caught on the ocean or the reef side.

426 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-15: Fish with poisonous flesh.


CHAPTER 6


Survival Use of Plants


After having solved the problems of finding water, shelter, and animal food, you will have to consider the
use of plants you can eat. In a survival situation you should always be on the lookout for familiar wild
foods and live off the land whenever possible.

You must not count on being able to go for days without food as some sources would suggest. Even in
the most static survival situation, maintaining health through a complete and nutritious diet is essential to
maintaining strength and peace of mind.

Nature can provide you with food that will let you survive any ordeal, if you don‘t eat the wrong plant.
You must therefore learn as much as possible beforehand about the flora of the region where you will
be operating. Plants can provide you with medicines in a survival situation. Plants can supply you with
weapons and raw materials to construct shelters and build fires. Plants can even provide you with chemicals
for poisoning fish, preserving animal hides, and for camouflaging yourself and your equipment.

Note: You will find illustrations of the plants described at the end of this chapter and the end of
Chapter 7.

EDIBILITY OF PLANTS

Plants are valuable sources of food because they are widely available, easily procured, and, in the proper
combinations, can meet all your nutritional needs.

WARNING
The critical factor in using plants for food is to avoid accidental poisoning. Eat
only those plants you can positively identify and you know are safe to eat. See
Chapter 7, Poisonous Plants, for more information.
Absolutely identify plants before using them as food. Poison hemlock has killed people who mistook it
for its relatives, wild carrots and wild parsnips.

At times you may find yourself in a situation for which you could not plan. In this instance you may not
have had the chance to learn the plant life of the region in which you must survive. In this case you can use
the Universal Edibility Test to determine which plants you can eat and those to avoid.

It is important to be able to recognize both cultivated and wild edible plants in a survival situation. Most
of the information in this chapter is directed towards identifying wild plants because information relating
to cultivated plants is more readily available.

Remember the following when collecting wild plants for food:

•
Plants growing near homes and occupied buildings or along roadsides may have been sprayed
with pesticides. Wash them thoroughly. In more highly developed countries with many automobiles,
avoid roadside plants, if possible, due to contamination from exhaust emissions.
•
Plants growing in contaminated water or in water containing Giardia lamblia and other parasites are
contaminated themselves. Boil or disinfect them.
•
Some plants develop extremely dangerous fungal toxins. To lessen the chance of accidental poisoning,
do not eat any fruit that is starting to spoil or showing signs of mildew or fungus.
427


428 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

•
Plants of the same species may differ in their toxic or subtoxic compounds content because of
genetic or environmental factors. One example of this is the foliage of the common chokecherry.
Some chokecherry plants have high concentrations of deadly cyanide compounds while
others have low concentrations or none. Horses have died from eating wilted wild cherry
leaves. Avoid any weed, leaves, or seeds with an almondlike scent, a characteristic of the cyanide
compounds.
•
Some people are more susceptible to gastric distress (from plants) than others. If you are sensitive
in this way, avoid unknown wild plants. If you are extremely sensitive to poison ivy, avoid products
from this family, including any parts from sumacs, mangoes, and cashews.
•
Some edible wild plants, such as acorns and water lily rhizomes, are bitter. These bitter substances,
usually tannin compounds, make them unpalatable. Boiling them in several changes of water will
usually remove these bitter properties.
•
Many valuable wild plants have high concentrations of oxalate compounds, also known as oxalic
acid. Oxalates produce a sharp burning sensation in your mouth and throat and damage the kidneys.
Baking, roasting, or drying usually destroys these oxalate crystals. The corm (bulb) of the
jack-in-the-pulpit is known as the “Indian turnip,” but you can eat it only after removing these
crystals by slow baking or by drying.
WARNING


Do not eat mushrooms in a survival situation! The only way to tell if a mushroom
is edible is by positive identification. There is no room for experimentation.
Symptoms of the most dangerous mushrooms affecting the central nervous
system may show up after several days have passed when it is too late to reverse
their effects.

Plant Identification. You identify plants, other than by memorizing particular varieties through familiarity,

by using such factors as leaf shape and margin, leaf arrangements, and root structure.

The basic leaf margins (Figure 6-1) are toothed, lobed, and toothless or smooth.

These leaves may be lance-shaped, elliptical, egg-shaped, oblong, wedge-shaped, triangular, longpointed,
or top-shaped (Figure 6-2).

The basic types of leaf arrangements (Figure 6-3) are opposite, alternate, compound, simple, and basal
rosette.

The basic types of root structures (Figure 6-4) are the bulb, clove, taproot, tuber, rhizome, corm, and
crown. Bulbs are familiar to us as onions and, when sliced in half, will show concentric rings. Cloves are
those bulblike structures that remind us of garlic and will separate into small pieces when broken apart.
This characteristic separates wild onions from wild garlic. Taproots resemble carrots and may be singlerooted
or branched, but usually only one plant stalk arises from each root. Tubers are like potatoes and
daylilies and you will find these structures either on strings or in clusters underneath the parent plants.
Rhizomes are large creeping rootstock or underground stems and many plants arise from the “eyes” of
these roots. Corms are similar to bulbs but are solid when cut rather than possessing rings. A crown is
the type of root structure found on plants such as asparagus and looks much like a mophead under the
soil’s surface.

Learn as much as possible about plants you intend to use for food and their unique characteristics. Some
plants have both edible and poisonous parts. Many are edible only at certain times of the year. Others may
have poisonous relatives that look very similar to the ones you can eat or use for medicine.

Universal Edibility Test. There are many plants throughout the world. Tasting or swallowing even a small
portion of some can cause severe discomfort, extreme internal disorders, and even death. Therefore, if
you have the slightest doubt about a plant’s edibility, apply the Universal Edibility Test (Table 6-1) before
eating any portion of it.


Survival Use of Plants 429


Figure 6-1: Leaf margins.


Figure 6-2: Leaf shapes.


430 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 6-3: Leaf arrangements.


Figure 6-4: Root structures.

Before testing a plant for edibility, make sure there are enough plants to make the testing worth your
time and effort. Each part of a plant (roots, leaves, flowers, and so on) requires more than 24 hours to test.
Do not waste time testing a plant that is not relatively abundant in the area.

Remember, eating large portions of plant food on an empty stomach may cause diarrhea, nausea, or
cramps. Two good examples of this are such familiar foods as green apples and wild onions. Even after
testing plant food and finding it safe, eat it in moderation.

You can see from the steps and time involved in testing for edibility just how important it is to be able
to identify edible plants.

To avoid potentially poisonous plants, stay away from any wild or unknown plants that have—

• Milky or discolored sap.
• Beans, bulbs, or seeds inside pods.
• Bitter or soapy taste.

Survival Use of Plants 431

• Spines, fine hairs, or thorns.
• Dill, carrot, parsnip, or parsleylike foliage.
• “Almond” scent in woody parts and leaves.
• Grain heads with pink, purplish, or black spurs.
• Three-leaved growth pattern.
Using the above criteria as eliminators when choosing plants for the Universal Edibility Test will cause
you to avoid some edible plants. More important, these criteria will often help you avoid plants that are
potentially toxic to eat or touch.

An entire encyclopedia of edible wild plants could be written, but space limits the number of plants
presented here. Learn as much as possible about the plant life of the areas where you train regularly and
where you expect to be traveling or working. Listed below and on the following pages are some of the most

Table 6-1: Universal Edibility Test.



432 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

common edible and medicinal plants. Detailed descriptions and photographs of these and other common
plants are at the end of this chapter.

Table 6-2: Temperate food zone plants.


Table 6-3: Tropical zone food plants.



Survival Use of Plants 433

Table 6-4: Desert zone food plants.


Seaweeds. One plant you should never overlook is seaweed. It is a form of marine algae found on or near ocean
shores. There are also some edible freshwater varieties. Seaweed is a valuable source of iodine, other minerals,
and vitamin C. Large quantities of seaweed in an unaccustomed stomach can produce a severe laxative effect.

When gathering seaweeds for food, find living plants attached to rocks or floating free. Seaweed washed on
shore any length of time may be spoiled or decayed. You can dry freshly harvested seaweeds for later use.

Its preparation for eating depends on the type of seaweed. You can dry thin and tender varieties in the sun or
over a fire until crisp. Crush and add these to soups or broths. Boil thick, leathery seaweeds for a short time to
soften them. Eat them as a vegetable or with other foods. You can eat some varieties raw after testing for edibility.

Table 6-5: Seaweeds.


Preparation of Plant Food. Although some plants or plant parts are edible raw, you must cook others to
be edible or palatable. Edible means that a plant or food will provide you with necessary nutrients, while
palatable means that it actually is pleasing to eat. Many wild plants are edible but barely palatable. It is a
good idea to learn to identify, prepare, and eat wild foods.

Methods used to improve the taste of plant food include soaking, boiling, cooking, or leaching. Leaching
is done by crushing the food (for example, acorns), placing it in a strainer, and pouring boiling water
through it or immersing it in running water.

Boil leaves, stems, and buds until tender, changing the water, if necessary, to remove any bitterness.

Boil, bake, or roast tubers and roots. Drying helps to remove caustic oxalates from some roots like those
in the Arum family.

Leach acorns in water, if necessary, to remove the bitterness. Some nuts, such as chestnuts, are good raw,
but taste better roasted.

You can eat many grains and seeds raw until they mature. When hard or dry, you may have to boil or
grind them into meal or flour.

The sap from many trees, such as maples, birches, walnuts, and sycamores, contains sugar. You may boil these
saps down to a syrup for sweetening. It takes about 35 liters of maple sap to make one liter of maple syrup!


434 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

PLANTS FOR MEDICINE

In a survival situation you will have to use what is available. In using plants and other natural remedies,
positive identification of the plants involved is as critical as in using them for food. Proper use of these
plants is equally important.

Terms and Definitions

The following terms, and their definitions, are associated with medicinal plant use:

•
Poultice. The name given to crushed leaves or other plant parts, possibly heated, that you apply to
a wound or sore either directly or wrapped in cloth or paper.
•
Infusion or tisane or tea. The preparation of medicinal herbs for internal or external application.
You place a small quantity of a herb in a container, pour hot water over it, and let it steep (covered
or uncovered) before use.
•
Decoction. The extract of a boiled down or simmered herb leaf or root. You add herb leaf or root
to water. You bring them to a sustained boil or simmer to draw their chemicals into the water. The
average ratio is about 28 to 56 grams (1 to 2 ounces) of herb to 0.5 liter of water.
•
Expressed juice. Liquids or saps squeezed from plant material and either applied to the wound or
made into another medicine.
Many natural remedies work slower than the medicines you know. Therefore, start with smaller doses
and allow more time for them to take effect. Naturally, some will act more rapidly than others.

Specific Remedies. The following remedies are for use only in a survival situation, not for routine use:

•
Diarrhea. Drink tea made from the roots of blackberries and their relatives to stop diarrhea. White
oak bark and other barks containing tannin are also effective. However, use them with caution
when nothing else is available because of possible negative effects on the kidneys. You can also stop
diarrhea by eating white clay or campfire ashes. Tea made from cowberry or cranberry or hazel
leaves works too.
•
Antihemorrhagics. Make medications to stop bleeding from a poultice of the puffball mushroom,
from plantain leaves, or most effectively from the leaves of the common yarrow or woundwort
(Achilles millefolium).
•
Antiseptics. Use to cleanse wounds, sores, or rashes. You can make them from the expressed juice
from wild onion or garlic, or expressed juice from chickweed leaves or the crushed leaves of dock.
You can also make antiseptics from a decoction of burdock root, mallow leaves or roots, or white
oak bark. All these medications are for external use only.
•
Fevers. Treat a fever with a tea made from willow bark, an infusion of elder flowers or fruit, linden
flower tea, or elm bark decoction.
•
Colds and sore throats. Treat these illnesses with a decoction made from either plantain leaves or
willow bark. You can also use a tea made from burdock roots, mallow or mullein flowers or roots,
or mint leaves.
•
Aches, pains, and sprains. Treat with externally applied poultices of dock, plantain, chickweed,
willow bark, garlic, or sorrel. You can also use salves made by mixing the expressed juices of these
plants in animal fat or vegetable oils.
•
Itching. Relieve the itch from insect bites, sunburn, or plant poisoning rashes by applying a poultice
of jewelweed (Impatiens biflora) or witch hazel leaves (Hamamelis virginiana).The jewelweed juice will
help when applied to poison ivy rashes or insect stings. It works on sunburn as well as aloe vera.
•
Sedatives. Get help in falling asleep by brewing a tea made from mint leaves or passionflower
leaves.

Survival Use of Plants 435

•
Hemorrhoids. Treat them with external washes from elm bark or oak bark tea, from the expressed
juice of plantain leaves, or from a Solomon’s seal root decoction.
•
Constipation. Relieve constipation by drinking decoctions from dandelion leaves, rose hips, or walnut
bark. Eating raw daylily flowers will also help.
•
Worms or intestinal parasites. Using moderation, treat with tea made from tansy (Tanacetum vulgare)
or from wild carrot leaves.
•
Gas and cramps. Use a tea made from carrot seeds as an antiflatulent; use tea made from mint
leaves to settle the stomach.
•
Antifungal washes. Make a decoction of walnut leaves or oak bark or acorns to treat ringworm and
athlete’s foot. Apply frequently to the site, alternating with exposure to direct sunlight.
MISCELLANEOUS USE OF PLANTS

•
Make dyes from various plants to color clothing or to camouflage your skin. Usually, you will have
to boil the plants to get the best results. Onion skins produce yellow, walnut hulls produce brown,
and pokeberries provide a purple dye.
•
Make fibers and cordage from plant fibers. Most commonly used are the stems from nettles and
milkweeds, yucca plants, and the inner bark of trees like the linden.
•
Make fish poison by immersing walnut hulls in a small area of quiet water. This poison makes it
impossible for the fish to breathe but doesn’t adversely affect their edibility.
•
Make tinder for starting fires from cattail fluff, cedar bark, lighter knot wood from pine trees, or
hardened sap from resinous wood trees.
•
Make insulation by fluffing up female cattail heads or milkweed down.
•
Make insect repellents by applying the expressed juice of wild garlic or onion to the skin, by placing
sassafras leaves in your shelter, or by burning or smudging cattail seed hair fibers.
Plants can be your ally as long as you use them cautiously. The key to the safe use of plants is positive
identification whether you use them as food or medicine or in constructing shelters or equipment.


436 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

EDIBLE AND MEDICINAL PLANTS



Abal

Calligonum comosum

Description: The abal is one of the few shrubby plants that exists in the shady deserts. This plant grows
to about 1.2 meters, and its branches look like wisps from a broom. The stiff, green branches produce an
abundance of flowers in the early spring months (March, April).

Habitat and Distribution: This plant is found in desert scrub and waste in any climatic zone. It inhabits
much of the North African desert. It may also be found on the desert sands of the Middle East and as far
eastward as the Rajputana desert of westen India.

Edible Parts: This plant’s general appearance would not indicate its usefulness to the survivor, but while
this plant is flowering in the spring, its fresh flowers can be eaten. This plant is common in the areas where
it is found. An analysis of the food value of this plant has shown it to be high in sugar and nitrogenous
components.


Acacia

Acacia farnesiana

Description: Acacia is a spreading, usually short tree with spines and alternate compound leaves. Its individual
leaflets are small. Its flowers are ball-shaped, bright yellow, and very fragrant. Its bark is a whitishgray
color. Its fruits are dark brown and podlike.

Habitat and Distribution: Acacia grows in open, sunny areas. It is found throughout all tropical regions.

Note: There are about 500 species of acacia. These plants are especially prevalent in Africa, southern Asia,
and Australia, but many species are found in the warmer and drier parts of America.

Edible Parts: Its young leaves, flowers, and pods are edible raw or cooked.


Survival Use of Plants 437


Agave

Agave species

Description: These plants have large clusters of thick, fleshy leaves borne close to the ground and surrounding
a central stalk. The plants flower only once, then die. They produce a massive flower stalk.
Habitat and Distribution: Agaves prefer dry, open areas. They are found throughout Central America, the

Caribbean, and parts of the western deserts of the United States and Mexico.
Edible Parts: Its flowers and flower buds are edible. Boil them before eating.


CAUTION
The juice of some species causes dermatitis in some individuals.

Other Uses: Cut the huge flower stalk and collect the juice for drinking. Some species have very fibrous
leaves. Pound the leaves and remove the fibers for weaving and making ropes. Most species have thick,
sharp needles at the tips of the leaves. Use them for sewing or making hacks. The sap of some species contains
a chemical that makes the sap suitable for use as a soap.


Almond

Prunus amygdalus

Description: The almond tree, which sometimes grows to 12.2 meters, looks like a peach tree. The fresh almond
fruit resembles a gnarled, unripe peach and grows in clusters. The stone (the almond itself) is covered with a
thick, dry, woolly skin.

Habitat and Distribution: Almonds are found in the scrub and thorn forests of the tropics, the evergreen
scrub forests of temperate areas, and in desert scrub and waste in all climatic zones. The almond tree is also
found in the semidesert areas of the Old World in southern Europe, the eastern Mediterranean, Iran, the
Middle East, China, Madeira, the Azores, and the Canary Islands.

Edible Parts: The mature almond fruit splits open lengthwise down the side, exposing the ripe almond
nut. You can easily get the dry kernel by simply cracking open the stone. Almond meats are rich in food
value, like all nuts. Gather them in large quantities and shell them for further use as survival food. You
could live solely on almonds for rather long periods. When you boil them, the kernel’s outer covering
comes off and only the white meat remains.


438 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Amaranth

Amaranthus species

Description: These plants, which grow 90 centimeters to 150 centimeters tall, are abundant weeds in many
parts of the world. All amaranth have alternate simple leaves. They may have some red color present on
the stems. They bear minute, greenish flowers in dense clusters at the top of the plants. Their seeds may be
brown or black in weedy species and light-colored in domestic species.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for amaranth along roadsides, in disturbed waste areas, or as weeds in
crops throughout the world. Some amaranth species have been grown as a grain crop and a garden vegetable
in various parts of the world, especially in South America.

Edible Parts: All parts are edible, but some may have sharp spines you should remove before eating. The
young plants or the growing tips of alder plants are an excellent vegetable. Simply boil the young plants or
eat them raw. Their seeds are very nutritious. Shake the tops of alder plants to get the seeds. Eat the seeds
raw, boiled, ground into flour, or popped like popcorn.


Arctic willow

Salix arctica

Description: The arctic willow is a shrub that never exceeds more than 60 centimeters in height and grows
in clumps that form dense mats on the tundra.

Habitat and Distribution: The arctic willow is common on tundras in North America, Europe, and Asia.
You can also find it in some mountainous areas in temperate regions.

Edible Parts: You can collect the succulent, tender young shoots of the arctic willow in early spring. Strip
off the outer bark of the new shoots and eat the inner portion raw. You can also peel and eat raw the young
underground shoots of any of the various kinds of arctic willow. Young willow leaves are one of the richest
sources of vitamin C, containing 7 to 10 times more than an orange.


Survival Use of Plants 439


Arrowroot

Maranta and Sagittaria species

Description: The arrowroot is an aquatic plant with arrow-shaped leaves and potatolike tubers in the
mud.
Habitat and Distribution: Arrowroot is found worldwide in temperate zones and the tropics. It is found

in moist to wet habitats.
Edible Parts: The rootstock is a rich source of high quality starch. Boil the rootstock and eat it as a vegetable.


Asparagus

Asparagus officinalis

Description: The spring growth of this plant resembles a cluster of green fingers. The mature plant has
fernlike, wispy foliage and red berries. Its flowers are small and greenish in color. Several species have
sharp, thornlike structures.

Habitat and Distribution: Asparagus is found worldwide in temperate areas. Look for it in fields, old
homesites, and fencerows.

Edible Parts: Eat the young stems before leaves form. Steam or boil them for 10 to 15 minutes before eating.
Raw asparagus may cause nausea or diarrhea. The fleshy roots are a good source of starch.


440 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Bael fruit

Aegle marmelos

Description: This is a tree that grows from 2.4 to 4.6 meters tall, with a dense spiny growth. The fruit is 5 to
10 centimeters in diameter, gray or yellowish, and full of seeds.

Habitat and Distribution: Bael fruit is found in rain forests and semi-evergreen seasonal forests of the
tropics. It grows wild in India and Burma.

Edible Parts: The fruit, which ripens in December, is at its best when just turning ripe. The juice of the
ripe fruit, diluted with water and mixed with a small amount of tamarind and sugar or honey, is sour but
refreshing. Like other citrus fruits, it is rich in vitamin C.


Bamboo

Various species including Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Phyllostachys

Description: Bamboos are woody grasses that grow up to 15 meters tall. The leaves are grasslike and the
stems are the familiar bamboo used in furniture and fishing poles.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for bamboo in warm, moist regions in open or jungle country, in lowland,
or on mountains. Bamboos are native to the Far East (Temperate and Tropical zones) but have bean widely
planted around the world.

Edible Parts: The young shoots of almost all species are edible raw or cooked. Raw shoots have a slightly
bitter taste that is removed by boiling. To prepare, remove the tough protective sheath that is coated with
tawny or red hairs. The seed grain of the flowering bamboo is also edible. Boil the seeds like rice or pulverize
them, mix with water, and make into cakes.

Other Uses: Use the mature bamboo to build structures or to make containers, ladles, spoons, and various
other cooking utensils. Also use bamboo to make tools and weapons. You can make a strong bow by splitting
the bamboo and putting several pieces together.


CAUTION
Green bamboo may explode in a fire. Green bamboo has an internal membrane you must
remove before using it as a food or water container.


Survival Use of Plants 441


Banana and plantain

Musa species

Description: These are treelike plants with several large leaves at the top. Their flowers are borne in dense
hanging clusters.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for bananas and plantains in open fields or margins of forests where they
are grown as a crop. They grow in the humid tropics.

Edible Parts: Their fruits are edible raw or cooked. They may be boiled or baked. You can boil their flowers
and eat them like a vegetable. You can cook and eat the rootstocks and leaf sheaths of many species. The
center or “heart” or the plant is edible year-round, cooked or raw.

Other Uses: You can use the layers of the lower third of the plants to cover coals to roast food. You can also
use their stumps to get water (see Chapter 6). You can use their leaves to wrap other foods for cooking or
storage.


Baobab

Adansonia digitata

Description: The baobab tree may grow as high as 18 meters and may have a trunk 9 meters in diameter.
The tree has short, stubby branches and a gray, thick bark. Its leaves are compound and their segments are
arranged like the palm of a hand. Its flowers, which are white and several centimeters across, hang from
the higher branches. Its fruit is shaped like a football, measures up to 45 centimeters long, and is covered
with short dense hair.

Habitat and Distribution: These trees grow in savannas. They are found in Africa, in parts of Australia,
and on the island of Madagascar.

Edible Parts: You can use the young leaves as a soup vegetable. The tender root of the young baobab tree
is edible. The pulp and seeds of the fruit are also edible. Use one handful of pulp to about one cup of water
for a refreshing drink. To obtain flour, roast the seeds, then grind them.

Other Uses: Drinking a mixture of pulp and water will help cure diarrhea. Often the hollow trunks are
good sources of fresh water. The bark can be cut into strips and pounded to obtain a strong fiber for
making rope.


442 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Batoko plum

Flacourtia inermis

Description: This shrub or small tree has dark green, alternate, simple leaves. Its fruits are bright red and
contain six or more seeds.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant is a native of the Philippines but is widely cultivated for its fruit in
other areas. It can be found in clearings and at the edges of the tropical rain forests of Africa and Asia.

Edible Parts: Eat the fruit raw or cooked.


Bearberry or kinnikinnick

Arctostaphylos uvaursi

Description: This plant is a common evergreen shrub with reddish, scaly bark and thick, leathery leaves
4 centimeters long and 1 centimeter wide. It has white flowers and bright red fruits.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant is found in arctic, subarctic, and temperate regions, most often in
sandy or rocky soil.

Edible Parts: Its berries are edible raw or cooked. You can make a refreshing tea from its young leaves.


Survival Use of Plants 443


Beech

Fagus species

Description: Beech trees are large (9 to 24 meters), symmetrical forest trees that have smooth, light-gray
bark and dark green foliage. The character of its bark, plus its clusters of prickly seedpods, clearly distinguish
the beech tree in the field.

Habitat and Distribution: This tree is found in the Temperate Zone. It grows wild in the eastern United
States, Europe, Asia, and North Africa. It is found in moist areas, mainly in the forests. This tree is common
throughout southeastern Europe and across temperate Asia. Beech relatives are also found in Chile, New
Guinea, and New Zealand.

Edible Parts: The mature beechnuts readily fall out of the husklike seedpods. You can eat these dark
brown triangular nuts by breaking the thin shell with your fingernail and removing the white, sweet kernel
inside. Beechnuts are one of the most delicious of all wild nuts. They are a most useful survival food
because of the kernel’s high oil content. You can also use the beechnuts as a coffee substitute. Roast them
so that the kernel becomes golden brown and quite hard. Then pulverize the kernel and, after boiling or
steeping in hot water, you have a passable coffee substitute.


Bignay

Antidesma bunius

Description: Bignay is a shrub or small tree, 3 to 12 meters tall, with shiny, pointed leaves about 15 centimeters
long. Its flowers are small, clustered, and green. It has fleshy, dark red or black fruit and a single
seed. The fruit is about 1 centimeter in diameter.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant is found in rain forests and semi-evergreen seasonal forests in the
tropics. It is found in open places and in secondary forests. It grows wild from the Himalayas to Ceylon
and eastward through Indonesia to northern Australia. However, it may be found anywhere in the tropics
in cultivated forms.

Edible Parts: The fruit is edible raw. Do not eat any other parts of the tree. In Africa, the roots are toxic.
Other parts of the plant may be poisonous.


CAUTION
Eaten in large quantities, the fruit may have a laxative effect.


444 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Blackberry, raspberry, and dewberry

Rubus species

Description: These plants have prickly stems (canes) that grow upward, arching back toward the ground.
They have alternate, usually compound leaves. Their fruits may be red, black, yellow, or orange.
Habitat and Distribution: These plants grow in open, sunny areas at the margin of woods, lakes, streams,


and roads throughout temperate regions. There is also an arctic raspberry.
Edible Parts: The fruits and peeled young shoots are edible. Flavor varies greatly.
Other Uses: Use the leaves to make tea. To treat diarrhea, drink a tea made by brewing the dried root bark


of the blackberry bush.



Blueberry and huckleberry

Vaccinium and Gaylussacia species

Description: These shrubs vary in size from 30 centimeters to 3.7 meters tall. All have alternate, simple
leaves. Their fruits may be dark blue, black, or red and have many small seeds.
Habitat and Distribution: These plants prefer open, sunny areas. They are found throughout much of the

north temperate regions and at higher elevations in Central America.
Edible Parts: Their fruits are edible raw.


Survival Use of Plants 445


Breadfruit

Artocarpus incisa

Description: This tree may grow up to 9 meters tall. It has dark green, deeply divided leaves that are
75 centimeters long and 30 centimeters wide. Its fruits are large, green, ball-like structures up to 30 centimeters
across when mature.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for this tree at the margins of forests and homesites in the humid tropics. It is
native to the South Pacific region but has been widely planted in the West Indies and parts of Polynesia.

Edible Parts: The fruit pulp is edible raw. The fruit can be sliced, dried, and ground into flour for later use.
The seeds are edible cooked.

Other Uses: The thick sap can serve as glue and caulking material. You can also use it as birdlime (to
entrap small birds by smearing the sap on twigs where they usually perch).


Burdock

Arctium lappa

Description: This plant has wavy-edged, arrow-shaped leaves and flower heads in burrlike clusters. It
grows up to 2 meters tall, with purple or pink flowers and a large, fleshy root.

Habitat and Distribution: Burdock is found worldwide in the North Temperate Zone. Look for it in open
waste areas during the spring and summer.

Edible Parts: Peel the tender leaf stalks and eat them raw or cook them like greens. The roots are also edible
boiled or baked.


CAUTION
Do not confuse burdock with rhubarb that has poisonous leaves.

Other Uses: A liquid made from the roots will help to produce sweating and increase urination. Dry the
root, simmer it in water, strain the liquid, and then drink the strained liquid. Use the fiber from the dried
stalk to weave cordage.


446 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Burl Palm

Corypha elata

Description: This tree may reach 18 meters in height. It has large, fan-shaped leaves up to 3 meters long
and split into about 100 narrow segments. It bears flowers in huge dusters at the top of the tree. The tree
dies after flowering.

Habitat and Distribution: This tree grows in coastal areas of the East Indies.

Edible Parts: The trunk contains starch that is edible raw. The very tip of the trunk is also edible raw or cooked.
You can get large quantities of liquid by bruising the flowering stalk. The kernels of the nuts are edible.


CAUTION
The seed covering may cause dermatitis in some individuals.

Other Uses: You can use the leaves as weaving material.


Canna lily

Canna indica

Description: The canna lily is a coarse perennial herb, 90 centimeters to 3 meters tall. The plant grows from
a large, thick, underground rootstock that is edible. Its large leaves resemble those of the banana plant but
are not so large. The flowers of wild canna lily are usually small, relatively inconspicuous, and brightly
colored reds, oranges, or yellows.

Habitat and Distribution: As a wild plant, the canna lily is found in all tropical areas, especially in moist
places along streams, springs, ditches, and the margins of woods. It may also be found in wet temperate,
mountainous regions. It is easy to recognize because it is commonly cultivated in flower gardens in the
United States.

Edible Parts: The large and much branched rootstocks are full of edible starch. The younger parts may be finely
chopped and then boiled or pulverized into a meal. Mix in the young shoots of palm cabbage for flavoring.


Survival Use of Plants 447


Carob tree

Ceratonia siliqua

Description: This large tree has a spreading crown. Its leaves are compound and alternate. Its seedpods,
also known as Saint John’s bread, are up to 45 centimeters long and are filled with round, hard seeds and
a thick pulp.

Habitat and Distribution: This tree is found throughout the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and parts of
North Africa.

Edible Parts: The young tender pods are edible raw or boiled. You can pulverize the seeds in mature pods
and cook as porridge.


Cashew nut

Anacardium occidentale

Description: The cashew is a spreading evergreen tree growing to a height of 12 meters, with leaves up to
20 centimeters long and 10 centimeters wide. Its flowers are yellowish-pink. Its fruit is very easy to recognize
because of its peculiar structure. The fruit is thick and pear-shaped, pulpy and red or yellow when ripe.
This fruit bears a hard, green, kidney-shaped nut at its tip. This nut is smooth, shiny, and green or brown
according to its maturity.

Habitat and Distribution: The cashew is native to the West Indies and northern South America, but transplantation
has spread it to all tropical climates. In the Old World, it has escaped from cultivation and
appears to be wild at least in parts of Africa and India.

Edible Parts: The nut encloses one seed. The seed is edible when roasted. The pear-shaped fruit is juicy,
sweet-acid, and astringent. It is quite safe and considered delicious by most people who eat it.


CAUTION
The green hull surrounding the nut contains a resinous irritant poison that will blister the
lips and tongue like poison ivy. Heat destroys this poison when roasting the nuts.


448 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Cattail

Typha latifolia

Description: Cattails are grasslike plants with strap-shaped leaves 1 to 5 centimeters wide and growing up
to 1.8 meters tall. The male flowers are borne in a dense mass above the female flowers. These last only a
short time, leaving the female flowers that develop into the brown cattail. Pollen from the male flowers is
often abundant and bright yellow.

Habitat and Distribution: Cattails are found throughout most of the world. Look for them in full sun areas
at the margins of lakes, streams, canals, rivers, and brackish water.

Edible Parts: The young tender shoots are edible raw or cooked. The rhizome is often very tough but is
a rich source of starch. Pound the rhizome to remove the starch and use as a flour. The pollen is also an
exceptional source of starch. When the cattail is immature and still green, you can boil the female portion
and eat it like corn on the cob.

Other Uses: The dried leaves are an excellent source of weaving material you can use to make floats and
rafts. The cottony seeds make good pillow stuffing and insulation. The fluff makes excellent tinder. Dried
cattails are effective insect repellents when burned.


Cereus cactus

Cereus species
Description: These cacti are tall and narrow with angled stems and numerous spines.
Habitat and Distribution: They may be found in true deserts and other dry, open, sunny areas throughout


the Caribbean region, Central America, and the western United States.
Edible Parts: The fruits are edible, but some may have a laxative effect.
Other Uses: The pulp of the cactus is a good source of water. Break open the stem and scoop out the pulp.



Survival Use of Plants 449


Chestnut

Castanea sativa

Description: The European chestnut is usually a large tree, up to 18 meters in height.

Habitat and Distribution: In temperate regions, the chestnut is found in both hardwood and coniferous
forests. In the tropics, it is found in semi-evergreen seasonal forests. They are found over all of middle and
south Europe and across middle Asia to China and Japan. They are relatively abundant along the edge of
meadows and as a forest tree. The European chestnut is one of the most common varieties. Wild chestnuts
in Asia belong to the related chestnut species.

Edible Parts: Chestnuts are highly useful as survival food. Ripe nuts are usually picked in autumn, although
unripe nuts picked while green may also be used for food. Perhaps the easiest way to prepare them is to
roast the ripe nuts in embers. Cooked this way, they are quite tasty, and you can eat large quantities.
Another way is to boil the kernels after removing the outer shell. After being boiled until fairly soft, you
can mash the nuts like potatoes.


Chicory

Cichorium intybus

Description: This plant grows up to 1.8 meters tall. It has leaves clustered at the base of the stem and some
leaves on the stem. The base leaves resemble those of the dandelion. The flowers are sky blue and stay
open only on sunny days. Chicory has a milky juice.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for chicory in old fields, waste areas, weedy lots, and along roads. It is
a native of Europe and Asia, but is also found in Africa and most of North America where it grows as a
weed.

Edible Parts: All parts are edible. Eat the young leaves as a salad or boil to eat as a vegetable. Cook the
roots as a vegetable. For use as a coffee substitute, roast the roots until they are dark brown and then
pulverize them.


450 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Chufa

Cyperus esculentus

Description: This very common plant has a triangular stem and grasslike leaves. It grows to a height
of 20 to 60 centimeters. The mature plant has a soft furlike bloom that extends from a whorl of leaves.
Tubers 1 to 2.5 centimeters in diameter grow at the ends of the roots.

Habitat and Distribution: Chufa grows in moist sandy areas throughout the world. It is often an abundant
weed in cultivated fields.

Edible Parts: The tubers are edible raw, boiled, or baked. You can also grind them and use them as a coffee
substitute.


Coconut

Cocos nucifera

Description: This tree has a single, narrow, tall trunk with a cluster of very large leaves at the top. Each leaf
may be over 6 meters long with over 100 pairs of leaflets.

Habitat and Distribution: Coconut palms are found throughout the tropics. They are most abundant near
coastal regions.

Edible Parts: The nut is a valuable source of food. The milk of the young coconut is rich in sugar and vitamins
and is an excellent source of liquid. The nut meat is also nutritious but is rich in oil. To preserve the
meat, spread it in the sun until it is completely dry.

Other Uses: Use coconut oil to cook and to protect metal objects from corrosion. Also use the oil to treat
saltwater sores, sunburn, and dry skin. Use the oil in improvised torches. Use the tree trunk as building
material and the leaves as thatch. Hollow out the large stump for use as a food container. The coconut
husks are good flotation devices and the husk’s fibers are used to weave ropes and other items. Use the
gauzelike fibers at the leaf bases as strainers or use them to weave a bug net or to make a pad to use on
wounds. The husk makes a good abrasive. Dried husk fiber is an excellent tinder. A smoldering husk helps
to repel mosquitoes. Smoke caused by dripping coconut oil in a fire also repels mosquitoes. To render
coconut oil, put the coconut meat in the sun, heat it over a slow fire, or boil it in a pot of water. Coconuts
washed out to sea are a good source of fresh liquid for the sea survivor.


Survival Use of Plants 451


Common jujube

Ziziphus jujuba

Description: The common jujube is either a deciduous tree growing to a height of 12 meters or a large
shrub, depending upon where it grows and how much water is available for growth. Its branches are
usually spiny. Its reddish-brown to yellowish-green fruit is oblong to ovoid, 3 centimeters or less in diameter,
smooth, and sweet in flavor, but has rather dry pulp around a comparatively large stone. Its flowers
are green.

Habitat and Distribution: The jujube is found in forested areas of temperate regions and in desert scrub
and waste areas worldwide. It is common in many of the tropical and subtropical areas of the Old World.
In Africa, it is found mainly bordering the Mediterranean. In Asia, it is especially common in the drier
parts of India and China. The jujube is also found throughout the East Indies. It can be found bordering
some desert areas.

Edible Parts: The pulp, crushed in water, makes a refreshing beverage. If time permits, you can dry the
ripe fruit in the sun like dates. Its fruits are high in vitamins A and C.


Cranberry

Vaccinium macrocarpon

Description: This plant has tiny leaves arranged alternately. Its stem creeps along the ground. Its fruits are
red berries.

Habitat and Distribution: It only grows in open, sunny, wet areas in the colder regions of the Northern
Hemisphere.

Edible Parts: The berries are very tart when eaten raw. Cook in a small amount of water and add sugar, if
available, to make a jelly.

