COMBAT+USA(part1)

The Ultimate Guide to

U.S. Army

Combat



Skills, Tactics, and Techniques





The Ultimate Guide to

U.S. Army

Combat



Skills, Tactics, and Techniques





Edited by

Jay McCullough





Skyhorse Publishing





Copyright В© 2010 by Skyhorse Publishing



All Rights Reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without the express written consent of the publisher, except in the case of brief excerpts in critical reviews or articles. All inquiries should be addressed to Skyhorse Publishing, 555 Eighth Avenue, Suite 903, New York, NY 10018.



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ISBN: 978-1-61608-569-8



Printed in Canada





CONTENTS



Introduction



Part I

HAND-TO-HAND COMBAT





Introduction to Combatives



Chapter 1 Basic Ground-Fighting Techniques

Chapter 2 Advanced Ground-Fighting Techniques

Chapter 3 Takedowns and Throws

Chapter 4 Strikes

Chapter 5 Handheld Weapons

Chapter 6 Standing Defense

Chapter 7 Group Tactics

Part II

COMBAT WEAPONS





The Army Combat Rifle

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Army Combat Rifle

Chapter 2 Operation and Function

Chapter 3 Rifle Marksmanship Training

Chapter 4 Combat Fire Techniques

Chapter 5 Night Firing

Sniper Training

Chapter 1 Introduction to Sniper Training

Chapter 2 Equipment

Chapter 3 Marksmanship

Chapter 4 Field Techniques

Chapter 5 Tracking/Countertracking

The Army Combat Pistol

Chapter 1 Components and Functioning

Chapter 2 Pistol Marksmanship Training

Army Combat machine Gun Fundamentals

Chapter 1 Machine Gun Marksmanship Training

Chapter 2 Combat Techniques of Fire

Army Combat Guide to Use & Identification of Hand Grenades

Chapter 1 Types of Hand Grenades

Chapter 2 Maintenance

Chapter 3 Employment of Hand Grenades

Chapter 4 Threat Hand Grenades

Chapter 5 Obsolete Hand Grenades

Chapter 6 NATO Hand Grenades

The Claymore Antipersonnel Mine

Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 Mechanical Training

Chapter 3 Tactical Employment

Chapter 4 Safety

Boobytraps

Chapter 1 Characteristics of Boobytraps

Chapter 2 Use of Boobytraps

Chapter 3 Boobytrapping Equipment

Chapter 4 Construction Techniques

Chapter 5 Miscellaneous Boobytraps

Chapter 6 Boobytrap Detection and Removal

Part III

REGION - SPECIFIC COMBAT





Combat in Desert Environments

Introduction



Chapter 1 The Environment and Its Effects on Personnel and Equipment

Chapter 2 Desert Concealment and Camouflage

Chapter 3 Operations in Desert Conditions

Chapter 4 Operations in Mountains

Combat in Jungle Environments

Chapter 1 The Jungle

Chapter 2 Life in the Jungle

Chapter 3 Preparation and Training to Deploy to Jungle Areas

Chapter 4 The Threat in Jungle Areas

Chapter 5 Tactical Operations

Chapter 6 Navigation and Tracking

Chapter 7 Jungle Obstacles

Chapter 8 Waterborne Operations

Chapter 9 Defensive Formation

Combat in the Urban Environment

Chapter 1 Urban Combat Skills

Chapter 2 Offensive Operations

Chapter 3 Defensive Operations





INTRODUCTION

The U.S. has the best-equipped and well-trained Army in the world. Barring unforeseen political considerations or a catastrophic act of nature, it can deploy nearly anywhere and accomplish almost any reasonable mission. This is due in large part to the Army’s experience as an institution in a variety of wartime environments. Its hard-earned wisdom about how to cope with almost every imaginable scenario, on a soldier-by-soldier basis, distinguishes it as a service of excellence whose individuals are highly adaptable. They are well prepared, they accomplish the mission, and when the circumstances are truly unfavorable to life itself, they are survivors.

The keys to this preparation are contained in the Army’s many sensible, well-written, voluminous, and scattered publications. They address nearly every aspect of running, provisioning, or being in the Army, and include what constitutes really the best information on combat operations available anywhere. With the exception of being a professional soldier, I can think of no better way to learn about combat than from these many volumes. The task of culling every bit of useful information about combat from every U.S. Army publication would take months however, so I’ve done it here for you in The Ultimate U.S. Army Guide to Combat Skills, Tactics, and Techniques. You could say, it practically wrote itself. Anything useful you find within these pages is due to hard working and dedicated Army personnel who took the time to research and assemble this valuable information. Anything incorrect or inconsequential is my fault for including it.

I’ve tried to make the selections useful to a general reader who may find him- or herself in a combat situation, whether they are alone or in a small group. Here you will find information on how to defend yourself with your bare hands, how to pick through an urban battlefield, learn how to draw a bead on someone or something, and how to avoid having sniper get the best of you. On a battlefield you may need to recognize grenades, boobytraps, and natural defensive locations, and they are all discussed here. Since you may have occasion to find a machine gun, there are also Sections about the tactical considerations of using one. Alas, since you are unlikely to become a tank commander, or forge a tank in your back yard (and because the stingy publisher would give me only a thousand pages), you will find no information on how to conduct a classic set-piece tank battle on the plains of central Europe. But, you will discover the weaker points of Soviet-era and modern Russian tanks. Useful stuff when you need it!

As a final note, I’d like to suggest some of what I’d consider the best advice about combat I can give. Just as hospitals are excellent places to get sick, battlegrounds are excellent places to get dead. War is a conflagration; it does not seek peace, rather, like many human institutions, it seeks its own continuance, jumping from country to country like a wildfire or a pestilence, and it ceases only when it has destroyed everything in its path and utterly exhausted all a people’s political oxygen, ruins or expends all their resources, and has crippled or killed all their children. So, it’s probably best to avoid combat situations for reasons large and small. But some wars are unavoidable, and for those times, the ability to survive, and yes, even thrive belongs to those who are best trained, properly equipped, and who are adaptable to rapidly changing conditions. Your training starts here.

Jay Mccullough

December 2009

North Haven, Connecticut





PART I





Hand-to-Hand Combat





Introduction to Combatives



Very few people have ever been killed with the bayonet or saber, but the fear of having their guts explored with cold steel in the hands of battle-maddened men has won many a fight.



–PATTON





DEFINITION OF COMBATIVES



Hand-to-hand combat is an engagement between two or more persons in an empty-handed struggle or with handheld weapons such as knives, sticks, or projectile weapons that cannot be fired. Proficiency in hand-to-hand combat is one of the fundamental building blocks for training the modern soldier.


PURPOSES OF COMBATIVES TRAINING



Soldiers must be prepared to use different levels of force in an environment where conflict may change from low intensity to high intensity over a matter of hours. Many military operations, such as peacekeeping missions or noncombatant evacuation, may restrict the use of deadly weapons. Hand-to-hand combatives training will save lives when an unexpected confrontation occurs.

More importantly, combatives training helps to instill courage and self-confidence. With competence comes the understanding of controlled aggression and the ability to remain focused while under duress. Training in combatives includes hard and arduous physical training that is, at the same time, mentally demanding and carries over to other military pursuits. The overall effect of combatives training is—



• The culmination of a successful physical fitness program, enhancing individual and unit strength, flexibility, balance, and cardiorespiratory fitness.



• Building personal courage, self-confidence, self-discipline, and esprit de corps.




BASIC PRINCIPLES



Underlying all combatives techniques are principles the hand-to-hand fighter must apply to successfully defeat an opponent. The natural progression of techniques, as presented in this manual, will instill these principles into the soldier.

a. Mental Calm. During a fight a soldier must keep his ability to think. He must not allow fear or anger to control his actions.



b. Situational Awareness. Things are often going on around the fighters that could have a direct impact on the outcome of the fight such as opportunity weapons or other personnel joining the fight.



c. Suppleness. A soldier cannot always count on being bigger and stronger than the enemy. He should, therefore, never try to oppose the enemy in a direct test of strength. Supple misdirection of the enemy’s strength allows superior technique and fight strategy to overcome superior strength.



d. Base. Base refers to the posture that allows a soldier to gain leverage from the ground. Generally, a soldier must keep his center of gravity low and his base wide—much like a pyramid.



e. Dominant Body Position. Position refers to the location of the fighter’s body in relation to his opponent’s. A vital principle when fighting is to gain control of the enemy by controlling this relationship. Before any killing or disabling technique can be applied, the soldier must first gain and maintain one of the dominant body positions.



f. Distance. Each technique has a window of effectiveness based upon the amount of space between the two combatants. The fighter must control the distance between himself and the enemy in order to control the fight.



g. Physical Balance. Balance refers to the ability to maintain equilibrium and to remain in a stable upright position.



h. Leverage. A fighter uses the parts of his body to create a natural mechanical advantage over the parts of the enemy’s body. By using leverage, a fighter can have a greater effect on a much larger enemy.




SAFETY



The Army’s combatives program has been specifically designed to train the most competent fighters in the shortest possible time in the safest possible manner.

a. General Safety Precautions. The techniques of Army combatives should be taught in the order presented in this manual. They are arranged to not only give the natural progression of techniques, but to present the more dangerous techniques after the soldiers have established a familiarity with the dynamics of combative techniques in general. This will result in fewer serious injuries from the more dynamic moves.



b. Supervision. The most important safety consideration is proper supervision. Because of the potentially dangerous nature of the techniques involved, combatives training must always be conducted under the supervision of qualified leaders.



c. Training Areas. Most training should be conducted in an area with soft footing such as a grassy or sandy area. If training mats are available, they should be used. A hard surface area is not appropriate for combatives training.



d. Chokes. Chokes are the best way to end a fight. They are the most effective way to incapacitate an enemy and, with supervision, are also safe enough to apply in training exactly as on the battlefield.



e. Joint Locks. In order to incapacitate an enemy, attacks should be directed against large joints such as the elbow, shoulder, or knee. Attacks on most of these joints are very painful long before causing any injury, which allows full-force training to be conducted without significant risk of injury. The exceptions are wrist attacks and twisting knee attacks. The wrist is very easily damaged, and twisting the knee does not become painful until it is too late. Therefore, these attacks should be taught with great care and should not be allowed in sparring or competitions.



f. Striking. Striking is an inefficient way to incapacitate an enemy. Strikes are, however, an important part of an overall fight strategy and can be very effective in manipulating the opponent into unfavorable positions. Striking can be practiced with various types of protective padding such as boxing gloves. Defense can be practiced using reduced force blows. Training should be continuously focused on the realities of fighting.





CHAPTER 1





Basic Ground-Fighting Techniques



Basic ground-fighting techniques build a fundamental understanding of dominant body position, which should be the focus of most combatives training before moving on to the more difficult standing techniques. Ground fighting is also where technique can most easily be used to overcome size and strength.





SECTION I. DOMINANT BODY POSITION



Before any killing or disabling technique can be applied, the soldier must first gain and maintain dominant body position. The leverage gained from dominant body position allows the fighter to defeat a stronger opponent. An appreciation for dominant position is fundamental to becoming a proficient fighter because it ties together what would otherwise be a long confusing list of unrelated techniques. If a finishing technique is attempted from dominant position and fails, the fighter can simply try again. If, on the other hand, a finishing technique is attempted from other than dominant position and fails, it will usually mean defeat. The dominant body positions will be introduced in order of precedence.



1-1. BACK MOUNT



The back mount gives the fighter the best control of the fight (Figure 1-1, page 1-2). From this position it is very difficult for the enemy to either defend himself or counterattack. Both legs should be wrapped around the enemy with the heels “hooked” inside his legs. One arm is under an armpit and the other is around the neck and the hands are clasped. Even though a fighter may find himself with his own back on the ground this is still the back mount.

CAUTION



While in the back mount, the fighter’s feet should never be crossed because this would provide the enemy an opportunity for an ankle break.





Figure 1-1: Back mount.