Other Uses: Cranberries may act as a diuretic. They are useful for treating urinary tract infections.


452 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Crowberry

Empetrum nigrum

Description: This is a dwarf evergreen shrub with short needlelike leaves. It has small, shiny, black berries
that remain on the bush throughout the winter.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for this plant in tundra throughout arctic regions of North America and
Eurasia.

Edible Parts: The fruits are edible fresh or can be dried for later use.


Cuipo tree

Cavanillesia platanifolia

Description: This is a very dominant and easily detected tree because it extends above the other trees. Its
height ranges from 45 to 60 meters. It has leaves only at the top and is bare 11 months out of the year. It has
rings on its bark that extend to the top to make is easily recognizable. Its bark is reddish or gray in color.
Its roots are light reddish-brown or yellowish-brown.

Habitat and Distribution: The cuipo tree is located primarily in Central American tropical rain forests in
mountainous areas.

Edible Parts: To get water from this tree, cut a piece of the root and clean the dirt and bark off one end,
keeping the root horizontal. Put the clean end to your mouth or canteen and raise the other. The water from
this tree tastes like potato water.

Other Uses: Use young saplings and the branches’ inner bark to make rope.


Survival Use of Plants 453


Dandelion

Taraxacum officinale

Description: Dandelion leaves have a jagged edge, grow close to the ground, and are seldom more than 20
centimeters long. Its flowers are bright yellow. There are several dandelion species.

Habitat and Distribution: Dandelions grow in open, sunny locations throughout the Northern Hemisphere.


Edible Parts: All parts are edible. Eat the leaves raw or cooked. Boil the roots as a vegetable. Roots roasted
and ground are a good coffee substitute. Dandelions are high in vitamins A and C and in calcium.

Other Uses: Use the white juice in the flower stems as glue.


Date palm

Phoenix dactylifera

Description: The date palm is a tall, unbranched tree with a crown of huge, compound leaves. Its fruit is
yellow when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: This tree grows in arid semitropical regions. It is native to North Africa and the
Middle East but has been planted in the arid semitropics in other parts of the world.

Edible Parts: Its fruit is edible fresh but is very bitter if eaten before it is ripe. You can dry the fruits in the
sun and preserve them for a long time.

Other Uses: The trunks provide valuable building material in desert regions where few other treelike
plants are found. The leaves are durable and you can use them for thatching and as weaving material. The
base of the leaves resembles coarse cloth that you can use for scrubbing and cleaning.


454 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Daylily

Hemerocallis fulva

Description: This plant has unspotted, tawny blossoms that open for 1 day only. It has long, swordlike,
green basal leaves. Its root is a mass of swollen and elongated tubers.

Habitat and Distribution: Daylilies are found worldwide in Tropic and Temperate Zones. They are grown
as a vegetable in the Orient and as an ornamental plant elsewhere.

Edible Parts: The young green leaves are edible raw or cooked. Tubers are also edible raw or cooked. You
can eat its flowers raw, but they taste better cooked. You can also fry the flowers for storage.


CAUTION
Eating excessive amounts of raw flowers may cause diarrhea.


Duchesnea or Indian strawberry

Duchesnea indica

Description: The duchesnea is a small plant that has runners and three-parted leaves. Its flowers are yellow
and its fruit resembles a strawberry.

Habitat and Distribution: It is native to southern Asia but is a common weed in warmer temperate regions.
Look for it in lawns, gardens, and along roads.

Edible Parts: Its fruit is edible. Eat it fresh.


Survival Use of Plants 455


Elderberry

Sambucus canadensis

Description: Elderberry is a many-stemmed shrub with opposite, compound leaves. It grows to a height of
6 meters. Its flowers are fragrant, white, and borne in large flat-topped clusters up to 30 centimeters across.
Its berrylike fruits are dark blue or black when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant is found in open, usually wet areas at the margins of marshes, rivers,
ditches, and lakes. It grows throughout much of eastern North America and Canada.

Edible Parts: The flowers and fruits are edible. You can make a drink by soaking the flower heads for 8
hours, discarding the flowers, and drinking the liquid.


CAUTION
All other parts of the plant are poisonous and dangerous if eaten.


Fireweed

Epilobium angustifolium

Description: This plant grows up to 1.8 meters tall. It has large, showy, pink flowers and lance-shaped
leaves. Its relative, the dwarf fireweed (Epilobium latifolium), grows 30 to 60 centimeters tall.

Habitat and Distribution: Tall fireweed is found in open woods, on hillsides, on stream banks, and near
seashores in arctic regions. It is especially abundant in burned-over areas. Dwarf fireweed is found along
streams, sandbars, and lakeshores and on alpine and arctic slopes.

Edible Parts: The leaves, stems, and flowers are edible in the spring but become tough in summer. You can
split open the stems of old plants and eat the pith raw.


456 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Fishtail palm

Caryota urens

Description: Fishtail palms are large trees, at least 18 meters tall. Their leaves are unlike those of any other
palm; the leaflets are irregular and toothed on the upper margins. All other palms have either fan-shaped
or featherlike leaves. Its massive flowering shoot is borne at the top of the tree and hangs downward.

Habitat and Distribution: The fishtail palm is native to the tropics of India, Assam, and Burma. Several
related species also exist in Southeast Asia and the Philippines. These palms are found in open hill country
and jungle areas.

Edible Parts: The chief food in this palm is the starch stored in large quantities in its trunk. The juice from
the fishtail palm is very nourishing and you have to drink it shortly after getting it from the palm flower
shoot. Boil the juice down to get a rich sugar syrup. Use the same method as for the sugar palm to get the
juice. The palm cabbage may be eaten raw or cooked.


Foxtail grass

Setaria species

Description: This weedy grass is readily recognized by the narrow, cylindrical head containing long hairs.
Its grains are small, less than 6 millimeters long. The dense heads of grain often droop when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for foxtail grasses in open, sunny areas, along roads, and at the margins of
fields. Some species occur in wet, marshy areas. Species of Setaria are found throughout the United States,
Europe, western Asia, and tropical Africa. In some parts of the world, foxtail grasses are grown as a food
crop.

Edible Parts: The grains are edible raw but are very hard and sometimes bitter. Boiling removes some of
the bitterness and makes them easier to eat.


Survival Use of Plants 457


Goa bean

Psophocarpus tetragonolobus

Description: The goa bean is a climbing plant that may cover small shrubs and trees. Its bean pods are
22 centimeters long, its leaves 15 centimeters long, and its flowers are bright blue. The mature pods are 4angled,
with jagged wings on the pods.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant grows in tropical Africa, Asia, the East Indies, the Philippines, and
Taiwan. This member of the bean (legume) family serves to illustrate a kind of edible bean common in the
tropics of the Old World. Wild edible beans of this sort are most frequently found in clearings and around
abandoned garden sites. They are more rare in forested areas.

Edible Parts: You can eat the young pods like string beans. The mature seeds are a valuable source of protein
after parching or roasting them over hot coals. You can germinate the seeds (as you can many kinds
of beans) in damp moss and eat the resultant sprouts. The thickened roots are edible raw. They are slightly
sweet, with the firmness of an apple. You can also eat the young leaves as a vegetable, raw or steamed.


Hackberry

Celtis species

Description: Hackberry trees have smooth, gray bark that often has corky warts or ridges. The tree may
reach 39 meters in height. Hackberry trees have long-pointed leaves that grow in two rows. This tree bears
small, round berries that can be eaten when they are ripe and fall from the tree. The wood of the hackberry
is yellowish.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant is widespread in the United States, especially in and near ponds.

Edible Parts: Its berries are edible when they are ripe and fall from the tree.


458 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Hazelnut or wild filbert

Corylus species

Description: Hazelnuts grow on bushes 1.8 to 3.6 meters high. One species in Turkey and another in China
are large trees. The nut itself grows in a very bristly husk that conspicuously contracts above the nut into
a long neck. The different species vary in this respect as to size and shape.

Habitat and Distribution: Hazelnuts are found over wide areas in the United States, especially the eastern
half of the country and along the Pacific coast. These nuts are also found in Europe where they are known
as filberts. The hazelnut is common in Asia, especially in eastern Asia from the Himalayas to China and
Japan. The hazelnut usually grows in the dense thickets along stream banks and open places. They are not
plants of the dense forest.

Edible Parts: Hazelnuts ripen in the autumn when you can crack them open and eat the kernel. The dried
nut is extremely delicious. The nut’s high oil content makes it a good survival food. In the unripe stage, you
can crack them open and eat the fresh kernel.


Horseradish tree

Moringa pterygosperma

Description: This tree grows from 4.5 to 14 meters tall. Its leaves have a fernlike appearance. Its flowers
and long, pendulous fruits grow on the ends of the branches. Its fruit (pod) looks like a giant bean. Its 25- to
60-centimeter-long pods are triangular in cross section, with strong ribs. Its roots have a pungent odor.

Habitat and Distribution: This tree is found in the rain forests and semi-evergreen seasonal forests of the
tropical regions. It is widespread in India, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Central America. Look for it in abandoned
fields and gardens and at the edges of forests.

Edible Parts: The leaves are edible raw or cooked, depending on their hardness. Cut the young seedpods
into short lengths and cook them like string beans or fry them. You can get oil for frying by boiling the
young fruits of palms and skimming the oil off the surface of the water. You can eat the flowers as part of
a salad. You can chew fresh, young seedpods to eat the pulpy and soft seeds. The roots may be ground as
a substitute for seasoning similar to horseradish.


Survival Use of Plants 459


Iceland moss

Cetraria islandica

Description: This moss grows only a few inches high. Its color may be gray, white, or even reddish.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for it in open areas. It is found only in the arctic.

Edible Parts: All parts of the Iceland moss are edible. During the winter or dry season, it is dry and crunchy
but softens when soaked. Boil the moss to remove the bitterness. After boiling, eat by itself or add to milk
or grains as a thickening agent. Dried plants store well.


Indian potato or Eskimo potato

Claytonia species

Description: All Claytonia species are somewhat fleshy plants only a few centimeters tall, with showy
flowers about 2.5 centimeters across.
Habitat and Distribution: Some species are found in rich forests where they are conspicuous before the

leaves develop. Western species are found throughout most of the northern United States and in Canada.
Edible Parts: The tubers are edible but you should boil them before eating.


460 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Juniper

Juniperus species

Description: Junipers, sometimes called cedars, are trees or shrubs with very small, scalelike leaves densely
crowded around the branches. Each leaf is less than 1.2 centimeters long. All species have a distinct aroma
resembling the well-known cedar. The berrylike cones are usually blue and covered with a whitish wax.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for junipers in open, dry, sunny areas throughout North America and
northern Europe. Some species are found in southeastern Europe, across Asia to Japan, and in the mountains
of North Africa.

Edible Parts: The berries and twigs are edible. Eat the berries raw or roast the seeds to use as a coffee substitute.
Use dried and crushed berries as a seasoning for meat. Gather young twigs to make a tea.


CAUTION
Many plants may be called cedars but are not related to junipers and may be harmful.
Always look for the berrylike structures, neddle leaves, and resinous, fragrant sap to be
sure the plant you have is a juniper.


Lotus

Nelumbo species

Description: There are two species of lotus: one has yellow flowers and the other pink flowers. The flowers
are large and showy. The leaves, which may float on or rise above the surface of the water, often reach 1.5
meters in radius. The fruit has a distinctive flattened shape and contains up to 20 hard seeds.

Habitat and Distribution: The yellow-flowered lotus is native to North America. The pink-flowered species,
which is widespread in the Orient, is planted in many other areas of the world. Lotuses are found in
quiet fresh water.

Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible raw or cooked. The underwater parts contain large quantities of
starch. Dig the fleshy portions from the mud and bake or boil them. Boil the young leaves and eat them as a vegetable.
The seeds have a pleasant flavor and are nutritious. Eat them raw, or parch and grind them into flour.


Survival Use of Plants 461


Malanga

Xanthosoma caracu

Description: This plant has soft, arrow-shaped leaves, up to 60 centimeters long. The leaves have no
aboveground stems.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant grows widely in the Caribbean region. Look for it in open, sunny
fields.

Edible Parts: The tubers are rich in starch. Cook them before eating to destroy a poison contained in all
parts of the plant.


Mango

Mangifera indica

Description: This tree may reach 30 meters in height. It has alternate, simple, shiny, dark green leaves. Its
flowers are small and inconspicuous. Its fruits have a large single seed. There are many cultivated varieties
of mango. Some have red flesh, others yellow or orange, often with many fibers and a kerosene taste.

Habitat and Distribution: This tree grows in warm, moist regions. It is native to northern India, Burma,
and western Malaysia. It is now grown throughout the tropics.

Edible Parts: The fruits are a nutritious food source. The unripe fruit can be peeled and its flesh eaten by shredding
it and eating it like a salad. The ripe fruit can be peeled and eaten raw. Roasted seed kernels are edible.


CAUTION
If you are sensitive to poison ivy, avoid eating mangoes, as they cause a severe reaction
in sensitive individuals.


462 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Manioc

Manihot utillissima

Description: Manioc is a perennial shrubby plant, 1 to 3 meters tall, with jointed stems and deep green,
fingerlike leaves. It has large, fleshy rootstocks.

Habitat and Distribution:Manioc is widespread in all tropical climates, particularly in moist areas. Although
cultivated extensively, it may be found in abandoned gardens and growing wild in many areas.

Edible Parts: The rootstocks are full of starch and high in food value. Two kinds of manioc are known:
bitter and sweet. Both are edible. The bitter type contains poisonous hydrocyanic acid. To prepare manioc,
first grind the fresh manioc root into a pulp, then cook it for at least 1 hour to remove the bitter poison
from the roots. Then flatten the pulp into cakes and bake as bread. Manioc cakes or flour will keep almost
indefinitely if protected against insects and dampness. Wrap them in banana leaves for protection.


CAUTION
For safety, always cook the roots of either type.


Marsh marigold

Caltha palustris

Description: This plant has rounded, dark green leaves arising from a short stem. It has bright yellow
flowers.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant is found in bogs, lakes, and slow-moving streams. It is abundant in
arctic and subarctic regions and in much of the eastern region of the northern United States.

Edible Parts: All parts are edible if boiled.


CAUTION
As with all water plants, do not eat this plant raw. Raw water plants may carry dangerous
organisms that are removed only by cooking.


Survival Use of Plants 463


Mulberry

Morus species

Description: This tree has alternate, simple, often lobed leaves with rough surfaces. Its fruits are blue or
black and many seeded.
Habitat and Distribution: Mulberry trees are found in forests, along roadsides, and in abandoned fields in

Temperate and Tropical Zones of North America, South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa.
Edible Parts: The fruit is edible raw or cooked. It can be dried for eating later.


CAUTION
When eaten in quantity, mulberry fruit acts as a laxative. Green, unripe fruit can be hallucinogenic
and cause extreme nausea and cramps.

Other Uses: You can shred the inner bark of the tree and use it to make twine or cord.


Nettle

Urtica and Laportea species

Description: These plants grow several feet high. They have small, inconspicuous flowers. Fine, hairlike
bristles cover the stems, leafstalks, and undersides of leaves. The bristles cause a stinging sensation when
they touch the skin.

Habitat and Distribution: Nettles prefer moist areas along streams or at the margins of forests. They are
found throughout North America, Central America, the Caribbean, and northern Europe.

Edible Parts: Young shoots and leaves are edible. Boiling the plant for 10 to 15 minutes destroys the stinging
element of the bristles. This plant is very nutritious.

Other Uses: Mature stems have a fibrous layer that you can divide into individual fibers and use to weave
string or twine.


464 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Nips palm

Nips fruticans

Description: This palm has a short, mainly underground trunk and very large, erect leaves up to 6 meters
tall. The leaves are divided into leaflets. A flowering head forms on a short erect stern that rises among the
palm leaves. The fruiting (seed) head is dark brown and may be 30 centimeters in diameter.

Habitat and Distribution: This palm is common on muddy shores in coastal regions throughout eastern
Asia.

Edible Parts: The young flower stalk and the seeds provide a good source of water and food. Cut the
flower stalk and collect the juice. The juice is rich in sugar. The seeds are hard but edible.

Other Uses: The leaves are excellent as thatch and coarse weaving material.


Survival Use of Plants 465


Oak

Quercus species

Description: Oak trees have alternate leaves and acorn fruits. There are two main groups of oaks: red and
white. The red oak group has leaves with bristles and smooth bark in the upper part of the tree. Red oak
acorns take 2 years to mature. The white oak group has leaves without bristles and a rough bark in the
upper portion of the tree. White oak acorns mature in 1 year.

Habitat and Distribution: Oak trees are found in many habitats throughout North America, Central
America, and parts of Europe and Asia.

Edible Parts: All parts are edible, but often contain large quantities of bitter substances. White oak acorns
usually have a better flavor than red oak acorns. Gather and shell the acorns. Soak red oak acorns in water
for 1 to 2 days to remove the bitter substance. You can speed up this process by putting wood ashes in the
water in which you soak the acorns. Boil the acorns or grind them into flour and use the flour for baking.
You can use acorns that you baked until very dark as a coffee substitute.


CAUTION
Tannic acid gives the acorns their bitter taste. Eating an excessive amount of acorns high
in tannic acid can lead to kidney failure. Before eating acorns, leach out this chemical.

Other Uses: Oak wood is excellent for building or burning. Small oaks can be split and cut into long thin
strips (3 to 6 millimeters thick and 1.2 centimeters wide) used to weave mats, baskets, or frameworks
for packs, sleds, furniture, etc. Oak bark soaked in water produces a tanning solution used to preserve
leather.


466 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Orach

Atriplex species

Description: This plant is vinelike in growth and has arrowhead-shaped, alternate leaves up to 5 centimeters
long. Young leaves maybe silver-colored. Its flowers and fruits are small and inconspicuous.

Habitat and Distribution: Orach species are entirely restricted to salty soils. They are found along North
America’s coasts and on the shores of alkaline lakes inland. They are also found along seashores from the
Mediterranean countries to inland areas in North Africa and eastward to Turkey and central Siberia.

Edible Parts: The entire plant is edible raw or boiled.


Palmetto palm

Sabal palmetto

Description: The palmetto palm is a tall, unbranched tree with persistent leaf bases on most of the trunk.
The leaves are large, simple, and palmately lobed. Its fruits are dark blue or black with a hard seed.

Habitat and Distribution: The palmetto palm is found throughout the coastal regions of the southeastern
United States.

Edible Parts: The fruits are edible raw. The hard seeds may be ground into flour. The heart of the palm is
a nutritious food source at any time. Cut off the top of the tree to obtain the palm heart.


Survival Use of Plants 467


Papaya or pawpaw

Carica papaya

Description: The papaya is a small tree 1.8 to 6 meters tall, with a soft, hollow trunk. When cut, the entire
plant exudes a milky juice. The trunk is rough and the leaves are crowded at the trunk’s apex. The fruit
grows directly from the trunk, among and below the leaves. The fruit is green before ripening. When ripe,
it turns yellow or remains greenish with a squashlike appearance.

Habitat and Distribution: Papaya is found in rain forests and semi-evergreen seasonal forests in tropical
regions and in some temperate regions as well. Look for it in moist areas near clearings and former habitations.
It is also found in open, sunny places in uninhabited jungle areas.

Edible Parts: The ripe fruit is high in vitamin C. Eat it raw or cook it like squash. Place green fruit in the
sun to make it ripen quickly. Cook the young papaya leaves, flowers, and stems carefully, changing the
water as for taro.


CAUTION
Be careful not to get the milky sap from the unripe fruit into your eyes. It will cause
intense pain and temporary—sometimes even permanent—blindness.

Other Uses: Use the milky juice of the unripe fruit to tenderize tough meat. Rub the juice on the meat.


468 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Persimmon

Diospyros virginiana and other species

Description: These trees have alternate, dark green, elliptic leaves with entire margins. The flowers are
inconspicuous. The fruits are orange, have a sticky consistency, and have several seeds.

Habitat and Distribution: The persimmon is a common forest margin tree. It is wide spread in Africa,
eastern North America, and the Far East.

Edible Parts: The leaves are a good source of vitamin C. The fruits are edible raw or baked. To make tea,
dry the leaves and soak them in hot water. You can eat the roasted seeds.


CAUTION
Some persons are unable to digest persimmon pulp. Unripe persimmons are highly
astringent and inedible.


Survival Use of Plants 469


Pincushion cactus

Mammilaria species

Description: Members of this cactus group are round, short, barrel-shaped, and without leaves. Sharp
spines cover the entire plant.
Habitat and Distribution: These cacti are found throughout much of the desert regions of the western


United States and parts of Central America.
Edible Parts: They are a good source of water in the desert.



Pine

Pinus species

Description: Pine trees are easily recognized by their needlelike leaves grouped in bundles. Each bundle
may contain one to five needles, the number varying among species. The tree’s odor and sticky sap provide
a simple way to distinguish pines from similar looking trees with needlelike leaves.

Habitat and Distribution: Pines prefer open, sunny areas. They are found throughout North America, Central
America, much of the Caribbean region, North Africa, the Middle East, Europe, and some places in Asia.

Edible Parts: The seeds of all species are edible. You can collect the young male cones, which grow only in
the spring, as a survival food. Boil or bake the young cones. The bark of young twigs is edible. Peel off the
bark of thin twigs. You can chew the juicy inner bark; it is rich in sugar and vitamins. Eat the seeds raw or
cooked. Green pine needle tea is high in vitamin C.

Other Uses : Use the resin to waterproof articles. Also use it as glue. Collect the resin from the tree. If there
is not enough resin on the tree, cut a notch in the bark so more sap will seep out. Put the resin in a container
and heat it. The hot resin is your glue. Use it as is or add a small amount of ash dust to strengthen it. Use it
immediately. You can use hardened pine resin as an emergency dental filling.


470 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Plantain, broad and narrow leaf

Plantago species

Description: The broad leaf plantain has leaves over 2.5 centimeters across that grow close to the ground.
The flowers are on a spike that rises from the middle of the cluster of leaves. The narrow leaf plantain has
leaves up to 12 centimeters long and 2.5 centimeters wide, covered with hairs. The leaves form a rosette.
The flowers are small and inconspicuous.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for these plants in lawns and along roads in the North Temperate Zone.
This plant is a common weed throughout much of the world.

Edible Parts: The young tender leaves are edible raw. Older leaves should be cooked. Seeds are edible raw
or roasted.

Other Uses: To relieve pain from wounds and sores, wash and soak the entire plant for a short time and
apply it to the injured area. To treat diarrhea, drink tea made from 28 grams (1 ounce) of the plant leaves
boiled in 0.5 liter of water. The seeds and seed husks act as laxatives.


Pokeweed

Phytolacca americana

Description: This plant may grow as high as 3 meters. Its leaves are elliptic and up to 1 meter in length. It
produces many large clusters of purple fruits in late spring.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for this plant in open, sunny areas in forest clearings, in fields, and along
roadsides in eastern North America, Central America, and the Caribbean.

Edible Parts: The young leaves and stems are edible cooked. Boil them twice, discarding the water from
the first boiling. The fruits are edible if cooked.


CAUTION
All parts of this plant are poisonous if eaten raw. Never eat the underground portions of
the plant as these contain the highest concentrations of the poisons. Do not eat any plant
over 25 centimeters tall or when red is showing in the plant.

Other Uses: Use the juice of fresh berries as a dye.


Survival Use of Plants 471


Prickly pear cactus

Opuntia species

Description: This cactus has flat, padlike stems that are green. Many round, furry dots that contain sharppointed
hairs cover these stems.

Habitat and Distribution: This cactus is found in arid and semiarid regions and in dry, sandy areas of wetter
regions throughout most of the United States and Central and South America. Some species are planted
in arid and semiarid regions of other parts of the world.

Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible. Peel the fruits and eat them fresh or crush them to prepare a
refreshing drink. Avoid the tiny, pointed hairs. Roast the seeds and grind them to a flour.


CAUTION
Avoid any prickly pear cactus like plant with milky sap.

Other Uses: The pad is a good source of water. Peel it carefully to remove all sharp hairs before putting it
in your mouth. You can also use the pads to promote healing. Split them and apply the pulp to wounds.


472 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Purslane

Portulaca oleracea

Description: This plant grows close to the ground. It is seldom more than a few centimeters tall. Its stems
and leaves are fleshy and often tinged with red. It has paddle-shaped leaves, 2.5 centimeter or less long,
clustered at the tips of the stems. Its flowers are yellow or pink. Its seeds are tiny and black.

Habitat and Distribution: It grows in full sun in cultivated fields, field margins, and other weedy areas
throughout the world.

Edible Parts: All parts are edible. Wash and boil the plants for a tasty vegetable or eat them raw. Use the
seeds as a flour substitute or eat them raw.


Rattan palm

Calamus species

Description: The rattan palm is a stout, robust climber. It has hooks on the midrib of its leaves that it uses
to remain attached to trees on which it grows. Sometimes, mature stems grow to 90 meters. It has alternate,
compound leaves and a whitish flower.

Habitat and Distribution: The rattan palm is found from tropical Africa through Asia to the East Indies
and Australia. It grows mainly in rain forests.

Edible Parts: Rattan palms hold a considerable amount of starch in their young stem tips. You can eat them
roasted or raw. In other kinds, a gelatinous pulp, either sweet or sour, surrounds the seeds. You can suck
out this pulp. The palm heart is also edible raw or cooked.

Other Uses: You can obtain large amounts of potable water by cutting the ends of the long stems (see
Chapter 6). The stems can be used to make baskets and fish traps.


Survival Use of Plants 473


Reed

Phragmites australis

Description: This tall, coarse grass grows to 3.5 meters tall and has gray-green leaves about 4 centimeters
wide. It has large masses of brown flower branches in early summer. These rarely produce grain and
become fluffy, gray masses late in the season.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for reed in any open, wet area, especially one that has been disturbed
through dredging. Reed is found throughout the temperate regions of both the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres.

Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible raw or cooked in any season. Harvest the stems as they
emerge from the soil and boil them. You can also harvest them just before they produce flowers, then dry
and beat them into flour. You can also dig up and boil the underground stems, but they are often tough.
Seeds are edible raw or boiled, but they are rarely found.


Reindeer moss

Cladonia rangiferina

Description: Reindeer moss is a low-growing plant only a few centimeters tall. It does not flower but does
produce bright red reproductive structures.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for this lichen in open, dry areas. It is very common in much of North
America.

Edible Parts: The entire plant is edible but has a crunchy, brittle texture. Soak the plant in water with some
wood ashes to remove the bitterness, then dry, crush, and add it to milk or to other food.


474 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Rock tripe

Umbilicaria species

Description: This plant forms large patches with curling edges. The top of the plant is usually black. The
underside is lighter in color.

Habitat and Distribution: Look on rocks and boulders for this plant. It is common throughout North
America.

Edible Parts: The entire plant is edible. Scrape it off the rock and wash it to remove grit. The plant may be
dry and crunchy; soak it in water until it becomes soft. Rock tripes may contain large quantities of bitter
substances; soaking or boiling them in several changes of water will remove the bitterness.


CAUTION
There are some reports of poisoning from rock tripe, so apply the Universal Edibility
Test.


Rose apple

Eugenia jambos

Description: This tree grows 3 to 9 meters high. It has opposite, simple, dark green, shiny leaves. When
fresh, it has fluffy, yellowish-green flowers and red to purple egg-shaped fruit.

Habitat and Distribution: This tree is widely planted in all of the tropics. It can also be found in a semiwild
state in thickets, waste places, and secondary forests.

Edible Parts: The entire fruit is edible raw or cooked.


Survival Use of Plants 475


Sago palm

Metroxylon sagu

Description: These palms are low trees, rarely over 9 meters tall, with a stout, spiny trunk. The outer rind
is about 5 centimeters thick and hard as bamboo. The rind encloses a spongy inner pith containing a high
proportion of starch. It has typical palmlike leaves clustered at the tip.

Habitat and Distribution: Sago palm is found in tropical rain forests. It flourishes in damp lowlands in
the Malay Peninsula, New Guinea, Indonesia, the Philippines, and adjacent islands. It is found mainly in
swamps and along streams, lakes, and rivers.

Edible Parts: These palms, when available, are of great use to the survivor. One trunk, cut just before it
flowers, will yield enough sago to feed a person for 1 year. Obtain sago starch from nonflowering palms.
To extract the edible sage, cut away the bark lengthwise from one half of the trunk, and pound the soft,
whitish inner part (pith) as fine as possible. Knead the pith in water and strain it through a coarse cloth
into a container. The fine, white sago will settle in the container. Once the sago settles, it is ready for use.
Squeeze off the excess water and let it dry. Cook it as pancakes or oatmeal. Two kilograms of sago is the
nutritional equivalent of 1.5 kilograms of rice. The upper part of the trunk’s core does not yield sage, but
you can roast it in lumps over a fire. You can also eat the young sago nuts and the growing shoots or palm
cabbage.

Other Uses: Use the stems of tall sorghums as thatching materials.


476 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Sassafras

Sassafras albidum

Description: This shrub or small tree bears different leaves on the same plant. Some leaves will have one
lobe, some two lobes, and some no lobes. The flowers, which appear in early spring, are small and yellow.
The fruits are dark blue. The plant parts have a characteristics root beer smell.

Habitat and Distribution: Sassafras grows at the margins of roads and forests, usually in open, sunny
areas. It is a common tree throughout eastern North America.

Edible Parts: The young twigs and leaves are edible fresh or dried. You can add dried young twigs and
leaves to soups. Dig the underground portion, peel off the bark, and let it dry. Then boil it in water to prepare
sassafras tea.

Other Uses: Shred the tender twigs for use as a toothbrush.


Saxaul

Haloxylon ammondendron

Description: The saxaul is found either as a small tree or as a large shrub with heavy, coarse wood and
spongy, water-soaked bark. The branches of the young trees are vivid green and pendulous. The flowers
are small and yellow.

Habitat and Distribution: The saxaul is found in desert and arid areas. It is found on the arid salt deserts
of Central Asia, particularly in the Turkestan region and east of the Caspian Sea.

Edible Parts: The thick bark acts as a water storage organ. You can get drinking water by pressing quantities
of the bark. This plant is an important source of water in the arid regions in which it grows.


Survival Use of Plants 477


Screw pine

Pandanus species

Description: The screw pine is a strange plant on stilts, or prop roots, that support the plant above-ground
so that it appears more or less suspended in midair. These plants are either shrubby or treelike, 3 to 9
meters tall, with stiff leaves having sawlike edges. The fruits are large, roughened balls resembling pineapples,
but without the tuft of leaves at the end.

Habitat and Distribution: The screw pine is a tropical plant that grows in rain forests and semievergreen
seasonal forests. It is found mainly along seashores, although certain kinds occur inland for some distance,
from Madagascar to southern Asia and the islands of the southwestern Pacific. There are about 180 types.

Edible Parts: Knock the ripe fruit to the ground to separate the fruit segments from the hard outer covering.
Chew the inner fleshy part. Cook fruit that is not fully ripe in an earth oven. Before cooking, wrap the
whole fruit in banana leaves, breadfruit leaves, or any other suitable thick, leathery leaves. After cooking
for about 2 hours, you can chew fruit segments like ripe fruit. Green fruit is inedible.


Sea orach

Atriplex halimus

Description: The sea orach is a sparingly branched herbaceous plant with small, gray-colored leaves up to

2.5 centimeters long. Sea orach resembles Iamb’s quarter, a common weed in most gardens in the United
States. It produces its flowers in narrow, densely compacted spikes at the tips of its branches.
Habitat and Distribution: The sea orach is found in highly alkaline and salty areas along seashores from
the Mediterranean countries to inland areas in North Africa and eastward to Turkey and central Siberia.
Generally, it can be found in tropical scrub and thorn forests, steppes in temperate regions, and most desert
scrub and waste areas.

Edible Parts: Its leaves are edible. In the areas where it grows, it has the healthy reputation of being one of
the few native plants that can sustain man in times of want.


478 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Sheep sorrel

Rumex acerosella

Description: These plants are seldom more than 30 centimeters tall. They have alternate leaves, often with
arrowlike bases, very small flowers, and frequently reddish stems.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for these plants in old fields and other disturbed areas in North America
and Europe.

Edible Parts: The plants are edible raw or cooked.


CAUTION
These plants contain oxalic acid that can be damaging if too many plants are eaten raw.
Cooking seems to destroy the chemical.


Sorghum

Sorghum species

Description: There are many different kinds of sorghum, all of which bear grains in heads at the top of
the plants. The grains are brown, white, red, or black. Sorghum is the main food crop in many parts of the
world.

Habitat and Distribution: Sorghum is found worldwide, usually in warmer climates. All species are found
in open, sunny areas.

Edible Parts: The grains are edible at any stage of development. When young, the grains are milky and
edible raw. Boil the older grains. Sorghum is a nutritious food.

Other Uses: Use the stems of tall sorghum as building materials.


Survival Use of Plants 479


Spatterdock or yellow water lily

Nuphar species

Description: This plant has leaves up to 60 centimeters long with a triangular notch at the base. The shape
of the leaves is somewhat variable. The plant’s yellow flowers are 2.5 centimeter across and develop into
bottle-shaped fruits. The fruits are green when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: These plants grow throughout most of North America. They are found in quiet,
fresh, shallow water (never deeper than 1.8 meters).

Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible. The fruits contain several dark brown seeds you can parch
or roast and then grind into flour. The large rootstock contains starch. Dig it out of the mud, peel off the
outside, and boil the flesh. Sometimes the rootstock contains large quantities of a very bitter compound.
Boiling in several changes of water may remove the bitterness.


Sterculia

Sterculia foetida

Description: Sterculias are tall trees, rising in some instances to 30 meters. Their leaves are either undivided
or palmately lobed. Their flowers are red or purple. The fruit of all sterculias is similar in aspect, with
a red, segmented seedpod containing many edible black seeds.

Habitat and Distribution: There are over 100 species of sterculias distributed through all warm or tropical
climates. They are mainly forest trees.

Edible Parts: The large, red pods produce a number of edible seeds. The seeds of all sterculias are edible
and have a pleasant taste similar to cocoa. You can eat them like nuts, either raw or roasted.


CAUTION
Avoid eating large quantities. The seeds may have a laxative effect.


480 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Strawberry

Fragaria species

Description: Strawberry is a small plant with a three-leaved growth pattern. It has small, white flowers
usually produced during the spring. Its fruit is red and fleshy.

Habitat and Distribution: Strawberries are found in the North Temperate Zone and also in the high mountains
of the southern Western Hemisphere. Strawberries prefer open, sunny areas. They are commonly
planted.

Edible Parts: The fruit is edible fresh, cooked, or dried. Strawberries are a good source of vitamin C. You
can also eat the plant’s leaves or dry them and make a tea with them.


Sugarcane

Saccharum officinarum

Description: This plant grows up to 4.5 meters tall. It is a grass and has grasslike leaves. Its green or reddish
stems are swollen where the leaves grow. Cultivated sugarcane seldom flowers.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for sugarcane in fields. It grows only in the tropics (throughout the world).
Because it is a crop, it is often found in large numbers.

Edible Parts: The stem is an excellent source of sugar and is very nutritious. Peel the outer portion off with
your teeth and eat the sugarcane raw. You can also squeeze juice out of the sugarcane.


Survival Use of Plants 481


Sugar palm

Arenga pinnata

Description: This tree grows about 15 meters high and has huge leaves up to 6 meters long. Needlelike
structures stick out of the bases of the leaves. Flowers grow below the leaves and form large conspicuous
dusters from which the fruits grow.

Habitat and Distribution: This palm is native to the East Indies but has been planted in many parts off the
tropics. It can be found at the margins of forests.

Edible Parts: The chief use of this palm is for sugar. However, its seeds and the tip of its stems are a survival
food. Bruise a young flower stalk with a stone or similar object and collect the juice as it comes out. It
is an excellent source of sugar. Boil the seeds. Use the tip of the stems as a vegetable.


CAUTION
The flesh covering the seeds may cause dermatitis.

Other Uses: The shaggy material at the base of the leaves makes an excellent rope as it is strong and resists
decay.


482 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Sweetsop

Annona squamosa

Description: This tree is small, seldom more than 6 meters tall, and multi-branched. It has alternate, simple,
elongate, dark green leaves. Its fruit is green when ripe, round in shape, and covered with protruding
bumps on its surface. The fruit’s flesh is white and creamy.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for sweetsop at margins of fields, near villages, and around homesites in
tropical regions.

Edible Parts: The fruit flesh is edible raw.

Other Uses: You can use the finely ground seeds as an insecticide.


CAUTION

The ground seeds are extremely dangerous to the eyes.


Survival Use of Plants 483


Tamarind

Tamarindus indica

Description: The tamarind is a large, densely branched tree, up to 25 meters tall. Its has pinnate leaves
(divided like a feather) with 10 to 15 pairs of leaflets.

Habitat and Distribution: The tamarind grows in the drier parts of Africa, Asia, and the Philippines.
Although it is thought to be a native of Africa, it has been cultivated in India for so long that it looks like a
native tree. It it also found in the American tropics, the West Indies, Central America, and tropical South
America.

Edible Parts: The pulp surrounding the seeds is rich in vitamin C and is an important survival food. You
can make a pleasantly acid drink by mixing the pulp with water and sugar or honey and letting the mixture
mature for several days. Suck the pulp to relieve thirst. Cook the young, unripe fruits or seedpods with
meat. Use the young leaves in soup. You must cook the seeds. Roast them above a fire or in ashes. Another
way is to remove the seed coat and soak the seeds in salted water and grated coconut for 24 hours, then
cook them. You can peel the tamarind bark and chew it.


Taro, cocoyam, elephant ears, eddo, dasheen

Colocasia and Alocasia species

Description: All plants in these groups have large leaves, sometimes up to 1.8 meters tall, that grow from
a very short stem. The rootstock is thick and fleshy and filled with starch.

Habitat and Distribution: These plants grow in the humid tropics. Look for them in fields and near homesites
and villages.

Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible when boiled or roasted. When boiling, change the water once
to get rid of any poison.


CAUTION
If eaten raw, these plants will cause a serious inflammation of the mouth and throat.


484 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Thistle

Cirsium species

Description: This plant may grow as high as 1.5 meters. Its leaves are long-pointed, deeply lobed, and
prickly.
Habitat and Distribution: Thistles grow worldwide in dry woods and fields.
Edible Parts: Peel the stalks, cut them into short sections, and boil them before eating. The roots are edible


raw or cooked.



CAUTION
Some thistle species are poisonous.

Other Uses: Twist the tough fibers of the stems to make a strong twine.


Ti

Cordyline terminalis

Description: The ti has unbranched stems with straplike leaves often clustered at the tip of the stem. The
leaves vary in color and may be green or reddish. The flowers grow at the plant’s top in large, plumelike
clusters. The ti may grow up to 4.5 meters tall.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for this plant at the margins of forests or near home-sites in tropical areas.
It is native to the Far East but is now widely planted in tropical areas worldwide.

Edible Parts: The roots and very tender young leaves are good survival food. Boil or bake the short, stout
roots found at the base of the plant. They are a valuable source of starch. Boil the very young leaves to eat.
You can use the leaves to wrap other food to cook over coals or to steam.

Other Uses: Use the leaves to cover shelters or to make a rain cloak. Cut the leaves into liners for shoes;
this works especially well if you have a blister. Fashion temporary sandals from the ti leaves. The terminal
leaf, if not completely unfurled, can be used as a sterile bandage. Cut the leaves into strips, then braid the
strips into rope.


Survival Use of Plants 485


Tree fern

Various genera

Description: Tree ferns are tall trees with long, slender trunks that often have a very rough, barklike covering.
Large, lacy leaves uncoil from the top of the trunk.

Habitat and Distribution: Tree ferns are found in wet, tropical forests.

Edible Parts: The young leaves and the soft inner portion of the trunk are edible. Boil the young leaves and
eat as greens. Eat the inner portion of the trunk raw or bake it.


Tropical almond

Terminalia catappa

Description: This tree grows up to 9 meters tall. Its leaves are evergreen, leathery, 45 centimeters long, 15
centimeters wide, and very shiny. It has small, yellowish-green flowers. Its fruit is flat, 10 centimeters long,
and not quite as wide. The fruit is green when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: This tree is usually found growing near the ocean. It is a common and often
abundant tree in the Caribbean and Central and South America. It is also found in the tropical rain forests
of southeastern Asia, northern Australia, and Polynesia.

Edible Parts: The seed is a good source of food. Remove the fleshy, green covering and eat the seed raw
or cooked.


486 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Walnut

Juglans species

Description: Walnuts grow on very large trees, often reaching 18 meters tall. The divided leaves characterize
all walnut spades. The walnut itself has a thick outer husk that must be removed to reach the hard
inner shell of the nut.

Habitat and Distribution: The English walnut, in the wild state, is found from southeastern Europe across
Asia to China and is abundant in the Himalayas. Several other species of walnut are found in China and
Japan. The black walnut is common in the eastern United States.

Edible Parts: The nut kernel ripens in the autumn. You get the walnut meat by cracking the shell. Walnut
meats are highly nutritious because of their protein and oil content.

Other Uses: You can boil walnuts and use the juice as an antifungal agent. The husks of “green” walnuts
produce a dark brown dye for clothing or camouflage. Crush the husks of “green” black walnuts and
sprinkle them into sluggish water or ponds for use as fish poison.


Water chestnut

Trapa natans

Description: The water chestnut is an aquatic plant that roots in the mud and has finely divided leaves that
grow underwater. Its floating leaves are much larger and coarsely toothed. The fruits, borne underwater,
have four sharp spines on them.

Habitat and Distribution: The water chestnut is a freshwater plant only. It is a native of Asia but has
spread to many parts of the world in both temperate and tropical areas.

Edible Parts: The fruits are edible raw and cooked. The seeds are also a source of food.


Survival Use of Plants 487


Water lettuce

Ceratopteris species

Description: The leaves of water lettuce are much like lettuce and are very tender and succulent. One of
the easiest ways of distinguishing water lettuce is by the little plantlets that grow from the margins of the
leaves. These little plantlets grow in the shape of a rosette. Water lettuce plants often cover large areas in
the regions where they are found.

Habitat and Distribution: Found in the tropics throughout the Old World in both Africa and Asia. Another
kind is found in the New World tropics from Florida to South America. Water lettuce grows only in very
wet places and often as a floating water plant. Look for water lettuce in still lakes, ponds, and the backwaters
of rivers.

Edible Parts: Eat the fresh leaves like lettuce. Be careful not to dip the leaves in the contaminated water in
which they are growing. Eat only the leaves that are well out of the water.


CAUTION
This plant has carcinogenic properties and should only be used as a last resort.


Water lily

Nymphaea odorata

Description: These plants have large, triangular leaves that float on the water’s surface, large, fragrant
flowers that are usually white, or red, and thick, fleshy rhizomes that grow in the mud.

Habitat and Distribution: Water lilies are found throughout much of the temperate and subtropical
regions.

Edible Parts: The flowers, seeds, and rhizomes are edible raw or cooked. To prepare rhizomes for eating,
peel off the corky rind. Eat raw, or slice thinly, allow to dry, and then grind into flour. Dry, parch, and
grind the seeds into flour.

Other Uses: Use the liquid resulting from boiling the thickened root in water as a medicine for diarrhea
and as a gargle for sore throats.


488 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Water plantain

Alisma plantago-aquatica

Description: This plant has small, white flowers and heart-shaped leaves with pointed tips. The leaves are
clustered at the base of the plant.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for this plant in fresh water and in wet, full sun areas in Temperate and
Tropical Zones.

Edible Parts: The rootstocks are a good source of starch. Boil or soak them in water to remove the bitter
taste.


CAUTION
To avoid parasites, always cook aquatic plants.


Wild caper

Capparis aphylla

Description: This is a thorny shrub that loses its leaves during the dry season. Its stems are gray-green and
its flowers pink.

Habitat and Distribution: These shrubs form large stands in scrub and thorn forests and in desert scrub
and waste. They are common throughout North Africa and the Middle East.

Edible Parts: The fruit and the buds of young shoots are edible raw.


Survival Use of Plants 489


Wild crab apple or wild apple

Malus species

Description: Most wild apples look enough like domestic apples that the survivor can easily recognize
them. Wild apple varieties are much smaller than cultivated kinds; the largest kinds usually do not exceed
5 to 7.5 centimeters in diameter, and most often less. They have small, alternate, simple leaves and often
have thorns. Their flowers are white or pink and their fruits reddish or yellowish.

Habitat and Distribution: They are found in the savanna regions of the tropics. In temperate areas, wild
apple varieties are found mainly in forested areas. Most frequently, they are found on the edge of woods
or in fields. They are found throughout the Northern Hemisphere.

Edible Parts: Prepare wild apples for eating in the same manner as cultivated kinds. Eat them fresh, when
ripe, or cooked. Should you need to store food, cut the apples into thin slices and dry them. They are a good
source of vitamins.


CAUTION
Apple seeds contain cyanide compounds. Do not eat.


Wild desert gourd or colocynth

Citrullus colocynthis

Description: The wild desert gourd, a member of the watermelon family, produces an 2.4- to 3-meter-long
ground-trailing vine. The perfectly round gourds are as large as an orange. They are yellow when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: This creeping plant can be found in any climatic zone, generally in desert scrub
and waste areas. It grows abundantly in the Sahara, in many Arab countries, on the southeastern coast of
India, and on some of the islands of the Aegean Sea. The wild desert gourd will grow in the hottest localities.


Edible Parts: The seeds inside the ripe gourd are edible after they are completely separated from the very
bitter pulp. Roast or boil the seeds—their kernels are rich in oil. The flowers are edible. The succulent stem
tips can be chewed to obtain water.


490 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Wild dock and wild sorrel

Rumex crispus and Rumex acetosella

Description: Wild dock is a stout plant with most of its leaves at the base of its stem that is commonly 15
to 30 centimeters brig. The plants usually develop from a strong, fleshy, carrotlike taproot. Its flowers are
usually very small, growing in green to purplish plumelike clusters. Wild sorrel similar to the wild dock
but smaller. Many of the basal leaves are arrow-shaped but smaller than those of the dock and contain a
sour juice.

Habitat and Distribution: These plants can be found in almost all climatic zones of the world, in areas
of high as well as low rainfall. Many kinds are found as weeds in fields, along roadsides, and in waste
places.

Edible Parts: Because of tender nature of the foliage, the sorrel and the dock are useful plants, especially
in desert areas. You can eat their succulent leaves fresh or slightly cooked. To take away the strong taste,
change the water once or twice during cooking. This latter tip is a useful hint in preparing many kinds of
wild greens.


Wild fig

Ficus species

Description: These trees have alternate, simple leaves with entire margins. Often, the leaves are dark green
and shiny. All figs have a milky, sticky juice. The fruits vary in size depending on the species, but are usually
yellow-brown when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: Figs are plants of the tropics and semitropics. They grow in several different
habitats, including dense forests, margins of forests, and around human settlements.

Edible Parts: The fruits are edible raw or cooked. Some figs have little flavor.


Survival Use of Plants 491


Wild gourd or luffa sponge

Luffa cylindrica

Description: The luffs sponge is widely distributed and fairly typical of a wild squash. There are several
dozen kinds of wild squashes in tropical regions. Like most squashes, the luffa is a vine with leaves 7.5
to 20 centimeters across having 3 lobes. Some squashes have leaves twice this size. Luffs fruits are oblong
or cylindrical, smooth, and many-seeded. Luffs flowers are bright yellow. The luffa fruit, when mature, is
brown and resembles the cucumber.

Habitat and Distribution: A member of the squash family, which also includes the watermelon, cantaloupe,
and cucumber, the luffa sponge is widely cultivated throughout the Tropical Zone. It may be found
in a semiwild state in old clearings and abandoned gardens in rain forests and semi-evergreen seasonal
forests.

Edible Parts: You can boil the young green (half-ripe) fruit and eat them as a vegetable. Adding coconut
milk will improve the flavor. After ripening, the luffa sponge develops an inedible spongelike texture in
the interior of the fruit. You can also eat the tender shoots, flowers, and young leaves after cooking them.
Roast the mature seeds a little and eat them like peanuts.


492 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Wild grape vine

Vitis species

Description: The wild grape vine climbs with the aid of tendrils. Most grape vines produce deeply lobed
leaves similar to the cultivated grape. Wild grapes grow in pyramidal, hanging bunches and are black-blue
to amber, or white when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: Wild grapes are distributed worldwide. Some kinds are found in deserts, others
in temperate forests, and others in tropical areas. Wild grapes are commonly found throughout the eastern
United States as well as in the southwestern desert areas. Most kinds are rampant climbers over other vegetation.
The best place to look for wild grapes is on the edges of forested areas. Wild grapes are also found
in Mexico. In the Old World, wild grapes are found from the Mediterranean region eastward through Asia,
the East Indies, and to Australia. Africa also has several kinds of wild grapes.

Edible Parts: The ripe grape is the portion eaten. Grapes are rich in natural sugars and, for this reason, are
much sought after as a source of energy-giving wild food. None are poisonous.

Other Uses: You can obtain water from severed grape vine stems. Cut off the vine at the bottom and place
the cut end in a container. Make a slant-wise cut into the vine about 1.8 meters upon the hanging part. This
cut will allow water to flow from the bottom end. As water diminishes in volume, make additional cuts
further down the vine.


CAUTION

To avoid poisoning, do not eat grapelike fruits with only a single seed (moonseed).


Survival Use of Plants 493


Wild onion and garlic

Allium species

Description: Allium cernuum is an example of the many species of wild onions and garlics, all easily recognized
by their distinctive odor.
Habitat and Distribution: Wild onions and garlics are found in open, sunny areas throughout the temper


ate regions. Cultivated varieties are found anywhere in the world.
Edible Parts: The bulbs and young leaves are edible raw or cooked. Use in soup or to flavor meat.


CAUTION
There are several plants with onionlike bulbs that are extremely poisonous. Be certain that
the plant you are using is a true onion or garlic. Do not eat bulbs with no onion smell.


Wild pistachio

Pistacia species

Description: Some kinds of pistachio trees are evergreen, while others lose their leaves during the dry season.
The leaves alternate on the stem and have either three large leaves or a number of leaflets. The fruits
or nuts are usually hard and dry at maturity.

Habitat and Distribution: About seven kinds of wild pistachio nuts are found in desert, or semidesert
areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea to Turkey and Afghanistan. It is generally found in evergreen
scrub forests or scrub and thorn forests.

Edible Parts: You can eat the oil nut kernels after parching them over coals.


494 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Wild rice

Zizania aquatica

Description: Wild rice is a tall grass that averages 1 to 1.5 meters in height, but may reach 4.5 meters. Its
grain grows in very loose heads at the top of the plant and is dark brown or blackish when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: Wild rice grows only in very wet areas in tropical and temperate regions.

Edible Parts: During the spring and summer, the central portion of the lower sterns and root shoots are
edible. Remove the tough covering before eating. During the late summer and fall, collect the strawcovered
husks. Dry and parch the husks, break them, and remove the rice. Boil or roast the rice and then
beat it into flour.


Wild rose

Rosa species

Description: This shrub grows 60 centimeters to 2.5 meters high. It has alternate leaves and sharp prickles.
Its flowers may be red, pink, or yellow. Its fruit, called rose hip, stays on the shrub year-round.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for wild roses in dry fields and open woods throughout the Northern
Hemisphere.

Edible Parts: The flowers and buds are edible raw or boiled. In an emergency, you can peel and eat the
young shoots. You can boil fresh, young leaves in water to make a tea. After the flower petals fall, eat the
rose hips; the pulp is highly nutritious and an excellent source of vitamin C. Crush or grind dried rose hips
to make flour.


CAUTION
Eat only the outer portion of the fruit as the seeds of some species are quite prickly and
can cause internal distress.


Survival Use of Plants 495


Wood sorrel

Oxalis species

Description: Wood sorrel resembles shamrock or four-leaf clover, with a bell-shaped pink, yellow, or
white flower.
Habitat and Distribution: Wood sorrel is found in Temperate Zones worldwide, in lawns, open areas, and

sunny woods.
Edible Parts: Cook the entire plant.


CAUTION
Eat only small amounts of this plant as it contains a fairly high concentration of oxalic
acid that can be harmful.


Yam

Dioscorea species

Description: These plants are vines that creep along the ground. They have alternate, heart- or arrowshaped
leaves. Their rootstock may be very large and weigh many kilograms.

Habitat and Distribution: True yams are restricted to tropical regions where they are an important food
crop. Look for yams in fields, clearings, and abandoned gardens. They are found in rain forests, semievergreen
seasonal forests, and scrub and thorn forests in the tropics. In warm temperate areas, they are
found in seasonal hardwood or mixed hardwood-coniferous forests, as well as some mountainous areas.

Edible Parts: Boil the rootstock and eat it as a vegetable.


496 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Yam bean

Pachyrhizus erosus

Description: The yam bean is a climbing plant of the bean family, with alternate, three-parted leaves and
a turniplike root. The bluish or purplish flowers are pealike in shape. The plants are often so rampant that
they cover the vegetation upon which they are growing.

Habitat and Distribution: The yam bean is native to the American tropics, but it was carried by man years
ago to Asia and the Pacific islands. Now it is commonly cultivated in these places, and is also found growing
wild in forested areas. This plant grows in wet areas of tropical regions.

Edible Parts: The tubers are about the size of a turnip and they are crisp, sweet, and juicy and have a nutty
flavor. They are nourishing and at the same time quench the thirst. Eat them raw or boiled. To make flour,
slice the raw tubers, let them dry in the sun, and grind into a flour that is high in starch and may be used
to thicken soup.


CAUTION

The raw seeds are poisonous.


CHAPTER 7


Poisonous Plants


Successful use of plants in a survival situation depends on positive identification. Knowing poisonous
plants is as important to a survivor as knowing edible plants. Knowing the poisonous plants will help you
avoid sustaining injuries from them.

HOW PLANTS POISON

Plants generally poison by—

•
Ingestion. When a person eats a part of a poisonous plant.
•
Contact. When a person makes contact with a poisonous plant that causes any type of skin irritation
or dermatitis.
•
Absorption or inhalation. When a person either absorbs the poison through the skin or inhales it
into the respiratory system.
Plant poisoning ranges from minor irritation to death. A common question asked is, “How poisonous is
this plant?” It is difficult to say how poisonous plants are because–

•
Some plants require contact with a large amount of the plant before noticing any adverse reaction
while others will cause death with only a small amount.
•
Every plant will vary in the amount of toxins it contains due to different growing conditions and
slight variations in subspecies.
•
Every person has a different level of resistance to toxic substances.
•
Some persons may be more sensitive to a particular plant.
Some common misconceptions about poisonous plants are—

•
Watch the animals and eat what they eat. Most of the time this statement is true, but some animals can
eat plants that are poisonous to humans.
•
Boil the plant in water and any poisons will be removed. Boiling removes many poisons, but not all.
•
Plants with a red color are poisonous. Some plants that are red are poisonous, but not all.
The point is there is no one rule to aid in identifying poisonous plants. You must make an effort to learn
as much about them as possible.

ALL ABOUT PLANTS

It is to your benefit to learn as much about plants as possible. Many poisonous plants look like their edible
relatives or like other edible plants. For example, poison hemlock appears very similar to wild carrot. Certain
plants are safe to eat in certain seasons or stages of growth and poisonous in other stages. For example,
the leaves of the pokeweed are edible when it first starts to grow, but it soon becomes poisonous. You can
eat some plants and their fruits only when they are ripe. For example, the ripe fruit of mayapple is edible,
but all other parts and the green fruit are poisonous. Some plants contain both edible and poisonous parts;
potatoes and tomatoes are common plant foods, but their green parts are poisonous.

497


498 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Some plants become toxic after wilting. For example, when the black cherry starts to wilt, hydrocyanic
acid develops. Specific preparation methods make some plants edible that are poisonous raw. You can eat
the thinly sliced and thoroughly dried corms (drying may take a year) of the jack-in-the-pulpit, but they
are poisonous if not thoroughly dried.

Learn to identify and use plants before a survival situation. Some sources of information about plants
are pamphlets, books, films, nature trails, botanical gardens, local markets, and local natives. Gather and
cross-reference information from as many sources as possible, because many sources will not contain all
the information needed.

RULES FOR AVOIDING POISONOUS PLANTS

Your best policy is to be able to look at a plant and identify it with absolute certainty and to know its uses
or dangers. Many times this is not possible. If you have little or no knowledge of the local vegetation, use
the rules to select plants for the “Universal Edibility Test.” Remember, avoid—

•
All mushrooms. Mushroom identification is very difficult and must be precise, even more so than with
other plants. Some mushrooms cause death very quickly. Some mushrooms have no known antidote.
Two general types of mushroom poisoning are gastrointestinal and central nervous system.
•
Contact with or touching plants unnecessarily.
CONTACT DERMATITIS

Contact dermatitis from plants will usually cause the most trouble in the field. The effects may be persistent,
spread by scratching, and are particularly dangerous if there is contact in or around the eyes.

The principal toxin of these plants is usually an oil that gets on the skin upon contact with the plant. The
oil can also get on equipment and then infect whoever touches the equipment. Never burn a contact poisonous
plant because the smoke may be as harmful as the plant. There is a greater danger of being affected
when overheated and sweating. The infection may be local or it may spread over the body.

Symptoms may take from a few hours to several days to appear. Signs and symptoms can include burning,
reddening, itching, swelling, and blisters.

When you first contact the poisonous plants or the first symptoms appear, try to remove the oil by washing
with soap and cold water. If water is not available, wipe your skin repeatedly with dirt or sand. Do not
use dirt if blisters have developed. The dirt may break open the blisters and leave the body open to infection.
After you have removed the oil, dry the area. You can wash with a tannic acid solution and crush and
rub jewelweed on the affected area to treat plant-caused rashes. You can make tannic acid from oak bark.

Poisonous plants that cause contact dermatitis are—

•
Cowhage
•
Poison ivy
•
Poison oak
•
Poison sumac
•
Rengas tree
•
Trumpet vine
INGESTION POISONING

Ingestion poisoning can be very serious and could lead to death very quickly. Do not eat any plant unless
you have positively identified it first. Keep a log of all plants eaten.

Signs and symptoms of ingestion poisoning can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps,
depressed heartbeat and respiration, headaches, hallucinations, dry mouth, unconsciousness, coma, and
death.


Poisonous Plants 499

If you suspect plant poisoning, try to remove the poisonous material from the victim’s mouth and stomach
as soon as possible. Induce vomiting by tickling the back of his throat or by giving him warm saltwater,
if he is conscious. Dilute the poison by administering large quantities of water or milk, if he is conscious.

The following plants can cause ingestion poisoning if eaten:

• Castor bean
• Chinaberry
• Death camas
• Lantana
• Manchineel
• Oleander
• Pangi
• Physic nut
• Poison and water hemlocks
• Rosary pea
• Strychnine tree
POISONOUS PLANTS


Castor bean, castor-oil plant, palma Christi

Ricinus communis
Spurge (Euphorbiaceae) Family

Description: The castor bean is a semiwoody plant with large, alternate, starlike leaves that grows as a tree
in tropical regions and as an annual in temperate regions. Its flowers are very small and inconspicuous. Its
fruits grow in clusters at the tops of the plants.


CAUTION
All parts of the plant are very poisonous to eat. The seeds are large and may be mistaken
for a beanlike food.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant is found in all tropical regions and has been introduced to temperate
regions.


500 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Chinaberry

Melia azedarach
Mahogany (Meliaceae) Family

Description: This tree has a spreading crown and grows up to 14 meters tall. It has alternate, compound
leaves with toothed leaflets. Its flowers are light purple with a dark center and grow in ball-like masses. It
has marble-sized fruits that are light orange when first formed but turn lighter as they become older.


CAUTION
All parts of the tree should be considered dangerous if eaten. Its leaves are a natural insecticide
and will repel insects from stored fruits and grains. Take care not to eat leaves mixed
with the stored food.

Habitat and Distribution: Chinaberry is native to the Himalayas and eastern Asia but is now planted as
an ornamental tree throughout the tropical and subtropical regions. It has been introduced to the southern
United States and has escaped to thickets, old fields, and disturbed areas.


Cowhage, cowage, cowitch

Mucuna pruritum
Leguminosae (Fabaceae) Family

Description: A vinelike plant that has oval leaflets in groups of three and hairy spikes with dull purplish
flowers. The seeds are brown, hairy pods.


CAUTION
Contact with the pods and flowers causes irritation and blindness if in the eyes.


Poisonous Plants 501


Death camas, death lily

Zigadenus species
Lily (Liliaceae) Family

Description: This plant arises from a bulb and may be mistaken for an onionlike plant. Its leaves are grasslike.
Its flowers are six-parted and the petals have a green, heart-shaped structure on them. The flowers
grow on showy stalks above the leaves.


CAUTION
All parts of this plant are very poisonous. Death camas does not have the onion smell.

Habitat and Distribution: Death camas is found in wet, open, sunny habitats, although some species favor
dry, rocky slopes. They are common in parts of the western United States. Some species are found in the
eastern United States and in parts of the North American western subarctic and eastern Siberia.


Lantana

Lantana camara
Vervain (Verbenaceae) Family

Description: Lantana is a shrublike plant that may grow up to 45 centimeters high. It has opposite, round
leaves and flowers borne in flat-topped clusters. The flower color (which varies in different areas) may be
white, yellow, orange, pink, or red. It has a dark blue or black berrylike fruit. A distinctive feature of all
parts of this plant is its strong scent.


CAUTION
All parts of this plant are poisonous if eaten and can be fatal. This plant causes dermatitis
in some individuals.

Habitat and Distribution: Lantana is grown as an ornamental in tropical and temperate areas and has
escaped cultivation as a weed along roads and old fields.


502 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Manchineel

Hippomane mancinella
Spurge (Euphorbiaceae) Family

Description: Manchineel is a tree reaching up to 15 meters high with alternate, shiny green leaves and
spikes of small greenish flowers. Its fruits are green or greenish-yellow when ripe.


CAUTION
This tree is extremely toxic. It causes severe dermatitis in most individuals after only .5
hour. Even water dripping from the leaves may cause dermatitis. The smoke from burning
it irritates the eyes. No part of this plant should be considered a food.

Habitat and Distribution: The tree prefers coastal regions. Found in south Florida, the Caribbean, Central
America, and northern South America.


Oleander

Nerium oleander
Dogbane (Apocynaceae) Family

Description: This shrub or small tree grows to about 9 meters, with alternate, very straight, dark green
leaves. Its flowers may be white, yellow, red, pink, or intermediate colors. Its fruit is a brown, podlike
structure with many small seeds.


CAUTION
All parts of the plant are very poisonous. Do not use the wood for cooking; it gives off poisonous
fumes that can poison food.

Habitat and Distribution: This native of the Mediterranean area is now grown as an ornamental in tropical
and temperate regions.


Poisonous Plants 503


Pangi

Pangium edule

Pangi Family

Description: This tree, with heart-shaped leaves in spirals, reaches a height of 18 meters. Its flowers grow
in spikes and are green in color. Its large, brownish, pear-shaped fruits grow in clusters.


CAUTION
All parts are poisonous, especially the fruit.

Habitat and Distribution: Pangi trees grow in southeast Asia


Physic nut

Jatropha curcas
Spurge (Euphoriaceae) Family

Description: This shrub or small tree has large, 3- to 5-parted alternate leaves. It has small, greenish-yelllow
flowers and its yellow, apple-sized fruits contain three large seeds.


CAUTION
The seeds taste sweet but their oil is violently purgative. All parts of the physic nut are
poisonous.

Habitat and Distribution: Throughout the tropics and southern United States.


504 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Poison hemlock, fool’s parsley

Conium maculatum
Parsley (Apiaceae) Family

Description: This biennial herb may grow to 2.5 meters high. The smooth, hollow stem may or may not be
purple or red striped or mottled. Its white flowers are small and grow in small groups that tend to form
flat umbels. Its long, turniplike taproot is solid.


CAUTION
This plant is very poisonous and even a very small amount may cause death. This plant is
easy to confuse with wild carrot or Queen Anne’s lace, especially in its first stage of growth.
Wild carrot or Queen Anne’s lace has hairy leaves and stems and smells like carrot. Poison
hemlock does not.

Habitat and Distribution: Poison hemlock grows in wet or moist ground like swamps, wet meadows,
stream banks, and ditches. Native to Eurasia, it has been introduced to the United States and Canada.


Poison ivy and poison oak

Toxicodendron radicans and Toxicodendron diversibba
Cashew (Anacardiacese) Family

Description: These two plants are quite similar in appearance and will often crossbreed to make a
hybrid. Both have alternate, compound leaves with three leaflets. The leaves of poison ivy are smooth
or serrated. Poison oak’s leaves are lobed and resemble oak leaves. Poison ivy grows as a vine along
the ground or climbs by red feeder roots. Poison oak grows like a bush. The greenish-white flowers
are small and inconspicuous and are followed by waxy green berries that turn waxy white or yellow,
then gray.


CAUTION
All parts, at all times of the year, can cause serious contact dermatitis.

Habitat and Distribution: Poison ivy and oak can be found in almost any habitat in North America.


Poisonous Plants 505


Poison sumac

Toxicodendron vernix
Cashew (Anacardiacese) Family

Description: Poison sumac is a shrub that grows to 8.5 meters tall. It has alternate, pinnately compound
Ieafstalks with 7 to 13 leaflets. Flowers are greenish-yellow and inconspicuous and are followed by white
or pale yellow berries.


CAUTION
All parts can cause serious contact dermatitis at all times of the year.

Habitat and Distribution: Poison sumac grows only in wet, acid swamps in North America.


Renghas tree, rengas tree, marking nut, black-varnish tree

Gluta
Cashew (Anacardiacese) Family

Description: This family comprises about 48 species of trees or shrubs with alternating leaves in terminal
or axillary panicles. Flowers are similar to those of poison ivy and oak.


CAUTION
Can cause contact dermatitis similar to poison ivy and oak.

Habitat and Distribution: India, east to Southeast Asia.


506 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Rosary pea or crab’s eyes

Abrus precatorius
Leguminosae (Fabaceae) Family

Description: This plant is a vine with alternate compound leaves, light purple flowers, and beautiful seeds
that are red and black.


CAUTION
This plant is one of the most dagerous plants. One seed may contain enough poison to kill
an adult.

Habitat and Distribution: This is a common weed in parts of Africa, southern Florida, Hawaii, Guam, the
Caribbean, and Central and South America.


Strychnine tree

Nux vomica
Logania (Loganiaceae) Family

Description: The strychnine tree is a medium-sized evergreen, reaching a height of about 12 meters, with a
thick, frequently crooked trunk. Its deeply veined oval leaves grow in alternate pairs. Small, loose clusters
of greenish flowers appear at the ends of branches and are followed by fleshy, orange-red berries about 4
centimeters in diameter.


CAUTION
The berries contain the dislike seeds that yield the poisonous substance strychnine. All parts
of the plant are poisonous.

Habitat and Distribution: A native of the tropics and subtropics of southeastern Asia and Australia.


Poisonous Plants 507


Trumpet vine or trumpet creeper

Campsis radicans
Trumpet creeper (Bignoniaceae) Family

Description: This woody vine may climb to 15 meters high. It has pealike fruit capsules. The leaves are pinnately
compound, 7 to 11 toothed leaves per leaf stock. The trumpet-shaped flowers are orange to scarlet
in color.


CAUTION
This plant causes contact dermatitis.

Habitat and Distribution: This vine is found in wet woods and thickets throughout eastern and central
North America.


Water hemlock or spotted cowbane

Cicuta maculata
Parsley (Apiaceae) Family

Description: This perennial herb may grow to 1.8 meters high. The stem is hollow and sectioned off like
bamboo. It may or may not be purple or red striped or mottled. Its flowers are small, white, and grow in
groups that tend to form flat umbels. Its roots may have hollow air chambers and, when cut, may produce
drops of yellow oil.


CAUTION
This plant is very poisonous and even a very small amount of this plant may cause death.
Its roots have been mistaken for parsnips.

Habitat and Distribution: Water hemlock grows in wet or moist ground like swamps, wet meadows,
stream banks, and ditches throughout the Unites States and Canada.


PART V


Firecraft, Tools, Camouflage,
Tracking, Movement,
and Combat Skills



CHAPTER 1


Firecraft


In many survival situations, the ability to start a fire can make the difference between living and dying. Fire
can fulfill many needs. It can provide warmth and comfort. It not only cooks and preserves food, it also
provides warmth in the form of heated food that saves calories our body normally uses to produce body
heat. You can use fire to purify water, sterilize bandages, signal for rescue, and provide protection from
animals. It can be a psychological boost by providing peace of mind and companionship. You can also use
fire to produce tools and weapons.

Fire can cause problems, as well. The enemy can detect the smoke and light it produces. It can cause forest
fires or destroy essential equipment. Fire can also cause burns and carbon monoxide poisoning when
used in shelters.

Remember to weigh your need for fire against your need to avoid enemy detection.

BASIC FIRE PRINCIPLES

To build a fire, it helps to understand the basic principles of a fire. Fuel (in a nongaseous state) does not
burn directly. When you apply heat to a fuel, it produces a gas. This gas, combined with oxygen in the air,
burns.

Understanding the concept of the fire triangle is very important in correctly constructing and maintaining
a fire. The three sides of the triangle represent air, heat, and fuel. If you remove any of these, the fire will go
out. The correct ratio of these components is very important for a fire to burn at its greatest capability. The
only way to learn this ratio is to practice.

SITE SELECTION AND PREPARATION

You will have to decide what site and arrangement to use. Before building a fire consider—

• The area (terrain and climate) in which you are operating.
• The materials and tools available. Time: how much time you have?
• Need: why do you need a fire?
• Security: how close is the enemy?
Look for a dry spot that—

• Is protected from the wind.
• Is suitably placed in relation to your shelter (if any).
• Will concentrate the heat in the direction you desire.
• Has a supply of wood or other fuel available. (See Table 1-1 for types of material you can use.)
If you are in a wooded or brush-covered area, clear the brush and scrape the surface soil from the
spot you have selected. Clear a circle at least 1 meter in diameter so there is little chance of the fire
spreading.

If time allows, construct a fire wall using logs or rocks. This wall will help to reflect or direct the heat where
you want it (Figure 1-l). It will also reduce flying sparks and cut down on the amount of wind blowing into
the fire. However, you will need enough wind to keep the fire burning.

511


512 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Table 1-1: Materials for Building Fires.


CAUTION
Do not use wet or porous rocks as they may explode when heated.

In some situations, you may find that an underground fireplace will best meet your needs. It
conceals the fire and serves well for cooking food. To make an underground fireplace or Dakota fire
hole (Figure 1-2)—

• Dig a hole in the ground.
• On the upwind side of this hole, poke or dig a large connecting hole for ventilation.
• Build your fire in the hole as illustrated.

Firecraft 513


Figure 1-1: Types of fire walls.

If you are in a snow-covered area, use green logs to make a dry base for your fire (Figure 1-3). Trees with
wrist-sized trunks are easily broken in extreme cold. Cut or break several green logs and lay them side by
side on top of the snow. Add one or two more layers. Lay the top layer of logs opposite those below it.

FIRE MATERIAL SELECTION

You need three types of materials (Table 1-1) to build a fire—tinder, kindling, and fuel.


Figure 1-2: Dakota fire hole.


514 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 1-3: Base for fire in snow-covered area.

Tinder is dry material that ignites with little heat—a spark starts a fire. The tinder must be absolutely
dry to be sure just a spark will ignite it. If you only have a device that generates sparks, charred cloth will
be almost essential. It holds a spark for long periods, allowing you to put tinder on the hot area to generate
a small flame. You can make charred cloth by heating cotton cloth until it turns black, but does not burn.
Once it is black, you must keep it in an airtight container to keep it dry. Prepare this cloth well in advance
of any survival situation. Add it to your individual survival kit.

Kindling is readily combustible material that you add to the burning tinder. Again, this material should
be absolutely dry to ensure rapid burning. Kindling increases the fire’s temperature so that it will ignite
less combustible material.

Fuel is less combustible material that burns slowly and steadily once ignited.

HOW TO BUILD A FIRE

There are several methods for laying a fire, each of which has advantages. The situation you find yourself
in will determine which fire to use.

Tepee. To make this fire (Figure 1-4), arrange the tinder and a few sticks of kindling in the shape of a tepee
or cone. Light the center. As the tepee burns, the outside logs will fall inward, feeding the fire. This type of
fire burns well even with wet wood.

Lean-To. To lay this fire (Figure 1-4), push a green stick into the ground at a 30-degree angle. Point the end of
the stick in the direction of the wind. Place some tinder deep under this lean-to stick. Lean pieces of kindling
against the lean-to stick. Light the tinder. As the kindling catches fire from the tinder, add more kindling.

Cross-Ditch. To use this method (Figure 1-4), scratch a cross about 30 centimeters in size in the
ground. Dig the cross 7.5 centimeters deep. Put a large wad of tinder in the middle of the cross. Build
a kindling pyramid above the tinder. The shallow ditch allows air to sweep under the tinder to provide
a draft.

Pyramid. To lay this fire (Figure 1-4), place two small logs or branches parallel on the ground. Place a solid layer
of small logs across the parallel logs. Add three or four more layers of logs or branches, each layer smaller than
and at a right angle to the layer below it. Make a starter fire on top of the pyramid. As the starter fire burns, it will
ignite the logs below it. This gives you a fire that burns downward, requiring no attention during the night.

There are several other ways to lay a fire that are quite effective. Your situation and the material available
in the area may make another method more suitable.

HOW TO LIGHT A FIRE

Always light your fire from the upwind side. Make sure to lay your tinder, kindling, and fuel so that your
fire will burn as long as you need it. Igniters provide the initial heat required to start the tinder burning.
They fall into two categories: modern methods and primitive methods.


Firecraft 515


Figure 1-4: Methods for laying fires.

Modern Methods. Modern igniters use modern devices—items we normally think of to start a fire.

Matches. Make sure these matches are waterproof. Also, store them in a waterproof container along with
a dependable striker pad.