1-2. FRONT MOUNT



The front mount (Figure 1-2) is dominant because it allows the fighter to strike the enemy with punches without the danger of effective return punches, and also provides the leverage to attack the enemy’s upper body with joint attacks. Knees are as high as possible toward the enemy’s armpits. This position should be held loosely to allow the enemy to turn over if he should try.





Figure 1-2: Front mount.





1-3. GUARD



If the fighter must be on the bottom, the guard position (Figure 1-3) allows the best defense and the only chance of offense. It is important initially for the fighter to lock his feet together behind the enemy’s back to prevent him from simply pushing the fighter’s knees down and stepping over them.





Figure 1-3: Guard.





1-4. SIDE CONTROL



Although side control (Figure 1-4) is not a dominant position, many times a fighter will find himself in this position, and he must be able to counter the enemy’s defensive techniques. The fighter should place his elbow on the ground in the notch created by the enemy’s head and shoulder. His other hand should be palm down on the ground on the near side of the enemy. The leg closest to the enemy’s head should be straight and the other one bent so that the knee is near the enemy’s hip. He should keep his head down to avoid knee strikes.





Figure 1-4: Side control.





SECTION II. BASIC TECHNIQUES



These basic techniques not only teach a fighter to understand dominant body position, but also provide an introduction to a systematic way of fighting on the ground. Almost all types of finishing moves are represented by the simplest and, at the same time, most effective example of the type. Before any time is spent on the more complex and harder to learn techniques presented later in this manual, the fighter must master these basics.


1-5. BODY POSITIONING MOVES



The key to developing good ground fighters is ingraining a feel for the dominant body positions and how they relate to each other.

a. Stand up in Base. This is the most basic technique. It allows the fighter to stand up in the presence of an enemy or potential enemy without compromising his base and thus making himself vulnerable to attack. The principles of body movement inherent in this technique make it so important that leaders should reinforce it every time a fighter stands up.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 1-5). The fighter assumes a seated posture resting on his strong side hand with his weak side arm resting comfortably on his bent knee. His feet should not be crossed.





Figure 1-5: Stand up in base, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 1-6). Placing his weight on his strong side hand and weak side foot, the fighter picks up the rest of his body and swings his leg between his two posts, placing his foot behind his strong side hand. It is important that the knee should be behind the same side arm as shown.





Figure 1-6: Stand up in base, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 1-7). After placing his weight on both feet, the fighter lifts his hand from the ground and assumes a fighter’s stance. He holds his hands high to protect his head and face. His fists are clenched, but relaxed. His elbows are close to his body, and his weight is evenly distributed on both feet, creating a stable base. He is light on his feet with his knees slightly flexed to allow quick movement in any direction.





Figure 1-7: The fighter’s stance.





b. Escape the Mount, Trap, and Roll. This move starts with the fighter on his back and the enemy mounted on his chest.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 1-8). Using both hands the fighter secures one of the enemy’s arms and places his foot over the same side foot of the enemy, keeping his elbows tucked in as much as possible.





Figure 1-8: Escape the mount, trap, and roll, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 1-9). The fighter now lifts the enemy straight up with his hips and, because the enemy has neither a hand nor a foot to stop him, he will topple over.





Figure 1-9: Escape the mount, trap, and roll, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 1-10). As the enemy begins to fall, the fighter turns over, ending within the enemy’s guard.





Figure 1-10: Escape the mount, trap, and roll, step 3.





c. Escape the Mount, Shrimp to the Guard. This move also starts with the fighter on his back and the enemy mounted on his chest. While the fighter is attempting to escape the mount, trap, and roll, he may be unable to capture the enemy’s leg. This occurs when the enemy moves his leg away. This movement, however, creates an opening under the same leg. The term shrimp refers to the action of moving the hips away, which is crucial to the success of this technique.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 1-11). The fighter turns on his side and faces toward the opening created by the enemy, ensuring that his leg is flat on the ground.





Figure 1-11: Escape the mount, shrimp to the guard, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 1-12). The fighter now uses either his elbow or hand to hold the enemy’s leg in place and brings his knee through the opening.





Figure 1-12: Escape the mount, shrimp to the guard, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 1-13). When his knee gets past the enemy’s leg, the fighter places his weight on the same leg and turns towards the other side. This action will bring his knee up and create enough space to pull the leg out and place it over the enemy’s leg.





Figure 1-13: Escape the mount, shrimp to the guard, step 3.





(4) Step 4 (Figure 1-14). The fighter now uses his hands to hold the enemy’s other leg in place to repeat the actions from the first side.





Figure 1-14: Escape the mount, shrimp to the guard, step 4.





(5) Step 5 (Figure 1-15). It is important that the fighter lock his feet together around the enemy, placing him in the open guard.





Figure 1-15: Escape the mount, shrimp to the guard, step 5.





d. Pass the Guard and Achieve the Mount. The fighter is in base within the enemy’s guard. From this position, the fighter must escape from within the enemy’s legs. This action is called passing the guard.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 1-16). The first thing the fighter must do is defend against the front choke by using one hand to pin one of the enemy’s arms to the ground at the biceps. He also keeps an upright posture.





Figure 1-16: Pass the guard and achieve the mount, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 1-17). The fighter then raises his opposite side foot and places it on the ground just out of reach of the enemy’s hand. He turns his hips, creating an opening, and pushes his hand through, fingertips first.





Figure 1-17: Pass the guard and achieve the mount, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 1-18). The fighter then slides down and back until the enemy’s leg is on his shoulder.





Figure 1-18: Pass the guard and achieve the mount, step 3.





(4) Step 4 (Figure 1-19). With the same hand, the fighter grasps the enemy’s collar with his thumb on the inside and drives the enemy’s knee straight past his head. Pressure on the enemy’s spine forces him to release his legs.





Figure 1-19: Pass the guard and achieve the mount, step 4.





Figure 1-19: Pass the guard and achieve the mount, step 4. (Continued)





(5) Step 5 (Figure 1-20). The fighter rides the enemy down into side control.





Figure 1-20: Pass the guard and achieve the mount, step 5.





Figure 1-20: Pass the guard and achieve the mount, step 5. (Continued)





(6) Step 6 (Figure 1-21). The fighter faces toward the enemy’s legs and changes his hips, ensuring that his knee is controlling the enemy’s hip, and that his legs are spread out to avoid a reversal.





Figure 1-21: Pass the guard and achieve the mount, step 6.





(7) Step 7 (Figure 1-22). The fighter uses his free hand to control the enemy’s legs, and swings his leg over into the mount.





Figure 1-22: Pass the guard and achieve the mount, step 7.





e. Escape the Half Guard. Frequently the enemy will wrap his legs around one of fighter’s from the bottom. This is called the half guard.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 1-23). The fighter must prevent the enemy from either regaining the guard, or rolling him over. To do this, the fighter must assume a strong position. He should ensure that his elbow is against the side of the enemy’s neck, and he is blocking the enemy from placing his leg under him with his bottom knee.





Figure 1-23: Escape the half guard, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 1-24). By moving first the toe and then the heel of the captured foot, the fighter “walks” it closer to the enemy’s buttocks.





Figure 1-24: Escape the half guard, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 1-25). The fighter uses his free hand to push the enemy’s knee until the fighter’s knee is exposed, and then drives it over the enemy until it is on the ground.





Figure 1-25: Escape the half guard, step 3.





(4) Step 4 (Figure 1-26). If the enemy attempts to push against the fighter’s knee with his hand, the fighter places his hand under the enemy’s arm at the bend in his elbow and pushes it upward towards his head.





Figure 1-26: Escape the half guard, step 4.





f. Arm Push and Roll to the Rear Mount. The fighter starts this technique in the front mount.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 1-27). When the enemy attempts to protect his face from punches by crossing his arms over it, the fighter uses both hands to push one arm farther across and captures it in place by using his body weight.





Figure 1-27: Arm push and roll to the rear mount, step 1.





Figure 1-27: Arm push and roll to the rear mount, step 1. (Continued)





Figure 1-27: Arm push and roll to the rear mount, step 1. (Continued)





(2) Step 2 (Figure 1-28). While keeping control with one hand, the fighter uses the other hand to reach around the enemy’s head and grasp the wrist of the captured hand.





Figure 1-28: Arm push and roll to the rear mount, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 1-29). The fighter now places the first hand on the enemy’s elbow and, by pushing with his chest, turns the enemy onto his stomach. The hand on the elbow is used to hold the enemy in place while the fighter repositions his chest for further pushing.





Figure 1-29: Arm push and roll to the rear mount, step 3.





(4) Step 4 (Figure 1-30). The enemy will sometimes use his elbow as a post to avoid being turned to his stomach. When this happens, the fighter brings his weight slightly off of the enemy and uses his hand to pull the elbow under the enemy, pushing him forward onto his stomach.





Figure 1-30: Arm push and roll to the rear mount, step 4.





(5) Step 5 (Figure 1-31). From this position the enemy normally tries to rise up and get his knees under him. When he attempts this, the fighter sits up and brings both legs around, “hooking” them inside of the enemy’s legs, and grasps his hands together around the enemy’s chest. One arm should be over the enemy’s shoulder and the other should be under his arm.





Figure 1-31: Arm push and roll to the rear Mount, step 5.





g. Escape the Rear mount. This technique begins with the fighter face down and the enemy on the fighter’s back in the rear mount.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 1-32). The fighter must first roll over one shoulder so the enemy ends up underneath him, both facing skyward.





Figure 1-32: Escape the rear mount, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 1-33). He now places one arm beside his own ear as shown and the other across his body in his armpit. This will prevent the enemy from securing a choke.





Figure 1-33: Escape the rear mount, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 1-34). Falling toward the side of his own raised arm, the fighter pushes himself toward his own shoulders using the ground to “scrape” the enemy off his back.





Figure 1-34: Escape the rear mount, step 3.





(4) Step 4 (Figure 1-35). Once his back is on the ground, the fighter uses his arms and legs to step over and gain the mount.





Figure 1-35: Escape the rear mount, step 4.





Figure 1-35: Escape the rear mount, step 4. (Continued)





1-6. FINISHING MOVES



When dominant body position has been achieved the fighter can attempt to finish the fight secure in the knowledge that if an attempt fails, as long as he maintains dominant position, he may simply try again.

a. Rear Naked Choke. Chokes are the most effective method of disabling an enemy. This technique should only be executed from the back mount after both leg hooks are in place.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 1-36). Leaving the weak hand in place, the fighter reaches around the enemy’s neck and under his chin with the strong hand.





Figure 1-36: Rear naked choke, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 1-37). The fighter now places the biceps of the weak hand under the strong hand, moves the weak hand to the back of the enemy’s head, and completes the choke by expanding his chest.





Figure 1-37: Rear naked choke, step 2.





b. Cross Collar Choke from the Mount and Guard. This technique can only be executed from the guard or the mount.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 1-38). With the weak hand, the fighter grasps the enemy’s collar and pulls it open.





Figure 1-38: Cross collar choke from the mount, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 1-39). While keeping a hold with the weak hand, the fighter now inserts his strong hand, fingers first, onto the collar. The hand should be relaxed and reach around to the back of the neck grasping the collar.





Figure 1-39: Cross collar choke from the mount, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 1-40). After grasping the back of the enemy’s collar, the fighter inserts the weak hand under the strong hand and into the collar, fingers first, touching or very close to the first hand.





Figure 1-40: Cross collar choke from the mount, step 3.





(4) Step 4 (Figure 1-41). The fighter turns his wrists so that the palms face toward him, and brings his elbows to his side. He will complete the choke by expanding his chest and pulling with the muscles of his back.





Figure 1-41: Cross collar choke from the mount, step 4.





NOTE



If the fighter is applying this choke from the mount, he should put his head on the ground on the side of the top hand and relax into the choke.





c. Front Guillotine Choke. Many times this technique may be used as a counter to the double leg takedown.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 1-42). As the enemy shoots in toward the fighter’s legs, the fighter should ensure that the enemy’s head goes underneath one of his arms. The fighter wraps his arm around the enemy’s head and under his neck. The fighter’s palm should be facing his own chest.





Figure 1-42: Front guillotine choke, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 1-43). With the other hand, the fighter grasps the first hand, ensuring that he has not reached around the enemy’s arm, and pulls upward with both hands.