Convex Lens. Use this method (Figure 1-5) only on bright, sunny days. The lens can come from binoculars,
camera, telescopic sights, or magnifying glasses. Angle the lens to concentrate the sun’s rays on the tinder.


Figure 1-5: Lens method.


516 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Hold the lens over the same spot until the tinder begins to smolder. Gently blow or fan the tinder into
flame, and apply it to the fire lay.

Metal Match. Place a flat, dry leaf under your tinder with a portion exposed. Place the tip of the metal
match on the dry leaf, holding the metal match in one hand and a knife in the other. Scrape your knife
against the metal match to produce sparks. The sparks will hit the tinder. When the tinder starts to smolder,
proceed as above.

Battery. Use a battery to generate a spark. Use of this method depends on the type of battery available.
Attach a wire to each terminal. Touch the ends of the bare wires together next to the tinder so the sparks
will ignite it.

Gunpowder. Often, you will have ammunition with your equipment. If so, carefully extract the bullet from
the shell casing, and use the gunpowder as tinder. A spark will ignite the powder. Be extremely careful
when extracting the bullet from the case.

Primitive Methods. Primitive igniters are those attributed to our early ancestors.

Flint and Steel. The direct spark method is the easiest of the primitive methods to use. The flint and steel
method is the most reliable of the direct spark methods. Strike a flint or other hard, sharp-edged rock edge
with a piece of carbon steel (stainless steel will not produce a good spark). This method requires a loosejointed
wrist and practice. When a spark has caught in the tinder, blow on it. The spark will spread and
burst into flames.

Fire-Plow. The fire-plow (Figure 1-6) is a friction method of ignition. You rub a hardwood shaft against a
softer wood base. To use this method, cut a straight groove in the base and plow the blunt tip of the shaft
up and down the groove. The plowing action of the shaft pushes out small particles of wood fibers. Then,
as you apply more pressure on each stroke, the friction ignites the wood particles.

Bow and Drill. The technique of starting a fire with a bow and drill (Figure 1-7) is simple, but you must
exert much effort and be persistent to produce a fire. You need the following items to use this method:


Figure 1-6: Fire-plow.


Firecraft 517


Figure 1-7: Bow and drill.

•
Socket. The socket is an easily grasped stone or piece of hardwood or bone with a slight depression
in one side. Use it to hold the drill in place and to apply downward pressure.
•
Drill. The drill should be a straight, seasoned hardwood stick about 2 centimeters in diameter and
25 centimeters long. The top end is round and the low end blunt (to produce more friction).
•
Fire board. Its size is up to you. A seasoned softwood board about 2.5 centimeters thick and 10
centimeters wide is preferable. Cut a depression about 2 centimeters from the edge on one
side of the board. On the underside, make a V-shaped cut from the edge of the board to the
depression.
•
Bow. The bow is a resilient, green stick about 2.5 centimeters in diameter and a string. The type of
wood is not important. The bowstring can be any type of cordage. You tie the bowstring from one
end of the bow to the other, without any slack.
To use the bow and drill, first prepare the fire lay. Then place a bundle of tinder under the V-shaped
cut in the fire board. Place one foot on the fire board. Loop the bowstring over the drill and place the drill
in the precut depression on the fire board. Place the socket, held in one hand, on the top of the drill to
hold it in position. Press down on the drill and saw the bow back and forth to twirl the drill (Figure 1-7).
Once you have established a smooth motion, apply more downward pressure and work the bow faster.
This action will grind hot black powder into the tinder, causing a spark to catch. Blow on the tinder until
it ignites.

Note: Primitive fire-building methods are exhaustive and require practice to ensure success.

Helpful Hints

•
Use nonaromatic seasoned hardwood for fuel, if possible.
•
Collect kindling and tinder along the trail.
•
Add insect repellent to the tinder.

518 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

•
Keep the firewood dry.
•
Dry damp firewood near the fire.
•
Bank the fire to keep the coals alive overnight.
•
Carry lighted punk, when possible.
•
Be sure the fire is out before leaving camp.
•
Do not select wood lying on the ground. It may appear to be dry but generally doesn’t provide
enough friction.

CHAPTER 2


Field-expedient Weapons, Tools, and
Equipment


As a soldier you know the importance of proper care and use of your weapons, tools, and equipment.
This is especially true of your knife. You must always keep it sharp and ready to use. A knife is your most
valuable tool in a survival situation. Imagine being in a survival situation without any weapons, tools, or
equipment except your knife. It could happen! You might even be without a knife. You would probably
feel helpless, but with the proper knowledge and skills, you can easily improvise needed items.

In survival situations, you may have to fashion any number and type of field-expedient tools and
equipment to survive. Examples of tools and equipment that could make your life much easier are ropes,
rucksacks, clothes, nets, and so on.

Weapons serve a dual purpose. You use them to obtain and prepare food and to provide self-defense. A
weapon can also give you a feeling of security and provide you with the ability to hunt on the move.

CLUBS

You hold clubs, you do not throw them. As a field-expedient weapon, the club does not protect you from
enemy soldiers. It can, however, extend your area of defense beyond your fingertips. It also serves to
increase the force of a blow without injuring yourself. There are three basic types of clubs. They are the
simple, weighted, and sling club.

Simple Club. A simple club is a staff or branch. It must be short enough for you to swing easily, but long
enough and strong enough for you to damage whatever you hit. Its diameter should fit comfortably in
your palm, but it should not be so thin as to allow the club to break easily upon impact. A straight-grained
hardwood is best if you can find it.

Weighted Club. A weighted club is any simple club with a weight on one end. The weight may be a natural
weight, such as a knot on the wood, or something added, such as a stone lashed to the club.

To make a weighted club, first find a stone that has a shape that will allow you to lash it securely to the
club. A stone with a slight hourglass shape works well. If you cannot find a suitably shaped stone, you
must fashion a groove or channel into the stone by a technique known as pecking. By repeatedly rapping
the club stone with a smaller hard stone, you can get the desired shape.

Next, find a piece of wood that is the right length for you. A straight-grained hardwood is best. The
length of the wood should feel comfortable in relation to the weight of the stone. Finally, lash the stone to
the handle.

There are three techniques for lashing the stone to the handle: split handle, forked branch, and wrapped
handle. The technique you use will depend on the type of handle you choose. See Figure 2-1.

Sling Club. A sling club is another type of weighted club. A weight hangs 8 to 10 centimeters from the handle
by a strong, flexible lashing (Figure 2-2). This type of club both extends the user’s reach and multiplies the
force of the blow.

519


520 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 2-1: Lashing clubs.

EDGED WEAPONS

Knives, spear blades, and arrow points fall under the category of edged weapons. The following
paragraphs will discuss the making of such weapons.

Knives. A knife has three basic functions. It can puncture, slash or chop, and cut. A knife is also an invaluable
tool used to construct other survival items. You may find yourself without a knife or you may need another
type knife or a spear. To improvise you can use stone, bone, wood, or metal to make a knife or spear blade.

Stone. To make a stone knife, you will need a sharp-edged piece of stone, a chipping tool, and a flaking
tool. A chipping tool is a light, blunt-edged tool used to break off small pieces of stone. A flaking tool is
a pointed tool used to break off thin, flattened pieces of stone. You can make a chipping tool from wood,
bone, or metal, and a flaking tool from bone, antler tines, or soft iron (Figure 2-3).


Field-expedient Weapons, Tools, and Equipment 521


Figure 2-2: Sling club.


Figure 2-3: Making a stone knife.


522 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Start making the knife by roughing out the desired shape on your sharp piece of stone, using the chipping
tool. Try to make the knife fairly thin. Then, using the flaking tool, press it against the edges. This action will
cause flakes to come off the opposite side of the edge, leaving a razor sharp edge. Use the flaking tool along
the entire length of the edge you need to sharpen. Eventually, you will have a very sharp cutting edge that
you can use as a knife.

Lash the blade to some type of hilt (Figure 2-3).

Note: Stone will make an excellent puncturing tool and a good chopping tool but will not hold a fine edge. Some
stones such as chert or flint can have very fine edges.

Bone. You can also use bone as an effective field-expedient edged weapon. First, you will need to select
a suitable bone. The larger bones, such as the leg bone of a deer or another medium-sized animal, are
best. Lay the bone upon another hard object. Shatter the bone by hitting it with a heavy object, such
as a rock. From the pieces, select a suitable pointed splinter. You can further shape and sharpen this
splinter by rubbing it on a rough-surfaced rock. If the piece is too small to handle, you can still use it
by adding a handle to it. Select a suitable piece of hardwood for a handle and lash the bone splinter
securely to it.

Note: Use the bone knife only to puncture. It will not hold an edge and it may flake or break if used differently.

Wood. You can make field-expedient edged weapons from wood. Use these only to puncture. Bamboo is
the only wood that will hold a suitable edge. To make a knife using wood, first select a straight-grained
piece of hardwood that is about 30 centimeters long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter. Fashion the blade
about 15 centimeters long. Shave it down to a point. Use only the straight-grained portions of the wood.
Do not use the core or pith, as it would make a weak point.

Harden the point by a process known as fire hardening. If a fire is possible, dry the blade portion over
the fire slowly until lightly charred. The drier the wood, the harder the point. After lightly charring the
blade portion, sharpen it on a coarse stone. If using bamboo and after fashioning the blade, remove any
other wood to make the blade thinner from the inside portion of the bamboo. Removal is done this way
because bamboo’s hardest part is its outer layer. Keep as much of this layer as possible to ensure the
hardest blade possible. When charring bamboo over a fire, char only the inside wood; do not char the
outside.

Metal. Metal is the best material to make field-expedient edged weapons. Metal, when properly designed,
can fulfill a knife’s three uses—puncture, slice or chop, and cut. First, select a suitable piece of metal, one
that most resembles the desired end product. Depending on the size and original shape, you can obtain a
point and cutting edge by rubbing the metal on a rough-surfaced stone. If the metal is soft enough, you can
hammer out one edge while the metal is cold. Use a suitable flat, hard surface as an anvil and a smaller,
harder object of stone or metal as a hammer to hammer out the edge. Make a knife handle from wood,
bone, or other material that will protect your hand.

Other Materials. You can use other materials to produce edged weapons. Glass is a good alternative to
an edged weapon or tool, if no other material is available. Obtain a suitable piece in the same manner
as described for bone. Glass has a natural edge but is less durable for heavy work. You can also sharpen
plastic—if it is thick enough or hard enough—into a durable point for puncturing.

Spear Blades. To make spears, use the same procedures to make the blade that you used to make a knife
blade. Then select a shaft (a straight sapling) 1.2 to1.5 meters long. The length should allow you to handle
the spear easily and effectively. Attach the spear blade to the shaft using lashing. The preferred method is
to split the handle, insert the blade, then wrap or lash it tightly. You can use other materials without adding
a blade. Select a 1.2- to 1.5-meter long straight hardwood shaft and shave one end to a point. If possible, fire
harden the point. Bamboo also makes an excellent spear. Select a piece 1.2 to 1.5 meters long. Starting 8 to
10 centimeters back from the end used as the point, shave down the end at a 45-degree angle (Figure 2-4).
Remember, to sharpen the edges, shave only the inner portion.


Field-expedient Weapons, Tools, and Equipment 523


Figure 2-4: Bamboo spear.

Arrow Points. To make an arrow point, use the same procedures for making a stone knife blade. Chert,
flint, and shell-type stones are best for arrow points. You can fashion bone like stone—by flaking. You can
make an efficient arrow point using broken glass.

OTHER EXPEDIENT WEAPONS

You can make other field-expedient weapons such as the throwing stick, archery equipment, and the
bola.

Throwing Stick. The throwing stick, commonly known as the rabbit stick, is very effective against small
game (squirrels, chipmunks, and rabbits). The rabbit stick itself is a blunt stick, naturally curved at
about a 45-degree angle. Select a stick with the desired angle from heavy hardwood such as oak. Shave
off two opposite sides so that the stick is flat like a boomerang (Figure 2-5). You must practice the throwing
technique for accuracy and speed. First, align the target by extending the nonthrowing arm in line
with the mid to lower section of the target. Slowly and repeatedly raise the throwing arm up and back
until the throwing stick crosses the back at about a 45-degree angle or is in line with the nonthrowing
hip. Bring the throwing arm forward until it is just slightly above and parallel to the nonthrowing arm.
This will be the throwing stick’s release point. Practice slowly and repeatedly to attain accuracy.

Archery Equipment. You can make a bow and arrow (Figure 2-6) from materials available in your survival
area. While it may be relatively simple to make a bow and arrow, it is not easy to use one. You must practice
using it a long time to be reasonably sure that you will hit your target. Also, a field-expedient bow will not
last very long before you have to make a new one. For the time and effort involved, you may well decide to
use another type of field-expedient weapon.

Bola. The bola is another field-expedient weapon that is easy to make (Figure 2-7). It is especially effective
for capturing running game or low-flying fowl in a flock. To use the bola, hold it by the center knot and


Figure 2-5: Rabbit stick.


524 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 2-6: Archery equipment.


Figure 2-7: Bola.

twirl it above your head. Release the knot so that the bola flies toward your target. When you release the
bola, the weighted cords will separate. These cords will wrap around and immobilize the fowl or animal
that you hit.

LASHING AND CORDAGE

Many materials are strong enough for use as lashing and cordage. A number of natural and man-made
materials are available in a survival situation. For example, you can make a cotton web belt much more
useful by unraveling it. You can then use the string for other purposes (fishing line, thread for sewing, and
lashing).


Field-expedient Weapons, Tools, and Equipment 525

Natural Cordage Selection. Before making cordage, there are a few simple tests you can do to determine
your material’s suitability. First, pull on a length of the material to test for strength. Next, twist it between
your fingers and roll the fibers together. If it withstands this handling and does not snap apart, tie an overhand
knot with the fibers and gently tighten. If the knot does not break, the material is usable. Figure 2-8
shows various methods of making cordage.

Lashing Material. The best natural material for lashing small objects is sinew. You can make sinew
from the tendons of large game, such as deer. Remove the tendons from the game and dry them completely.
Smash the dried tendons so that they separate into fibers. Moisten the fibers and twist them
into a continuous strand. If you need stronger lashing material, you can braid the strands. When you
use sinew for small lashings, you do not need knots as the moistened sinew is sticky and it hardens
when dry.

You can shred and braid plant fibers from the inner bark of some trees to make cord. You can use the
linden, elm, hickory, white oak, mulberry, chestnut, and red and white cedar trees. After you make the
cord, test it to be sure it is strong enough for your purpose. You can make these materials stronger by
braiding several strands together.

You can use rawhide for larger lashing jobs. Make rawhide from the skins of medium or large game.
After skinning the animal, remove any excess fat and any pieces of meat from the skin. Dry the skin
completely. You do not need to stretch it as long as there are no folds to trap moisture. You do not have
to remove the hair from the skin. Cut the skin while it is dry. Make cuts about 6 millimeters wide. Start
from the center of the hide and make one continuous circular cut, working clockwise to the hide’s outer
edge. Soak the rawhide for 2 to 4 hours or until it is soft. Use it wet, stretching it as much as possible while
applying it. It will be strong and durable when it dries.

RUCKSACK CONSTRUCTION

The materials for constructing a rucksack or pack are almost limitless. You can use wood, bamboo, rope,
plant fiber, clothing, animal skins, canvas, and many other materials to make a pack.

There are several construction techniques for rucksacks. Many are very elaborate, but those that are
simple and easy are often the most readily made in a survival situation.

Horseshoe Pack. This pack is simple to make and use and relatively comfortable to carry over one shoulder.
Lay available square-shaped material, such as poncho, blanket, or canvas, flat on the ground. Lay items on
one edge of the material. Pad the hard items. Roll the material (with the items) toward the opposite edge
and tie both ends securely. Add extra ties along the length of the bundle. You can drape the pack over one
shoulder with a line connecting the two ends (Figure 2-9).


Figure 2-8: Making lines from plant fibers.


526 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 2-9: Horseshoe pack.


Figure 2-10: Square pack.

Square Pack. This pack is easy to construct if rope or cordage is available. Otherwise, you must first make
cordage. To make this pack, construct a square frame from bamboo, limbs, or sticks. Size will vary for each
person and the amount of equipment carried (Figure 2-10).

CLOTHING AND INSULATION

You can use many materials for clothing and insulation. Both man-made materials, such as parachutes,
and natural materials, such as skins and plant materials, are available and offer significant
protection.


Field-expedient Weapons, Tools, and Equipment 527

Parachute Assembly. Consider the entire parachute assembly as a resource. Use every piece of material
and hardware, to include the canopy, suspension lines, connector snaps, and parachute harness. Before
disassembling the parachute, consider all of your survival requirements and plan to use different portions
of the parachute accordingly. For example, consider shelter requirements, need for a rucksack, and so on,
in addition to clothing or insulation needs.

Animal Skins. The selection of animal skins in a survival situation will most often be limited to what you
manage to trap or hunt. However, if there is an abundance of wildlife, select the hides of larger animals
with heavier coats and large fat content. Do not use the skins of infected or diseased animals if at all possible.
Since they live in the wild, animals are carriers of pests such as ticks, lice, and fleas. Because of these
pests, use water to thoroughly clean any skin obtained from any animal. If water is not available, at least
shake out the skin thoroughly. As with rawhide, lay out the skin, and remove all fat and meat. Dry the skin
completely. Use the hind quarter joint areas to make shoes and mittens or socks. Wear the hide with the fur
to the inside for its insulating factor.

Plant Fibers. Several plants are sources of insulation from cold. Cattail is a marshland plant found along
lakes, ponds, and the backwaters of rivers. The fuzz on the tops of the stalks forms dead air spaces and
makes a good down-like insulation when placed between two pieces of material. Milkweed has pollenlike
seeds that act as good insulation. The husk fibers from coconuts are very good for weaving ropes and,
when dried, make excellent tinder and insulation.

COOKING AND EATING UTENSILS

Many materials may be used to make equipment for the cooking, eating, and storing of food.

Bowls. Use wood, bone, horn, bark, or other similar material to make bowls. To make wooden bowls, use
a hollowed out piece of wood that will hold your food and enough water to cook it in. Hang the wooden
container over the fire and add hot rocks to the water and food. Remove the rocks as they cool and add
more hot rocks until your food is cooked.


CAUTION
Do not use rocks with air pockets, such as limestone and sandstone. They may explode
while heating in the fire.

You can also use this method with containers made of bark or leaves. However, these containers will
burn above the waterline unless you keep them moist or keep the fire low.
A section of bamboo works very well, if you cut out a section between two sealed joints (Figure 2-11).


CAUTION
A sealed section of bamboo will explode if heated because of trapped air and water in the
section.

Forks, Knives, and Spoons. Carve forks, knives, and spoons from nonresinous woods so that you do
not get a wood resin aftertaste or do not taint the food. Nonresinous woods include oak, birch, and other
hardwood trees.

Note: Do not use those trees that secrete a syrup or resinlike liquid on the bark or when cut.

Pots. You can make pots from turtle shells or wood. As described with bowls, using hot rocks in a
hollowed out piece of wood is very effective. Bamboo is the best wood for making cooking containers.


528 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 2-11: Containers for boiling food.

To use turtle shells, first thoroughly boil the upper portion of the shell. Then use it to heat food and
water over a flame (Figure 2-11).

Water Bottles. Make water bottles from the stomachs of larger animals. Thoroughly flush the stomach out
with water, then tie off the bottom. Leave the top open, with some means of fastening it closed.


CHAPTER 3


Hand-to-hand Combat


SECTION I: OVERVIEW

Hand-to-hand combat is an engagement between two or more persons in an empty-handed struggle or
with handheld weapons such as knives, sticks, and rifles with bayonets. These fighting arts are essential
military skills. Projectile weapons may be lost or broken, or they may fail to fire. When friendly and enemy
forces become so intermingled that firearms and grenades are not practical, hand-to-hand combat skills
become vital assets.

Purpose of Combatives Training. Today’s battlefield scenarios may require silent elimination of the enemy.
Unarmed combat and expedient-weapons training should not be limited to forward units. With rapid mechanized/
motorized, airborne, and air assault abilities, units throughout the battle area could be faced with
close-quarter or unarmed fighting situations. With low-intensity conflict scenarios and guerrilla warfare
conditions, any soldier is apt to face an unarmed confrontation with the enemy, and hand-to-hand combative
training can save lives. The many practical battlefield benefits of combative training are not its only
advantage. It can also—

a.
Contribute to individual and unit strength, flexibility, balance, and cardiorespiratory fitness.
b. Build courage, confidence, self-discipline, and esprit de corps.
Basic Principles. There are basic principles that the hand-to-hand fighter must know and apply to successfully
defeat an opponent. The principles mentioned are only a few of the basic guidelines that are essential
knowledge for hand-to-hand combat. There are many others, which through years of study become intuitive
to a highly skilled fighter.

a.
Physical Balance. Balance refers to the ability to maintain equilibrium and to remain in a stable,
upright position. A hand-to-hand fighter must maintain his balance both to defend himself and to
launch an effective attack. Without balance, the fighter has no stability with which to defend himself,
nor does he have a base of power for an attack. The fighter must understand two aspects of
balance in a struggle:
(1) How to move his body to keep or regain his own balance. A fighter develops balance through
experience, but usually he keeps his feet about shoulder-width apart and his knees flexed. He
lowers his center of gravity to increase stability.
(2) How to exploit weaknesses in his opponent’s balance. Experience also gives the hand-to-hand
fighter a sense of how to move his body in a fight to maintain his balance while exposing the
enemy’s weak points.
b. Mental Balance. The successful fighter must also maintain a mental balance. He must not allow fear
or anger to overcome his ability to concentrate or to react instinctively in hand-to-hand combat.
c.
Position. Position refers to the location of the fighter (defender) in relation to his opponent. A vital
principle when being attacked is for the defender to move his body to a safe position—that is, where
the attack cannot continue unless the enemy moves his whole body. To position for a counterattack,
a fighter should move his whole body off the opponent’s line of attack. Then, the opponent has to
529


530 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

change his position to continue the attack. It is usually safe to move off the line of attack at a 45-degree
angle, either toward the opponent or away from him, whichever is appropriate. This position affords
the fighter safety and allows him to exploit weaknesses in the enemy’s counterattack position. Movement
to an advantageous position requires accurate timing and distance perception.

d. Timing. A fighter must be able to perceive the best time to move to an advantageous position in an
attack. If he moves too soon, the enemy will anticipate his movement and adjust the attack. If the
fighter moves too late, the enemy will strike him. Similarly, the fighter must launch his attack or
counterattack at the critical instant when the opponent is the most vulnerable.
e.
Distance. Distance is the relative distance between the positions of opponents. A fighter positions
himself where distance is to his advantage. The hand-to-hand fighter must adjust his distance by
changing position and developing attacks or counterattacks. He does this according to the range at
which he and his opponent are engaged.
f. Momentum. Momentum is the tendency of a body in motion to continue in the direction of motion
unless acted on by another force. Body mass in motion develops momentum. The greater the body
mass or speed of movement, the greater the momentum. Therefore, a fighter must understand the
effects of this principle and apply it to his advantage.
(1) The fighter can use his opponent’s momentum to his advantage—that is, he can place the opponent
in a vulnerable position by using his momentum against him.
(a) The opponent’s balance can be taken away by using his own momentum.
(b) The opponent can be forced to extend farther than he expected, causing him to stop and
change his direction of motion to continue his attack.
(c) An opponent’s momentum can be used to add power to a fighter’s own attack or counterattack
by combining body masses in motion.
(2) The fighter must be aware that the enemy can also take advantage of the principle of momentum.
Therefore, the fighter must avoid placing himself in an awkward or vulnerable position,
and he must not allow himself to extend too far.
g. Leverage. A fighter uses leverage in hand-to-hand combat by using the natural movement of his
body to place his opponent in a position of unnatural movement. The fighter uses his body or parts
of his body to create a natural mechanical advantage over parts of the enemy’s body. He should
never oppose the enemy in a direct test of strength; however, by using leverage, he can defeat a
larger or stronger opponent.
SECTION II: CLOSE-RANGE COMBATIVES

In close-range combatives, two opponents have closed the gap between them so they can grab one another
in hand-to-hand combat. The principles of balance, leverage, timing, and body positioning are applied.
Throws and takedown techniques are used to upset the opponent’s balance and to gain control of the fight
by forcing him to the ground. Chokes can be applied to quickly render an opponent unconscious. The
soldier should also know counters to choking techniques to protect himself. Grappling involves skillful
fighting against an opponent in close-range combat so that a soldier can win through superior body movement
or grappling skills. Pain can be used to disable an opponent. A soldier can use painful eye gouges and
strikes to soft, vital areas to gain an advantage over his opponent.

3-1. Throws and Takedowns. Throws and takedowns enable a hand-to-hand fighter to take an opponent to
the ground where he can be controlled or disabled with further techniques. Throws and takedowns make
use of the principles involved in taking the opponent’s balance. The fighter uses his momentum against the
attacker; he also uses leverage or body position to gain an opportunity to throw the attacker.

a.
It is important for a fighter to control his opponent throughout a throw to the ground to keep the
opponent from countering the throw or escaping after he is thrown to the ground. One way to do

Hand-to-hand Combat 531

this is to control the opponent’s fall so that he lands on his head. It is also imperative that a fighter
maintain control of his own balance when executing throws and takedowns.

b. After executing a throw or takedown and while the opponent is on the ground, the fighter must
control the opponent by any means available. He can drop his weight onto exposed areas of the
opponent’s body, using his elbows and knees. He can control the downed opponent’s limbs by stepping
on them or by placing his knees and body weight on them. Joint locks, chokes, and kicks to
vital areas are also good control measures. Without endangering himself, the fighter must maintain
the advantage and disable his opponent after throwing him (Figures 3-1 through 3-5).
Figure 3-1: Hip throw


532 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 3-2: Over-the-shoulder throw


Hand-to-hand Combat 533


Figure 3-3: Throw from rear choke


534 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 3-4: Head butt


Hand-to-hand Combat 535


Figure 3-5: Rear strangle takedown


536 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

NOTE: Although the five techniques shown in Figures 3-1 through 3-5 may be done while
wearing LCE—for training purposes, it is safer to conduct all throws and takedowns without any
equipment.

(1) Hip throw. The opponent throws a right punch. The defender steps in with his left foot; at the
same time, he blocks the punch with his left forearm and delivers a reverse punch to the face,
throat, or other vulnerable area (Figure 3-1, Step 1). (For training, deliver punches to the solar
plexus.)
The defender pivots 180 degrees on the ball of his lead foot, wraps his right arm around his
opponent’s waist, and grasps his belt or pants (Figure 3-1, Step 2). (If opponent is wearing LCE,
grasp by the pistol belt or webbing.)
The defender thrusts his hips into his opponent and maintains a grip on his opponent’s right
elbow. He keeps his knees shoulder-width apart and slightly bent (Figure 3-1, Step 3). He locks
his knees, pulls his opponent well over his right hip, and slams him to the ground. (For training,
soldier being thrown should land in a good side fall.)
By maintaining control of his opponent’s arm, the defender now has the option of kicking or
stomping him in the neck, face, or ribs (Figure 3-1, Step 4).
(2) Over-the-shoulder throw. The opponent lunges at the defender with a straight punch (Figure 3-2,
Step 1).
The defender blocks the punch with his left forearm, pivots 180 degrees on the ball of his
lead foot (Figure 3-2, Step 2), and gets well inside his opponent’s right armpit with his right
shoulder.
He reaches well back under his opponent’s right armpit and grasps him by the collar or hair
(Figure 3-2, Step 3).
The defender maintains good back-to-chest, buttock-to-groin contact, keeping his knees slightly
bent and shoulder-width apart. He maintains control of his opponent’s right arm by grasping
the wrist or sleeve (Figure 3-2, Step 4).
The defender bends forward at the waist and holds his opponent tightly against his
body. He locks his knees, thrusts his opponent over his shoulder, and slams him to the
ground (Figure 3-2, Step 5). He then has the option of disabling his opponent with kicks or
stomps to vital areas.
(3) Throw from rear choke. The opponent attacks the defender with a rear strangle choke. The
defender quickly bends his knees and spreads his feet shoulder-width apart (Figure 3-3, Step 1).
(Knees are bent quickly to put distance between you and your opponent.)
The defender reaches as far back as possible and uses his right hand to grab his opponent by
the collar or hair. He then forces his chin into the vee of the opponent’s arm that is around his
neck. With his left hand, he grasps the opponent’s clothing at the tricep and bends forward at
the waist (Figure 3-3, Step 2).
The defender locks his knees and, at the same time, pulls his opponent over his shoulder and
slams him to the ground (Figure 3-3, Step 3).
He then has the option of spinning around and straddling his opponent or disabling him with
punches to vital areas (Figure 3-3, Step 4). (It is important to grip the opponent tightly when
executing this move.)
(4) Head butt. The head butt can be applied from the front or the rear. It is repeated until the opponent
either releases his grip or becomes unconscious.
(a) The opponent grabs the defender in a bear hug from the front (A, Figure 3-4, Step 1).
The defender uses his forehead to smash into his opponent’s nose or cheek (A, Figure 3-4,
Step 2) and stuns him.
The opponent releases the defender who then follows up with a kick or knee strike to the
groin (A, Figure 3-4, Step 3).

Hand-to-hand Combat 537

(b) The opponent grabs the defender in a bear hug from the rear (B, Figure 3-4, Step 1).
The defender cocks his head forward and smashes the back of his head into the opponent’s
nose or cheek area (B, Figure 3-4, Step 2).
The defender turns to face his opponent and follows up with a spinning elbow strike to the
head (B, Figure 3-4, Step 3).
(5) Rear strangle takedown. The defender strikes the opponent from the rear with a forearm strike
to the neck (carotid artery) (Figure 3-5, Step 1).
The defender wraps his right arm around his opponent’s neck, making sure he locks the throat
and windpipe in the vee formed by his elbow. He grasps his left bicep and wraps his left hand
around the back of the opponent’s head. He pulls his right arm in and flexes it, pushing his
opponent’s head forward (Figure 3-5, Step 2).
The defender kicks his legs out and back, maintains a choke on his opponent’s neck, and pulls
his opponent backward until his neck breaks (Figure 3-5, Step 3).
3-2. Strangulation. Strangulation is a most effective method of disabling an opponent. The throat’s vulnerability
is widely known and should be a primary target in close-range fighting. Your goal may be to break
the opponent’s neck, to crush his trachea, to block the air supply to his lungs, or to block the blood supply
to his brain.

a.
Strangulation by Crushing. Crushing the trachea just below the voice box is probably one of the
fastest, easiest, most lethal means of strangulation. The trachea is crushed between the thumb and
first two or three fingers.
b.
Respiratory Strangulation. Compressing the windpipe to obstruct air flow to the lungs is most
effectively applied by pressure on the cartilage of the windpipe. Unconsciousness can take
place within one to two minutes. However, the technique is not always effective on a strong
opponent or an opponent with a large neck. It is better to block the blood supply to weaken the
opponent first.
c.
Sanguineous Strangulation. Cutting off the blood supply to the brain by applying pressure to the
carotid arteries results in rapid unconsciousness of the victim. The victim can be rendered unconscious
within 3 to 8 seconds, and death can result within 30 to 40 seconds.
3-3. Choking Techniques. There are several choking techniques that a soldier can use to defeat his opponent
in hand-to-hand combat.

a.
Cross-Collar Choke. With crossed hands, the fighter reaches as far as possible around his opponent’s
neck and grabs his collar (Figure 3-6, Step 1). The backs of his hands should be against
the neck.
The fighter keeps his elbows bent and close to the body (as in opening a tightly sealed jar), pulls
outward with both hands, and chokes the sides of the opponent’s neck by rotating the knuckles into
the neck (Figure 3-6, Step 2). The forearm can also be used.
b.
Collar Grab Choke. The fighter grabs his opponent’s collar with both hands straight-on (Figure 3-7).
He then rotates the knuckles inward against the neck to quickly produce a good choke. He also
keeps the elbows in front and close to the body where the greatest strength is maintained.
c.
Carotid Choke. The fighter grabs the sides of the opponent’s throat by the muscle and sticks his
thumbs into the carotids, closing them off (Figure 3-8). This is a fast and painful choke.
d. Trachea Choke. The fighter grabs the opponent’s trachea (Figure 3-9) by sticking three fingers behind
the voice box on one side and the thumb behind the other. He then crushes the fingers together and
twists, applying pressure until the opponent is disabled.

538 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 3-6: Cross-collar choke


Figure 3-7: Collar grab choke

3-4. Counters to Chokes. A soldier must know how to defend against being choked. Incapacitation and
unconsciousness can occur within three seconds; therefore, it is crucial for the defender to know all possible
counters to chokes.

a.
Eye Gouge. The opponent attacks the defender with a frontal choke. The defender has the option
of going over or under the opponent’s arms. To disable the opponent, the defender inserts both

Hand-to-hand Combat 539


Figure 3-8: Carotid choke


Figure 3-9: Trachea choke


540 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

thumbs into his opponent’s eyes and tries to gouge them (Figure 3-10). The defender is prepared to
follow-up with an attack to the vital regions.

b. Shoulder Dislocation. If the opponent applies a choke from the rear, the defender places the back of
his hand against the inside of the opponent’s forearm (Figure 3-11, Step 1).
Then, he brings the other hand over the crook of the opponent’s elbow and clasps hands, keeping
his hands close to his body as he moves his entire body around the opponent (Figure 3-11,
Step 2).
He positions his body so that the opponent’s upper arm is aligned with the opponent’s shoulders
(Figure 3-11, Step 3). The opponent’s arm should be bent at a 90-degree angle.
By pulling up on the opponent’s elbow and down on the wrist, the opponent’s balance is taken and
his shoulder is easily dislocated (Figure 3-11, Step 4). The defender must use his body movement to
properly position the opponent—upper body strength will not work.
He drops his body weight by bending his knees to help get the proper bend in the opponent’s
elbow. The defender must also keep his own hands and elbows close to his body to prevent the
opponent’s escape (Figure 3-11, Step 5).
c.
Weight Shift. To counter being choked from above while lying on the ground (Figure 3-12, Step 1),
the defender places his arms against his opponent’s elbows and locks the joints.
At the same time, he shifts his hips so that his weight rests painfully on the opponent’s ankle
(Figure 3-12, Step 2).
The defender can easily shift his body weight to gain control by turning the opponent toward his
weak side (Figure 3-12, Step 3).
Figure 3-10: Eye gouge


Hand-to-hand Combat 541


Figure 3-11: Shoulder dislocation


542 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 3-12: Weight shift


Hand-to-hand Combat 543

d.
Counterstrikes to Rear Choke and Frontal Choke. As the opponent tries a rear choke (A, Figure 3- 13,
Step 1), the defender can break the opponent’s grip with a strong rear-elbow strike into the solar plexus
(A, Figure 3-13, Step 2).
He can follow with a shin scrape down along the opponent’s leg and stomp the foot (A, Figure 3-13,
Step 3).
He may wish to continue by striking the groin of the opponent (A, Figure 3-13, Step 4).
Figure 3-13: Counterstrikes to rear choke and frontal choke


544 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

As the opponent begins a frontal choke (B, Figure 3-13, Step 1), the defender turns his body and
drops one arm between the opponent’s arms (B, Figure 3-13, Step 2).
He sinks his body weight and drives his own hand to the ground, and then explodes upward with
an elbow strike (B, Figure 3-13, Step 3) into the opponent’s chin, stomach, or groin.


e.
Headlock Escape. If a defender is in a headlock, he first turns his chin in toward his opponent’s
body to prevent choking (Figure 3-14, Step 1).
Next, he slides one hand up along the opponent’s back, around to the face, and finds the sensitive
nerve under the nose. He must avoid placing his fingers near his opponent’s mouth, or he will be
bitten (Figure 3-14, Step 2).
The defender can now force his opponent back and then down across his own knee to the ground
and maintain control by keeping pressure under the nose (Figure 3-14, Step 3). He can finish the
technique with a hammer fist to the groin.
3-5. Grappling. Grappling is when two or more fighters engage in close-range, hand-to-hand combat.
They may be armed or unarmed. To win, the fighter must be aware of how to move his body to maintain
the upper hand, and he must know the mechanical strengths and weaknesses of the human body. The
situation becomes a struggle of strength pitted against strength unless the fighter can remain in control
of his opponent by using skilled movements to gain an advantage in leverage and balance. Knowledge of


Figure 3-14: Headlock escape


Hand-to-hand Combat 545

the following basic movement techniques may give the fighter a way to apply and gain the advantage in
grappling situations.

a.
Wristlock From a Collar or Lapel Grab. When an opponent grabs the defender by the collar or by the
lapel, the defender reaches up and grabs the opponent’s hand (to prevent him from withdrawing it)
while stepping back to pull him off balance (Figure 3-15, Step 1).
The defender peels off the opponent’s grabbing hand by crushing his thumb and bending it back
on itself toward the palm in a straight line (Figure 3-15, Step 2). To keep his grip on the opponent’s
thumb, the defender keeps his hands close to his body where his control is strongest.
Figure 3-15: Wristlock from a collar or lapel grab


546 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

He then turns his body so that he has a wristlock on his opponent. The wristlock is produced by
turning his wrist outward at a 45-degree angle and by bending it toward the elbow (Figure 3-15,
Step 3). The opponent can be driven to the ground by putting his palm on the ground.

b. Wristlock From an Arm Grab. When an opponent grabs a defender’s arm, the defender rotates his
arm to grab the opponent’s forearm (Figure 3-16, Step 1).
At the same time, he secures his other hand on the gripping hand of the opponent to prevent his
escape (Figure 3-16, Step 2).
As the defender steps in toward the opponent and maintains his grip on the hand and forearm, a
zee shape is formed by the opponent’s arm; this is an effective wristlock (Figure 3-16, Step 3). More
pain can be induced by trying to put the opponent’s fingers in his own eyes.
c.
Prisoner Escort. The escort secures the prisoner’s arm with the wrist bent straight back upon itself,
palm toward the elbow. The prisoner’s elbow can be secured in the crook of the escort’s elbow,
firmly against the escort’s body for the most control (Figure 3-17). This technique is most effective
Figure 3-16: Wristlock from an arm grab


Hand-to-hand Combat 547


Figure 3-17: Prisoner escort

with two escorts, each holding a wrist of the prisoner. Use this technique to secure the opponent
only if rope, flex cuffs, or handcuffs are unavailable.

d. Elbow Lock Against the Body. The opponent’s elbow can be locked against the side of the body
(Figure 3-18) by the defender. The defender turns his body to force the elbow into a position in
which it was not designed to move. He can apply leverage on the opponent’s wrist to gain control
since the lock causes intense pain. The elbow can easily be broken to make the arm ineffective. This
movement must be executed with maximum speed and force.
e.
Elbow Lock Against the Knee. While grappling on the ground, a defender can gain control of the
situation if he can use an elbow lock (Figure 3-19) against the opponent. He uses his knee as a fulcrum
for leverage to break his opponent’s arm at the elbow. Once the arm breaks, the defender must
be prepared with a follow-up technique.
f. Elbow Lock Against the Shoulder. An elbow lock can be applied by locking the elbow joint against
the shoulder (Figure 3-20) and pulling down on the wrist. Leverage is produced by using the shoulder
as a fulcrum, by applying force, and by straightening the knees to push upward. This uses the
defender’s body mass and ensures more positive control. The opponent’s arm must be kept straight
so he cannot drive his elbow down into the defender’s shoulder.
g. Shoulder Dislocation. A defender can maneuver into position to dislocate a shoulder by moving
inside when an opponent launches a punch (Figure 3-21, Step 1). The defender holds his hand nearest
the punching arm high to protect the head.
The defender continues to move in and places his other arm behind the punching arm (Figure 3-21,
Step 2). He strikes downward into the crook of the opponent’s elbow to create a bend.
Then he clasps his hands and moves to the opponent’s outside until the opponent’s upper arm is in
alignment with his shoulders and bent 90 degrees at the elbow. As he steps, the defender pulls up
on the opponent’s elbow and directs the wrist downward. This motion twists the shoulder joint so
it is easily dislocated and the opponent loses his balance (Figure 3-21, Step 3).

548 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 3-18: Elbow lock against the body


Figure 3-19: Elbow lock against the knee


Hand-to-hand Combat 549


Figure 3-20: Elbow lock against the shoulder

NOTE: The defender must keep his clasped hands close to the body and properly align the opponent’s arm by
maneuvering his entire body. This technique will not succeed by using upperbody strength only, the opponent
will escape.

(1) Straight-arm shoulder dislocation. The shoulder can also be dislocated (Figure 3-22) by keeping
the elbow straight and forcing the opponent’s arm backward toward the opposite shoulder at
about 45 degrees. The initial movement must take the arm down and alongside the opponent’s

550 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 3-21: Shoulder dislocation

body. Bending the wrist toward the elbow helps to lock out the elbow. The dislocation also
forces the opponent’s head down-ward where a knee strike can be readily made. This dislocation
technique should be practiced to get the feel of the correct direction in which to move the joint.

(2) Shoulder dislocation using the elbow. While grappling, the defender can snake his hand over
the crook in the opponent’s elbow and move his body to the outside, trapping one arm of the
opponent against his side (Figure 3-23, Step 1).

Hand-to-hand Combat 551


Figure 3-22: Straight-arm shoulder dislocation

The defender can then clasp his hands in front of his body and use his body mass in motion to
align the opponent’s upper arm with the line between the shoulders (Figure 3-23, Step 2).
By dipping his weight and then pulling upward on the opponent’s elbow, the shoulder is
dislocated, and the opponent loses his balance (Figure 3-23, Step 3). If the opponent’s elbow
locks rather than bends to allow the shoulder dislocation, the defender can use the elbow lock
to keep control.

h.
Knee Lock/Break. The opponent’s knee joint can be attacked to produce knee locks or breaks
(Figure 3-24) by forcing the knee in a direction opposite to which it was designed to move. The
knee can be attacked with the body’s mass behind the defender’s knee or with his entire body by
falling on the opponent’s knee, causing it to hyperextend.

552 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 3-23: Shoulder dislocation using the elbow


Hand-to-hand Combat 553


Figure 3-24: Knee lock/break


CHAPTER 4


Medium-Range Combatives


In medium-range combatives, two opponents are already within touching distance. The arsenal of possible
body weapons includes short punches and strikes with elbows, knees, and hands. Head butts are also
effective; do not forget them during medium-range combat. A soldier uses his peripheral vision to evaluate
the targets presented by the opponent and choose his target. He should be aggressive and concentrate his
attack on the opponent’s vital points to end the fight as soon as possible.

4-1. Vital Targets. The body is divided into three sections: high, middle, and low. Each section contains
vital targets (Figure 4-1). The effects of striking these targets follow:

a. High Section. The high section includes the head and neck; it is the most dangerous target area.
(1) Top of the head. The skull is weak where the frontal cranial bones join. A forceful strike causes
trauma to the cranial cavity, resulting in unconsciousness and hemorrhage. A severe strike can
result in death.
(2) Forehead. A forceful blow can cause whiplash; a severe blow can cause cerebral hemorrhage
and death.
(3) Temple. The bones of the skull are weak at the temple, and an artery and large nerve lie close
to the skin. A powerful strike can cause unconsciousness and brain concussion. If the artery is
severed, the resulting massive hemorrhage compresses the brain, causing coma and or death.
(4) Eyes. A slight jab in the eyes causes uncontrollable watering and blurred vision. A forceful jab
or poke can cause temporary blindness, or the eyes can be gouged out. Death can result if the
fingers penetrate through the thin bone behind the eyes and into the brain.
(5) Ears. A strike to the ear with cupped hands can rupture the eardrum and may cause a brain
concussion.
(6) Nose. Any blow can easily break the thin bones of the nose, causing extreme pain and eye
watering.
(7) Under the nose. A blow to the nerve center, which is close to the surface under the nose, can
cause great pain and watery eyes.
(8) Jaw. A blow to the jaw can break or dislocate it. If the facial nerve is pinched against the lower
jaw, one side of the face will be paralyzed.
(9) Chin. A blow to the chin can cause paralysis, mild concussion, and unconsciousness. The jawbone
acts as a lever that can transmit the force of a blow to the back of the brain where the cardiac
and respiratory mechanisms are controlled.
(10) Back of ears and base of skull. A moderate blow to the back of the ears or the base of the skull
can cause unconsciousness by the jarring effect on the back of the brain. However, a powerful
blow can cause a concussion or brain hemorrhage and death.
(11) Throat. A powerful blow to the front of the throat can cause death by crushing the windpipe. A
forceful blow causes extreme pain and gagging or vomiting.
(12) Side of neck. A sharp blow to the side of the neck causes unconsciousness by shock to the carotid
artery, jugular vein, and vagus nerve. For maximum effect, the blow should be focused below
and slightly in front of the ear. A less powerful blow causes involuntary muscle spasms and
intense pain. The side of the neck is one of the best targets to use to drop an opponent immediately
or to disable him temporarily to finish him later.
555


556 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 4-1: Vital targets. (continued)


Medium-Range Combatives 557


Figure 4-1: (continued)


558 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

(13) Back of neck. A powerful blow to the back of one’s neck can cause whiplash, concussion, or even
a broken neck and death.
b. Middle Section. The middle section extends from the shoulders to the area just above the hips. Most
blows to vital points in this region are not fatal but can have serious, long-term complications that
range from trauma to internal organs to spinal cord injuries.
(1) Front of shoulder muscle. A large bundle of nerves passes in front of the shoulder joint. A forceful
blow causes extreme pain and can make the whole arm ineffective if the nerves are struck
just right.
(2) Collarbone. A blow to the collarbone can fracture it, causing intense pain and rendering the arm
on the side of the fracture ineffective. The fracture can also sever the brachial nerve or subclavian
artery.
(3) Armpit. A large nerve lies close to the skin in each armpit. A blow to this nerve causes severe
pain and partial paralysis. A knife inserted into the armpit is fatal as it severs a major artery
leading from the heart.
(4) Spine. A blow to the spinal column can sever the spinal cord, resulting in paralysis or in death.
(5) Nipples. A large network of nerves passes near the skin at the nipples. A blow here can cause
extreme pain and hemorrhage to the many blood vessels beneath.
(6) Heart. A jolting blow to the heart can stun the opponent and allow time for follow-up or finishing
techniques.
(7) Solar plexus. The solar plexus is a center for nerves that control the cardiorespiratory system.
A blow to this location is painful and can take the breath from the opponent. A powerful blow
causes unconsciousness by shock to the nerve center. A penetrating blow can also damage internal
organs.
(8) Diaphragm. A blow to the lower front of the ribs can cause the diaphragm and the other muscles
that control breathing to relax. This causes loss of breath and can result in unconsciousness due
to respiratory failure.
(9) Floating ribs. A blow to the floating ribs can easily fracture them because they are not attached
to the rib cage. Fractured ribs on the right side can cause internal injury to the liver; fractured
ribs on either side can possibly puncture or collapse a lung.
(10) Kidneys. A powerful blow to the kidneys can induce shock and can possibly cause internal
injury to these organs. A stab to the kidneys induces instant shock and can cause death from
severe internal bleeding.
(11) Abdomen below navel. A powerful blow to the area below the navel and above the groin can
cause shock, unconsciousness, and internal bleeding.
(12) Biceps. A strike to the biceps is most painful and renders the arm ineffective. The biceps is an
especially good target when an opponent holds a weapon.
(13) Forearm muscle. The radial nerve, which controls much of the movement in the hand, passes
over the forearm bone just below the elbow. A strike to the radial nerve renders the hand and
arm ineffective. An opponent can be disarmed by a strike to the forearm; if the strike is powerful
enough, he can be knocked unconscious.
(14) Back of hand. The backs of the hands are sensitive. Since the nerves pass over the bones in the
hand, a strike to this area is intensely painful. The small bones on the back of the hand are easily
broken and such a strike can also render the hand ineffective.
c.
Low Section. The low section of the body includes everything from the groin area to the feet. Strikes
to these areas are seldom fatal, but they can be incapacitating.
(1) Groin. A moderate blow to the groin can incapacitate an opponent and cause intense pain. A
powerful blow can result in unconsciousness and shock.
(2) Outside of thigh. A large nerve passes near the surface on the outside of the thigh about four fingerwidths
above the knee. A powerful strike to this region can render the entire leg ineffective,
causing an opponent to drop. This target is especially suitable for knee strikes and shin kicks.

Medium-Range Combatives 559

(3) Inside of thigh. A large nerve passes over the bone about in the middle of the inner thigh. A
blow to this area also incapacitates the leg and can cause the opponent to drop. Knee strikes and
heel kicks are the weapons of choice for this target.
(4) Hamstring. A severe strike to the hamstring can cause muscle spasms and inhibit mobility. If
the hamstring is cut, the leg is useless.
(5) Knee. Because the knee is a major supporting structure of the body, damage to this joint is
especially detrimental to an opponent. The knee is easily dislocated when struck at an opposing
angle to the joint’s normal range of motion, especially when it is bearing the opponent’s weight.
The knee can be dislocated or hyperextended by kicks and strikes with the entire body.
(6) Calf. A powerful blow to the top of the calf causes painful muscle spasms and also inhibits
mobility.
(7) Shin. A moderate blow to the shin produces great pain, especially a blow with a hard object. A
powerful blow can possibly fracture the bone that supports most of the body weight.
(8) Achilles tendon. A powerful strike to the Achilles tendon on the back of the heel can cause ankle
sprain and dislocation of the foot. If the tendon is torn, the opponent is incapacitated. The Achilles
tendon is a good target to cut with a knife.
(9) Ankle. A blow to the ankle causes pain; if a forceful blow is delivered, the ankle can be sprained
or broken.
(10) Instep. The small bones on the top of the foot are easily broken. A strike here will hinder the
opponent’s mobility.
4-2. Striking Principles. Effective striking with the weapons of the body to the opponent’s vital points is
essential for a victorious outcome in a hand-to-hand struggle. A soldier must be able to employ the principles
of effective striking if he is to emerge as the survivor in a fight to the death.

a.
Attitude. Proper mental attitude is of primary importance in the soldier’s ability to strike an opponent.
In hand-to-hand combat, the soldier must have the attitude that he will defeat the enemy and
complete the mission, no matter what. In a fight to the death, the soldier must have the frame of
mind to survive above all else; the prospect of losing cannot enter his mind. He must commit himself
to hit the opponent continuously with whatever it takes to drive him to the ground or end his
resistance. A memory aid is, “Thump him and dump him!”
b. Fluid Shock Wave. A strike should be delivered so that the target is hit and the weapon remains on
the impact site for at least a tenth of a second. This imparts all of the kinetic energy of the strike into
the target area, producing a fluid shock wave that travels into the affected tissue and causes maximum
damage. It is imperative that all strikes to vital points and nerve motor points are delivered
with this principle in mind. The memory aid is, “Hit and stick!”
c.
Target Selection. Strikes should be targeted at the opponent’s vital points and nerve motor points.
The results of effective strikes to vital points are discussed in paragraph 4-1. Strikes to nerve motor
points cause temporary mental stunning and muscle motor dysfunction to the affected areas of the
body. Mental stunning results when the brain is momentarily disoriented by overstimulation from
too much input—for example, a strike to a major nerve. The stunning completely disables an opponent
for three to seven seconds and allows the soldier to finish off the opponent, gain total control
of the situation, or make his escape. Sometimes, such a strike causes unconsciousness. A successful
strike to a nerve motor center also renders the affected body part immovable by causing muscle
spasms and dysfunction due to nerve overload. (Readily available nerve motor points are shown in
Figure 4-1)
(1) Jugular notch pressure point. Located at the base of the neck just above the breastbone; pressure
to this notch can distract and take away his balance. Pressure from fingers jabbed into the notch
incurs intense pain that causes the opponent to withdraw from the pressure involuntarily.

560 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

(2) Suprascapular nerve motor point. This nerve is located where the trapezius muscle joins the
side of the neck. A strike to this point causes intense pain, temporary dysfunction of the affected
arm and hand, and mental stunning for three to seven seconds. The strike should be a downward
knife-hand or hammerfist strike from behind.
(3) Brachial plexus origin. This nerve motor center is on the side of the neck. It is probably the most
reliable place to strike someone to stun them. Any part of the hand or arm may be applied—the
palm heel, back of the hand, knife hand, ridge hand, hammer fist, thumb tip, or the forearm. A
proper strike to the brachial plexus origin causes—
• Intense pain.
• Complete cessation of motor activity.
• Temporary dysfunction of the affected arm.
• Mental stunning for three to seven seconds.
• Possible unconsciousness.
(4) Brachial plexus clavicle notch pressure point. This center is behind the collarbone in a hollow
about halfway between the breastbone and the shoulder joint. The strike should be delivered
with a small impact weapon or the tip of the thumb to create high-level mental stunning and
dysfunction of the affected arm.
(5) Brachial plexus tie-in motor point. Located on the front of the shoulder joint, a strike to this
point can cause the arm to be ineffective. Multiple strikes may be necessary to ensure total dysfunction
of the arm and hand.
(6) Stellate ganglion. The ganglion is at the top of the pectoral muscle centered above the nipple. A
severe strike to this center can cause high-level stunning, respiratory dysfunction, and possible
unconsciousness. A straight punch or hammer fist should be used to cause spasms in the nerves
affecting the heart and respiratory systems.
(7) Cervical vertebrae. Located at the base of the skull, a strike to this particular vertebrae can cause
unconsciousness or possibly death. The harder the strike, the more likely death will occur.
(8) Radial nerve motor point. This nerve motor point is on top of the forearm just below the elbow.
Strikes to this point can create dysfunction of the affected arm and hand. The radial nerve should
be struck with the hammer fist or the forearm bones or with an impact weapon, if available.
Striking the radial nerve can be especially useful when disarming an opponent armed with a
knife or other weapon.
(9) Median nerve motor point. This nerve motor point is on the inside of the forearm at the base of
the wrist, just above the heel of the hand. Striking this center produces similar effects to striking
the radial nerve, although it is not as accessible as the radial nerve.
(10) Sciatic nerve. A sciatic nerve is just above each buttock, but below the belt line. A substantial
strike to this nerve can disable both legs and possibly cause respiratory failure. The sciatic nerve
is the largest nerve in the body besides the spinal cord. Striking it can affect the entire body,
especially if an impact weapon is used.
(11) Femoral nerve. This nerve is in the center of the inside of the thigh; striking the femoral nerve
can cause temporary motor dysfunction of the affected leg, high-intensity pain, and mental
stunning for three to seven seconds. The knee is best to use to strike the femoral nerve.
(12) Common peroneal nerve motor point. The peroneal nerve is on the outside of the thigh about
four fingers above the knee. A severe strike to this center can cause collapse of the affected leg
and high intensity pain, as well as mental stunning for three to seven seconds. This highly accessible
point is an effective way to drop an opponent quickly. This point should be struck with a
knee, shin kick, or impact weapon.
4-3. Short Punches and Strikes. During medium-range combat, punches and strikes are usually short
because of the close distance between fighters. Power is generated by using the entire body mass in motion
behind all punches and strikes.


Medium-Range Combatives 561

a.
Hands as Weapons. A knowledge of hand-to-hand combat fighting provides the fighter another means
to accomplish his mission. Hands can become deadly weapons when used by a skilled fighter.
(1) Punch to solar plexus. The defender uses this punch for close-in fighting when the opponent rushes
or tries to grab him. The defender puts his full weight and force behind the punch and strikes his
opponent in the solar plexus (Figure 4-2), knocking the breath out of his lungs. The defender can
then follow-up with a knee to the groin, or he can use other disabling blows to vital areas.
(2) Thumb strike to throat. The defender uses the thumb strike to the throat (Figure 4-3) as an effective
technique when an opponent is rushing him or trying to grab him. The defender thrusts
his right arm and thumb out and strikes his opponent in the throat-larynx area while holding
his left hand high for protection. He can follow up with a disabling blow to his opponent’s vital
areas.
(3) Thumb strike to shoulder joint. The opponent rushes the defender and tries to grab him. The
defender strikes the opponent’s shoulder joint or upper pectoral muscle with his fist or thumb
(Figure 4-4). This technique is painful and renders the opponent’s arm numb. The defender then
follows up with a disabling movement.
(4) Hammer-fist strike to face. The opponent rushes the defender. The defender counters by rotating
his body in the direction of his opponent and by striking him in the temple, ear, or face
(Figure 4-5). The defender follows up with kicks to the groin or hand strikes to his opponent’s
other vital areas.
(5) Hammer-fist strike to side of neck. The defender catches his opponent off guard, rotates at
the waist to generate power, and strikes his opponent on the side of the neck (carotid artery)
(Figure 4-6) with his hand clenched into a fist. This strike can cause muscle spasms at the least
and may knock his opponent unconscious.
Figure 4-2: Punch to solar plexus.


562 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 4-3: Thumb strike to throat.


Figure 4-4: Thumb strike to shoulder joint.


Medium-Range Combatives 563


Figure 4-5: Hammer-fist strike to face.


Figure 4-6: Hammer-fist strike to neck.


564 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

(6) Hammer fist to pectoral muscle. When the opponent tries to grapple with the defender, the
defender counters by forcefully striking his opponent in the pectoral muscle (Figure 4-7). This
blow stuns the opponent, and the defender immediately follows up with a disabling blow to a
vital area of his opponent’s body.
(7) Hook punch to solar plexus or floating ribs. The opponent tries to wrestle the defender to the
ground. The defender counters with a short hook punch to his opponent’s solar plexus or floating
ribs (Figure 4-8). A sharply delivered blow can puncture or collapse a lung. The defender
then follows up with a combination of blows to his opponent’s vital areas.
(8) Uppercut to chin. The defender steps between his opponent’s arms and strikes with an uppercut
punch (Figure 4-9) to the chin or jaw. The defender then follows up with blows to his opponent’s
vital areas.
(9) Knife-hand strike to side of neck. The defender executes a knife-hand strike to the side of his
opponent’s neck (Figure 4-10) the same way as the hammer-fist strike (Figure 4-6) except he uses
the edge of his striking hand.
(10) Knife-hand strike to radial nerve. The opponent tries to strike the defender with a punch. The
defender counters by striking his opponent on the top of the forearm just below the elbow
(radial nerve) (Figure 4-11) and uses a follow-up technique to disable his opponent.
(11) Palm-heel strike to chin. The opponent tries to surprise the defender by lunging at him. The
defender quickly counters by striking his opponent with a palm-heel strike to the chin (Figure
4- 12), using maximum force.
(12) Palm-heel strike to solar plexus. The defender meets his opponent’s rush by striking him with a
palm-heel strike to the solar plexus (Figure 4-13). The defender then executes a follow-up technique
to his opponent’s vital organs.
Figure 4-7: Hammer-fist to pectoral muscle.


Medium-Range Combatives 565


Figure 4-8: Hook punch to solar plexus or floating ribs.


Figure 4-9: Uppercut to chin.


566 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 4-10: Knife-hand to side of neck.


Figure 4-11: Knife-hand strike to radial nerve.


Medium-Range Combatives 567


Figure 4-12: Palm heel strike to chin.


568 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 4-13: Palm-heel strike to solar plexus.


Medium-Range Combatives 569

(13) Palm-heel strike to kidneys. The defender grasps his opponent from behind by the collar and
pulls him off balance. He quickly follows up with a hard palm-heel strike to the opponent’s kidney
(Figure 4-14). The defender can then take down his opponent with a follow-up technique to
the back of his knee.
Figure 4-14: Palm-heel strike to kidneys.


570 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

b. Elbows as Weapons. The elbows are also formidable weapons; tremendous striking power can be
generated from them. The point of the elbow should be the point of impact. The elbows are strongest
when kept in front of the body and in alignment with the shoulder joint; that is, never strike
with the elbow out to the side of the body.
(1) Elbow strikes. When properly executed, elbow strikes (Figures 4-15 through 4-21) render an
opponent ineffective. When using elbow strikes, execute them quickly, powerfully, and repetitively
until the opponent is disabled.
(2) Repetitive elbow strikes. The attacker on the right throws a punch (Figure 4-22, Step 1).
The defender counters with an elbow strike to the biceps (Figure 4-22, Step 2). The attacker follows
with a punch from his other arm.
The defender again counters with an elbow strike to the shoulder joint (Figure 4-22, Step 3). He
next strikes with an elbow from the opposite side to the throat.
Figure 4-15: Elbow strike to face.


Medium-Range Combatives 571


Figure 4-16: Elbow strike to temple.


Figure 4-17: Rising elbow strike.


572 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 4-18: Elbow strike to head.


Figure 4-19: Elbow srike to solar plexus.


Medium-Range Combatives 573


Figure 4-20: Elbow strike to biceps.


Figure 4-21: Elbow strike to inside of shoulder.


574 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 4-22: Repetitive elbow strike.

c.
Knees as Weapons. When the knees are used to strike opponents, they are especially potent weapons
and are hard to defend or protect against. Great power is generated by thrusting the hips in
with a knee strike; however, use the point of the knee as the impact surface. All knee strikes should
be executed repetitively until the opponent is disabled. The following techniques are the most effective
way to overpower or disable the opponent.
(1) Front knee strike. When an opponent tries to grapple with the defender, the defender strikes his
opponent in the stomach or solar plexus with his knee (Figure 4-23). This stuns the opponent
and the defender can follow up with another technique.
(2)
Knee strike to outside of thigh. The defender delivers a knee strike to the outside of his opponent’s
thigh (common peroneal nerve) (Figure 4-24). This strike causes intense pain and renders
the opponent’s leg ineffective.

Medium-Range Combatives 575

(3) Knee strike to inside of thigh. An effective technique for close-in grappling is when the defender
delivers a knee strike to the inside of his opponent’s thigh (peroneal nerve) (Figure 4- 25). The
defender then executes a follow-up technique to a vital point.
(4) Knee strike to groin. The knee strike to the groin is effective during close-in grappling. The
defender gains control by grabbing his opponent’s head, hair, ears, or shoulders and strikes him
in the groin with his knee (Figure 4-26).
(5) Knee strike to face. The defender controls his opponent by grabbing behind his head with both
hands and forcefully pushing his head down. At the same time, the defender brings his knee up
and smashes the opponent in the face (Figure 4-27). When properly executed, the knee strike to
the face is a devastating technique that can cause serious injury to the opponent.
Figure 4-23: Front knee strike.


576 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 4-24: Knee to outside of thigh.


Figure 4-25: Knee to inside of thigh.


Medium-Range Combatives 577


Figure 4-26: Knee strike to groin.


Figure 4-27: Knee strike to face.


CHAPTER 5


Long-range Combatives


In long-range combatives, the distance between opponents is such that the combatants can engage one
another with fully extended punches and kicks or with handheld weapons, such as rifles with fixed bayonets
and clubs. As in medium-range combatives, a fighter must continuously monitor his available body
weapons and opportunities for attack, as well as possible defense measures. He must know when to
increase the distance from an opponent and when to close the gap. The spheres of influence that surround
each fighter come into contact in long-range combatives. (See Chapter 6 for interval gaps and spheres of
influence.)

SECTION I: NATURAL WEAPONS

The most dangerous natural weapons a soldier possesses are his hands and feet. This section describes natural
weapon techniques of various punches, strikes, and kicks and stresses aggressive tactics with which
to subdue an opponent.

5-1. Extended Arm Punches and Strikes. Extended arm punches and strikes in long-range combatives, like
those in medium-range combatives, should be directed at vital points and nerve motor points. It is essential
to put the entire body mass in motion behind long-range strikes. Closing the distance to the target gives
the fighter an opportunity to take advantage of this principle.

a.
In extended punches, the body weapon is usually the fist, although the fingers may be used—
for example, eye gouging. When punching, hold the fist vertically or horizontally. Keep the wrist
straight to prevent injury and use the first two knuckles in striking.
b. Another useful variation of the fist is to place the thumb on top of the vertical fist so that the tip
protrudes beyond the curled index finger that supports it. The thumb strike is especially effective
against soft targets. Do not fully lock out the arm when punching; keep a slight bend in the elbow
to prevent hyperextension if the intended target is missed.
5-2. Kicks. Kicks during hand-to-hand combat are best directed to low targets and should be simple but
effective. Combat soldiers are usually burdened with combat boots and LCE. His flexibility level is usually
low during combat, and if engaged in hand-to-hand combat, he will be under high stress. He must rely on
gross motor skills and kicks that do not require complicated movement or much training and practice to
execute.

a.
Side Knee Kick. When an opponent launches an attack—for example, with a knife (Figure 5-1, Step 1),
it is most important for the defender to first move his entire body off the line of attack as the attacker
moves in.
As the defender steps off at 45 degrees to the outside and toward the opponent, he strikes with a
short punch to the floating ribs (Figure 5-1, Step 2).
Then the defender turns his body by rotating on the leading, outside foot and raises the knee of
his kicking leg to his chest. He then drives his kick into the side of the attacker’s knee with his foot
turned 45 degrees outward (Figure 5-1, Step 3). This angle makes the most of the striking surface
and reduces his chances of missing the target.
579


580 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

step 1
step 2
step 3
Figure 5-1: Side knee kick.

b. Front Knee Kick. As the attacker moves in, the defender immediately shifts off the line of attack and
drives his kicking foot straight into the knee of the attacker (Figure 5-2). He turns his foot 45 degrees
to make the most of the striking surface and to reduce the chances of missing the target. If the kick
is done right, the attacker’s advance will stop abruptly, and the knee joint will break.
c.
Heel Kick to Inside of Thigh. The defender steps 45 degrees outside and toward the attacker to
get off the line of attack. He is now in a position where he can drive his heel into the inside of the
opponent’s thigh (femoral nerve) (Figure 5-3, Steps 1 and 2). Either thigh can be targeted because
the kick can still be executed if the defender moves to the inside of the opponent rather than to
the outside when getting off the line of attack.

Long-range Combatives 581


Figure 5-2: Front knee kick.


Figure 5-3: Heel kick to inside of thigh.


582 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

d. Heel Kick to Groin. The defender drives a heel kick into the attacker’s groin (Figure 5-4) with his full
body mass behind it. Since the groin is a soft target, the toe can also be used when striking it.
e.
Shin Kick. The shin kick is a powerful kick, and it is easily performed with little training. When
the legs are targeted, the kick is hard to defend against (Figure 5-5), and an opponent can be
dropped by it.
Figure 5-4: Heel kick to groin.


Figure 5-5: Shin kick to legs.


Long-range Combatives 583

The calves and common peroneal nerve (Figure 5-6) are the best striking points.
The shin kick can also be used to attack the floating ribs (Figure 5-7).


f.
Stepping Side Kick. A soldier starts a stepping side kick (Figure 5-8, Step 1) by stepping either
behind or in front of his other foot to close the distance between him and his opponent. The
movement is like that in a skip.
Figure 5-6: Shin kick to common peroneal nerve.


Figure 5-7: Shin kick to floating ribs.


584 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-8: Stepping side kick.

The soldier now brings the knee of his kicking foot up and thrusts out a side kick (Figure 5-8, Step 2).
Tremendous power and momentum can be developed in this kick.

g. Counter to Front Kick. When the attacker tries a front kick, the defender traps the kicking foot
by meeting it with his own (Figure 5-9, Step 1). The defender turns his foot 45 degrees outward
to increase the likelihood of striking the opponent’s kicking foot. This counter requires good
timing by the defender, but not necessarily speed. Do not look at the feet; use your peripheral
vision.
When an attacker tries a front kick (Figure 5-9, Step 2), the defender steps off the line of attack of the
incoming foot to the outside.
As the attacker’s kicking leg begins to drop, the defender kicks upward into the calf of the attacker’s
leg (Figure 5-9, Step 3). This kick is extremely painful and will probably render the leg ineffective.
This technique does not rely on the defender’s speed, but on proper timing.

Long-range Combatives 585


Figure 5-9: Counter to front kick.

The defender can also kick to an opponent’s kicking leg by moving off the line of attack to the inside
and by using the heel kick to the inside of the thigh or groin (Figure 5-9, Step 4).

h. Counter to Roundhouse-Type Kick. When an opponent prepares to attack with a roundhouse-type
kick (Figure 5-10, Step 1), the defender moves off the line of attack by stepping to the inside of the
knee of the kicking leg.
He then turns his body to receive the momentum of the leg (Figure 5-10, Step 2). By moving to
the inside of the knee, the defender lessens the power of the attacker’s kicking leg. The harder the
attacker kicks, the more likely he is to hyperextend his own knee against the body of the defender,
but the defender will not be harmed. However, the defender must get to the inside of the knee, or

586 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-10: Counter to roadhouse kick.

an experienced opponent can change his roundhouse kick into a knee strike. The defender receives
the energy of the kicking leg and continues turning with the momentum of the kick.
The attacker will be taken down by the defender’s other leg with no effort (Figure 5-10, Step 3).


i. Kick as a Defense Against Punch. As the opponent on the left throws a punch (Figure 5-11, Step 1),
the defender steps off the line of attack to the outside.
He then turns toward the opponent, brings his knee to his chest, and launches a heel kick to the
outside of the opponent’s thigh (Figure 5-11, Step 2). He keeps his foot turned 45 degrees to ensure
striking the target and to maintain balance.

Long-range Combatives 587


Figure 5-11: Kick as a defense against punch.

SECTION II: DEFENSIVE TECHNIQUES

A knife (or bayonet), properly employed, is a deadly weapon; however, using defensive techniques, such
as maintaining separation, will greatly enhance the soldier’s ability to fight and win.

5-3. Defense Against an Armed Opponent. An unarmed defender is always at a distinct disadvantage
facing an armed opponent. It is imperative therefore that the unarmed defender understand and use the
following principles to survive:

a.
Separation. Maintain a separation of at least 10 feet plus the length of the weapon from the attacker.
This distance gives the defender time to react to any attempt by the attacker to close the gap and be
upon the defender. The defender should also try to place stationary objects between himself and the
attacker.
b.
Unarmed Defense. Unarmed defense against an armed opponent should be a last resort. If it is
necessary, the defender’s course of action includes:
(1) Move the body out of the line of attack of the weapon. Step off the line of attack or redirect the
attack of the weapon so that it clears the body.
(2) Control the weapon. Maintain control of the attacking arm by securing the weapon, hand, wrist,
elbow, or arm by using joint locks, if possible.

588 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

(3) Stun the attacker with an effective counterattack. Counterattack should be swift and devastating.
Take the vigor out of the attacker with a low, unexpected kick, or break a locked joint of the
attacking arm. Strikes to motor nerve centers are effective stuns, as are skin tearing, eye gouging,
and attacking of the throat. The defender can also take away the attacker’s balance.
(4) Ground the attacker. Take the attacker to the ground where the defender can continue to disarm
or further disable him.
(5) Disarm the attacker. Break the attacker’s locked joints. Use leverage or induce pain to disarm the
attacker and finish him or to maintain physical control.
c.
Precaution. Do not focus full attention on the weapon because the attacker has other body weapons
to use. There may even be other attackers that you have not seen.
d.
Expedient Aids. Anything available can become an expedient aid to defend against an armed
attack. The kevlar helmet can be used as a shield; similarly, the LCE and shirt jacket can be used
to protect the defender against a weapon. The defender can also throw dirt in the attacker’s eyes
as a distraction.
5-4. Angles of Attack. Any attack, regardless of the type weapon, can be directed along one of nine angles
(Figure 5-12). The defense must be oriented for each angle of attack.


Figure 5-12: Angles of attack.


Long-range Combatives 589

a.
No. 1 Angle of Attack. A downward diagonal slash, stab, or strike toward the left side of the defender’s
head, neck, or torso.
b. No. 2 Angle of Attack. A downward diagonal slash, stab, or strike toward the right side of the
defender’s head, neck, or torso.
c.
No. 3 Angle of Attack. A horizontal attack to the left side of the defender’s torso in the ribs, side, or
hip region.
d. No. 4 Angle of Attack. The same as No. 3 angle, but to the right side.
e.
No. 5 Angle of Attack. A jabbing, lunging, or punching attack directed straight toward the defender’s
front.
f. No. 6 Angle of Attack. An attack directed straight down upon the defender.
g. No. 7 Angle of Attack. An upward diagonal attack toward the defender’s lower-left side.
h. No. 8 Angle of Attack. An upward diagonal attack toward the defender’s lower-right side.
i. No. 9 Angle of Attack. An attack directed straight up—for example, to the defender’s groin.
5-5. Defense Against a Knife. When an unarmed soldier is faced with an enemy armed with a knife, he
must be mentally prepared to be cut. The likelihood of being cut severely is less if the fighter is well trained
in knife defense and if the principles of weapon defense are followed. A slash wound is not usually lethal
or shock inducing; however, a stab wound risks injury to vital organs, arteries, and veins and may also
cause instant shock or unconsciousness.

a.
Types of Knife Attacks. The first line of defense against an opponent armed with a knife is to avoid
close contact. The different types of knife attacks follow:
(1) Thrust. The thrust is the most common and most dangerous type of knife attack. It is a strike
directed straight into the target by jabbing or lunging.
(2) Slash. The slash is a sweeping surface cut or circular slash. The wound is usually a long cut,
varying from a slight surface cut to a deep gash.
(3) Flick. This attack is delivered by flicking the wrist and knife to extended limbs, inflicting numerous
cuts. The flick is very distractive to the defender since he is bleeding from several cuts if the
attacker is successful.
(4) Tear. The tear is a cut made by dragging the tip of the blade across the body to create a ripping
type cut.
(5) Hack. The hack is delivered by using the knife to block or chop with.
(6) Butt. The butt is a strike with the knife handle.
b. Knife Defense Drills. Knife defense drills are used to familiarize soldiers with defense movement
techniques for various angles of attack. For training, the soldiers should be paired off; one partner
is named as the attacker and one is the defender. It is important that the attacker make his attack
realistic in terms of distance and angling during training. His strikes must be accurate in hitting
the defender at the intended target if the defender does not defend himself or move off the line of
attack. For safety, the attacks are delivered first at one-quarter and one-half speed, and then at threequarter
speed as the defender becomes more skilled. Variations can be added by changing grips,
stances, and attacks.
(1) No. 1 angle of defense—check and lift. The attacker delivers a slash along the No. 1 angle of
attack. The defender meets and checks the movement with his left forearm bone, striking the
inside forearm of the attacker (Figure 5-13, Step 1).
The defender’s right hand immediately follows behind the strike to lift, redirect, and take control
of the attacker’s knife arm (Figure 5-13, Step 2).
The defender brings the attacking arm around to his right side where he can use an arm bar,
wrist lock, and so forth, to disarm the attacker (Figure 5-13, Step 3).
He will have better control by keeping the knife hand as close to his body as possible (Figure
5-13, Step 4).