Figure 1-43: Front guillotine choke, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 1-44). He now sits down and places the enemy within his guard, and finishes the choke by pulling with his arms and pushing with his legs.





Figure 1-44: Front guillotine choke, step 3.





d. Bent Arm Bar from the Mount and Cross Mount.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 1-45). When the fighter has mounted the enemy, the enemy may try to cover his face by putting both arms up. Using the heel of his hand, the fighter drives the enemy’s wrist to the ground ensuring that his elbow goes to the elbow notch (elbow between collarbone and the head with pressure against the neck).





Figure 1-45: Bent arm bar from the mount and cross mount, step 1.





Figure 1-45: Bent arm bar from the mount and cross mount, step 1. (Continued)





(2) Step 2 (Figure 1-46). With the other hand, the fighter reaches under the enemy’s bent arm and grasps his own wrist.





Figure 1-46: Bent arm bar from the mount and cross mount, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 1-47). The fighter raises the enemy’s elbow and at the same time drags the back of his hand along the ground like a paint brush, breaking the enemy’s arm at the shoulder.





Figure 1-47: Bent arm bar from the mount and cross mount, step 3.





e. Straight Arm Bar from the Mount.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 1-48). From the mount, the enemy may attempt to push the fighter off with his arms. The fighter places both of his arms on the enemy’s chest ensuring that his arm goes over the targeted arm.





Figure 1-48: Straight arm bar from the mount, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 1-49). Placing all of his weight on the enemy’s chest, the fighter pops up and places his feet under him, ensuring that he keeps his butt low.





Figure 1-49: Straight arm bar from the mount, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 1-50). Keeping his weight on the enemy’s chest, he now swings his leg around and over the enemy’s head and slides down the arm.





Figure 1-50: Straight arm bar from the mount, step 3.





(4) Step 4 (Figure 1-51). The fighter now pinches the enemy’s arm between his legs, grasps the arm at the wrist, and falls back extending the arm. The breaking action is hip pressure against the elbow joint.





Figure 1-51: Straight arm bar from the mount, step 4.





f. Straight Arm Bar from the Guard.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 1-52). When the fighter is on his back with the enemy in his guard, the enemy will sometimes present a straight arm such as when trying to choke. The fighter should secure the target arm above the shoulder.





Figure 1-52: Straight arm bar from the guard, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 1-53). The fighter inserts his other hand under the enemy’s leg on the side opposite the targeted arm. The hand should be palm up.





Figure 1-53: Straight arm bar from the guard, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 1-54). By releasing his legs from around the enemy’s waist and raising them above him, the fighter changes his center of gravity.





Figure 1-54: Straight arm bar from the guard, step 3.





(4) Step 4 (Figure 1-55). He now curls his back to give himself a point on which to spin, and by pulling with the arm on the side opposite the targeted arm, he spins around and places his leg over the enemy’s head, capturing the target arm between his legs.





Figure 1-55: Straight arm bar from the guard, step 4.





(5) Step 5 (Figure 1-56). The fighter now brings his hand from under the enemy’s leg and secures the wrist of the targeted arm, completing the move by breaking the targeted arm with pressure from his hips.





Figure 1-56: Straight arm bar from the guard, step 5.





g. Sweep from the Attempted Straight Arm Bar.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 1-57). If the enemy tucks his head in to avoid the arm bar, the fighter maintains his grip on the enemy’s leg and swings his own leg down to gain momentum. The fighter ensures that he curls his leg under after swinging it down.





Figure 1-57: Sweep from the attempted straight arm bar, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 1-58). The fighter pushes the enemy straight over with his other leg and finishes mounted.





Figure 1-58: Sweep from the attempted straight arm bar, step 2.





Figure 1-58: Sweep from the attempted straight arm bar, step 2. (Continued)





1-7. DRILLS



Drills are used as a portion of the warm-up, which allows the maximum use of training time, stresses the importance of position, and also keeps training focused on perfecting the basic moves. Different details can be taught or emphasized during each training session. This will result in a deeper understanding of the techniques, as well as building muscle memory, teaching the soldiers to move in the most efficient ways naturally. More advanced techniques can be substituted within the framework of the drill after sufficient skill level is shown in the basics.

a. Drill 1 (Basic Drill). This drill begins with one soldier mounted.



(1) Step 1. The soldier on the bottom escapes the mount using the trap and roll technique.



(2) Step 2. The same soldier passes the guard and achieves the mount.



(3) Step 3. The roles now reverse and the second soldier goes through steps one and two.



b. Drill 2. This drill also begins with one soldier mounted.



(1) Step 1. Using the arm trap and roll technique, the soldier on top gains the back mount.



(2) Step 2. As soon as the first soldier sets the hooks in, the second soldier rolls over one shoulder and escapes the back mount.



(3) Step 3. When the second soldier is mounted, the roles will reverse, and they will go back through steps one and two.




1-8. DEFENSE AGAINST HEADLOCKS



The headlock is a very poor technique for anything more than immobilizing an enemy. It is, however, a very common technique in actual fighting; therefore, knowing how to escape is very important for a soldier. The techniques are progressive, and should be attempted in the order taught.

a. Form the Frame.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 1-59). The fighter’s first step in escaping from a headlock is to ensure that his arm is not captured. With a short jerky motion, the fighter pulls his elbow in and turns on his side.





Figure 1-59: Form the frame, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 1-60). If able, the fighter forms a frame under the enemy’s chin. The fighter’s top arm should be under the enemy’s jawbone, and his top hand should rest comfortably in the grasp of the other hand. At this point, the fighter’s bone structure should be supporting the enemy’s weight.





Figure 1-60: Form the frame, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 1-61). By pushing with the top leg, the fighter moves his hips back away from the enemy.





Figure 1-61: Form the frame, step 3.





(4) Step 4 (Figure 1-62). The fighter reaches with both legs to grasp the enemy’s head. If the enemy lets go of his headlock, the fighter squeezes the enemy’s neck with his legs.





Figure 1-62: Form the frame, step 4.





(5) Step 5 (Figure 1-63). If the enemy does not release the headlock, the fighter rotates around until he is on both of his knees behind the enemy’s back.





Figure 1-63: Form the frame, step 5.





(6) Step 6 (Figure 1-64). The fighter uses his top hand to clear the enemy’s legs out of the way and steps over, bringing his foot in tight against the enemy’s hip. The fighter establishes his base by putting both hands on the ground.





Figure 1-64: Form the frame, step 6.





Figure 1-64: Form the frame, step 6. (Continued)





(7) Step 7 (Figure 1-65). The fighter forces the enemy to release his grip on the fighter’s neck by forming the frame and leaning toward the enemy’s head, driving the bone of his upper arm under the enemy’s jawbone.





Figure 1-65: Form the frame, step 7.





b. Follow the Leg. Although the fighter should always try to form the frame, sometimes the enemy will tuck his head in making it impossible.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 1-66). After ensuring that his arm is not captured as in the first technique, the fighter moves as close to the enemy as possible and places his leg over him. The fighter’s heel should find the crease at the enemy’s hip formed by his leg.





Figure 1-66: Follow the leg, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 1-67). The fighter pulls his bottom arm free and places his weight on it. Holding the enemy tightly at the other shoulder, the fighter crawls over him using his own leg as a guide.





Figure 1-67: Follow the leg, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 1-68). At this point the enemy has the option to either roll with the fighter or not. If he does not, the fighter uses all of his body to apply pressure to the enemy’s shoulder. This will break the enemy’s grip and leave the fighter behind the enemy. If the enemy rolls with the fighter, the fighter brings his foot into the enemy’s hip as before and breaks his grip by forming the frame and applying pressure toward his head.





Figure 1-68: Follow the leg, step 3.





c. Roll Toward the Head (Figure 1-69). If the enemy should succeed in capturing the fighter’s arm, the fighter can use the enemy’s reaction to his attempts to free it to his advantage. With short jerky motions, the fighter attempts to pull his arm free. The enemy will have to adjust his position by leaning toward the fighter. Immediately after the fighter attempts to pull his arm free and feels the enemy pushing, the fighter arches toward his head and then over his opposite shoulder, taking the enemy over.





Figure 1-69: Roll toward the head.





Figure 1-69: Roll toward the head. (Continued)





NOTE



The roll must be timed correctly and must be toward the fighter’s head and not straight over his body.





CHAPTER 2





Advanced Ground-Fighting

Techniques



After achieving an understanding of the basics of ground fighting, other elements of fighting on the ground are added. These techniques, however, are dependent on a thorough grasp of the basics. Being systematic is important in building competent fighters. Staying with the program will not only produce competent fighters quickly, but will produce the most competent fighters over time as well.





SECTION I. ADVANCED ATTACKS



Concentrating on offensive techniques is preferable when developing a training plan. The best defense is simply knowing that the technique exists. If defenses are to be taught, there should be ample time between teaching the offense and teaching the defense to allow time for the students to master the offensive skills first. Training the defense prematurely will hinder development.


2-1. ADVANCED BODY POSITIONS



a. North-South Position (Figure 2-1). This position allows many possible attacks and is very difficult for the enemy to escape from. You should attempt to control the enemy’s arms by placing your elbows on the ground in his arm pits. You will also need to shift your weight in order to prevent him from rolling you over.





Figure 2-1: North-south position.





b. Knee in the Stomach (Figure 2-2). Another very important dominant body position is the knee mount. When in the knee mount, the knee should be in the middle of the enemy’s chest. The foot should be hooked around his hip. The opposite knee should be off of the ground and back away from the enemy’s head, and the hips should be set forward to maintain balance.





Figure 2-2: Knee in the stomach.





2-2. PASS THE GUARD



When you are inside of the enemy’s guard, he has many options to attack you or reverse the positions. Therefore, you will need several possible techniques to pass.

a. Closed Guard. In the closed guard, the enemy has his legs locked together behind your back. (1) Knee in the Tailbone.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-3). Moving one hand at a time, grasp the enemy at the belt with both hands. Keep pressure on him to prevent him from sitting up.





Figure 2-3: Knee in the tailbone, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-4). Place one of your knees in the enemy’s tailbone. You will need to lean toward the other side to prevent him from compromising your balance.





Figure 2-4: Knee in the tailbone, step 2.





(c) Step 3 (Figure 2-5). Push with both hands, and move your other knee back away from him. This should create a 90 degree angle from the knee in the tailbone. This action will also create more distance between the knee in the tailbone and your hip, forcing him to loosen the grip with his legs.





Figure 2-5: Knee in the tailbone, step 3.





(d) Step 4 (Figure 2-6). Release your grip with the hand on the side you are facing and move it under the enemy’s leg on the same side. You will then lift his leg, pulling it to you to gain control, and pass normally.





Figure 2-6: Knee in the tailbone, step 4.





Figure 2-6: Knee in the tailbone, step 4. (Continued)





(e) Step 5 (Figure 2-7). Pull your remaining hand out from between his legs at the earliest possible time to avoid the arm bar, and secure a grip at his waist.





Figure 2-7: Knee in the tailbone, step 5.





(2) Stand Up With One Sleeve.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-8). Gain control of one of the enemy’s sleeves near the wrist, and with the other hand grasp his jacket in the center to keep him from sitting up.





Figure 2-8: Stand up with one sleeve, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-9). Stand up with the leg closest to the arm you are controlling first and arch your back slightly, pulling on the sleeve that you control.





Figure 2-9: Stand up with one sleeve, step 2.





Figure 2-9: Stand up with one sleeve, step 2. (Continued)





(c) Step 3 (Figure 2-10). Switch control of his sleeve to your other hand and use the original hand to push downward on his legs to break his grip. It is helpful to step slightly back with the leg on the side you are attempting to open.





Figure 2-10: Stand up with one sleeve, step 3.





(d) Step 4 (Figure 2-11). When his grip breaks, reach under the leg and pull it to you, tightening up to gain control and pass like before. It is important to control the leg below his knee so that he cannot bend it to escape and regain the guard.





Figure 2-11: Stand up with one sleeve, step 3.