590 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-13: No. 1 angle of defense—check and lift.

(2) No. 2 angle of defense—check and ride. The attacker slashes with a No. 2 angle of attack. The
defender meets the attacking arm with a strike from both forearms against the outside forearm,
his bone against the attacker’s muscle tissue (Figure 5-14, Step 1).
The strike checks the forward momentum of the attacking arm. The defender’s right hand is
then used to ride the attacking arm clear of his body (Figure 5-14, Step 2).
He redirects the attacker’s energy with strength starting from the right elbow (Figure 5-14, Step 3).
(3) No. 3 angle of defense—check and lift. The attacker delivers a horizontal slash to the defender’s
ribs, kidneys, or hip on the left side (Figure 5-15, Step 1). The defender meets and checks the

Long-range Combatives 591


Figure 5-14: No. 2 angle of defense—check and ride.

attacking arm on the left side of his body with a downward circular motion across the front of
his own body.
At the same time, he moves his body off the line of attack. He should meet the attacker’s forearm
with a strike forceful enough to check its momentum (Figure 5-15, Step 2). The defender then
rides the energy of the attacking arm by wiping downward along the outside of his own left
forearm with his right hand.
He then redirects the knife hand around to his right side where he can control or disarm the
weapon (Figure 5-15, Step 3).


592 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-15: No. 3 angle of defense—check and lift.

(4) No. 4 angle of defense—check. The attacker slashes the defender with a backhand slashing
motion to the right side at the ribs, kidneys, or hips. The defender moves his right arm in a
downward circular motion and strikes the attacking arm on the outside of the body (Figure 5-16,
Step 1).
At the same time, he moves off the line of attack (Figure 5-16, Step 2). The strike must be forceful
enough to check the attack.
The left arm is held in a higher guard position to protect from a redirected attack or to assist in
checking (Figure 5-16, Step 3).

Long-range Combatives 593


Figure 5-16: No. 4 angle of defense—check.

The defender moves his body to a position where he can choose a proper disarming maneuver
(Figure 5-16, Step 4).

(5) Low No. 5 angle of defense—parry. A lunging thrust to the stomach is made by the attacker
along the No. 5 angle of attack (Figure 5-17, Step 1).
The defender moves his body off the line of attack and deflects the attacking arm by parrying
with his left hand (Figure 5-17, Step 2). He deflects the attacking hand toward his right side by
redirecting it with his right hand.
As he does this, the defender can strike downward with the left forearm or the wrist onto the
forearm or wrist of the attacker (Figure 5-17, Step 3).

594 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-17: Low No. 5 angle of defense—parry.

The defender ends up in a position to lock the elbow of the attacking arm across his body if he
steps off the line of attack properly (Figure 5-17, Step 4).

(6) High No. 5 angle of defense. The attacker lunges with a thrust to the face, throat, or solar plexus
(Figure 5-18, Step 1).
The defender moves his body off the line of attack while parrying with either hand. He redirects
the attacking arm so that the knife clears his body (Figure 5-18, Step 2).
He maintains control of the weapon hand or arm and gouges the eyes of the attacker, driving
him backward and off balance (Figure 5-18, Step 3). If the attacker is much taller than the
defender, it may be a more natural movement for the defender to raise his left hand to strike and

Long-range Combatives 595


Figure 5-18: High No. 5 angle of defense.

deflect the attacking arm. He can then gouge his thumb or fingers into the jugular notch of the
attacker and force him to the ground.
Still another possibility for a high No. 5 angle of attack is for the defender to move his body off
the line of attack while parrying. He can then turn his body, rotate his shoulder under the elbow
joint of the attacker, and lock it out (Figure 5-18, Step 4).

(7) No. 6 angle of defense. The attacker strikes straight downward onto the defender with a stab
(Figure 5-19, Step 1).
The defender reacts by moving his body out of the weapon’s path and by parrying or checking
and redirecting the attacking arm, as the movement in the high No. 5 angle of defense (Figure
5-19, Step 2). The reactions may vary as to what is natural for the defender.

596 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-19: No. 6 angle of defense.

The defender then takes control of the weapon and disarms the attacker (Figure 5-19, Step 3).

c.
Follow-Up Techniques. Once the instructor believes the soldiers are skilled in these basic reactions
to attack, follow-up techniques may be introduced and practiced. These drills make up the defense
possibilities against the various angles of attack. They also enable the soldier to apply the principles
of defense against weapons and allow him to feel the movements. Through repetition, the reactions
become natural, and the soldier instinctively reacts to a knife attack with the proper defense. It is
important not to associate specific movements or techniques with certain types of attack. The knife
fighter must rely on his knowledge of principles and his training experience in reacting to a knife
attack. No two attacks or reactions will be the same; thus, memorizing techniques will not ensure a
soldier’s survival.
(1) Defend and clear. When the defender has performed a defensive maneuver and avoided an
attack, he can push the attacker away and move out of the attacker’s reach.

Long-range Combatives 597

(2) Defend and stun. After the defender performs his first defensive maneuver to a safer position,
he can deliver a stunning blow as an immediate counterattack. Strikes to motor nerve points or
attacker’s limbs, low kicks, and elbow strikes are especially effective stunning techniques.
(3) Defend and disarm. The defender also follows up his first defensive maneuver by maintaining
control of the attacker’s weapon arm, executing a stunning technique, and disarming the
attacker. The stun distracts the attacker and also gives the defender some time to gain possession
of the weapon and to execute his disarming technique.
5-6. Unarmed Defense Against a Rifle with Fixed Bayonet. Defense against a rifle with a fixed bayonet
involves the same principles as knife defense. The soldier considers the same angles of attack and the
proper response for any attack along each angle.

a.
Regardless of the type weapon used by the enemy, his attack will always be along one of the nine
angles of attack at any one time. The soldier must get his entire body off the line of attack by moving
to a safe position. A rifle with a fixed bayonet has two weapons: a knife at one end and a butt stock
at the other end. The soldier will be safe as long as he is not in a position where he can be struck by
either end during the attack.
b.
Usually, he is in a more advantageous position if he moves inside the length of the weapon. He can
then counterattack to gain control of the situation as soon as possible. The following counterattacks can
be used as defenses against a rifle with a fixed bayonet; they also provide a good basis for training.
(1) Unarmed defense against No. 1 angle of attack. The attacker prepares to slash along the No. 1
angle of attack (Figure 5-20, Step 1).
The defender waits until the last possible moment before moving so he is certain of the angle
along which the attack is directed (Figure 5-20, Step 2). This way, the attacker cannot change his
attack in response to movement by the defender.
When the defender is certain that the attack is committed along a specific angle (No. 1, in this
case), he moves to the inside of the attacker and gouges his eyes (Figure 5-20, Step 2) while the
other hand redirects and controls the weapon. He maintains control of the weapon and lunges
his entire body weight into the eye gouge to drive the attacker backward and off balance. The
defender now ends up with the weapon, and the attacker is in a poor recovery position (Figure
5- 20, Step 3).
(2) Unarmed defense against No. 2 angle of attack. The attacker makes a diagonal slash along the
No. 2 angle of attack (Figure 5-21, Step 1). Again, the defender waits until he is sure of the attack
before moving.
The defender then moves to the outside of the attacker and counterattacks with a thumb jab into
the right armpit (Figure 5-21, Step 2). He receives the momentum of the attacking weapon and
controls it with his free hand.
He uses the attacker’s momentum against him by pulling the weapon in the direction it is going
with one hand and pushing with his thumb of the other hand (Figure 5-21, Step 3). The attacker
is completely off balance, and the defender can gain control of the weapon.
(3) Unarmed defense against No. 3 angle of attack. The attacker directs a horizontal slash along the
No. 3 angle of attack (Figure 5-22, Step 1).
The defender turns and moves to the inside of the attacker; he then strikes with his thumb into
the jugular notch (Figure 5-22, Step 2).
His entire body mass is behind the thumb strike and, coupled with the incoming momentum of
the attacker, the strike drives the attacker’s head backward and takes his balance (Figure 5-22,
Step 3).
The defender turns his body with the momentum of the weapon’s attack to strip the weapon
from the attacker’s grip (Figure 5-22, Step 4).

598 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-20: Unarmed defense against No. 1 angle of attack.

(4) Unarmed defense against No. 4 angle of attack. The attack is a horizontal slash along the No. 4
angle of attack (Figure 5-23, Step 1).
The defender moves into the outside of the attacker (Figure 5-23, Step 2).
He then turns with the attack, delivering an elbow strike to the throat (Figure 5-23, Step 3). At
the same time, the defender’s free hand controls the weapon and pulls it from the attacker as he
is knocked off balance from the elbow strike.
(5) Unarmed defense against low No. 5 angle of attack. The attacker thrusts the bayonet at the
stomach of the defender (Figure 5-24, Step 1).

Long-range Combatives 599


Figure 5-21: Unarmed defense against No. 2 angle of attack.

The defender shifts his body to the side to avoid the attack and to gouge the eyes of the attacker
(Figure 5-24, Step 2).
The defender’s free hand maintains control of and strips the weapon from the attacker as he is
driven backward with the eye gouge (Figure 5-24, Step 3).


(6) Unarmed defense against high No. 5 angle of attack. The attacker delivers a thrust to the throat
of the defender (Figure 5-25, Step 1).
The defender then shifts to the side to avoid the attack, parries the thrust, and controls the
weapon with his trail hand (Figure 5-25, Step 2).

600 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Figure 5-22: Unarmed defense against No. 3 angle of attack.
He then shifts his entire body mass forward over the lead foot, slamming a forearm strike into
the attacker’s throat (Figure 5-25, Step 3).

(7) Unarmed defense against No 6 angle of attack. The attacker delivers a downward stroke along
the No. 6 angle of attack (Figure 5-26, Step 1).
The defender shifts to the outside to get off the line of attack and he grabs the weapon. Then, he
pulls the attacker off balance by causing him to overextend himself (Figure 2-26, Step 2).
The defender shifts his weight backward and causes the attacker to fall, as he strips the weapon
from him (Figure 5-26, Step 3).
5-7. Advanced Weapons Techniques and Training. For advanced training in weapons techniques,
training partners should have the same skill level. Attackers can execute attacks along multiple angles
of attack in combinations. The attacker must attack with a speed that offers the defender a challenge, but


Long-range Combatives 601


Figure 5-23: Unarmed defense against No. 4 angle of attack.

does not overwhelm him. It should not be a contest to see who can win, but a training exercise for both
individuals.

a. Continued training in weapons techniques will lead to the partners’ ability to engage in free-response
fighting or sparring—that is, the individuals become adept enough to understand the principles of
weapons attacks, defense, and movements so they can respond freely when attacking or defending
from any angle.
b. Instructors must closely monitor training partners to ensure that the speed and control of the individuals
does not become dangerous during advanced training practice. Proper eye protection and
padding should be used, when applicable. The instructor should stress the golden rule in freeresponse
fighting—Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.

602 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-24: Unarmed defense against low No. 5 angle of attack.


Long-range Combatives 603


Figure 5-25: Unarmed defense against high No. 5 angle of attack.


604 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-26: Unarmed defense against No. 6 angle of attack.

SECTION III: OFFENSIVE TECHNIQUES

At ranges of 10 meters or more in most combat situations, small arms and grenades are the weapons of
choice. However, in some scenarios, today’s combat soldier must engage the enemy in confined areas, such
as trench clearing or room clearing where noncombatants are present or when silence is necessary. In these
instances, the bayonet or knife may be the ideal weapon to dispatch the enemy. Other than the side arm,
the knife is the most lethal weapon in close-quarter combat.

5-8. Bayonet/Knife. As the bayonet is an integral part of the combat soldier’s equipment, it is readily available
for use as a multipurpose weapon. The bayonet produces a terrifying mental effect on the enemy
when in the hands of a well-trained and confident soldier. The soldier skilled in the use of the knife also
increases his ability to defend against larger opponents and multiple attackers. Both these skills increase
his chances of surviving and accomplishing the mission. (Although the following paragraphs say “knife,”
the information also applies to bayonets.)


Long-range Combatives 605

a. Grips. The best way to hold the knife is either with the straight grip or the reverse grip.
(1) Straight Grip. Grip the knife in the strong hand by forming a vee and by allowing the knife to
fit naturally, as in gripping for a handshake. The handle should lay diagonally across the palm.
Point the blade toward the enemy, usually with the cutting edge down. The cutting edge can
also be held vertically or horizontally to the ground. Use the straight grip when thrusting and
slashing.
(2) Reverse Grip. Grip the knife with the blade held parallel with the forearm, cutting edge facing
outward. This grip conceals the knife from the enemy’s view. The reverse grip also affords the
most power for lethal insertion. Use this grip for slashing, stabbing, and tearing.
b. Stances. The primary stances are the knife fighter’s stance and the modified stance.
(1) Knife fighter’s stance. In this stance, the fighter stands with his feet about shoulder-width apart,
dominant foot toward the rear. About 70 percent of his weight is on the front foot and 30 percent
on the rear foot. He stands on the balls of both feet and holds the knife with the straight grip. The
other hand is held close to his body where it is ready to use, but protected (Figure 5-27).
Figure 5-27: Stance.


606 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

(2) Modified stance. The difference in the modified stance is the knife is held close to the body with
the other hand held close over the knife hand to help conceal it (Figure 5-28).
c.
Range. The two primary ranges in knife fighting are long range and medium range. In long-range
knife fighting, attacks consist of figure-eight slashes along the No. 1, No. 2, No. 7, and No. 8 angles
of attack; horizontal slashes along the No. 3 and No. 4 angles of attack; and lunging thrusts to vital
areas on the No. 5 angle of attack. Usually, the straight grip is used. In medium-range knife fighting,
the reverse grip provides greater power. It is used to thrust, slash, and tear along all angles of
attack.
Figure 5-28: Modified stance.


Long-range Combatives 607

5-9. Knife-Against-Knife Sequence. The knife fighter must learn to use all available weapons of his
body and not limit himself to the knife. The free hand can be used to trap the enemy’s hands to create
openings in his defense. The enemy’s attention will be focused on the weapon; therefore, low kicks
and knee strikes will seemingly come from nowhere. The knife fighter’s priority of targets are the eyes,
throat, abdominal region, and extended limbs. Some knife attack sequences that can be used in training
to help develop soldiers’ knowledge of movements, principles, and techniques in knife fighting follow:

a. Nos. 1 and 4 Angles. Two opponents assume the knife fighter’s stance (Figure 5-29, Step 1).
Figure 5-29: Nos. 1 and 4 angles.


608 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

The attacker starts with a diagonal slash along the No. 1 angle of attack to the throat (Figure 5-29,
Step 2).
He then follows through with a slash and continues with a horizontal slash back across the abdomen
along the No. 4 angle of attack (Figure 5-29, Step 3).
He finishes the attack by using his entire body mass behind a lunging stab into the opponent’s solar
plexus (Figure 5-29, Step 4).


b. Nos. 5, 3, and 2 Angles. In this sequence, one opponent (attacker) starts an attack with a lunge along
the No. 5 angle of attack. At the same time, the other opponent (defender) on the left moves his body
off the line of attack, parries the attacking arm, and slices the biceps of his opponent (Figure 5-30,
Step 1).
Figure 5-30: Nos. 5, 3, and 2 angles.


Long-range Combatives 609

The defender slashes back across the groin along the No. 3 angle of attack (Figure 5-30, Step 2).
He finishes the attacker by continuing with an upward stroke into the armpit or throat along the
No. 2 angle of attack (Figure 5-30, Step 3). Throughout this sequence, the attacker’s weapon hand is
controlled with the defender’s left hand as he attacks with his own knife hand.


c.
Low No. 5 Angle. In the next sequence, the attacker on the right lunges to the stomach along a low
No. 5 angle of attack.
The defender on the left moves his body off the line of attack while parrying and slashing the wrist
of the attacking knife hand as he redirects the arm (Figure 5-31, Step 1).
After he slashes the wrist of his attacker, the defender continues to move around the outside and
stabs the attacker’s armpit (Figure 5-31, Step 2).
He retracts his knife from the armpit, continues his movement around the attacker, and slices his
hamstring (Figure 5-31, Step 3).
d. Optional Low No. 5 Angle. The attacker on the right lunges to the stomach of his opponent (the
defender) along the low No. 5 angle of attack. The defender moves his body off the line of attack of
Figure 5-31: Low No. 5 angle.


610 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

the knife. Then he turns and, at the same time, delivers a slash to the attacker’s throat along the No.
1 angle of attack (Figure 5-32, Step 1).
The defender immediately follows with another slash to the opposite side of the attacker’s throat
along the No. 2 angle of attack (Figure 5-32, Step 2).
The attacker is finished as the opponent on the left (defender) continues to slice across the abdomen
with a stroke along the No. 3 angle (Figure 5-32, Step 3).


5-10. Rifle with Fixed Bayonet. The principles used in fighting with the rifle and fixed bayonet are the
same as when knife fighting. Use the same angles of attack and similar body movements. The principles
of timing and distance remain paramount; the main difference is the extended distance provided by
the length of the weapon. It is imperative that the soldier fighting with rifle and fixed bayonet use the
movement of his entire body behind all of his fighting techniques—not just upper-body strength. Unit
trainers should be especially conscious of stressing full body mass in motion for power and correcting


Figure 5-32: Optional low No. 5 angle.


Long-range Combatives 611

all deficiencies during training. Whether the enemy is armed or unarmed, a soldier fighting with rifle
and fixed bayonet must develop the mental attitude that he will survive the fight. He must continuously
evaluate each moment in a fight to determine his advantages or options, as well as the enemy’s.
He should base his defenses on keeping his body moving and off the line of any attacks from his opponent.
The soldier seeks openings in the enemy’s defenses and starts his own attacks, using all available
body weapons and angles of attack. The angles of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet are shown in
Figures 5-33 through 5-39.

a.
Fighting Techniques. New weapons, improved equipment, and new tactics are always being introduced;
however, firepower alone will not always drive a determined enemy from his position.
He will often remain in defensive emplacements until driven out by close combat. The role of the
soldier, particularly in the final phase of the assault, remains relatively unchanged: His mission is
to close with and disable or capture the enemy. This mission remains the ultimate goal of all individual
training. The rifle with fixed bayonet is one of the final means of defeating an opponent in an
assault.
(1) During infiltration missions at night or when secrecy must be maintained, the bayonet is an
excellent silent weapon.
Figure 5-33: No. 1 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.


612 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-34: No. 2 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.


Figure 5-35: No. 3 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.


Long-range Combatives 613


Figure 5-36: No. 4 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.


Figure 5-37: No. 5 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.


614 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-38: High No. 5 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.


Figure 5-39: No. 6 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.


Long-range Combatives 615

(2) When close-in fighting determines the use of small-arms fire or grenades to be impractical, or
when the situation does not permit the loading or reloading of the rifle, the bayonet is still the
weapon available to the soldier.
(3) The bayonet serves as a secondary weapon should the rifle develop a stoppage.
(4) In hand-to-hand encounters, the detached bayonet may be used as a handheld weapon.
(5) The bayonet has many nonfighting uses, such as to probe for mines, to cut vegetation, and to use
for other tasks where a pointed or cutting tool is needed.
b. Development. To become a successful rifle-bayonet fighter, a soldier must be physically fit and
mentally alert. A well-rounded physical training program will increase his chances of survival in
a bayonet encounter. Mental alertness entails being able to quickly detect and meet an opponent’s
attack from any direction. Aggressiveness, accuracy, balance, and speed are essential in training as
well as in combat situations. These traits lead to confidence, coordination, strength, and endurance,
which characterize the rifle-bayonet fighter. Differences in individual body physique may require
slight changes from the described rifle-bayonet techniques. These variations will be allowed if the
individual’s attack is effective.
c.
Principles. The bayonet is an effective weapon to be used aggressively; hesitation may mean sudden
death. The soldier must attack in a relentless assault until his opponent is disabled or captured. He
should be alert to take advantage of any opening. If the opponent fails to present an opening, the
bayonet fighter must make one by parrying his opponent’s weapon and driving his blade or rifle
butt into the opponent with force.
(1) The attack should be made to a vulnerable part of the body: face, throat, chest, abdomen, or
groin.
(2) In both training and combat, the rifle-bayonet fighter displays spirit by sounding off with a low
and aggressive growl. This instills a feeling of confidence in his ability to close with and disable
or capture the enemy.
(3) The instinctive rifle-bayonet fighting system is designed to capitalize on the natural agility and
combatives movements of the soldier. It must be emphasized that precise learned movements
will NOT be stressed during training.
d. Positions. The soldier holds the rifle firmly but not rigidly. He relaxes all muscles not used in a specific
position; tense muscles cause fatigue and may slow him down. After proper training and thorough
practice, the soldier instinctively assumes the basic positions. All positions and movements
described in this manual are for right-handed men. A left-handed man, or a man who desires to
learn lefthanded techniques, must use the opposite hand and foot for each phase of the movement
described. All positions and movements can be executed with or without the magazine and with or
without the sling attached.
(1) Attack position. This is the basic starting position (A and B, Figure 5-40) from which all attack
movements originate. It generally parallels a boxer’s stance. The soldier assumes this position
when running or hurdling obstacles. The instructor explains and demonstrates each move.
(a) Take a step forward and to the side with your left foot so that your feet are a comfortable
distance apart.
(b) Hold your body erect or bend slightly forward at the waist. Flex your knees and balance
your body weight on the balls of your feet. Your right forearm is roughly parallel to the
ground. Hold the left arm high, generally in front of the left shoulder. Maintain eye-to-eye
contact with your opponent, watching his weapon and body through peripheral vision.
(c) Hold your rifle diagonally across your body at a sufficient distance from the body to add
balance and protect you from enemy blows. Grasp the weapon in your left hand just below
the upper sling swivel, and place the right hand at the small of the stock. Keep the sling facing
outward and the cutting edge of the bayonet toward your opponent. The command is,
ATTACK POSITION, MOVE. The instructor gives the command, and the soldiers perform
the movement.

616 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-40: Attack position.

(2) Relaxed position. The relaxed position (Figure 5-41) gives the soldier a chance to rest during
training. It also allows him to direct his attention toward the instructor as he discusses and
demonstrates the positions and movements. To assume the relaxed position from the attack
position, straighten the waist and knees and lower the rifle across the front of your body by
extending the arms downward. The command is, RELAX. The instructor gives the command,
and the soldiers perform the movement.
e. Movements. The soldier will instinctively strike at openings and become aggressive in his attack once he
has learned to relax and has developed instinctive reflexes. His movements do not have to be executed
in any prescribed order. He will achieve balance in his movements, be ready to strike in any direction,
and keep striking until he has disabled his opponent. There are two basic movements used throughout
bayonet instruction: the whirl and the crossover. These movements develop instant reaction to commands
and afford the instructor maximum control of the training formation while on the training field.
(1) Whirl movement. The whirl (Figure 5-42, Steps 1, 2, and 3), properly executed, allows the rifle
bayonet fighter to meet a challenge from an opponent attacking him from the rear. At the completion
of a whirl, the rifle remains in the attack position. The instructor explains and demonstrates
how to spin your body around by pivoting on the ball of the leading foot in the direction
of the leading foot, thus facing completely about. The command is, WHIRL. The instructor gives
the command, and the soldiers perform the movement.
(2) Crossover movement. While performing certain movements in rifle-bayonet training, two ranks
will be moving toward each other. When the soldiers in ranks come too close to each other to

Long-range Combatives 617


Figure 5-41: Relaxed position.

safely execute additional movements, the crossover is used to separate the ranks a safe distance
apart. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to move straight forward and pass your
opponent so that your right shoulder passes his right shoulder, continue moving forward about
six steps, halt, and without command, execute the whirl. Remain in the attack position and wait
for further commands. The command is, CROSSOVER. The instructor gives the command, and
the soldiers perform the movement.


618 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-42: Whirl movement.

Note: Left-handed personnel cross left shoulder to left shoulder.

(3) Attack movements. There are four attack movements designed to disable or capture the opponent:
thrust, butt stroke, slash, and smash. Each of these movements may be used for the initial
attack or as a follow-up should the initial movement fail to find its mark. The soldiers learn
these movements separately. They will learn to execute these movements in a swift and continuous
series during subsequent training. During all training, the emphasis will be on conducting
natural, balanced movements to effectively damage the target. Precise, learned movements will
not be stressed.
(a) Thrust. The objective is to disable or capture an opponent by thrusting the bayonet blade
into a vulnerable part of his body. The thrust is especially effective in areas where movement
is restricted—for example, trenches, wooded areas, or built-up areas. It is also effective
when an opponent is lying on the ground or in a fighting position. The instructor explains
and demonstrates how to lunge forward on your leading foot without losing your balance
(Figure 5-43, Step 1) and, at the same time, drive the bayonet with great force into any
unguarded part of your opponent’s body.
To accomplish this, grasp the rifle firmly with both hands and pull the stock in close to the right
hip; partially extend the left arm, guiding the point of the bayonet in the general direction of the
opponent’s body (Figure 5-43, Step 2).
Quickly complete the extension of the arms and body as the leading foot strikes the ground
so that the bayonet penetrates the target (Figure 5-43, Step 3).
To withdraw the bayonet, keep your feet in place, shift your body weight to the rear, and
pull rearward along the same line of penetration (Figure 5-43, Step 4).
Next, assume the attack position in preparation to continue the assault (Figure 5-43, Step 5).

Long-range Combatives 619


Figure 5-43: Thrust movement.

This movement is taught by the numbers in three phases:

1. THRUST AND HOLD, MOVE.
2. WITHDRAW AND HOLD, MOVE.
3. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
At combat speed, the command is, THRUST SERIES, MOVE. Training emphasis will be
placed on movement at combat speed. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers
perform the movements.

620 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

(b) Butt stroke. The objective is to disable or capture an opponent by delivering a forceful blow
to his body with the rifle butt (Figure 5-44, Steps 1, 2, 3, and 4, and Figure 5-45, Steps 1, 2,
3, and 4). The aim of the butt stroke may be the opponent’s weapon or a vulnerable portion
of his body. The butt stroke may be vertical, horizontal, or somewhere between the two
planes. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to step forward with your trailing
foot and, at the same time using your left hand as a pivot, swing the rifle in an arc and drive
the rifle butt into your opponent. To recover, bring your trailing foot forward and assume
the attack position. The movement is taught by the numbers in two phases:
1. BUTT STROKE TO THE (head, groin, kidney) AND HOLD, MOVE.
2. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
At combat speed, the command is, BUTT STROKE TO THE (head, groin, kidney) SERIES,
MOVE. Training emphasis will be placed on movement at combat speed. The instructor
gives the commands, and the soldiers perform the movement.
(c) Slash. The objective is to disable or capture the opponent by cutting him with the blade of
the bayonet. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to step forward with your lead
foot (Figure 5-46, Step 1).
At the same time, extend your left arm and swing the knife edge of your bayonet forward
and down in a slashing arc (Figure 5-46, Steps 2 and 3).
To recover, bring your trailing foot forward and assume the attack position (Figure 5-46, Step 4).
This movement is taught by the number in two phases:
1. SLASH AND HOLD, MOVE.
2. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
Figure 5-44: Butt stroke to the head.


Long-range Combatives 621


Figure 5-45: Butt stroke to the groin.

At combat speed, the command is, SLASH SERIES, MOVE. Training emphasis will be
placed on movement at combat speed. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers
perform the movements.

(d) Smash. The objective is to disable or capture an opponent by smashing the rifle butt into a
vulnerable part of his body. The smash is often used as a follow-up to a butt stroke and is also

622 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-46: Slash movement.

effective in wooded areas and trenches when movement is restricted. The instructor explains
and demonstrates how to push the butt of the rifle upward until horizontal (Figure 5-47,
Step 1) and above the left shoulder with the bayonet pointing to the rear, sling up (Figure 5-47,
Step 2). The weapon is almost horizontal to the ground at this time.
Step forward with the trailing foot, as in the butt stroke, and forcefully extend both arms,
slamming the rifle butt into the opponent (Figure 5-47, Step 3).



Long-range Combatives 623


Figure 5-47: Smash movement.

To recover, bring your trailing foot forward (Figure 5-47, Step 4) and assume the attack
position (Figure 5-47, Step 5). This movement is taught by the numbers in two phases:

1. SMASH AND HOLD, MOVE.
2. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
At combat speed, the command is, SMASH SERIES, MOVE. Training emphasis will be
placed on movement at combat speed. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers
perform the movements.

624 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

(4) Defensive movements. At times, the soldier may lose the initiative and be forced to defend
himself. He may also meet an opponent who does not present a vulnerable area to attack. Therefore,
he must make an opening by initiating a parry or block movement, then follow up with a
vicious attack. The follow-up attack is immediate and violent.
CAUTION
TO MINIMIZE WEAPON DAMAGE WHILE USING BLOCKS AND PARRIES, LIMIT
WEAPON-TO-WEAPON CONTACT TO HALF SPEED DURING TRAINING.


(a) Parry movement. The objective is to counter a thrust, throw the opponent off balance, and
hit a vulnerable area of his body. Timing, speed, and judgment are essential factors in these
movements. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to—
•
Parry right. If your opponent carries his weapon on his left hip (left-handed), you will
parry it to your right. In execution, step forward with your leading foot (Figure 5-48, Step
1), strike the opponent’s rifle (Figure 5-48, Step 2), deflecting it to your right (Figure 5-48,
Step 3), and follow up with a thrust, slash, or butt stroke.
•
Parry left. If your opponent carries his weapon on his right hip (right-handed), you will
parry it to your left. In execution, step forward with your leading foot (Figure 5-49, Step
1), strike the opponent’s rifle (Figure 5-49, Step 2), deflecting it to your left (Figure 5-49,
Step 3), and follow up with a thrust, slash, or butt stroke.
A supplementary parry left is the follow-up attack (Figure 5-50, Steps 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

•
Recovery. Immediately return to the attack position after completing each parry and
follow-up attack.
The movement is taught by the numbers in three phases:


1. PARRY RIGHT (OR LEFT), MOVE.
2. THRUST MOVE.
3. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
At combat speed, the command is, PARRY RIGHT (LEFT) or PARRY (RIGHT OR LEFT)
WITH FOLLOW-UP ATTACK. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers perform
the movements.
(b) Block. When surprised by an opponent, the block is used to cut off the path of his attack by
making weapon-to-weapon contact. A block must always be followed immediately with a
vicious attack. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to extend your arms using
the center part of your rifle as the strike area, and cut off the opponent’s attack by making
weapon-to-weapon contact. Strike the opponent’s weapon with enough power to throw
him off balance.
•
High block (Figure 5-51, Steps 1, 2, and 3). Extend your arms upward and forward at a
45- degree angle. This action deflects an opponent’s slash movement by causing his bayonet
or upper part of his rifle to strike against the center part of your rifle.
•
Low block (Figure 5-52, Steps 1, 2, and 3). Extend your arms downward and forward
about 15 degrees from your body. This action deflects an opponent’s butt stroke aimed
at the groin by causing the lower part of his rifle stock to strike against the center part of
your rifle.
•
Side block (Figure 5-53, Steps 1 and 2). Extend your arms with the left hand high and
right hand low, thus holding the rifle vertical. This block is designed to stop a butt stroke
aimed at your upper body or head. Push the rifle to your left to cause the butt of the
opponent’s rifle to strike the center portion of your rifle.

Long-range Combatives 625


Figure 5-48: Parry right.


626 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-49: Parry left.


Long-range Combatives 627


Figure 5-50: Parry left, slash, with follow-up butt stroke to kidney region.


628 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-51: High block against slash.


Long-range Combatives 629


Figure 5-52: Low block against butt stroke to groin.


630 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-53: Side block against butt stroke.

•
Recovery. Counterattack each block with a thrust, butt stroke, smash, or slash.
Blocks are taught by the numbers in two phases:
1. HIGH (LOW) or (SIDE) BLOCK.
2. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
At combat speed, the command is the same. The instructor gives the commands, and the
soldiers perform the movement.
(5) Modified movements. Two attack movements have been modified to allow the rifle-bayonet
fighter to slash or thrust an opponent without removing his hand from the pistol grip of the M16
rifle should the situation dictate.
(a) The modified thrust (Figure 5-54, Steps 1 and 2) is identical to the thrust (as described in
paragraph (3)(a)) with the exception of the right hand grasping the pistol grip.
(b) The modified slash (Figure 5-55, Steps 1, 2, 3, and 4) is identical to the slash (as described in
paragraph (3)(c)) with the exception of the right hand grasping the pistol grip.
(6) Follow-up movements. Follow-up movements are attack movements that naturally follow from
the completed position of the previous movement. If the initial thrust, butt stroke, smash, or
slash fails to make contact with the opponent’s body, the soldier should instinctively follow
up with additional movements until he has disabled or captured the opponent. It is important

Long-range Combatives 631


Figure 5-54: Modified thrust.

to follow up the initial attack with another aggressive action so the initiative is not lost. The
instructor explains and demonstrates how instinct should govern your selection of a specific
follow-up movement. For example—

•
PARRY LEFT, BUTT STROKE TO THE HEAD, SMASH, SLASH, ATTACK POSITION.
•
PARRY LEFT, SLASH, BUTT STROKE TO THE KIDNEY, ATTACK POSITION.
•
PARRY RIGHT THRUST, BUTT STROKE TO THE GROIN, SLASH, ATTACK POSITION.
Two examples of commands using follow-up movements are—
•
PARRY LEFT (soldier executes), THRUST (soldier executes), BUTT STROKE TO THE HEAD
(soldier executes), SMASH (soldier executes), SLASH (soldier executes), ATTACK POSITION
(soldier assumes the attack position).

632 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-55: Modified slash.


Long-range Combatives 633

•
THRUST (soldier executes), THRUST (soldier executes), THRUST (soldier executes), BUTT
STROKE TO THE GROIN (soldier executes), SLASH (soldier executes), ATTACK POSITION
(soldier assumes the attack position).
All training will stress damage to the target and violent action, using natural movements as
opposed to precise, stereotyped movements. Instinctive, aggressive action and balance are the
keys to offense with the rifle and bayonet.
NOTE: For training purposes, the instructor may and should mix up the series of movements.


SECTION IV: FIELD-EXPEDIENT WEAPONS

To survive, the soldier in combat must be able to deal with any situation that develops. His ability to
adapt any nearby object for use as a weapon in a win-or-die situation is limited only by his ingenuity and
resourcefulness. Possible weapons, although not discussed herein, include ink pens or pencils; canteens
tied to string to be swung; snap links at the end of sections of rope; kevlar helmets; sand, rocks, or liquids
thrown into the enemy’s eyes; or radio antennas. The following techniques demonstrate a few expedient
weapons that are readily available to most soldiers for defense and counterattack against the bayonet and
rifle with fixed bayonet.

5-11. Entrenching Tool. Almost all soldiers carry the entrenching tool. It is a versatile and formidable
weapon when used by a soldier with some training. It can be used in its straight position—locked out and
fully extended—or with its blade bent in a 90-degree configuration.

a.
To use the entrenching tool against a rifle with fixed bayonet, the attacker lunges with a thrust to the
stomach of the defender along a low No. 5 angle of attack (Figure 5-56, Step 1).
The defender moves just outside to avoid the lunge and meets the attacker’s arm with the blade of
the fully extended entrenching tool (Figure 5-56, Step 2).
The defender gashes all the way up the attacker’s arm with the force of both body masses coming
together. The hand gripping the entrenching tool is given natural protection from the shape of the
handle. The defender continues pushing the blade of the entrenching tool up and into the throat of
the attacker, driving him backward and downward (Figure 5-56, Step 3).
b. An optional use of entrenching tool against a rifle with fixed bayonet is for the attacker to lunge to
the stomach of the defender (Figure 5-57, Step 1).
The defender steps to the outside of the line of attack at 45 degrees to avoid the weapon. He then
turns his body and strikes downward onto the attacking arm (on the radial nerve) with the blade of
the entrenching tool (Figure 5-57, Step 2).
He drops his full body weight down with the strike, and the force causes the attacker to collapse
forward. The defender then strikes the point of the entrenching tool into the jugular notch, driving
it deeply into the attacker (Figure 5-57, Step 3).
c.
In the next two sequences, the entrenching tool is used in the bent configuration—that is, the blade
is bent 90 degrees to the handle and locked into place.
(1) The attacker tries to stick the bayonet into the chest of the defender (Figure 5-58, Step 1).
When the attack comes, the defender moves his body off the line of attack by stepping to the
outside. He allows his weight to shift forward and uses the blade of the entrenching tool to drag
along the length of the weapon, scraping the attacker’s arm and hand (Figure 5-58, Step 2). The
defender’s hand is protected by the handle’s natural design.
He continues to move forward into the attacker, strikes the point of the blade into the jugular
notch, and drives it downward (Figure 5-58, Step 3).

634 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-56: Entrenching tool against rifle with fixed bayonet.


Long-range Combatives 635


Figure 5-57: Optional use of entrenching tool against rifle with fixed bayonet.


636 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-58: Entrenching tool in bent configuration.


Long-range Combatives 637

(2) The attacker lunges with a fixed bayonet along the No. 5 angle of attack (Figure 5-59, Step 1).
The defender then steps to the outside to move off the line of attack and turns; he strikes the
point of the blade of the entrenching tool into the side of the attacker’s throat (Figure 5-59,
Step 2).
5-12. Three-foot Stick. Since a stick can be found almost anywhere, a soldier should know its uses as a
field-expedient weapon. The stick is a versatile weapon; its capability ranges from simple prisoner control
to lethal combat.

a.
Use a stick about 3 feet long and grip it by placing it in the vee formed between the thumb and index
finger, as in a handshake. It may also be grasped by two hands and used in an unlimited number of
techniques. The stick is not held at the end, but at a comfortable distance from the butt end.
b. When striking with the stick, achieve maximum power by using the entire body weight behind
each blow. The desired point of contact of the weapon is the last 2 inches at the tip of the stick. The
primary targets for striking with the stick are the vital body points in Chapter 4. Effective striking
points are usually the wrist, hand, knees, and other bony protuberances. Soft targets include the
side of the neck, jugular notch, solar plexus, and various nerve motor points. Attack soft targets by
striking or thrusting the tip of the stick into the area. Three basic methods of striking are—
(1) Thrusting. Grip the stick with both hands and thrust straight into a target with the full body
mass behind it.
(2) Whipping. Hold the stick in one hand and whip it in a circular motion; use the whole body mass
in motion to generate power.
(3) Snapping. Snap the stick in short, shocking blows, again with the body mass behind each
strike.
c.
When the attacker thrusts with a knife to the stomach of the defender with a low No. 5 angle of
attack, the defender moves off the line of attack to the outside and strikes vigorously downward
onto the attacking wrist, hand, or arm (Figure 5-60, Step 1).
The defender then moves forward, thrusts the tip of the stick into the jugular notch of the attacker
(Figure 5-60, Step 2), and drives him to the ground with his body weight—not his upper body
strength (Figure 5-60, Step 3).
d. When using a three-foot stick against a rifle with fixed bayonet, the defender grasps the stick with
two hands, one at each end, as the attacker thrusts forward to the chest (Figure 5-61, Step 1).
He steps off the line of attack to the outside and redirects the weapon with the stick (Figure 5-61,
Step 2).
He then strikes forward with the forearm into the attacker’s throat (Figure 5-61, Step 3). The force
of the two body weights coming together is devastating. The attacker’s neck is trapped in the notch
formed by the stick and the defender’s forearm.
Using the free end of the stick as a lever, the defender steps back and uses his body weight to drive
the attacker to the ground. The leverage provided by the stick against the neck creates a tremendous
choke with the forearm, and the attacker loses control completely (Figure 5-61, Step 4).

5-13. Three-foot Rope. A section of rope about 3 feet long can provide a useful means of self-defense for
the unarmed combat soldier in a hand-to-hand fight. Examples of field-expedient ropes are a web belt,
boot laces, a portion of a 120-foot nylon rope or sling rope, or a cravat rolled up to form a rope. Hold the
rope at the ends so the middle section is rigid enough to almost serve as a stick-like weapon, or the rope can
be held with the middle section relaxed, and then snapped by vigorously pulling the hands apart to strike


638 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-59: Optional use of entrenching tool in bent configuration.


Long-range Combatives 639


Figure 5-60: Three-foot stick against knife.


640 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 5-61: Three-foot stick against rifle with fixed bayonet.


Long-range Combatives 641

parts of the enemy’s body, such as the head or elbow joint, to cause serious damage. It can also be used to
entangle limbs or weapons held by the opponent, or to strangle him.

a.
When the attacker lunges with a knife to the stomach (Figure 5-62, Step 1), the defender moves off
the line of attack 45 degrees to the outside.
He snaps the rope downward onto the attacking wrist, redirecting the knife (Figure 5-62, Step 2).
Then, he steps forward, allowing the rope to encircle the attacker’s neck (Figure 5-62, Step 3).
Figure 5-62: Three-foot rope against knife.


642 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

He continues to turn his body and sinks his weight to drop the attacker over his hip (Figure 5-62, Step 4).

b. When the attacker thrusts with a fixed bayonet (Figure 5-63, Step 1), the defender moves off the line
of attack and uses the rope to redirect the weapon (Figure 5-63, Step 2).
Then, he moves forward and encircles the attacker’s throat with the rope (Figure 5-63, Step 3). He
continues moving to unbalance the attacker and strangles him with the rope (Figure 5-63, Step 4).
Figure 5-63: Three-foot rope against rifle with fixed bayonet.


Long-range Combatives 643

c.
The 3-foot rope can also be a useful tool against an unarmed opponent. The defender on the left
prepares for an attack by gripping the rope between his hands (Figure 5-64, Step 1).
When the opponent on the right attacks, the defender steps completely off the line of attack and
raises the rope to strike the attacker’s face (Figure 5-64, Step 2).
He then snaps the rope to strike the attacker either across the forehead, just under the nose, or under
the chin by jerking his hands forcefully apart. The incoming momentum of the attacker against the
Figure 5-64: Three-foot rope against unarmed opponent.


644 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

rope will snap his head backward, will probably break his neck, or will at least knock him off his
feet (Figure 5-64, Step 3).

5-14. Six-Foot Pole. Another field-expedient weapon that can mean the difference between life and death
for a soldier in an unarmed conflict is a pole about 6 feet long. Examples of poles suitable for use are mop
handles, pry bars, track tools, tent poles, and small trees or limbs cut to form a pole. A soldier skilled in the
use of a pole as a weapon is a formidable opponent. The size and weight of the pole requires him to move
his whole body to use it effectively. Its length gives the soldier an advantage of distance in most unarmed
situations. There are two methods usually used in striking with a pole:

a.
Swinging. Becoming effective in swinging the pole requires skilled body movement and practice.
The greatest power is developed by striking with the last 2 inches of the pole.
b. Thrusting. The pole is thrust straight along its axis with the user’s body mass firmly behind it.
(1) An attacker tries to thrust forward with a fixed bayonet (Figure 5-65, Step 1).
Figure 5-65: Thrusting with 6-foot pole.


Long-range Combatives 645

The defender moves his body off the line of attack; he holds the tip of the pole so that the
attacker runs into it from his own momentum. He then aims for the jugular notch and anchors
his body firmly in place so that the full force of the attack is felt at the attacker’s throat (Figure
5-65, Step 2).

(2) The defender then shifts his entire body weight forward over his lead foot and drives the attacker
off his feet (Figure 5-65, Step 3).
NOTE: During high stress, small targets, such as the throat, may be difficult to hit. Good, large
targets include the solar plexus and hip/thigh joint.

CHAPTER 6


Sentry Removal


Careful planning, rehearsal, and execution are vital to the success of a mission that requires the removal of
a sentry. This task may be necessary to gain access to an enemy location or to escape confinement.

6-1. Planning Considerations. A detailed schematic of the layout of the area guarded by sentries must be
available. Mark known and suspected locations of all sentries. It will be necessary—

a.
To learn the schedule for the changing of the guards and the checking of the posts.
b. To learn the guard’s meal times. It may be best to attack a sentry soon after he has eaten when his
guard is lowered. Another good time to attack the sentry is when he is going to the latrine.
c.
To post continuous security.
d. To develop a contingency plan.
e.
To plan infiltration and exfiltration routes.
f. To carefully select personnel to accomplish the task.
g. To carry the least equipment necessary to accomplish the mission because silence, stealth, and ease
of movement are essential.
h. To conceal or dispose of killed sentries.
6-2. Rehearsals. Reproduce and rehearse the scenario of the mission as closely as possible to the execution
phase.

Conduct the rehearsal on similar terrain, using sentries, the time schedule, and the contingency plan.
Use all possible infiltration and exfiltration routes to determine which may be the best.

6-3. Execution. When removing a sentry, the soldier uses his stalking skills to approach the enemy undetected.
He must use all available concealment and keep his silhouette as low as possible.

a.
When stepping, the soldier places the ball of his lead foot down first and checks for stability and
silence of the surface to be crossed. He then lightly touches the heel of his lead foot. Next, he transfers
his body weight to his lead foot by shifting his body forward in a relaxed manner. With the
weight on the lead foot, he can bring his rear foot forward in a similar manner.
b.
When approaching the sentry, the soldier synchronizes his steps and movement with the enemy’s,
masking any sounds. He also uses background noises to mask his sounds. He can even follow the sentry
through locked doors this way. He is always ready to strike immediately if he is discovered. He
focuses his attention on the sentry’s head since that is where the sentry generates all of his movement
and attention. However, it is important not to stare at the enemy because he may sense the stalker’s
presence through a sixth sense. He focuses on the sentry’s movements with his peripheral vision. He
gets to within 3 or 4 feet and at the proper moment makes the kill as quickly and silently as possible.
c.
The attacker’s primary focus is to summon all of his mental and physical power to suddenly explode
onto the target. He maintains an attitude of complete confidence throughout the execution. He must
control fear and hesitation because one instant of hesitation could cause his defeat and compromise
the entire mission.
6-4. Psychological Aspects. Killing a sentry is completely different than killing an enemy soldier while
engaged in a firefight. It is a cold and calculated attack on a specific target. After observing a sentry for

647


648 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

hours, watching him eat or look at his wife’s photo, an attachment is made between the stalker and the
sentry. Nonetheless, the stalker must accomplish his task efficiently and brutally. At such close quarters,
the soldier literally feels the sentry fight for his life. The sights, sounds, and smells of this act are imprinted
in the soldier’s mind; it is an intensely personal experience. A soldier who has removed a sentry should be
observed for signs of unusual behavior for four to seven days after the act.

6-5. Techniques. The following techniques are proven and effective ways to remove sentries. A soldier
with moderate training can execute the proper technique for his situation, when he needs to.

a.
Brachial Stun, Throat Cut. This technique relies on complete mental stunning to enable the soldier
to cut the sentry’s throat, severing the trachea and carotid arteries. Death results within 5 to 20
seconds. Some sounds are emitted from the exposed trachea, but the throat can be cut before the
sentry can recover from the effect of the stunning strike and cry out. The soldier silently approaches
to within striking range of the sentry (Figure 6-1, Step 1). The soldier strikes the side of the sentry’s
Figure 6-1: Brachial stun, throat cut.


Sentry Removal 649

neck with the knife butt or a hammer fist strike (Figure 6-1, Step 2), which completely stuns the
sentry for three to seven seconds. He then uses his body weight to direct the sentry’s body to sink
in one direction and uses his other hand to twist the sentry’s head to the side, deeply cutting the
throat across the front in the opposite direction (Figure 6-1, Step 3). He executes the entire length of
the blade in a slicing motion. The sentry’s sinking body provides most of the force—not the soldier’s
upper-arm strength (Figure 6-1, Step 4).

b. Kidney Stab, Throat Cut. This technique relies on a stab to the kidney (Figure 6-2, Step 1) to
induce immediate shock. The kidney is relatively accessible and by inducing shock with such
a stab, the soldier has the time to cut the sentry’s throat. The soldier completes his stalk and
stabs the kidney by pulling the sentry’s balance backward and downward and inserts the knife
upward against his weight. The sentry will possibly gasp at this point, but shock immediately
follows. By using the sentry’s body weight that is falling downward and turning, the soldier
executes a cut across the front of the throat (Figure 6-2, Step 2). This completely severs the trachea
and carotid arteries.
Figure 6-2: Kidney stab, throat cut.


650 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

c.
Pectoral Muscle Strike, Throat Cut. The stun in this technique is produced by a vigorous strike
to the stellate ganglia nerve center at the top of the pectoral muscle (Figure 6-3, Step 1). The
strike is delivered downward with the attacker’s body weight. Use the handle of the knife for
impact. Care should be taken to avoid any equipment worn by the sentry that could obstruct
the strike. Do not try this technique if the sentry is wearing a ballistic vest or bulky LCE. The
sentry is unable to make a sound or move if the stun is properly delivered. The throat is then
cut with a vertical stab downward into the subclavian artery at the junction of the neck and
clavicle (Figure 6-3, Step 2). Death comes within 3 to 10 seconds, and the sentry is lowered to
the ground.
d. Nose Pinch, Mouth Grab, Throat Cut. In this technique, completely pinch off the sentry’s mouth
and nose to prevent any outcry. Then cut his throat or stab his subclavian artery (Figure 6-4). The
Figure 6-3: Pectoral muscle strike, throat cut.


Sentry Removal 651


Figure 6-4: Nose pinch, mouth grab, throat cut.

danger with this technique is that the sentry can resist until he is killed, although he cannot make
a sound.

e.
Crush Larynx, Subclavian Artery Stab. Crush the sentry’s larynx by inserting the thumb and two or
three fingers behind his larynx, then twisting and crushing it. The subclavian artery can be stabbed
at the same time with the other hand (Figure 6-5).
f.
Belgian Takedown. In the Belgian take down technique, the unsuspecting sentry is knocked to the ground
and kicked in the groin, inducing shock. The soldier can then kill the sentry by any proper means. Since
surprise is the essential element of this technique, the soldier must use effective stalking techniques (Figure
6-6, Step 1). To initiate his attack, he grabs both of the sentry’s ankles (Figure 6-6, Step 2). Then he
heaves his body weight into the hips of the sentry while pulling up on the ankles. This technique slams the
sentry to the ground on his face. Then, the soldier follows with a kick to the groin (Figure 6-6, Step 3).

652 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 6-5: Crush larynx, subclavian artery stab.

g. Neck Break With Sentry Helmet. The soldier can break the sentry’s neck by vigorously snatching
back and down on the sentry’s helmet (Figure 6-7, Step 1) while forcing the sentry’s body weight
forward with a knee strike (Figure 6-7, Step 2). The chin strap of the helmet must be fastened for this
technique to work.
h. Knockout With Helmet. The sentry’s helmet is stripped from his head and used by the soldier to
knock him out (Figure 6-8, Step 1). The soldier uses his free hand to stabilize the sentry during the

Sentry Removal 653


Figure 6-6: Belgian takedown.


654 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 6-7: Break neck with sentry helmet.


Figure 6-8: Knockdown with helmet.


Sentry Removal 655

attack. This technique can only be used when the sentry’s chin strap is loose. The preferred target
area for striking with the helmet is at the base of the skull or on the temple (Figure 6-8, Step 2).

i. The Garrote. In this technique, use a length of wire, cord, rope, or webbed belt to takeout a sentry.
Silence is not guaranteed, but the technique is effective if the soldier is unarmed and must escape
from a guarded area. The soldier carefully stalks the sentry from behind with his garrote ready
(Figure 6-9, Step 1). He loops the garrote over the sentry’s head across the throat (Figure 6-9, Step 2)
and forcefully pulls him backward as he turns his own body to place his hips in low against the hips
of the sentry. The sentry’s balance is already taken at this point, and the garrote becomes crossed
around the sentry’s throat when the turn is made. The sentry is thrown over the soldier’s shoulder
and killed by strangling or breaking his neck (Figure 6-9, Step 3).
Figure 6-9: The garrote.


CHAPTER 7


Cover, Concealment, and Camouflage


GENERAL

In a survival situation where you are in hostile territory, if the enemy can see you, he can hit you with his
fire. So you must be concealed from enemy observation and have cover from enemy fire.

When the terrain does not provide natural cover and concealment, you must prepare your cover and use
natural and man-made materials to camouflage yourself, your equipment, and your position. This chapter
provides guidance on the preparation and use of cover, concealment, and camouflage.

COVER

Cover gives protection from bullets, fragments of exploding rounds, flame, nuclear effects, and biological
and chemical agents. Cover can also conceal you from enemy observation. Cover can be natural or manmade.


Natural cover includes such things as logs, trees, stumps, ravines, and hollows. Man-made cover includes
such things as fighting positions, trenches, walls, rubble, and craters. Even the smallest depression or fold
in the ground can give some cover. Look for and use every bit of cover the terrain offers.


657


658 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

In combat, you need protection from enemy direct and indirect fire.

To get this protection in the defense, build a fighting position (man-made cover) to add to the natural
cover afforded by the terrain.

To get protection from enemy fire in the offense or when moving, use routes that put cover between you
and the places where the enemy is known or thought to be. Use ravines, gullies, hills, wooded areas, walls,
and other cover to keep the enemy from seeing and firing at you. Avoid open areas, and do not skyline
yourself on hilltops and ridges.

CONCEALMENT

Concealment is anything that hides you from enemy observation. Concealment does not protect you from
enemy fire. Do not think that you are protected from the enemy’s fire just because you are concealed. Concealment,
like cover, can also be natural or man-made.

Natural concealment includes such things as bushes, grass, trees, and shadows. If possible, natural concealment
should not be disturbed. Man-made concealment includes such things as battle-dress uniforms,
camouflage nets, face paint, and natural material that has been moved from its original location. Manmade
concealment must blend into the natural concealment provided by the terrain.

Light discipline, noise discipline, movement discipline, and the use of camouflage contribute to concealment.
Light discipline is controlling the use of lights at night by such things as not smoking in the open,
not walking around with a flashlight on, and not using vehicle headlights. Noise discipline is taking action
to deflect sounds generated by your unit (such as operating equipment) away from the enemy and, when
possible, using methods to communicate that do not generate sounds (arm-and-hand signals). Movement
discipline is such things as not moving about fighting positions unless necessary, and not moving on
routes that lack cover and concealment. In the defense, build a well-camouflaged fighting position and
avoid moving about. In the offense, conceal yourself and your equipment with camouflage and move in
woods or on terrain that gives concealment. Darkness cannot hide you from enemy observation in either
offense or defense. The enemy’s night vision devices and other detection means let them find you in both
daylight and darkness.

CAMOUFLAGE

Camouflage is anything you use to keep yourself, your equipment, and your position from looking like
what they are. Both natural and man-made material can be used for camouflage.



Cover, Concealment, and Camouflage 659


Change and improve your camouflage often. The time between changes and improvements depends
on the weather and on the material used. Natural camouflage will often die, fade, or otherwise lose its
effectiveness. Likewise, man-made camouflage may wear off or fade. When those things happen, you and
your equipment or position may not blend with the surroundings. That may make it easy for the enemy
to spot you.

CAMOUFLAGE CONSIDERATIONS

Movement draws attention. When you give arm-and-hand signals or walk about your position, your movement
can be seen by the naked eye at long ranges. In the defense, stay low and move only when necessary.
In the offense, move only on covered and concealed routes.

Positions must not be where the enemy expects to find them. Build positions on the side of a hill, away
from road junctions or lone buildings, and in covered and concealed places. Avoid open areas.

Outlines and shadows may reveal your position or equipment to air or ground observers. Outlines and
shadows can be broken up with camouflage. When moving, stay in the shadows when possible.

Shine may also attract the enemy’s attention. In the dark, it may be a light such as a burning cigarette
or flashlight. In daylight, it can be reflected light from polished surfaces such as shiny mess gear, a worn
helmet, a windshield, a watch crystal and band, or exposed skin. A light, or its reflection, from a position


660 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


may help the enemy detect the position. To reduce shine, cover your skin with clothing and face paint.
However, in a nuclear attack, darkly painted skin can absorb more thermal energy and may burn more
readily than bare skin. Also, dull the surfaces of equipment and vehicles with paint, mud, or some type of
camouflage material.

Shape is outline or form. The shape of a helmet is easily recognized. A human body is also easily recognized.
Use camouflage and concealment to breakup shapes and blend them with their surroundings. Be
careful not to overdo it.

The colors of your skin, uniform, and equipment may help the enemy detect you if the colors contrast
with the background. For example, a green uniform will contrast with snow-covered terrain. Camouflage
yourself and your equipment to blend with the surroundings.

Dispersion is the spreading of men, vehicles, and equipment over a wide area. It is usually easier for the
enemy to detect soldiers when they are bunched. So, spread out. The distance between you and your fellow
soldier will vary with the terrain, degree of visibility, and enemy situation. Distances will normally be
set by unit leaders or by a unit’s standing operating procedure (SOP).


Cover, Concealment, and Camouflage 661


661


662 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


HOW TO CAMOUFLAGE

Before camouflaging, study the terrain and vegetation of the area in which you are operating. Then pick
and use the camouflage material that best blends with that area. When moving from one area to another,
change camouflage as needed to blend with the surroundings. Take grass, leaves, brush, and other material
from your location and apply it to your uniform and equipment and put face paint on your skin.

Fighting Positions. When building a fighting position, camouflage it and the dirt taken from it. Camouflage
the dirt used as frontal, flank, rear, and overhead cover. Also camouflage the bottom of the hole to
prevent detection from the air. If necessary, take excess dirt away from the position (to the rear).

Do not overcamouflage. Too much camouflage material may actually disclose a position. Get your camouflage
material from a wide area. An area stripped of all or most of its vegetation may draw attention. Do
not wait until the position is complete to camouflage it. Camouflage the position as you build.

Do not leave shiny or light-colored objects lying about. Hide mess kits, mirrors, food containers, and
white underwear and towels. Do not remove your shirt in the open. Your skin may shine and be seen.
Never use fires where there is a chance that the flame will be seen or the smoke will be smelled by the
enemy. Also, cover up tracks and other signs of movement.


Cover, Concealment, and Camouflage 663



664 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


When camouflage is complete, inspect the position from the enemy’s side. This should be done from
about 35 meters forward of the position. Then check the camouflage periodically to see that it stays naturallooking
and conceals the position. When the camouflage becomes ineffective, change and improve it.

Helmets. Camouflage your helmet with the issue helmet cover or make a cover of cloth or burlap that is
colored to blend with the terrain. The cover should fit loosely with the flaps folded under the helmet or left
hanging. The hanging flaps may break up the helmet outline. Leaves, grass, or sticks can also be attached
to the cover. Use camouflage bands, strings, burlap strips, or rubber bands to hold those in place. If there is
no material for a helmet cover, disguise and dull helmet surface with irregular patterns of paint or mud.

Uniforms. Most uniforms come already camouflaged. However, it may be necessary to add more camouflage
to make the uniform blend better with the surroundings. To do this, put mud on the uniform or attach
leaves, grass, or small branches to it. Too much camouflage, however, may draw attention.

When operating on snow-covered ground, wear overwhites (if issued) to help blend with the snow. If
overwhites are not issued, use white cloth, such as white bedsheets, to get the same effect.

Skin. Exposed skin reflects light and may draw the enemy’s attention. Even very dark skin, because of
its natural oil, will reflect light. Use the following methods when applying camouflage face paint to camouflage
the skin.

When applying camouflage stick to your skin, work with a buddy (in pairs) and help each other. Apply a
two-color combination of camouflage stick in an irregular pattern. Paint shiny areas (forehead, cheekbones,


Cover, Concealment, and Camouflage 665


nose, ears, and chin) with a dark color. Paint shadow areas (around the eyes, under the nose, and under the
chin) with a light color. In addition to the face, paint the exposed skin on the back of the neck, arms, and
hands. Palms of hands are not normally camouflaged if arm-and-hand signals are to be used. Remove all
jewelry to further reduce shine or reflection.

When camouflage sticks are not issued, use burnt cork, bark, charcoal, lamp black, or light-colored mud.


CHAPTER 8


Tracking


GENERAL

In all operations, you must be alert for signs of enemy activity. Such signs can often alert you to an enemy’s
presence and give your unit time to prepare for contact. The ability to track an enemy after he has broken
contact also helps you regain contact with him.

TRACKER QUALITIES

Visual tracking is following the path of men or animals by the signs they leave, primarily on the ground or
vegetation. Scent tracking is following men or animals by their smell.

Tracking is a precise art. You need a lot of practice to achieve and keep a high level of tracking skill. You
should be familiar with the general techniques of tracking to enable you to detect the presence of a hidden
enemy and to follow him, to find and avoid mines or booby- traps, and to give early warning of ambush.

With common sense and a degree of experience, you can track another person. However, you must
develop the following traits and qualities:

•
Be patient.
•
Be able to move slowly and quietly, yet steadily, while detecting and interpreting signs.
•
Avoid fast movement that may cause you to overlook signs, lose the trail, or blunder into an enemy
unit.
•
Be persistent and have the skill and desire to continue the mission even though signs are scarce or
weather or terrain is unfavorable.
•
Be determined and persistent when trying to find a trail that you have lost.
•
Be observant and try to see things that are not obvious at first glance.
•
Use your senses of smell and hearing to supplement your sight.
•
Develop a feel for things that do not look right. It may help you regain a lost trail or discover additional
signs.
•
Know the enemy, his habits, equipment, and capability.
FUNDAMENTALS OF TRACKING

When tracking an enemy, you should build a picture of him in your mind. Ask yourself such questions as:
How many persons am I following? How well are they trained? How are they equipped? Are they healthy?
How is their morale? Do they know they are being followed?

To find the answer to such questions, use all available signs. A sign can be anything that shows you that
a certain act took place at a particular place and time. For instance, a footprint tells a tracker that at a certain
time a person walked on that spot.

The six fundamentals of tracking are:

•
Displacement.
•
Staining.
667


668 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

• Weathering.
• Littering.
• Camouflaging.
• Interpretation and/or immediate use intelligence.
Any sign that you find can be identified as one or more of the first five fundamentals.

In the sixth fundamental, you combine the first five and use all of them to form a picture of the enemy.

DISPLACEMENT

Displacement takes place when something is moved from its original position. An example is a footprint
in soft, moist ground. The foot of the person that left the print displaced the soil, leaving an indentation in
the ground. By studying the print, you can determine many facts. For example, a print that was left by a
barefoot person or a person with worn or frayed footgear indicates that he may have poor equipment.

HOW TO ANALYZE FOOTPRINTS

Footprints show the following:

• The direction and rate of movement of a party.
• The number of persons in a party.
• Whether or not heavy loads are carried.
• The sex of the members of a party.
• Whether the members of a party know they are being followed.
If the footprints are deep and the pace is long, the party is moving rapidly. Very long strides and deep
prints, with toe prints deeper than heel prints, indicate that the party is running. If the prints are deep,
short, and widely spaced, with signs of scuffing or shuffling, a heavy load is probably being carried by the
person who left the prints.

You can also determine a person’s sex by studying the size and position of the footprints.

Women generally tend to be pigeon-toed, while men usually walk with their feet pointed straight ahead
or slightly to the outside. Women’s prints are usually smaller than men’s, and their strides are usually
shorter.

If a party knows that it is being followed, it may attempt to hide its tracks. Persons walking backward
have a short, irregular stride. The prints have an unusually deep toe. The soil will be kicked in the direction
of movement.



Tracking 669

The last person walking in a group usually leaves the clearest footprints. Therefore, use his prints as the
key set. Cut a stick the length of each key print and notch the stick to show the print width at the widest
part of the sole. Study the angle of the key prints to determine the direction of march. Look for an identifying
mark or feature on the prints, such as a worn or frayed part of the footwear. If the trail becomes vague
or obliterated, or if the trail being followed merges with another, use the stick to help identify the key
prints. That will help you stay on the trail of the group being followed.

Use the box method to count the number of persons in the group. There are two ways to use the box
method—the stride as a unit of measure method and the 36-inch box method.

The stride as a unit of measure method is the most accurate of the two. Up to 18 persons can be counted
using this method. Use it when the key prints can be determined. To use this method, identify a key print
on a trail and draw a line from its heel across the trail. Then move forward to the key print of the opposite
foot and draw a line through its instep. This should form a box with the edges of the trail forming two
sides, and the drawn lines forming the other two sides. Next, count every print or partial print inside the
box to determine the number of persons. Any person walking normally would have stepped in the box at
least one time. Count the key prints as one.



670 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

To use the 36-inch box method, mark off a 30- to 36-inch cross section of a trail, count the prints in the
box, then divide by two to determine the number of persons that used the trail. (Your M16 rifle is 39 inches
long and may be used as a measuring device.)

OTHER SIGNS OF DISPLACEMENT

Footprints are only one example of displacement. Displacement occurs when anything is moved from its
original position. Other examples are such things as foliage, moss, vines, sticks, or rocks that are moved
from their original places; dew droplets brushed from leaves; stones and sticks that are turned over and
show a different color underneath; and grass or other vegetation that is bent or broken in the direction of
movement.

Bits of cloth may be torn from a uniform and left on thorns, snags, or the ground, and dirt from boots
may make marks on the ground.

Another example of displacement is the movement of wild animals and birds that are flushed from their
natural habitats. You may hear the cries of birds that are excited by strange movements. The movement of
tall grass or brush on a windless day indicates that something is moving the vegetation from its original
position.

When you clear a trail by either breaking or cutting your way through heavy vegetation, you displace
the vegetation. Displacement signs can be made while you stop to rest with heavy loads. The prints made
by the equipment you carry can help to identify its type. When loads are set down at a rest halt or campsite,
grass and twigs may be crushed. A sleeping man may also flatten the vegetation.

In most areas, there will be insects. Any changes in the normal life of these insects may be a sign that
someone has recently passed through the area. Bees that are stirred up, and holes that are covered by someone
moving over them, or spider webs that are torn down are good clues.

If a person uses a stream to cover his trail, algae and water plants may be displaced in slippery footing
or in places where he walks carelessly. Rocks may be displaced from their original position, or turned over
to show a lighter or darker color on their opposite side. A person entering or leaving a stream may create
slide marks, wet banks, or footprints, or he may scuff bark off roots or sticks. Normally, a person or animal
will seek the path of least resistance. Therefore, when you search a stream for exit signs, look for open
places on the banks or other places where it would be easy to leave the stream.



Tracking 671

STAINING

A good example of staining is the mark left by blood from a bleeding wound. Bloodstains often will be in
the form of drops left by a wounded person. Blood signs are found on the ground and smeared on leaves
or twigs.

You can determine the location of a wound on a man being followed by studying the bloodstains. If the
blood seems to be dripping steadily, it probably came from a wound on his trunk. A wound in the lungs
will deposit bloodstains that are pink, bubbly, frothy. A bloodstain deposited from a head wound will
appear heavy, wet, and slimy, like gelatin. Abdominal wounds often mix blood with digestive juices so
that the deposit will have an odor. The stains will be light in color.

Staining can also occur when a person walks over grass, stones, and shrubs with muddy boots. Thus,
staining and displacement together may give evidence of movement and indicate the direction taken.
Crushed leaves may stain rocky ground that is too hard for footprints.

Roots, stones, and vines may be stained by crushed leaves or berries when walked on. Yellow stains in
snow may be urine marks left by personnel in the area.

In some cases, it may be hard to determine the difference between staining and displacement. Both
terms can be applied to some signs. For example, water that has been muddied may indicate recent movement.
The mud has been displaced and it is staining the water. Stones in streams may be stained by mud
from boots. Algae can be displaced from stones in streams and can stain other stones or bark.

Water in footprints in swampy ground may be muddy if the tracks are recent. In time, however, the mud
will settle and the water will clear. The clarity of the water can be used to estimate the age of the prints.
Normally, the mud will clear in 1 hour. That will vary with terrain.

WEATHERING

Weather may either aid or hinder tracking. It affects signs in ways that help determine how old they are,
but wind, snow, rain, and sunlight can also obliterate signs completely.

By studying the effects of weather on signs, you can determine the age of the sign. For example, when
bloodstains are fresh, they may be bright red. Air and sunlight will change the appearance of blood first to
a deep ruby-red color, and then to a dark brown crust when the moisture evaporates. Scuff marks on trees
or bushes darken with time. Sap oozes from fresh cuts on trees but it hardens when exposed to the air.

FOOTPRINTS

Footprints are greatly affected by weather. When a foot displaces soft, moist soil to form a print, the moisture
holds the edges of the print intact and sharp. As sunlight and air dry the edges of the print, small particles
that were held in place by the moisture fall into the print, making the edges appear rounded. Study
this process carefully to estimate the age of a print. If particles are just beginning to fall into a print, it is
probably fresh. If the edges of the print are dried and crusty, the prints are probably at least an hour old.
The effects of weather will vary with the terrain, so this information is furnished as a guide only.

A light rain may round out the edges of a print. Try to remember when the last rain occurred in order to
put prints into a proper time frame. A heavy rain may erase all signs.

Wind also affects prints. Besides drying out a print, the wind may blow litter, sticks, or leaves into it. Try
to remember the wind activity in order to help determine the age of a print. For example, you may think,
“It is calm now, but the wind blew hard an hour ago. These prints have litter blown into them, so they
must be over an hour old.” You must be sure, however, that the litter was blown into the prints, and was
not crushed into them when the prints were made.

Trails leaving streams may appear to be weathered by rain because of water running into the footprints
from wet clothing or equipment. This is particularly true if a party leaves a stream in a file. From this formation,
each person drips water into the prints. A wet trail slowly fading into a dry trail indicates that the
trail is fresh.


672 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

WIND, SOUNDS, AND ODORS

Wind affects sounds and odors. If the wind is blowing from the direction of a trail you are following,
sounds and odors are carried to you. If the wind is blowing in the same direction as the trail you are
following, you must be cautious as the wind will carry your sounds toward the enemy. To find the wind
direction, drop a handful of dry dirt or grass from shoulder height.

To help you decide where a sound is coming from, cup your hands behind your ears and slowly turn.
When the sound is loudest, you are probably facing the origin of sound. When moving, try to keep the
wind in your face.

SUN

You must also consider the effects of the sun. It is hard to look or aim directly into the sun. If possible, keep
the sun at your back.

LITTERING

Poorly trained units may leave trails of litter as they move. Gum or candy wrappers, ration cans, cigarette
butts, remains of fires, or human feces are unmistakable signs of recent movement.

Weather affects litter. Rain may flatten or wash litter away, or turn paper into pulp. Winds may blow litter
away from its original location. Ration cans exposed to weather will rust. They first rust at the exposed
edge where they were opened. Rust then moves in toward the center. Use your memory to determine the
age of litter. The last rain or strong wind can be the basis of a time frame.

CAMOUFLAGE

If a party knows that you are tracking it, it will probably use camouflage to conceal its movement and to slow
and confuse you. Doing so, however, will slow it down. Walking backward, brushing out trails, and moving
over rocky ground or through streams are examples of camouflage that can be used to confuse you.

The party may move on hard surfaced, frequently traveled roads or try to merge with traveling civilians.
Examine such routes with extreme care, because a well-defined approach that leads to the enemy will
probably be mined, ambushed, or covered by snipers.

The party may try to avoid leaving a trail. Its members may wrap rags around their boots, or wear softsoled
shoes to make the edges of their footprints rounder and less distinct. The party may exit a stream in
column or line to reduce the chance of leaving a well-defined exit.

If the party walks backward to leave a confusing trail, the footprints will be deepened at the toe, and the
soil will be scuffed or dragged in the direction of movement.

If a trail leads across rocky or hard ground, try to work around that ground to pick up the exit trail. This
process works in streams as well. On rocky ground, moss or lichens growing on the stones could be displaced
by even the most careful evader. If you lose the trail, return to the last visible sign. From there, head in the
direction of the party’s movement. Move in ever-widening circles until you find some signs to follow.

INTERPRETATION/IMMEDIATE USE INTELLIGENCE

When reporting, do not report your interpretations as facts. Report that you have seen signs of certain
things, not that those things actually exist.

Report all information quickly. The term “immediate use intelligence” includes information of the enemy
that can be put to use at once to gain surprise, to keep the enemy off balance, or to keep him from escaping an
area . A commander has many sources of intelligence. He puts the information from those sources together
to help determine where an enemy is, what he may be planning, and where he maybe going.

Information you report gives your leader definite information on which he can act at once. For example,
you may report that your leader is 30 minutes behind an enemy unit, that the enemy is moving north, and


Tracking 673

that he is now at a certain place. That gives your leader information on which he can act at once. He could
then have you keep on tracking and move another unit to attack the enemy. If a trail is found that has signs
of recent enemy activity, your leader can set up an ambush on it.

TRACKING TEAMS

Your unit may form tracking teams. The lead team of a moving unit can be a tracking team, or a separate
unit may be a tracking team. There are many ways to organize such teams, and they can be any size. There
should, however, be a leader, one or more trackers, and security for the trackers. A typical organization has
three trackers, three security men, and a team leader with a radiotelephone operator (RATELO).

When a team is moving, the best tracker should be in the lead, followed by his security. The two other
trackers should be on the flanks, each one followed and overmatched by his security. The leader should be
where he can best control the team. The RATELO should be with the leader.

COUNTERTRACKING

In addition to knowing how to track, you must know how to counter an enemy tracker’s efforts to track
you. Some countertracking techniques are discussed in the following paragraphs:

•
While moving from close terrain to open terrain, walk past a big tree (30 cm [12 in] in diameter or
larger) toward the open area for three to five paces. Then walk backward to the forward side of the
tree and make a 90-degree change of direction, passing the tree on its forward side. Step carefully
and leave as little sign as possible. If this is not the direction that you want to go, change direction
again about 50 meters away using the same technique. The purpose of this is to draw the enemy
tracker into the open area where it is harder for him to track. That also exposes him and causes him
to search the wrong area.
•
When approaching a trail (about 100 meters from it), change your direction of movement and
approach it at a 45-degree angle. When arriving at the trail, move along it for about 20 to 30 meters.