(3) Hands in the Arm Pits.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-12). Pin the enemy’s shoulders to the ground by either placing the fingers of your hands in both of his armpits, or placing both hands around his neck.





Figure 2-12: Hands in the arm pits, step 1.





Figure 2-12: Hands in the arm pits, step 1. (Continued)





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-13). Stand up one leg at a time, placing one of your knees in his tailbone and stepping back with the other. The heal of your foot must be planted on the ground.





Figure 2-13: Hands in the arm pits, step 2.





(c) Step 3 (Figure 2-14). Sit down so that your knee is driven upward between the enemy’s legs. This will break the grip of his legs behind your back.





Figure 2-14: Hands in the arm pits, step 3.





(d) Step 4 (Figure 2-15). Drive your knee over his leg on the opposite side. This will immobilize the leg so that you can bring both legs over into side control.





Figure 2-15: Hands in the arm pits, step 4.





Figure 2-15: Hands in the arm pits, step 4. (Continued)





b. Open Guard. Once you have opened the enemy’s guard, he may block your passing by controlling you with his legs. You must gain control of his legs before you can pass.



(1) Throw the Legs.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-16). Grasp the enemy’s pant legs near the ankles with a firm grasp and stand up, pulling him slightly toward you.





Figure 2-16: Throw the legs, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-17). Swing both legs from side to side and then throw them forcefully to one side.





Figure 2-17: Throw the legs, step 2.





(c) Step 3 (Figure 2-18). Close the distance and gain control in either the side control or knee mount position.





Figure 2-18: Throw the legs, step 3.





(2) Push the Knees.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-19). Gain control of the enemy’s pant legs on top of each knee.





Figure 2-19: Push the knees, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-20). Step back and drive both knees downward.





Figure 2-20: Push the knees, step 2.





(c) Step 3 (Figure 2-21). While still holding the enemy’s knees down, jump forward with both legs into the mounted position.





Figure 2-21: Push the knees, step 3.





2-3. ATTACKS FROM THE MOUNT



After the mount has been achieved, there are many options on how to attack. The first is to throw punches into the enemy’s face and force him to turn over, giving up his back. If he does not turn over he will most likely give an opening, making the following attacks easier.

a. Chokes. The most efficient way to incapacitate an enemy is to choke him into unconsciousness. An advantage of prioritizing chokes in training is that they can be applied in training exactly as applied in combat.



(1) Paper Cutter Choke.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-22). Start by opening the collar with the weak hand, as in the cross collar choke. With the strong hand grasp deep into the collar, inserting the thumb on the inside.





Figure 2-22: Paper cutter choke, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-23). Release the grip of the first hand and grasp the opposite side of the enemy’s jacket, pulling it tight against the back of his neck.





Figure 2-23: Paper cutter choke, step 2.





(c) Step 3 (Figure 2-24). Drive the elbow of the other hand across the enemy’s neck to complete the choke.





Figure 2-24: Paper cutter choke, step 3.





(2) Leaning Choke.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-25). Grasp both sides of the collar. The knuckles should be pointed inward and there should be three or four inches of slack.





Figure 2-25: Leaning choke, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-26). Pull one side of the collar across the enemy’s neck so the pinky knuckle is just past the Adam’s apple where the blood vessels are located. Pull the other hand tight as you drive this hand into the enemy’s neck.





Figure 2-26: Leaning choke, step 2.





(3) Nutcracker Choke.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-27). Grasp the collar with both hands at the sides of the enemy’s neck. Knuckles should be pointed in against the neck.





Figure 2-27: Nutcracker choke, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-28). Pull the collar tight against the back of the enemy’s neck with both hands and, with the pinkies acting as the base, drive the pointer finger knuckles of both hands into the enemy’s neck on either side of the Adam’s apple.





Figure 2-28: Nutcracker choke, step 2.





(4) Sleeve Choke.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-29). Place the fingers of one hand inside the sleeve cuff of the other with a firm grip.





Figure 2-29: Sleeve choke, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-30). Drive the other hand behind the enemy’s head so the forearm of the first hand goes across the neck.





Figure 2-30: Sleeve choke, step 2.





(c) Step 3 (Figure 2-31). Drive the elbow across the enemy’s neck toward the back while pulling with the other hand.





Figure 2-31: Sleeve choke, step 3.





b. Triple Attack. When the enemy tries to escape the mount using the trap and roll technique, he can be moved into the position shown by sliding the trapped foot forward and lifting on the enemy’s opposite shoulder. This position presents several attack opportunities.



(1) Lapel Choke.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-32). With the hand that corresponds to the side the enemy is facing, place the fingers inside of the enemy’s collar and pull it open.





Figure 2-32: Lapel choke, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-33). Reach under his head with the other hand and insert the thumb as deep as possible into the collar.





Figure 2-33: Lapel choke, step 2.





(c) Step 3 (Figure 2-34). Change the grip of the first hand to the opposite side of his lapel to tighten the collar against the back of his neck.





Figure 2-34: Lapel choke, step 3.





(d) Step 4 (Figure 2-35). Tighten by extending both arms.





Figure 2-35: Lapel choke, step 4.





(2) Straight Arm Bar. The enemy may attempt to block the choke with his hands.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-36). Ensuring that your arm is under the enemy’s arm, push his elbow forward and hold it in place by grasping your own collar.





Figure 2-36: Straight arm bar, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-37). Place your other hand on the enemy’s head.





Figure 2-37: Straight arm bar, step 2.





(c) Step 3 (Figure 2-38). Rest all of your weight on the enemy’s head, and point your toe straight back.





Figure 2-38: Straight arm bar, step 3.





(d) Step 4 (Figure 2-39). Swing your leg around on top of his head and sit back into the straight arm bar.





Figure 2-39: Straight arm bar, step 4.





(3) Gain the Back Mount. If the enemy defends both the choke and the arm bar, you still have another option.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-40). Push the enemy toward his stomach with chest pressure, and at the same time bring your foot close to the enemy’s back.





Figure 2-40: Gain the back mount, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-41). Sit back, pulling the enemy on top of you, ensuring you give yourself room to swing your foot around to sink in your hook. You will finish in the back mount.





Figure 2-41: Gain the back mount, step 2.





2-4. ATTACKS FROM THE BACK MOUNT



Once the back mount has been achieved, keeping it is the most important goal. The position learned earlier of one hand in the armpit and the other over the opposite shoulder allows the most possible attacks.

a. Collar Choke.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 2-42). Grasp the collar with the hand in the armpit, pulling it open to insert the thumb of the other hand deep into the collar. Secure a firm grip.





Figure 2-42: Collar choke, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 2-43). Change the grip of the hand under the armpit to grasp the opposite lapel, pulling down to tighten the collar against the back of the enemy’s neck.





Figure 2-43: Collar choke, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 2-44). Set the choke by pushing outward with both hands.





Figure 2-44: Collar choke, step 3.





b. Single Wing Choke.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 2-45). Open the collar and secure a grip the same as in the collar choke.





Figure 2-45: Single wing choke, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 2-46). With the hand that is under the enemy’s armpit, pull his arm out at the elbow.





Figure 2-46: Single wing choke, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 2-47). Bring your hand around behind his head and finish the choke by pushing out with both hands.





Figure 2-47: Single wing choke, step 3.





c. Straight Arm Bar.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 2-48). If the enemy is protecting his collar effectively, push your arm further through his armpit, pulling your own collar open with the other hand. Grasp your collar with the hand that is through his armpit.





Figure 2-48: Straight arm bar, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 2-49). With the palm of your other hand, push his head away and step your leg over it. Break his grip by pushing with your legs and extending your body.





Figure 2-49: Straight arm bar, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 2-50). Finish with hip pressure against his elbow as in the basic straight arm bar.





Figure 2-50: Straight arm bar, step 3.





2-5. ATTACKS FROM THE GUARD



a. Arm Lock.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 2-51). If the enemy places his hand on the ground, grasp it around the wrist.





Figure 2-51: Arm lock, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 2-52). Release your legs and sit up. Reach over and around his arm grasping your own wrist.





Figure 2-52: Arm lock, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 2-53). Keep your legs tight against his sides to prevent him from stepping over them, and sit back.





Figure 2-53: Arm lock, step 3.





(4) Step 4 (Figure 2-54). Move your hips out from under him and finish by rotating your torso to attack his shoulder joint. Ensure that his arm is held at 90 degrees and not up behind his back.





Figure 2-54: Arm lock, step 4.





b. Guillotine Choke. When you are attempting the arm bar, the enemy may try to counter by grasping you around the waist.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 2-55). Release your grasp of his wrist and place your hand on the ground behind you. This allows you to move your hips back until you are sitting straight up.





Figure 2-55: Guillotine choke, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 2-56). Wrap your other hand around the enemy’s neck and under his chin. Grasp his chin with the hand that was on the ground. Both palms should be facing your body.





Figure 2-56: Guillotine choke, step 2.





Figure 2-56: Guillotine choke, step 2. (Continued)





(3) Step 3 (Figure 2-57). Pull upward with both hands and finish the choke by leaning backwards and wrapping your legs around him, pull with your arms and push with your legs.





Figure 2-57: Guillotine choke, step 3.





c. Sweeps. When you have the enemy within your guard, he may provide the chance to reverse the positions. (1) Scissors Sweep.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-58). When the enemy raises one leg while attempting to pass the guard, you should place your weight on the calf on that side and swing your hips out from underneath him. Your leg should go along his belt line with your foot hooked around his waist.





Figure 2-58: Scissors sweep, step 1.





Figure 2-58: Scissors sweep, step 1. (Continued)





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-59). Move your chest away and kick him over with a scissors action from your legs, ending up mounted.





Figure 2-59: Scissors sweep, step 2.





Figure 2-59: Scissors sweep, step 2. (Continued)





(2) Captain Kirk. The enemy may attempt to pass by standing up. When he does he is very susceptible to being swept.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-60). When the enemy stands up, maintain control with your arms and let your feet slide naturally down until they are on his hips.





Figure 2-60: Captain Kirk, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-61). If his weight gets too far forward, pick him up with your legs and throw him over one of your shoulders. Ensure that you move your head to the opposite side to prevent him landing on you. Finish mounted.





Figure 2-61: Captain Kirk, step 2.





(3) Ankle Grab/Knee Push.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-62). When the enemy stands up, maintain control with your arms and let your feet slide to his hips as in the previous move.





Figure 2-62: Ankle grab/knee push, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-63). If his weight gets too far back, let go with your arms and grasp both of his ankles. Push your knees upward causing him to fall backwards.





Figure 2-63: Ankle grab/knee push, step 2.





Figure 2-63: Ankle grab/knee push, step 2. (Continued)





(c) Step 3 (Figure 2-64). Drive one of your knees to the ground and grasp the back of his neck with the other hand to pull yourself to the mount.





Figure 2-64: Ankle grab/knee push, step 3.





(d) Triangle Choke. If the enemy gets his hand through and begins to pass your guard, you still have a chance to apply a choke.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 2-65). Post your leg on the ground and turn your body perpendicular to the enemy’s. Your leg should be around the back of his neck.





Figure 2-65: Triangle choke, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 2-66). Place the inside of your knee over your own foot. You may assist yourself by grasping your foot with your hand.





Figure 2-66: Triangle choke, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 2-67). Place both of your hands on the back of the enemy’s head and push upward with your hips.





Figure 2-67: Triangle choke, step 3.





2-6. KNEE MOUNT



When the enemy is defending well from side control, a good option is to go to the knee mount.

a. Achieve the knee mount from standard side control.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 2-68). With the hand closest to the enemy’s head, grasp the collar on either side of his head.





Figure 2-68: Knee mount from standard side control, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 2-69). With the other hand, grasp his belt or his uniform over his hip.





Figure 2-69: Knee mount from standard side control, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 2-70). Pushing up with both hands, pop up into the knee mount with one swift movement.





Figure 2-70: Knee mount from standard side control, step 3.





b. Achieve the knee mount with control of the far side arm.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 2-71). From side control, move your arm through the enemy’s armpit.





Figure 2-71: Achieve knee mount with control of far side arm, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 2-72). With the other arm, reach back and gain control of his elbow. Pulling the arm upwards as you change your hips, sit through to the position shown.