674 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Leave several signs of your presence. Then walk backward along the trail to the point where you
join edit. At that point, cross the trail and leave no sign of your leaving it. Then move about 100
meters at an angle of 45 degrees, but this time on the other side of the trail and in the reverse of your
approach. When changing direction back to your original line of march, the big tree technique can
be used. The purpose of this technique is to draw the enemy tracker along the easier trail. You have,
by changing direction before reaching the trail, indicated that the trail is your new line of march.

•
To leave a false trail and to get an enemy tracker to look in the wrong direction, walk backward
over soft ground. Continue this deception for about 20 to 30 meters or until you are on hard ground.
Use this technique when leaving a stream. To further confuse the enemy tracker, use this technique
several times before actually leaving the stream.
•
When moving toward a stream, change direction about 100 meters before reaching the stream and
approach it at a 45-degree angle. Enter the stream and proceed down it for at least 20 to 30 meters.
Then move back upstream and leave the stream in your initial direction. Changing direction before
entering the stream may confuse the enemy tracker. When he enters the stream, he should follow
the false trail until the trail is lost. That will put him well away from you.
•
When your direction of movement parallels a stream, use the stream to deceive an enemy tracker.
Some tactics that will help elude a tracker are as follows:
o
Stay in the stream for 100 to 200 meters.
o
Stay in the center of the stream and in deep water.
o
Watch for rocks or roots near the banks that are not covered with moss or vegetation and
leave the stream at that point.
o
Walk out backward on soft ground.
o
Walk up a small, vegetation-covered tributary and exit from it.
•
When being tracked by an enemy tracker, the best bet is to either try to out-distance him or to
double back and ambush him.

Tracking 675



CHAPTER 9


Movement


GENERAL

Normally, you will spend more time moving than fighting. You must use proper movement techniques to
avoid contact with the enemy when you are not prepared for contact.

The fundamentals of movement discussed in this chapter provide techniques that all soldiers should
learn. These techniques should be practiced until they become second nature.

MOVEMENT TECHNIQUES

Your unit’s ability to move depends on your movement skills and those of your fellow soldiers. Use the
following techniques to avoid being seen or heard by the enemy:

•
Camouflage yourself and your equipment.
•
Tape your dog tags together and to the chain so they cannot slide or rattle. Tape or pad the parts
of your weapon and equipment that rattle or are so loose that they may snag (the tape or padding
must not interfere with the operation of the weapon or equipment).
•
Jump up and down and listen for rattles.
•
Wear soft, well-fitting clothes.
•
Do not carry unnecessary equipment. Move from covered position to revered position (taking no
longer than 3 to 5 seconds between positions).
•
Stop, look, and listen before moving. Look for your next position before leaving a position.
•
Look for covered and concealed routes on which to move.
•
Change direction slightly from time to time when moving through tall grass.
•
Stop, look, and listen when birds or animals are alarmed (the enemy may be nearby).
•
Use battlefield noises, such as weapon noises, to conceal movement noises.
•
Cross roads and trails at places that have the most cover and concealment (large culverts, low spots,
curves, or bridges).
•
Avoid steep slopes and places with loose dirt or stones.
•
Avoid cleared, open areas and tops of hills and ridges.
METHODS OF MOVEMENT

In addition to walking, you may move in one of three other methods—low crawl, high crawl, or rush.

The low crawl gives you the lowest silhouette. Use it to cross places where the concealment is very
low and enemy fire or observation prevents you from getting up. Keep your body flat against the
ground. With your firing hand, grasp your weapon sling at the upper sling—swivel. Let the front hand
guard rest on your forearm (keeping the muzzle off the ground), and let the weapon butt drag on the
ground.

To move, push your arms forward and pull your firing side leg forward. Then pull with your arms and
push with your leg. Continue this throughout the move.

The high crawl lets you move faster than the low crawl and still gives you a low silhouette. Use this
crawl when there is good concealment but enemy fire prevents you from getting up. Keep your body

677


678 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


off the ground and resting on your forearms and lower legs. Cradle your weapon in your arms and
keep its muzzle off the ground. Keep your knees well behind your buttocks so your body will stay
low.

To move, alternately advance your right elbow and left knee, then your left elbow and right knee.

The rush is the fastest way to move from one position to another. Each rush should last from 3 to 5
seconds. The rushes are kept short to keep enemy machine gunners or riflemen from tracking you. However,
do not stop and hit the ground in the open just because 5 seconds have passed. Always try to hit the
ground behind some cover. Before moving, pick out your next covered and concealed position and the best
route to it.

Make your move from the prone position as follows:

• Slowly raise your head and pick your next position and the route to it.
• Slowly lower your head.
• Draw your arms into your body (keeping your elbows in).
• Pull your right leg forward.

Movement 679


• Raise your body by straightening your arms.
• Get up quickly.
• Run to the next position.
When you are ready to stop moving, do the following:



680 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

•
Plant both of your feet.
•
Drop to your knees (at the same time slide a hand to the butt of your rifle).
•
Fall forward, breaking the fall with the butt of the rifle.
•
Go to a prone firing position.
If you have been firing from one position for some time, the enemy may have spotted you and may be waiting
for you to come up from behind cover. So, before rushing forward, roll or crawl a short distance from your position.
By coming up from another spot, you may fool an enemy who is aiming at one spot, waiting for you to rise.

When the route to your next position is through an open area, rush by zigzagging. If necessary, hit the
ground, roll right or left, then rush again.

MOVING WITH STEALTH

Moving with stealth means moving quietly, slowly, and carefully. This requires great patience.
To move with stealth, use the following techniques:

•
Hold your rifle at port arms (ready position).
•
Make your footing sure and solid by keeping your body’s weight on the foot on the ground while
stepping.
•
Raise the moving leg high to clear brush or grass.
•
Gently let the moving foot down toe first, with your body’s weight on the rear leg.
•
Lower the heel of the moving foot after the toe is in a solid place.
•
Shift your body’s weight and balance to the forward foot before moving the rear foot.
•
Take short steps to help maintain balance.
At night, and when moving through dense vegetation, avoid making noise. Hold your weapon with one
hand, and keep the other hand forward, feeling for obstructions.

When going into a prone position, use the following techniques:

•
Hold your rifle with one hand and crouch slowly.
•
Feel for the ground with your freehand to make sure it is clear of mines, tripwires, and other hazards.
•
Lower your knees, one at a time, until your body’s weight is on both knees and your free hand.
•
Shift your weight to your free hand and opposite knee.
•
Raise your free leg up and back, and lower it gently to that side.
•
Move the other leg into position the same way.
•
Roll quietly into a prone position.
Use the following techniques when crawling:

•
Crawl on your hands and knees. Hold your rifle in your firing hand.
•
Use your nonfiring hand to feel for and make clear spots for your hands and knees to move to.
•
Move your hands and knees to those spots, and put them down softly.
IMMEDIATE ACTIONS WHILE MOVING

This section furnishes guidance for the immediate actions you should take when reacting to enemy indirect
fire and flares.

Reacting to indirect fire. If you come under indirect fire while moving, quickly look to your leader for orders.
He will either tell you to run out of the impact area in a certain direction or will tell you to follow him. If
you cannot see your leader, but can see other team members, follow them. If alone, or if you cannot see
your leader or the other team members, run out of the area in a direction away from the incoming fire.


Movement 681

It is hard to move quickly on rough terrain, but the terrain may provide good cover. In such terrain, it may
be best to take cover and wait for flares to burn out. After they burn out, move out of the area quickly.


Reacting to Ground Flares. The enemy puts out ground flares as warning devices. He sets them off himself
or attaches tripwires to them for you to trip on and set them off. He usually puts the flares in places he can
watch.

If you are caught in the light of a ground flare, move quickly out of the lighted area. The enemy will
know where the ground flare is and will be ready to fire into that area. Move well away from the lighted
area. While moving out of the area, look for other team members. Try to follow or join them to keep the
team together.



682 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Reacting to Aerial Flares. The enemy uses aerial flares to light up vital areas. They can be set off like
ground flares; fired from hand projectors, grenade launchers, mortars, and artillery; or dropped from
aircraft.

If you hear the firing of an aerial flare while you are moving, hit the ground (behind cover if possible)
while the flare is rising and before it bursts and illuminates.

If moving where it is easy to blend with the background (such as in a forest) and you are caught in the
light of an aerial flare, freeze in place until the flare burns out.

If you are caught in the light of an aerial flare while moving in an open area, immediately crouch low
or lie down.

If you are crossing an obstacle, such as a barbed-wire fence or a wall, and get caught in the light of an
aerial flare, crouch low and stay down until the flare burns out.

The sudden light of a bursting flare may temporarily blind both you and the enemy. When the
enemy uses a flare to spot you, he spoils his own night vision. To protect your night vision, close one
eye while the flare is burning. When the flare burns out, the eye that was closed will still have its night
vision.


MOVING WITHIN A TEAM

You will usually move as a member of a team. Small teams, such as infantry fire teams, normally move in a
wedge formation. Each soldier in the team has a set position in the wedge, determined by the type weapon
he carries. That position, however, may be changed by the team leader to meet the situation. The normal
distance between soldiers is 10 meters.

You may have to make a temporary change in the wedge formation when moving through close terrain.
The soldiers in the sides of the wedge close into a single file when moving in thick brush or through
a narrow pass. After passing through such an area, they should spread out, again forming the wedge. You
should not wait for orders to change the formation or the interval. You should change automatically and
stay in visual contact with the other team members and the team leader.


Movement 683


The team leader leads by setting the example. His standing order is, FOLLOW ME AND DO AS I DO.
When he moves to the left, you should move to the left. When he gets down, you should get down. When
he fires, you should fire.

When visibility is limited, control during movement may become difficult. Two l-inch horizontal strips
of luminous tape, sewn directly on the rear of the helmet camouflage band with a l-inch space between
them, are a device for night identification.

Night identification for your patrol cap could be two l-inch by 1/2-inch strips of luminous tape sewn
vertically, directly on the rear of the cap. They should be centered, with the bottom edge of each tape even
with the bottom edge of the cap and with a l-inch space between the two tapes.


684 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


FIRE AND MOVEMENT

When a unit makes contact with the enemy, it normally starts firing at and moving toward the enemy. Sometimes
the unit may move away from the enemy. That technique is called fire and movement. It is conducted
either to close with and destroy the enemy, or to move away from the enemy so as to break contact with him.

The firing and moving take place at the same time. There is a fire element and a movement element.
These elements may be single soldiers, buddy teams, fire teams, or squads. Regardless of the size of the
elements, the action is still fire and movement.

The fire element covers the move of the movement element by firing at the enemy. This helps keep the
enemy from firing back at the movement element.

The movement element moves either to close with the enemy or to reach a better position from which to
fire at him. The movement element should not move until the fire element is firing.

Depending on the distance to the enemy position and on the available cover, the fire element and the
movement element switch roles as needed to keep moving.

Before the movement element moves beyond the supporting range of the fire element (the distance
within which the weapons of the fire element can fire and support the movement element), it should take
a position from which it can fire at the enemy. The movement element then becomes the next fire element
and the fire element becomes the next movement element.

If your team makes contact, your team leader should tell you to fire or to move. He should also tell you where
to fire from, what to fire at, or where to move to. When moving, use the low crawl, high crawl, or rush.

FOOT MARCH LOADS

The fighting load for a conditioned soldier should not exceed 48 pounds and the approach march load should
not exceed 72 pounds. These load weights include all clothing and equipment that are worn and carried.

a.
A soldier’s ability to react to the enemy is reduced by the burden of his load. Load carrying causes
fatigue and lack of agility, placing soldiers at a disadvantage when rapid reaction to the enemy is
required. For example, the time a soldier needs to complete an obstacle course is increased from 10

Movement 685

to 15 percent, depending on the configuration of the load, for every 10 pounds of equipment carried.
It is likely that a soldier’s agility in the assault will be degraded similarly.

b. Speed of movement is as important a factor in causing exhaustion as the weight of the load carried.
The chart at Figure 5-1 shows the length of time that work rates can be sustained before soldiers
become exhausted and energy expenditure rates for march speeds and loads. A burst rate of energy
expenditure of 900 to 1,000 calories per hour can only be sustained for 6 to 10 minutes. Fighting
loads must be light so that the bursts of energy available to a soldier are used to move and to fight,
rather than to carry more than the minimum fighting equipment.
c.
When carrying loads during approach marches, a soldier’s speed can cause a rate-of-energy expenditure
of over 300 calories per hour and can erode the reserves of energy needed upon enemy
contact. March speeds must be reduced when loads are heavier to stay within reasonable energy
expenditure rates. Carrying awkward loads and heavy handheld items causes further degradation
of march speed and agility. The distance marched in six hours decreases by about 2 km for every 10
pounds carried over 40 pounds.
Work rate and energy expenditure.


March speeds.


686 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Battlefield stress decreases the ability of soldiers to carry their loads. Fear burns up the glycogen in the
muscles required to perform physical tasks. This wartime factor is often overlooked in peacetime, but the
commander must consider such a factor when establishing the load for each soldier. However, applying
strong leadership to produce well-trained, highly motivated soldiers can lessen some of the effects of stress.

As the modern battlefield becomes more sophisticated, potential enemies develop better protected equipment,
which could be presented as fleeting targets. Unless technological breakthroughs occur, increasingly
heavy munitions and new types of target acquisition and communications equipment will be required by
frontline soldiers to defeat the enemy.

a.
In the future, the foot soldier’s load can be decreased only by sending him into battle inadequately
equipped or by providing some means of load-handling equipment to help him carry required
equipment.
Weights of selected items.


Movement 687

b. Unless part of the load is removed from the soldier’s back and carried elsewhere, all individual load
weights are too heavy. Even if rucksacks are removed, key teams on the battlefield cannot fulfill
their roles unless they carry excessively heavy loads. Soldiers who must carry heavy loads restrict
the mobility of their units.

688 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Movement 689



690 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques



Movement 691



CHAPTER 10


Field-expedient Direction Finding


In a survival situation, you will be extremely fortunate if you happen to have a map and compass. If you
do have these two pieces of equipment, you will most likely be able to move toward help. If you are not
proficient in using a map and compass, you must take the steps to gain this skill.

There are several methods by which you can determine direction by using the sun and the stars. These
methods, however, will give you only a general direction. You can come up with a more nearly true direction
if you know the terrain of the territory or country.

You must learn all you can about the terrain of the country or territory to which you or your unit may
be sent, especially any prominent features or landmarks. This knowledge of the terrain together with using
the methods explained below will let you come up with fairly true directions to help you navigate.

USING THE SUN AND SHADOWS

The earth’s relationship to the sun can help you to determine direction on earth. The sun always rises in the
east and sets in the west, but not exactly due east or due west. There is also some seasonal variation. In the
northern hemisphere, the sun will be due south when at its highest point in the sky, or when an object casts
no appreciable shadow. In the southern hemisphere, this same noonday sun will mark due north. In the
northern hemisphere, shadows will move clockwise. Shadows will move counterclockwise in the southern
hemisphere. With practice, you can use shadows to determine both direction and time of day. The shadow
methods used for direction finding are the shadow-tip and watch methods.

Shadow-Tip Methods. In the first shadow-tip method, find a straight stick 1 meter long, and a level spot
free of brush on which the stick will cast a definite shadow. This method is simple and accurate and consists
of four steps:

Step 1. Place the stick or branch into the ground at a level spot where it will cast a distinctive shadow.
Mark the shadow’s tip with a stone, twig, or other means. This first shadow mark is always west—everywhere
on earth.

Step 2. Wait 10 to 15 minutes until the shadow tip moves a few centimeters. Mark the shadow tip’s new
position in the same way as the first.

Step 3. Draw a straight line through the two marks to obtain an approximate east-west line.

Step 4. Stand with the first mark (west) to your left and the second mark to your right—you are now
facing north. This fact is true everywhere on earth.

An alternate method is more accurate but requires more time. Set up your shadow stick and mark the
first shadow in the morning. Use a piece of string to draw a clean arc through this mark and around the
stick. At midday, the shadow will shrink and disappear. In the afternoon, it will lengthen again and at the
point where it touches the arc, make a second mark. Draw a line through the two marks to get an accurate
east-west line (see Figure 10-1).

The Watch Method. You can also determine direction using a common or analog watch—one that has
hands. The direction will be accurate if you are using true local time, without any changes for daylight savings
time. Remember, the further you are from the equator, the more accurate this method will be. If you
only have a digital watch, you can overcome this obstacle. Quickly draw a watch on a circle of paper with
the correct time on it and use it to determine your direction at that time.

693


694 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 10-1: Shadow-tip method.

In the northern hemisphere, hold the watch horizontal and point the hour hand at the sun. Bisect the
angle between the hour hand and the 12 o’clock mark to get the north-south line (Figure 10-2). If there is
any doubt as to which end of the line is north, remember that the sun rises in the east, sets in the west, and
is due south at noon. The sun is in the east before noon and in the west after noon.

Note: If your watch is set on daylight savings time, use the midway point between the hour hand and
1 o’clock to determine the north-south line.

In the southern hemisphere, point the watch’s 12 o’clock mark toward the sun and a midpoint halfway
between 12 and the hour hand will give you the north-south line (Figure 10-2).

USING THE MOON

Because the moon has no light of its own, we can only see it when it reflects the sun’s light. As it orbits the
earth on its 28-day circuit, the shape of the reflected light varies according to its position. We say there is
a new moon or no moon when it is on the opposite side of the earth from the sun. Then, as it moves away
from the earth’s shadow, it begins to reflect light from its right side and waxes to become a full moon
before waning, or losing shape, to appear as a sliver on the left side. You can use this information to identify
direction.


Field-expedient Direction Finding 695


Figure 10-2: Watch method.

If the moon rises before the sun has set, the illuminated side will be the west. If the moon rises after
midnight, the illuminated side will be the east. This obvious discovery provides us with a rough east-west
reference during the night.

USING THE STARS

Your location in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere determines which constellation you use to determine
your north or south direction.

The Northern Sky. The main constellations to learn are the Ursa Major, also known as the Big Dipper or
the Plow, and Cassiopeia (Figure 10-3). Neither of these constellations ever sets. They are always visible on
a clear night. Use them to locate Polaris, also known as the polestar or the North Star. The North Star forms
part of the Little Dipper handle and can be confused with the Big Dipper. Prevent confusion by using both
the Big Dipper and Cassiopeia together. The Big Dipper and Cassiopeia are always directly opposite each
other and rotate counterclockwise around Polaris, with Polaris in the center. The Big Dipper is a seven star
constellation in the shape of a dipper. The two stars forming the outer lip of this dipper are the “pointer
stars” because they point to the North Star. Mentally draw a line from the outer bottom star to the outer
top star of the Big Dipper’s bucket. Extend this line about five times the distance between the pointer stars.
You will find the North Star along this line.

Cassiopeia has five stars that form a shape like a “W” on its side. The North Star is straight out from
Cassiopeia’s center star.

After locating the North Star, locate the North Pole or true north by drawing an imaginary line directly
to the earth.

The Southern Sky. Because there is no star bright enough to be easily recognized near the south celestial
pole, a constellation known as the Southern Cross is used as a signpost to the South (Figure 10-4). The
Southern Cross or Crux has five stars. Its four brightest stars form a cross that tilts to one side. The two
stars that make up the cross’s long axis are the pointer stars. To determine south, imagine a distance five
times the distance between these stars and the point where this imaginary line ends is in the general direction
of south. Look down to the horizon from this imaginary point and select a landmark to steer by. In a
static survival situation, you can fix this location in daylight if you drive stakes in the ground at night to
point the way.


696 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


Figure 10-3: The Big Dipper and Cassiopeia.

MAKING IMPROVISED COMPASSES

You can construct improvised compasses using a piece of ferrous metal that can be needle shaped or a flat
double-edged razor blade and a piece of nonmetallic string or long hair from which to suspend it. You can
magnetize or polarize the metal by slowly stroking it in one direction on a piece of silk or carefully through
your hair using deliberate strokes. You can also polarize metal by stroking it repeatedly at one end with a
magnet. Always rub in one direction only. If you have a battery and some electric wire, you can polarize
the metal electrically. The wire should be insulated. If not insulated, wrap the metal object in a single, thin
strip of paper to prevent contact. The battery must be a minimum of 2 volts. Form a coil with the electric
wire and touch its ends to the battery’s terminals. Repeatedly insert one end of the metal object in and out
of the coil. The needle will become an electromagnet. When suspended from a piece of nonmetallic string,
or floated on a small piece of wood in water, it will align itself with a north-south line.

You can construct a more elaborate improvised compass using a sewing needle or thin metallic object,
a nonmetallic container (for example, a plastic dip container), its lid with the center cut out and waterproofed,
and the silver tip from a pen. To construct this compass, take an ordinary sewing needle and
break in half. One half will form your direction pointer and the other will act as the pivot point. Push the
portion used as the pivot point through the bottom center of your container; this portion should be flush on
the bottom and not interfere with the lid. Attach the center of the other portion (the pointer) of the needle
on the pen’s silver tip using glue, tree sap, or melted plastic. Magnetize one end of the pointer and rest it
on the pivot point.

OTHER MEANS OF DETERMINING DIRECTION

The old saying about using moss on a tree to indicate north is not accurate because moss grows completely
around some trees. Actually, growth is more lush on the side of the tree facing the south in the Northern
Hemisphere and vice versa in the Southern Hemisphere. If there are several felled trees around for comparison,
look at the stumps. Growth is more vigorous on the side toward the equator and the tree growth


Field-expedient Direction Finding 697


Figure 10-4: The Southern Cross.

rings will be more widely spaced. On the other hand, the tree growth rings will be closer together on the
side toward the poles.

Wind direction may be helpful in some instances where there are prevailing directions and you know
what they are.

Recognizing the differences between vegetation and moisture patterns on north- and south-facing
slopes can aid in determining direction. In the northern hemisphere, north-facing slopes receive less sun
than south-facing slopes and are therefore cooler and damper. In the summer, north-facing slopes retain
patches of snow. In the winter, the trees and open areas on south-facing slopes are the first to lose their
snow, and ground snow pack is shallower.


PART VI


Environment-Specific
Survival



CHAPTER 1


Tropical Survival


Most people think of the tropics as a huge and forbidding tropical rain forest through which every step
taken must be hacked out, and where every inch of the way is crawling with danger. Actually, over half of
the land in the tropics is cultivated in some way.

A knowledge of field skills, the ability to improvise, and the application of the principles of survival
will increase the prospects of survival. Do not be afraid of being alone in the jungle; fear will lead to panic.
Panic will lead to exhaustion and decrease your chance of survival.

Everything in the jungle thrives, including disease germs and parasites that breed at an alarming rate.
Nature will provide water, food, and plenty of materials to build shelters.

Indigenous peoples have lived for millennia by hunting and gathering. However, it will take an outsider
some time to get used to the conditions and the nonstop activity of tropical survival.

TROPICAL WEATHER

High temperatures, heavy rainfall, and oppressive humidity characterize equatorial and subtropical
regions, except at high altitudes. At low altitudes, temperature variation is seldom less than 10 degrees C
and is often more than 35 degrees C. At altitudes over 1,500 meters, ice often forms at night. The rain has a
cooling effect, but when it stops, the temperature soars.

Rainfall is heavy, often with thunder and lightning. Sudden rain beats on the tree canopy, turning trickles
into raging torrents and causing rivers to rise. Just as suddenly, the rain stops. Violent storms may
occur, usually toward the end of the summer months.

Hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons develop over the sea and rush inland, causing tidal waves and devastation
ashore. In choosing campsites, make sure you are above any potential flooding. Prevailing winds
vary between winter and summer. The dry season has rain once a day and the monsoon has continuous
rain. In Southeast Asia, winds from the Indian Ocean bring the monsoon, but it is dry when the wind blows
from the landmass of China.

Tropical day and night are of equal length. Darkness falls quickly and daybreak is just as sudden.


Figure 1-1: Five layers of tropical rain forest vegetation.

701


702 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


TYPES OF JUNGLES

The jungle environment includes densely forested areas, grasslands, cultivated areas, and swamps. Jungles
are classified as primary or secondary jungles based on the terrain and vegetation.

Primary Jungles. These are tropical forests. Depending on the type of trees growing in these forests, primary
jungles are classified either as tropical rain forests or as deciduous forests.

Tropical Rain Forests. The climate varies little in rain forests. You find these forests across the equator in the
Amazon and Congo basins, parts of Indonesia, and several Pacific islands. Up to 3.5 meters of rain fall evenly
throughout the year. Temperatures range from about 32 degrees C in the day to 21 degrees C at night.

TROPICAL RAIN FOREST DECIDUOUS FOREST



Tropical Survival 703

There are five layers of vegetation in this jungle. Where untouched by man, jungle trees rise from buttress
roots to heights of 60 meters. Below them, smaller trees produce a canopy so thick that little light
reaches the jungle floor. Seedlings struggle beneath them to reach light, and masses of vines and lianas
twine up to the sun. Ferns, mosses, and herbaceous plants push through a thick carpet of leaves, and a
great variety of fungi grow on leaves and fallen tree trunks.

Because of the lack of light on the jungle floor, there is little undergrowth to hamper movement, but
dense growth limits visibility to about 50 meters. A wet and soggy surface make vehicular traffic difficult.
Foot movement is easier in tropical forests than in other types of jungle. You can easily lose your sense of
direction in this jungle, and it is extremely hard for aircraft to see you.

Deciduous Forests. These are found in semitropical zones where there are both wet and dry seasons. In the
wet season, trees are fully leaved; in the dry season, much of the foliage dies. Trees are generally less dense
in deciduous forests than in rain forests. This allows more rain and sunlight to filter to the ground, producing
thick undergrowth. In the wet season, with the trees in full leaf, observation both from the air and on
the ground is limited. Movement is more difficult than in the rain forest. In the dry season, however, both
observation and trafficability improve.

The characteristics of the American and African semievergreen seasonal forests correspond with those
of the Asian monsoon forests. These characteristics are—

•
Their trees fall into two stories of tree strata. Those in the upper story average 18 to 24 meters; those
in the lower story average 7 to 13 meters.
•
The diameter of the trees averages 0.5 meter.
•
Their leaves fall during a seasonal drought.
Except for the sage, nipa, and coconut palms, the same edible plants grow in these areas as in the tropical
rain forests.

You find these forests in portions of Columbia and Venezuela and the Amazon basin in South America;
in portions of southeast coastal Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique in Africa; in Northeastern India, much
of Burma, Thailand, Indochina, Java, and parts of other Indonesian islands in Asia.

Secondary Jungles. These are found at the edge of the rain forest and the deciduous forest, and in areas
where jungles have been cleared and abandoned. Secondary jungles appear when the ground has been
repeatedly exposed to sunlight. These areas are typically overgrown with weeds, grasses, thorns, ferns,
canes, and shrubs. Foot movement is extremely slow and difficult. Vegetation may reach to a height of
2 meters. This will limit observation to the front to only a few meters.

SECONDARY JUNGLE




704 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Such growth happens mainly along river banks, on jungle fringes, and where man has cleared rain forest.
When abandoned, tangled masses of vegetation quickly reclaim these cultivated areas. You can often
find cultivated food plants among this vegetation.

Tropical Scrub and Thorn Forests. The chief characteristics of tropical scrub and thorn forests are—

• There is a definite dry season.
• Trees are leafless during the dry season.
• The ground is bare except for a few tufted plants in bunches; grasses are uncommon.
• Plants with thorns predominate.
• Fires occur frequently.
You find tropical scrub and thorn forests on the west coast of Mexico, Yucatan peninsula, Venezuela,
Brazil; on the northwest coast and central parts of Africa; and in Asia, in Turkestan and India.

Within the tropical scrub and thorn forest areas, you will find it hard to obtain food plants during the
dry season. During the rainy season, plants are considerably more abundant.

COMMON JUNGLE FEATURES

Swamps. These are common to all low jungle areas where there is water and poor drainage. There are two
basic types of swamps—mangrove and palm.

Mangrove Swamps. These are found in coastal areas wherever tides influence water flow. The mangrove
is a shrub-like tree which grows 1 to 5 meters high. These trees have tangled root systems, both above and
below the water level, which restrict movement to foot or small boats. Observation in mangrove swamps,
both on the ground and from the air, is poor, and movement is extremely difficult. Sometimes, streams that
you can raft form channels, but you usually must travel on foot through this swamp.

You find saltwater swamps in West Africa, Madagascar, Malaysia, the Pacific islands, Central and South
America, and at the mouth of the Ganges River in India. The swamps at the mouths of the Orinoco and
Amazon rivers and rivers of Guyana consist of mud and trees that offer little shade. Tides in saltwater
swamps can vary as much as 12 meters.

Everything in a saltwater swamp may appear hostile to you, from leeches and insects to crocodiles and
caimans. Avoid the dangerous animals in this swamp.

MANGROVE SWAMP PALM SWAMP




Tropical Survival 705

Avoid this swamp altogether if you can. If there are water channels through it, you may be able to use
a raft to escape.

Palm Swamps. These exist in both salt and fresh water areas. Their characteristics are masses of thorny
undergrowth, reeds, grasses, and occasional short palms that reduce visibility and make travel difficult.
There are often islands that dot these swamps, allowing you to get out of the water. Wildlife is abundant
in these swamps. Like movement in the mangrove swamps, movement through palm swamps is mostly
restricted to foot (sometimes small boats). Vehicular traffic is nearly impossible except after extensive road
construction by engineers. Observation and fields-of-fire are very limited. Concealment from both air and
ground observation is excellent.

Savanna. This is a broad, open jungle grassland in which trees are scarce. The thick grass is broad-bladed
and grows 1 to 5 meters high. It looks like a broad, grassy meadow, and frequently has red soil. It grows
scattered trees that usually appear stunted and gnarled like apple trees. Palms also occur on savannas.

Movement in the savanna is generally easier than in other types of jungle areas, especially for vehicles.
The sharp-edged, dense grass and extreme heat make foot movement a slow and tiring process. Depending
on the height of the grass, ground observation may vary from poor to good. Concealment from air
observation is poor for both troops and vehicles. You find savannas in parts of Venezuela, Brazil, and the
Guianasin South America. In Africa, you find them in the southern Sahara (north-central Cameroon and
Gabon and southern Sudan), Benin, Togo, most of Nigeria, northeastern Zaire, northern Uganda, western
Kenya, part of Malawi, part of Tanzania, southern Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and western Madagascar.

Bamboo. This grows in clumps of varying size in jungles throughout the tropics. Large stands of bamboo
are excellent obstacles for wheeled or tracked vehicles. Troop movement through bamboo is slow, exhausting,
and noisy. Troops should bypass bamboo stands if possible.

Cultivated Areas. These exist in jungles throughout the tropics and range from large, well-planned and
well-managed farms and plantations to small tracts cultivated by individual farmers. There are three general
types of cultivated areas—rice paddies, plantations, and small farms.

Rice Paddies. These are flat, flooded fields in which rice is grown. Flooding of the fields is controlled by a
network of dikes and irrigation ditches which make movement by vehicles difficult even when the fields
are dry. Concealment is poor in rice paddies. Cover is limited to the dikes, and then only from ground fire.
Observation and fields of fire are excellent. Foot movement is poor when the fields are wet because soldiers
must wade through water about 1/2 meter (2 feet) deep and soft mud. When the fields are dry, foot movement
becomes easier. The dikes, about 2 to 3 meters tall, are the only obstacles.

SAVANNA


BAMBOO

706 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques

Plantations. These are large farms or estates where tree crops, such as rubber and coconut, are grown.
They are usually carefully planned and free of undergrowth (like a well-tended park). Movement through
plantations is generally easy. Observation along the rows of trees is generally good. Concealment and
cover can be found behind the trees, but soldiers moving down the cultivated rows are exposed.

Small Farms. These exist throughout the tropics. These small cultivated areas are usually hastily planned.
After 1 or 2 years’ use, they usually are abandoned, leaving behind a small open area which turns into secondary
jungle. Movement through these areas may be difficult due to fallen trees and scrub brush.

Generally, observation and fields-of-fire are less restricted in cultivated areas than in uncultivated jungles.
However, much of the natural cover and concealment are removed by cultivation, and troops will be
more exposed in these areas.

LIFE IN THE JUNGLE

The jungle environment affects everyone. The degree to which you are trained to live and fight in harsh
environments will determine your survival.

There is very little to fear from the jungle environment. Fear itself can be an enemy. Soldiers must be
taught to control their fear of the jungle. A man overcome with fear is of little value in any situation. Soldiers
in a jungle must learn that the most important thing is to keep their heads and calmly think out any
situation.

Many of the stories written about out-of-the-way jungle places were written by writers who went there in
search of adventure rather than facts. Practically without exception, these authors exaggerated or invented
many of the thrilling experiences they relate. These thrillers are often a product of the author’s imagination
and are not facts.

Most Americans, especially those raised in cities, have lost the knack of taking care of themselves under
all conditions. It would be foolish to say that, without proper training, they would be in no danger if lost
in the jungles of Southeast Asia, South America, or some Pacific island. On the other hand, they would be
in just as much danger if lost in the mountains of western Pennsylvania or in other undeveloped regions
of our own country. The only difference would be that you are less likely to panic when lost in your homeland
than abroad.

Immediate Considerations. There is less likelihood of your rescue from beneath a dense jungle canopy
than in other survival situations. You will probably have to travel to reach safety.

RICE PADDIES

PLANTATIONS



Tropical Survival 707


SMALL FARMS

If you are the victim of an aircraft crash, the most important items to take with you from the crash site
are a machete, a compass, a first aid kit, and a parachute or other material for use as mosquito netting and
shelter.

Take shelter from tropical rain, sun, and insects. Malaria-carrying mosquitoes and other insects are
immediate dangers, so protect yourself against bites.

Do not leave the crash area without carefully blazing or marking your route. Use your compass. Know
what direction you are taking.

In the tropics, even the smallest scratch can quickly become dangerously infected. Promptly treat any
wound, no matter how minor.

Effect of Climate. The discomforts of tropical climates are often exaggerated, but it is true that the heat is
more persistent. In regions where the air contains a lot of moisture, the effect of the heat may seem worse
than the same temperature in a dry climate. Many people experienced in jungle operations feel that the
heat and discomfort in some US cities in the summertime are worse than the climate in the jungle.

Strange as it may seem, there may be more suffering from cold in the tropics than from the heat. Of
course, very low temperatures do not occur, but chilly days and nights are common. In some jungles, in
winter months, the nights are cold enough to require a wool blanket or poncho liner for sleeping.

Rainfall in many parts of the tropics is much greater than that in most areas of the temperate zones.
Tropical downpours usually are followed by clear skies, and in most places the rains are predictable at



708 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques


certain times of the day. Except in those areas where rainfall may be continuous during the rainy season,
there are not many days when the sun does not shine part of the time.

People who live in the tropics usually plan their activities so that they are able to stay under shelter during
the rainy and hotter portions of the day. After becoming used to it, most tropical dwellers prefer the
constant climate of the torrid zones to the frequent weather changes in colder climates.

Insects. Malaria-carrying mosquitoes are probably the most harmful of the tropical insects. Soldiers can
contract malaria if proper precautions are not taken.

Mosquitoes are most prevalent early at night and just before dawn. Soldiers must be especially cautious
at these times. Malaria is more common in populated areas than in uninhabited jungle, so soldiers must
also be especially cautious when operating around villages. Mud packs applied to mosquito bites offer
some relief from itching.

Wasps and bees may be common in some places, but they will rarely attack unless their nests are disturbed.
When a nest is disturbed, the troops must leave the area and reassemble at the last rally point. In
case of stings, mud packs are helpful. In some areas, there are tiny bees, called sweatbees, which may collect
on exposed parts of the body during dry weather, especially if the body is sweating freely. They are
annoying but stingless and will leave when sweating has completely stopped, or they may be scraped off
with the hand.

The larger centipedes and scorpions can inflict stings which are painful but not fatal. They like dark
places, so it is always advisable to shake out blankets before sleeping at night, and to make sure before
dressing that they are not hidden in clothing or shoes. Spiders are commonly found in the jungle. Their
bites may be painful, but are rarely serious. Ants can be dangerous to injured men lying on the ground and
unable to move. Wounded soldiers should be placed in an area free of ants.

In Southeast Asian jungles, the rice-borer moth of the lowlands collects around lights in great numbers
during certain seasons. It is a small, plain-colored moth with a pair of tiny black spots on the wings. It
should never be brushed off roughly, as the small barbed hairs of its body may be ground into the skin.
This causes a sore, much like a burn, that often takes weeks to heal.

Leeches. Leeches are common in many jungle areas, particularly throughout most of the Southwest
Pacific, Southeast Asia, and the Malay Peninsula. They are found in swampy areas, streams, and moist
jungle country. They are not poisonous, but their bites may become infected if not cared for properly.
The small wound that they cause may provide a point of entry for the germs which cause tropical ulcers
or “jungle sores.” Soldiers operating in the jungle should watch for leeches on the body and brush them
off before they have had time to bite. When they have taken hold, they should not be pulled off forcibly
because part of the leech may remain in the skin. Leeches will release themselves if touched with insect
repellent, a moist piece of tobacco, the burning end of a cigarette, a coal from a fire, or a few drops of
alcohol.