Figure 2-72: Achieve knee mount with control of far side arm, step 2.





Figure 2-72: Achieve knee mount with control of far side arm, step 2. (Continued)





(3) Step 3 (Figure 2-73). Place the foot of the leg closest to the enemy underneath the other leg. With your weight on the hand in the enemy’s armpit and your outside leg, swing your inside leg up into the knee mount. Ensure that you maintain control of the enemy’s near side arm.





Figure 2-73: Achieve knee mount with control of far side arm, step 3.





Figure 2-73: Achieve knee mount with control of far side arm, step 3. (Continued)





c. Attacks from the Knee Mount.



(1) Chokes with Hand on the Far Side of the Enemy’s Neck.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-74). If the enemy does not defend against chokes, reach under the first arm and grasp well down into the collar with your fingers inside the collar.





Figure 2-74: Choke from the knee mount with hand on far side of enemy’s neck, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-75). Bring your knee back off of the enemy’s chest, placing it to control his hip, and finish as in the paper cutter choke.





Figure 2-75: Choke from the knee mount with hand on far side of enemy’s neck, step 2.





(2) Chokes with Hand on the Near Side of the Enemy’s Neck.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-76). Reach into the far side of the enemy’s collar with your fingers on the inside of the collar.





Figure 2-76: Choke from the knee mount with hand on near side of enemy’s neck, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-77). With your weight on the leg closest to his head, sit through and drive your elbow across his neck.





Figure 2-77: Choke from the knee mount with hand on near side of enemy’s neck, step 2.





(3) Straight Arm Bar from the Knee Mount.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-78). If the enemy pushes up with his near side arm, grasp it at the elbow with your arm closest to the enemy’s head. Step over his head with the same side leg.





Figure 2-78: Straight arm bar from the knee mount, step 1.





Figure 2-78: Straight arm bar from the knee mount, step 1. (Continued)





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-79). Sit down as close to his shoulder as possible and lay back into the straight arm bar. You may need to twist slightly toward his legs because the change in your leg position allows him an opportunity to roll out of the technique. You do not need to bring your other leg across his body.





Figure 2-79: Straight arm bar from the knee mount, step 2.





(4) Bent Arm Bar from the Knee Mount.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-80). If the enemy tries to push your knee off, grasp his wrist with the hand closest to his legs.





Figure 2-80: Bent arm bar from the knee mount, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-81). Back your knee off of his chest and reach over his arm with the other hand, grasping your own wrist. Your second hand should be wrapped completely around his arm at this time.





Figure 2-81: Bent arm bar from the knee mount, step 2.





(c) Step 3 (Figure 2-82). Move around until his head is between your knees, and pull him up onto his side.





Figure 2-82: Bent arm bar from the knee mount, step 3.





(d) Step 4 (Figure 2-83). Break his grip by pulling his arm quickly toward his head.





Figure 2-83: Bent arm bar from the knee mount, step 4.





(e) Step 5 (Figure 2-84). Step your foot into the small of his back, and break his shoulder by rotating your torso towards his back.





Figure 2-84: Bent arm bar from the knee mount, step 5.





NOTE



It is important to keep the enemy’s elbow tight to your chest to keep him from escaping.





(5) Variation of Straight Arm Bar from the Knee Mount.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 2-85). If the enemy has a firm grip and you cannot get the bent arm bar, push your arm farther through and grasp your own lapel.





Figure 2-85: Variation of the straight arm bar from the knee mount, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 2-86). Stand up and place your foot over his head and in front of his chin.





Figure 2-86: Variation of the straight arm bar from the knee mount, step 2.





2-7. LEG ATTACKS



Leg attacks, although very effective, have the drawback of giving up dominant body position. Therefore, they are not the preferred method of attack. Soldiers must be familiar with them or they will fall easy prey to them. As in all attacks, knowing the technique exists is the primary defense.

a. Straight Ankle Lock.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 2-87). When you are trying to pass the enemy’s open guard, you may catch his foot in your armpit. Wrap your arm around his leg and squat down, ensuring that your opposite side knee comes up between his legs.





Figure 2-87: Straight ankle lock, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 2-88). Push away from the enemy, ensuring that you allow his leg to slide through your grip until you are holding around his ankle.





Figure 2-88: Straight ankle lock, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 2-89). Bring your outside foot up to push the enemy’s torso back, preventing him from sitting up to counter the lock. Form a figure four on his ankle and finish the break by arching your back.





Figure 2-89: Straight ankle lock, step 3.





b. Figure-Four Ankle Lock (Figure 2-90). You are on top of the enemy in the north-south position. The enemy may bring his knee up in order to defend against your attacks or attempt to strike you. When he does, reach under his leg from the outside, near the ankle. With the other hand, grasp his foot and form the figure four as shown with the first hand. Apply pressure to break the enemy’s foot.





Figure 2-90: Figure-four ankle lock.





c. Straight Knee bar.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 2-91). The enemy is beneath you and has one of your legs between his. Reach your arm under his far side leg, stand up, and step over his body with your other leg.





Figure 2-91: Straight knee bar, step 1.





Figure 2-91: Straight knee bar, step 1. (Continued)





(2) Step 2 (Figure 2-92). Keep your hips as close to the enemy’s as possible and lock your legs behind his buttocks. Break the knee with hip pressure just as in a straight arm bar. You may also place his leg into your armpit to increase the pressure, or switch to the figure-four ankle lock at any time.





Figure 2-92: Straight knee bar, step 2.





Figure 2-92: Straight knee bar, step 2. (Continued)





SECTION II. STRIKES



Striking is an integral part of all actual fighting. Practicing ground-fighting techniques exclusively without strikes is a common mistake.


2-8. PASS THE GUARD WITH STRIKES



a. Step 1 (Figure 2-93). Keeping your head close to the enemy’s chest, drive both hands up the center of his body and then out to control his arms at the biceps.





Figure 2-93: Pass the guard with strikes, step 1.





b. Step 2 (Figure 2-94). Give the enemy a couple of head butts.





Figure 2-94: Pass the guard with strikes, step 2.





NOTE



Ensure that head butts are not given with the center of the forehead, which could result in injuring your own nose.





c. Step 3 (Figure 2-95). Stand up one leg at a time, and change your grip to one hand on the jacket. Your hips should be pushed slightly forward.





Figure 2-95: Pass the guard with strikes, step 3.





Figure 2-95: Pass the guard with strikes, step 3. (Continued)





d. Step 4 (Figure 2-96). With your free hand, strike the enemy a couple of times in the head.





Figure 2-96: Pass the guard with strikes, step 4.





(At this point the enemy may release the grip with his legs. If he does, step 5 is as follows.)



e. Step 5 (Figure 2-97). Press inward with your knees. This will cause his legs to stick out so that you can reach behind one of them. Gain control of the leg and pass normally.





Figure 2-97: Pass the guard with strikes, step 5.





Figure 2-97: Pass the guard with strikes, step 5. (Continued)





(If he does not release his legs, step 5 is as follows.)



f. Step 5 (Alternate) (Figure 2-98). While he is distracted by your strikes, step back with one leg and push your hand through the opening. Place your hand on your own knee and squat down to break the grip of his legs. Gain control of his leg and pass normally.





Figure 2-98: Pass the guard with strikes, step 5 (alternate).





Figure 2-98: Pass the guard with strikes, step 5 (alternate). (Continued)





2-9. STRIKING FROM SIDE CONTROL



The goal of striking while ground fighting is to improve your position or create an opening for a better attack. In this case you would most likely be trying to mount.

a. Step 1 (Figure 2-99). Keeping your head low so that the enemy will not be able to knee you in the head, move your hand that is closest to the enemy’s legs into his armpit.





Figure 2-99: Striking from side control, step 1.





b. Step 2 (Figure 2-100). Move your other arm around his head and clasp your hands together. Lean your shoulder onto his head to keep his chin pointed away from you. This will make it more difficult for him to turn his body toward you to regain the guard.





Figure 2-100: Striking from side control, step 2.





c. Step 3 (Figure 2-101). Move your leg that is closer to his head into his armpit, driving his arm upwards until it is pinched against his head between your arm and leg.





Figure 2-101: Striking from side control, step 3.





d. Step 4 (Figure 2-102). Point the toes of your other foot toward the sky and drive your knee into his ribs.





Figure 2-102: Striking from side control, step 4.





e. Step 5 (Figure 2-103). When he changes his position to defend against your strikes, step over and gain the mounted position.





Figure 2-103: Striking from side control, step 5.





2-10. DEFENDING AGAINST STRIKES IN THE GUARD



As with standup fighting, the best method to avoid punches is to stay very close to the enemy. Controlling the range is the key.

a. Step 1 (Figure 2-104). Pull the enemy into your closed guard and grasp him around the neck. One hand should be pushing his head and the other should be pulling it to defend against head butts and punches. Tuck your head in and control his punches with your elbows.





Figure 2-104: Defending against strikes in the guard, step 1.





b. Step 2 (Figure 2-105). The enemy will eventually become frustrated by his inability to land solid blows and will attempt to pull away. When he does so, slide your arms over his triceps and your feet to his hips. Control his punches with your knees. As he struggles to gain a position to strike from, you will have to continuously regain this position.





Figure 2-105: Defending against strikes in the guard, step 2.





c. Step 3 (Figure 2-106). Your hands are placed over the enemy’s triceps to keep him from getting his arms loose for big punches. He may, however, be able to free one of his arms. If he does so and attempts to land a big punch, push your knee toward the loose arm to extend the distance and reach to the inside of his punching arm. This will avoid the strike and allow you to regain control of his arm.





Figure 2-106: Defending against strikes in the guard, step 3.





d. Step 4 (Figure 2-107). The enemy may attempt to stand up. When he does you should sit up toward him, and when you have enough space to do so safely, stand up in base. You may need to use a kick with your bottom leg to create enough space.





Figure 2-107: Defending against strikes in the guard, step 4.





CHAPTER 3





Takedowns and Throws



Before progressing into takedowns and throws, soldiers must learn how to fall to the ground without getting hurt, both during training and during combat. Each practice repetition of a throw or takedown is a chance for the training partner to perfect his breakfalls.





3-1. BREAKFALLS



The most important point during breakfall training is to not try to catch yourself by reaching out with your arms, but to take the impact of the fall on the meaty portions of the body. After initial training on breakfalls has been conducted, it must be followed up with refresher breakfall training before training on throws and takedowns. This can be accomplished easily by making it part of your warm-up.

a. Side Breakfall Position (Figure 3-1). Before training on breakfalls can take place, soldiers must understand the basic breakfall position. Laying on his left side, the soldier extends his left leg and bends his right leg, raising his right leg off the ground. His left arm is extended, palm down, slightly away from his side. His right arm is bent in front of his face to defend against attacks. This should be practiced on both sides.





Figure 3-1: Side breakfall position.





b. Forward Rolling Breakfall from the Kneeling Position. After soldiers are familiar with the side breakfall position, the best way to introduce them to the mechanics of falling is by starting them on their knees.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 3-2). The fighter assumes a kneeling posture with his left arm raised in the air. He places his left arm across the front of his body, palm down, outside of his right knee.





Figure 3-2: Forward rolling breakfall from the kneeling position, step 1.





Figure 3-2: Forward rolling breakfall from the kneeling position, step 1. (Continued)





(2) Step 2 (Figure 3-3). He rolls over his left shoulder, along his arm, landing on his right side with his right leg extended in the right side breakfall position.





Figure 3-3: Forward rolling breakfall from the kneeling position, step 2.





c. Forward Rolling Breakfall (Figure 3-4). When soldiers have mastered the forward rolling breakfall from the kneeling position, they will progress to the standing position.



(1) Step 1. The soldier starts the fall from the standing position. He raises one arm to expose his entire side, places both hands on the ground, and bends both knees.



(2) Step 2. He rolls forward across the body along the hand, arm, and back to the opposite hip.



(3) Step 3. He ends in a good side breakfall position.





Figure 3-4: Forward rolling fall.





d. Rear Breakfall (Figure 3-5). There are also many times when a fighter will take a fall straight down to his back.



(1) Step 1. The fighter starts the fall from the standing position and keeps his head forward to reduce the chance of head and neck injuries.



(2) Step 2. He then falls backward and lowers his center of gravity by bending both knees. As his buttocks touch the ground, he rolls backward to absorb the momentum of the fall.



(3) Step 3. He keeps his hands cupped and slaps his hands and arms down to help absorb the shock of impact and to stabilize his body.





Figure 3-5: Rear breakfall.





3-2. CLOSING THE DISTANCE AND ACHIEVING THE CLINCH



Controlling a standup fight means controlling the range between fighters. The untrained fighter is primarily dangerous at punching range. The goal is to avoid that range. Even if you are the superior striker, the most dangerous thing you can do is to spend time at the range where the enemy has the highest probability of victory. When training soldiers, the primary goal should be instilling the courage to close the distance. Recognizing that standup fighting skills are difficult to master in a short amount of time, compare takedowns to the basic tackle. The following techniques are essentially a more sophisticated way to tackle the enemy.

a. The Clinch. The clinch position is the optimum way to hold an enemy after you have successfully closed the distance, but have not yet executed a successful takedown. While in the clinch, you have control of the enemy’s far side arm at the elbow, with the arm also tucked into your armpit. Your head is tucked into the enemy’s chest, and your hand is around his waist, controlling his hip. Your legs are sufficiently back to prevent him from getting his hips under you to attempt a throw. There are two ranges where confrontations start.



(1) Close Range. This occurs when the enemy is within striking range.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 3-6). When a confrontation seems likely, you will face the potential enemy and bring your hands up in a non-threatening manner.



(b) Step 2 (Figure 3-7). When the enemy attacks, change levels by pulling both feet up and placing them out in a broad stance. Simultaneously bring both arms up to cover the most dangerous possible attacks. It is important not to anticipate the means of attack, but to cover for the most dangerous potential attacks. Therefore, both arms should come up every time.





Figure 3-6: The clinch, step 1.





Figure 3-7: The clinch, step 2.





(c) Step 3 (Figure 3-8). To clinch, reach over the far side arm and pull it down into your armpit, controlling it at the elbow. Simultaneously step around to the other side and drive your other elbow under his arm until you can reach around his waist and achieve the clinch.





Figure 3-8: The clinch, step 3.





(2) Long Range. It is more common for a confrontation to start outside of striking range. Having the courage to close the distance is the principle training goal.



(a) Basic Long Range. From a fighter’s stance, at an opportune moment, drive into the enemy. Try to place your forehead on his chest. You should keep your head up so that your forehead is pointed at the enemy and your hands should go just over his biceps. From this position, achieve the clinch as before.



(b) Long Range when the Enemy Attacks. If the enemy tries to initiate the attack with punches, use this opportunity to close the distance. He will be closing the distance to get into punching range, and therefore clinching will be that much easier.



(c) Long Range with a Kick. If the enemy is content to stand back and await your attack, you will need to gain some form of advantage before closing the distance. One way to do this is with a kick. The kick should be with the front leg, and should be aimed at the enemy’s thigh. It is important that if you miss the kick, your leg should fall in front of the enemy so that you do not give up your back.





3-3. THROWS AND TAKEDOWNS



All of the throws and takedowns in this section assume that you have already achieved the clinch. It is important to remember that most sport-type throws are executed at what, in a real fight, would be striking range.

a. Basic Takedown. This is the basic tackle.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 3-9). From the clinch, step slightly to the front of the enemy and change your grip. Both palms are pointed down and your hands are at the enemy’s kidneys.





Figure 3-9: Basic takedown, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 3-10). Pulling with your hands and pushing with your head and shoulder, break the enemy’s balance to the rear.





Figure 3-10: Basic takedown, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 3-11). Step over the enemy and release your grip, ending in the mounted position.





Figure 3-11: Basic takedown, step 3.





NOTE



It is very important to release your hands to avoid landing on them.





b. Hook the Leg (Figure 3-12). If the enemy attempts to pull away, use your leg closest to his back to hook his leg. When he begins to fall, release the leg and finish as before.





Figure 3-12: Hook the leg.





c. Hip Throw. The enemy may attempt to avoid the tackle by leaning forward.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 3-13). With the leg that is behind the enemy, step through until you are standing in front of him with your legs inside of his. Your hip should be pushed well through.





Figure 3-13: Hip throw, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 3-14). Using a scooping motion with your hips, lift the enemy and throw him over your hip. You should land in the knee mount or side control.





Figure 3-14: Hip throw, step 2.





Figure 3-14: Hip throw, step 2 . (Continued)





d. Rear Takedown (Figure 3-15). Frequently, you will end up after the clinch with your head behind the enemy’s arm. When this happens, you grasp your hands together around his waist by interlocking your fingers, and place your forehead in the middle of the small of his back to avoid strikes. From this secure position, you can attempt to take the enemy down.





Figure 3-15: Rear takedown.





(1) Step 1 (Figure 3-16). Step to one side so that you are behind the enemy at an angle.





Figure 3-16: Rear takedown, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 3-17). With the leg that is behind the enemy, reach out and place the instep of your foot behind the enemy’s far side foot so that he cannot step backward. Sit down as close to your other foot as possible and hang your weight from the enemy’s waist.





Figure 3-17: Rear takedown, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 3-18). The enemy will fall backwards over your extended leg. As he does so, tuck your elbow in to avoid falling on it, and rotate up into the mounted position.





Figure 3-18: Rear takedown, step 3.





Figure 3-18: Rear takedown, step 3. (Continued)





3-4. DEFENDING AGAINST HEADLOCKS



a. Defend the Guillotine.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 3-19). When you find yourself caught in the guillotine choke, reach over the enemy’s opposite shoulder with your arm. Turn your head slightly inward and grasp the enemy’s wrist to help alleviate the pressure. You should also relax and hang as dead weight. If the enemy is taller than you, place your knees on his thighs to support you.





Figure 3-19: Defend the guillotine, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 3-20). As the enemy tries to pick you up to choke you, bounce around to the opposite side from the choke. Break his base by bumping the back of his knee with your knee, and lower him carefully to the ground. Ensure that you are in side control as you set him down.





Figure 3-20: Defend the guillotine, step 2.





Figure 3-20: Defend the guillotine, step 2. (Continued)





Figure 3-20: Defend the guillotine, step 2. (Continued)





(3) Step 3 (Figure 3-21). With the hand that is closest to his head, grasp his far side shoulder and drive the bony portion of your forearm under his chin until you can pull your head free.





Figure 3-21: Defend the guillotine, step 3.





b. Defend the Guillotine with Knee Strikes. When the enemy has secured the guillotine choke, he may attempt to direct knee strikes to your head.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 3-22). With both arms locked out at the elbows, and the heels of the hands together, block the enemy’s knee strikes just above the knee. It is very important that your thumbs be alongside your hands so that they are not broken by the enemy’s knee strikes. Your leg that is on the side corresponding with the side of the enemy that your head is on, should be forward, and the other leg back. Your leg that is on the same side of the enemy as your head should be forward, and your other leg back.





Figure 3-22: Defend the guillotine with knee strikes, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 3-23). Swing your back leg forward, between the enemy’s legs, and sit down on your other heel. This dropping action will send the enemy over your head, driving his head into the ground.





Figure 3-23: Defend the guillotine with knee strikes, step 2.





Figure 3-23: Defend the guillotine with knee strikes, step 2. (Continued)





CAUTION



This technique can be very dangerous to practice. It should always be practiced with the enemy’s outside hand free, allowing him to roll out. Soldiers should be proficient in rolling breakfalls, and great care must be taken to ensure they know how to properly roll out while practicing (Figure 3-24).





Figure 3-24: Defend the guillotine with knee strikes, caution.





c. Headlock with Punches. When you are behind the enemy and he has control of your head, he must release one of his hands in order to punch.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 3-25). With your front arm, attempt to grasp the enemy’s punching arm and push it back, feeding it to your other arm. Grasp it from behind his back at the elbow.





Figure 3-25: Headlock with punches, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 3-26). When the punching arm has been controlled, secure a grip on the top of the hand that is around your head, and place your hip against the enemy’s side. At the same time, step and look away from the enemy, extending your body to break his grip. Hip pressure will keep him from following.





Figure 3-26: Headlock with punches, step 2.





(3) Step 3 (Figure 3-27). Keep his hand pressed tightly against your chest, and with the foot closest to him, step backwards to place yourself standing behind him with his hand still captured against your chest.





Figure 3-27: Headlock with punches, step 3.





Figure 3-27: Headlock with punches, step 3. (Continued)





d. Headlock Without Punches. When the enemy has control of your head, he will normally try to hold on with both hands.



(1) Step 1 (Figure 3-28). Block potential knee strikes by placing the heel of one hand just above the opposite side knee. Reach the other hand around the enemy’s back and secure a grip at the far side of his hip bone. Your legs should be back so that he cannot get his hip under you.





Figure 3-28: Headlock without punches, step 1.





(2) Step 2 (Figure 3-29). Step slightly in front of the enemy, and then with your outside foot, step between the enemy’s legs and sit down on your heel. This should be a spinning action, and as you drop between his legs, pull him with the hand that was on his hip. He will fall over you so that you can roll up into the mount.





Figure 3-29: Headlock without punches, step 2.





Figure 3-29: Headlock without punches, step 2. (Continued)





NOTE



Ensure that you tuck your elbow in as he falls to avoid landing on it.





3-5. TAKEDOWNS FROM AGAINST A WALL



If you are having difficulty gaining control of the enemy, a good technique is to push him against a wall.

a. Position and Strikes (Figure 3-30). Push him against the wall with one shoulder. One arm should be around his waist, and the other one should be on the inside of his knee to deflect knee strikes to your groin. One of your legs should be back to push, and the other one should be inside of the enemy’s knee to deflect knee strikes. From this position, you can deliver strikes to the enemy’s ribs by turning your hand over and attacking with the knuckles. When he attempts to cover his ribs, with a sharp movement, push your shoulder into him to gain enough space to strike his head.





Figure 3-30: Position and strikes against the wall.





Figure 3-30: Position and strikes against the wall. (Continued)





Figure 3-30: Position and strikes against the wall. (Continued)





Figure 3-30: Position and strikes against the wall. (Continued)





Figure 3-30: Position and strikes against the wall. (Continued)





b. Leg Drag (Figure 3-31). When the enemy attempts a knee strike on the side you are facing, capture his leg. Step back with the foot on the same side pulling him from the wall.





Figure 3-31: Leg drag.





Figure 3-31: Leg drag. (Continued)





3-6. DOUBLE LEG ATTACKS



Going under the enemy’s arms and straight to the legs is a very useful type of attack. There are several ways to finish depending on the enemy’s actions, but the initial attack is the same. When you find yourself relatively close to the enemy, change your level by bending both of your knees and drive into his midSECTION with your shoulder (Figure 3-32). One of your feet should penetrate as deep as the enemy’s feet. Continue to drive and control the legs to end in side control.





Figure 3-32: Double leg attack.





Figure 3-32: Double leg attack. (Continued)





a. Finishes from the Double Leg Attack.



(1) Lift (Figure 3-33). By driving your hips under him and arching your back, lift the enemy up. Push up with your head and, by controlling his legs with your arms, gain side control.





Figure 3-33: Lift.





Figure 3-33: Lift. (Continued)





Figure 3-33: Lift. (Continued)





Figure 3-33: Lift. (Continued)





b. Hook the Leg (Figure 3-34). Hook the enemy’s heel with your outside leg and continue to drive through him.





Figure 3-34: Hook the leg.





3-7. SINGLE LEG ATTACKS



You may also choose to attack only one leg (Figure 3-35). Making a deep step with the inside leg, and reaching with the same side arm to the enemy’s opposite knee, step to the outside and grasp your hands together behind his knee. Your head and shoulder should be tight against his thigh. Moves to finish a single leg attack include the dump, block the opposite knee, and the leg sweep.





Figure 3-35: Single leg attack.





Figure 3-35: Single leg attack. (Continued)





a. Dump (Figure 3-36). From the single leg position, with your shoulder tight against his thigh, take a short step in front of him, and then a longer step backward with your trail foot. Pressure from your head and shoulder will “dump” him on to his buttocks.





Figure 3-36: Dump.





Figure 3-36: Dump. (Continued)





b. Block the Opposite Knee (Figure 3-37). If the enemy turns away from you, maintain control of his leg and reach between his legs to block his opposite leg. Use pressure with your shoulder on the back of his leg to bring him face down on the ground.





Figure 3-37: Block the opposite knee.





c. Leg Sweep (Figure 3-38). Reach your outside arm under his leg, and with your outside hand, reach down and gain control of his ankle. Pull his leg up with both of your arms and use your foot to sweep his post leg.





Figure 3-38: Leg sweep.





3-8. ATTACK FROM THE REAR



In the rear attack, the unsuspecting is knocked to the ground and kicked in the groin, or rear mounted. The soldier can then kill the sentry by any proper means. Since surprise is the essential element of this technique, the soldier must use effective stalking techniques (Figure 3-39, Step 1). To initiate his attack, he grabs both of the sentry’s ankles (Figure 3-39, Step 2). Then he heaves his body weight into the hips of the sentry while pulling up on the ankles. This technique slams the sentry to the ground on his face. Then, the soldier may follow with a kick to the groin (Figure 3-39, Step 3) or by achieving the rear mount.





Figure 3-39: Attack from the rear.





CHAPTER 4





Strikes



Strikes are an inefficient method of ending a fight. However, they are a significant part of most fights, and a soldier must have an understanding of fighting at striking range. It is important to note that while at striking range, you are open to being struck. For this reason, it is often better to avoid striking range.





SECTION I. NATURAL WEAPONS



The key to developing effective striking skills is understanding range and knowing what techniques are effective at what range and controlling the transition between ranges. Techniques are taught individually, but they must be approached as a part of an overall fighting strategy. Effective striking is not something that can be taught overnight. This Section describes natural weapon techniques of various punches, strikes, and kicks and addresses the ranges from which they are effective.



4-1. ARM STRIKES



The strikes in this section are presented individually. It is important to know that they will almost never be used this way. Follow-up sections will address combinations and how strikes fit into an overall fight strategy. Remember to keep your guard up with the non-punching arm when learning each of the following strikes.

a. Jab (Figure 4-l). The jab is thrown with the lead hand and is used for controlling the range, and setting up further techniques. From the basic stance, snap your lead arm out with a slight pivot of your hip and shoulder. You should rotate your shoulder so that the punch lands with your palm down and quickly snap your arm back into the ready position. Your punch should travel in a straight line, and your elbow should never stick out away from your body at any time during the punch.





Figure 4-1: Jab.





NOTE



To step into your jab, drive off of your trail leg as you punch and slide your trail leg forward as you withdraw your punching arm.





b. Reverse Punch (Figure 4-2). The reverse punch is a power punch thrown from the rear arm. It can be a fight ender by itself, but it is also very useful to set up takedowns. From the basic stance, turn on the ball of your trail foot as if you were putting out a cigarette so that your hips and shoulders are facing toward the enemy. As you extend your punch, rotate your arm so that you strike with your knuckles up and palm facing down. You should extend your punch as if to go through your opponent and then snap back into the ready position.





Figure 4-2: Reverse punch.





NOTE



Ensure that you do not lock your elbow when your punch is fully extended.





c. Hook (Figure 4-3). The hook is a power punch that is usually thrown from the front arm. It is very powerful and works well in combinations. One of its main advantages is that it can be fully executed outside of the enemy’s field of vision. The common mistake is to think of it as a looping arm punch. In reality, a powerful hook does not involve very much arm movement, generating its power from your leg hip and shoulder movement. From the basic stance, turn on your lead foot as if you were putting out a cigarette, turning your hips and shoulders toward the inside. Raise your elbow as you turn so that your punch lands with your arm parallel with the ground, and your palm facing toward your chest. Your trail foot should remain planted. You should then smoothly tuck your elbow back in to your side and turn your shoulders to return to the ready position.





Figure 4-3: Hook.





d. Uppercut. The uppercut can be thrown with either hand and is particularly effective against an opponent who is crouching or trying to avoid a clinch.



(1) Lead Hand Uppercut.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 4-4). From the basic stance, turn your hips and shoulders slightly to face the enemy, and dip your lead shoulder downward. You should be changing your level slightly by bending your knees.





Figure 4-4: Lead hand uppercut, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 4-5). Keep your elbow tucked in and drive off of your lead leg to land your punch, palm facing up with your wrist firm and straight.





Figure 4-5: Lead hand uppercut, step 2.





(c) Step 3. Turn your shoulders and snap back into the ready position.



(2) Trail Hand Uppercut.



(a) Step 1 (Figure 4-6). From the basic stance, turn your hips and shoulders slightly to face the enemy, and dip your rear shoulder downward. You should be changing your level slightly by bending your knees.





Figure 4-6: Trail hand uppercut, step 1.





(b) Step 2 (Figure 4-7). Drive off of your trail leg through your hip to land your punch, palm facing up with your wrist straight and firm. Your arm will be slightly more extended than the lead hand punch.





Figure 4-7: Trail hand uppercut, step 2.





(c) Step 3. Snap back into the ready position.



e. Elbow Strikes. Elbow strikes can be devastating blows and are very useful at close range. You should remember that they gain their power from the hips and legs.



(1) Horizontal Elbow Strike (Figure 4-8). A horizontal elbow strike is thrown almost exactly like a hook, with the exceptions that at the moment of impact the palm should be facing the ground.





Figure 4-8: Horizontal elbow strike.





(2) Upward Elbow Strike (Figure 4-9). The upward elbow strike is thrown almost exactly like an uppercut, with the exception that at the moment of impact the palm should be facing inward toward your head.





Figure 4-9: Upward elbow strike.





4-2. PUNCHING COMBINATIONS



Strikes must be thrown in combinations to be effective—“bunches of punches” as the old boxing saying goes. Combination punching must be practiced in order to come naturally while under the stress of combat. After the basic punches are learned individually, they should be practiced in combination. Particular attention should be paid to snapping each hand back into a defensive posture after it is used. Remember that when you are in punching range, so is the enemy. You must make a good defense an integral part of your offense. Some combination punches are:

• Jab—reverse punch.





• Jab—reverse punch—hook.





• Jab—hook.





• Jab—hook—reverse punch.





• Lead hand uppercut to the body—trail hand uppercut to the body—hook to the head.





• Lead hand uppercut to the body—trail hand uppercut to the body—lead hand horizontal elbow strike—trail hand upward elbow strike.





4-3. KICKS



Kicks during hand-to-hand combat are best directed at low targets and should be simple but effective. Combat soldiers are usually burdened with combat boots and LCE. His flexibility level is usually low during combat, and if engaged in hand-to-hand combat, he will be under high stress. He must rely on gross motor skills and kicks that do not require complicated movement or much training and practice to execute.


a. Lead Leg Front Kick (Figure 4-10). The lead leg front kick is not a very powerful kick, but it can be a very good tool to help control the range. The target should be the enemy’s thigh, just above the knee. The striking surface is the sole of the foot. It is very important that if the kick does not land, your foot should not slide off toward the enemy’s back. This would present your back to him.





Figure 4-10: Lead leg front kick.





b. Rear Leg Front Kick (Figure 4-11). The rear leg front kick is a much more powerful kick. The best target is the abdomen. The striking surface should be either the ball of the foot or the entire sole of the foot.





Figure 4-11: Rear leg front kick.





c. Shin Kick. The shin kick is a powerful kick, and it is easily performed with little training. When the legs are targeted, the kick is hard to defend against (Figure 4-12), and an opponent can be dropped by it.





Figure 4-12: Shin kick to the outer thigh.





d. Stepping Side Kick (Figure 4-13). A soldier starts a stepping side kick (Step 1) by stepping either behind or in front of his other foot to close the distance between him and his opponent. The movement is like that in a skip. The soldier now brings the knee of his kicking foot up and thrusts out a sidekick (Step 2). Tremendous power and momentum can be developed in this kick.





Figure 4-13: Stepping side kick.





e. Knee Strike (Figure 4-14). A knee strike can be a devastating weapon. It is best used when in the clinch, at very close range, or when the enemy is against a wall. The best target is the head, but the thigh or body may also be targeted under certain conditions.





Figure 4-14: Knee strike.





4-4. TRANSITION BETWEEN RANGES



In order to dominate the standup fight, you must be able to control the range between you and the enemy, and to operate effectively at the various ranges, keeping the enemy reacting to your techniques, and setting the pace of the fight. The ability to keep your head and continue to execute effective techniques requires practice. This is the heart of standup fighting. To transition between ranges, use a combination of techniques such as:

• Jab—reverse punch—shin kick to the outer thigh.





• Jab—reverse punch—shin kick to the outer thigh—high single leg takedown.





CHAPTER 5





Handheld Weapons



Handheld weapons provide a significant advantage during a fight. For soldiers to be well trained in their use there must be connectivity between the techniques of armed and unarmed fighting. As soldiers progress in their training, bayonet fighting techniques that are taught in initial entry training will merge with the other elements of hand-to-hand fighting to produce a soldier who is capable of operating across the full range of force.





SECTION I. OFFENSIVE TECHNIQUES



In most combat situations, small arms and grenades are the weapons of choice. However, in some scenarios, soldiers must engage the enemy in confined areas, such as trench clearing or room clearing or where noncombatants are present. In these instances, or when your primary weapon fails, the bayonet or knife may be the ideal weapon to dispatch the enemy. Soldiers must transition immediately and instinctively into the appropriate techniques based on the situation and the weapons at hand.



5-1. ANGLES OF ATTACK



Any attack, regardless of the type weapon, can be directed along one of nine angles of attack (Figure 5-1).





Figure 5-1: Angles of attack.





a. No. 1 Angle of Attack. A downward diagonal slash, stab, or strike toward the left side of the defender’s head, neck, or torso.



b. No. 2 Angle of Attack. A downward diagonal slash, stab, or strike toward the right side of the defender’s head, neck, or torso.



c. No. 3 Angle of Attack. A horizontal attack to the left side of the defender’s torso in the ribs, side, or hip region.



d. No. 4 Angle of Attack. The same as No. 3 angle, but to the right side.



e. No. 5 Angle of Attack. A jabbing, lunging, or punching attack directed straight toward the defender’s front.



f. No. 6 Angle of Attack. An attack directed straight down upon the defender.



g. No. 7 Angle of Attack. An upward diagonal attack toward the defender’s lower-left side.



h. No. 8 Angle of Attack. An upward diagonal attack toward the defender’s lower-right side.



i. No. 9 Angle of Attack. An attack directed straight up—for example, to the defender’s groin.





5-2. RIFLE WITH FIXED BAYONET



The principles used in fighting with the rifle and fixed bayonet are the same as when knife fighting. Use the same angles of attack and similar body movements. The principles of timing and distance remain paramount; the main difference is the extended distance provided by the length of the weapon. It is imperative that the soldier fighting with rifle and fixed bayonet use the movement of his entire body behind all of his fighting techniques—not just upper-body strength. Unit trainers should be especially conscious of stressing full body mass in motion for power and correcting all deficiencies during training. Whether the enemy is armed or unarmed, a soldier fighting with rifle and fixed bayonet must develop the mental attitude that he will survive the fight. He must continuously evaluate each moment in a fight to determine his advantages or options, as well as the enemy’s. He should base his defenses on keeping his body moving and off the line of any attacks from his opponent. The soldier seeks openings in the enemy’s defenses and starts his own attacks, using all available body weapons and angles of attack. The angles of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet are shown in Figures 5-2 through 5-8.





Figure 5-2: No. 1 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.





Figure 5-3: No. 2 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.





Figure 5-4: No. 3 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.





Figure 5-5: No. 4 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.





Figure 5-6: Low No. 5 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.





Figure 5-7: High No. 5 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.





Figure 5-8: No. 6 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.





a. Fighting Techniques. New weapons, improved equipment, and new tactics are always being introduced; however, firepower alone will not always drive a determined enemy from his position. He will often remain in defensive emplacements until driven out by close combat. The role of the soldier, particularly in the final phase of the assault, remains relatively unchanged: His mission is to close with and kill, disable, or capture the enemy. This mission remains the ultimate goal of all individual training. The rifle with fixed bayonet is one of the final means of defeating an opponent in an assault.



(1) During infiltration missions at night or when secrecy must be maintained, the bayonet is an excellent silent weapon.



(2) When close-in fighting determines the use of small-arms fire or grenades to be impractical, or when the situation does not permit the loading or reloading of the rifle, the bayonet is still the weapon available to the soldier.



(3) The bayonet serves as a secondary weapon should the rifle develop a stoppage.



(4) In hand-to-hand encounters, the detached bayonet may be used as a handheld weapon.



(5) The bayonet has many nonfighting uses, such as to probe for mines, to cut vegetation, and to use for other tasks where a pointed or cutting tool is needed.



b. Development. To become a successful rifle-bayonet fighter, a soldier must be physically fit and mentally alert. A well-rounded physical training program will increase his chances of survival in a bayonet encounter. Mental alertness entails being able to quickly detect and meet an opponent’s attack from any direction. Aggressiveness, accuracy, balance, and speed are essential in training as well as in combat situations. These traits lead to confidence, coordination, strength, and endurance, which characterize the rifle-bayonet fighter. Differences in individual body physique may require slight changes from the described rifle-bayonet techniques. These variations will be allowed if the individual’s attack is effective.



c. Principles. The bayonet is an effective weapon to be used aggressively; hesitation may mean sudden death. The soldier must attack in a relentless assault until his opponent is disabled or captured. He should be alert to take advantage of any opening. If the opponent fails to present an opening, the bayonet fighter must make one by parrying his opponent’s weapon and driving his blade or rifle butt into the opponent with force.



(1) The attack should be made to a vulnerable part of the body: face, throat, chest, abdomen, or groin.



(2) In both training and combat, the rifle-bayonet fighter displays spirit by sounding off with a low and aggressive growl. This instills a feeling of confidence in his ability to close with and disable or capture the enemy.



(3) The instinctive rifle-bayonet fighting system is designed to capitalize on the natural agility and combative movements of the soldier. It must be emphasized that precise learned movements will NOT be stressed during training.



d. Positions. The soldier holds the rifle firmly but not rigidly. He relaxes all muscles not used in a specific position; tense muscles cause fatigue and may slow him down. After proper training and thorough practice, the soldier instinctively assumes the basic positions. All positions and movements described in this manual are for right-handed men. A left-handed man, or a man who desires to learn left-handed techniques, must use the opposite hand and foot for each phase of the movement described. All positions and movements can be executed with or without the magazine and with or without the sling attached.



(1) Attack Position. This is the basic starting position (A and B, Figure 5-9) from which all attack movements originate. It generally parallels a boxer’s stance. The soldier assumes this position when running or hurdling obstacles. The instructor explains and demonstrates each move.



(a) Take a step forward and to the side with your left foot so that your feet are a comfortable distance apart.



(b) Hold your body erect or bend slightly forward at the waist. Flex your knees and balance your body weight on the balls of your feet. Your right forearm is roughly parallel to the ground. Hold the left arm high, generally in front of the left shoulder. Maintain eye-to-eye contact with your opponent, watching his weapon and body through peripheral vision.



(c) Hold your rifle diagonally across your body at a sufficient distance from the body to add balance and protect you from enemy blows. Grasp the weapon in your left hand just below the upper sling swivel, and place the right hand at the small of the stock. Keep the sling facing outward and the cutting edge of the bayonet toward your opponent. The command is, ATTACK POSITION, MOVE. The instructor gives the command, and the soldiers perform the movement.





Figure 5-9: Attack position.





(2) Relaxed Position. The relaxed position (Figure 5-10) gives the soldier a chance to rest during training. It also allows him to direct his attention toward the instructor as he discusses and demonstrates the positions and movements. To assume the relaxed position from the attack position, straighten the waist and knees and lower the rifle across the front of your body by extending the arms downward. The command is, RELAX. The instructor gives the command, and the soldiers perform the movement.



e. Movements. The soldier will instinctively strike at openings and become aggressive in his attack once he has learned to relax and has developed instinctive reflexes. His movements do not have to be executed in any prescribed order. He will achieve balance in his movements, be ready to strike in any direction, and keep striking until he has disabled his opponent. There are two basic movements used throughout bayonet instruction: the whirl and the crossover. These movements develop instant reaction to commands and afford the instructor maximum control of the training formation while on the training field.



(1) Whirl Movement. The whirl (Figure 5-11, Steps 1, 2, and 3), properly executed, allows the rifle-bayonet fighter to meet a challenge from an opponent attacking him from the rear. At the completion of a whirl, the rifle remains in the attack position. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to spin your body around by pivoting on the ball of the leading foot in the direction of the leading foot, thus facing completely about. The command is, WHIRL. The instructor gives the command, and the soldiers perform the movement.





Figure 5-10: Relaxed position.





Figure 5-11: Whirl movement.





(2) Crossover Movement. While performing certain movements in rifle-bayonet training, two ranks will be moving toward each other. When the soldiers in ranks come too close to each other to safely execute additional movements, the crossover is used to separate the ranks a safe distance apart. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to move straight forward and pass your opponent so that your right shoulder passes his right shoulder, continue moving forward about six steps, halt, and without command, execute the whirl. Remain in the attack position and wait for further commands. The command is, CROSSOVER. The instructor gives the command, and the soldiers perform the movement.





NOTE



Left-handed personnel cross left shoulder to left shoulder.





(3) Attack Movements. There are four attack movements designed to disable or capture the opponent: thrust, butt stroke, slash, and smash. Each of these movements may be used for the initial attack or as a follow-up should the initial movement fail to find its mark. The soldiers learn these movements separately. They will learn to execute these movements in a swift and continuous series during subsequent training. During all training, the emphasis will be on conducting natural, balanced movements to effectively damage the target. Precise, learned movements will not be stressed.



(a) Thrust. The objective is to disable or capture an opponent by thrusting the bayonet blade into a vulnerable part of his body. The thrust is especially effective in areas where movement is restricted—for example, trenches, wooded areas, or built-up areas. It is also effective when an opponent is lying on the ground or in a fighting position. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to lunge forward on your leading foot without losing your balance (Figure 5-12, Step 1) and, at the same time, drive the bayonet with great force into any unguarded part of your opponent’s body.



• To accomplish this, grasp the rifle firmly with both hands and pull the stock in close to the right hip; partially extend the left arm, guiding the point of the bayonet in the general direction of the opponent’s body (Figure 5-12, Step 2).



• Quickly complete the extension of the arms and body as the leading foot strikes the ground so that the bayonet penetrates the target (Figure 5-12, Step 3).



• To withdraw the bayonet, keep your feet in place, shift your body weight to the rear, and pull rearward along the same line of penetration (Figure 5-12, Step 4).



• Next, assume the attack position in preparation to continue the assault (Figure 5-12, Step 5). This movement is taught by the numbers in three phases:



1. THRUST AND HOLD, MOVE.



2. WITHDRAW AND HOLD, MOVE.



3. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.



• At combat speed, the command is, THRUST SERIES, MOVE. Training emphasis will be placed on movement at combat speed. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers perform the movements.





Figure 5-12: Thrust movement.





(b) Butt Stroke. The objective is to disable or capture an opponent by delivering a forceful blow to his body with the rifle butt (Figure 5-13, Steps 1, 2, 3, and 4, and Figure 5-14, Steps 1, 2, 3, and 4). The aim of the butt stroke may be the opponent’s weapon or a vulnerable portion of his body. The butt stroke may be vertical, horizontal, or somewhere between the two planes. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to step forward with your trailing foot and, at the same time using your left hand as a pivot, swing the rifle in an arc and drive the rifle butt into your opponent. To recover, bring your trailing foot forward and assume the attack position. The movement is taught by the numbers in two phases:



1. BUTT STROKE TO THE (head, groin, kidney) AND HOLD, MOVE.



2. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.





Figure 5-13: Butt stroke to the head.





Figure 5-14: Butt stroke to the groin.





At combat speed, the command is, BUTT STROKE TO THE (head, groin, kidney) SERIES, MOVE. Training emphasis will be placed on movement at combat speed. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers perform the movement.

(c) Slash. The objective is to disable or capture the opponent by cutting him with the blade of the bayonet. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to step forward with your lead foot (Figure 5-15, Step 1).



• At the same time, extend your left arm and swing the knife edge of your bayonet forward and down in a slashing arc (Figure 5-15, Steps 2 and 3).



• To recover, bring your trailing foot forward and assume the attack position (Figure 5-15, Step 4). This movement is taught by the number in two phases:



1. SLASH AND HOLD, MOVE.



2. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.



• At combat speed, the command is, SLASH SERIES, MOVE. Training emphasis will be placed on movement at combat speed. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers perform the movements.





Figure 5-15: Slash movement.





(d) Smash. The objective is to disable or capture an opponent by smashing the rifle butt into a vulnerable part of his body. The smash is often used as a follow-up to a butt stroke and is also effective in wooded areas and trenches when movement is restricted. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to push the butt of the rifle upward until horizontal (Figure 5-16, Step 1) and above the left shoulder with the bayonet pointing to the rear, sling up (Figure 5-16, Step 2). The weapon is almost horizontal to the ground at this time.



• Step forward with the trailing foot, as in the butt stroke, and forcefully extend both arms, slamming the rifle butt into the opponent (Figure 5-16, Step 3).





Figure 5-16: Smash movement.





• To recover, bring your trailing foot forward (Figure 5-16, Step 4) and assume the attack position (Figure 5-16, Step 5). This movement is taught by the numbers in two phases:



1. SMASH AND HOLD, MOVE.



2. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.



• At combat speed, the command is, SMASH SERIES, MOVE. Training emphasis will be placed on movement at combat speed. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers perform the movements.



(4) Defensive Movements. At times, the soldier may lose the initiative and be forced to defend himself. He may also meet an opponent who does not present a vulnerable area to attack. Therefore, he must make an opening by initiating a parry or block movement, then follow up with a vicious attack. The follow-up attack is immediate and violent.



CAUTION



To minimize weapon damage while using blocks and parries, limit weapon-to-weapon contact to half speed during training.





(a) Parry Movement. The objective is to counter a thrust, throw the opponent off balance, and hit a vulnerable area of his body. Timing, speed, and judgment are essential factors in these movements. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to—



• Parry right. If your opponent carries his weapon on his left hip (left-handed), you will parry it to your right. In execution, step forward with your leading foot (Figure 5-17, Step 1), strike the opponent’s rifle (Figure 5-17, Step 2), deflecting it to your right (Figure 5-17, Step 3), and follow up with a thrust, slash, or butt stroke.





Figure 5-17: Parry right.





• Parry left. If your opponent carries his weapon on his right hip (right-handed), you will parry it to your left. In execution, step forward with your leading foot (Figure 5-18, Step 1), strike the opponent’s rifle (Figure 5-18, Step 2), deflecting it to your left (Figure 5-18, Step 3), and follow up with a thrust, slash, or butt stroke. A supplementary parry left is the follow-up attack (Figure 5-19, Steps 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).



• Recovery. Immediately return to the attack position after completing each parry and follow-up attack. The movement is taught by the numbers in three phases:



1. PARRY RIGHT (OR LEFT), MOVE.



2. THRUST, MOVE.



3. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.



• At combat speed, the command is, PARRY RIGHT (LEFT) or PARRY (RIGHT OR LEFT) WITH FOLLOW-UP ATTACK. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers perform the movements.





Figure 5-18: Parry left.





Figure 5-19. Parry left, slash, with follow-up butt stroke to kidney region.





(b) Block. When surprised by an opponent, the block is used to cut off the path of his attack by making weapon-to-weapon contact. A block must always be followed immediately with a vicious attack. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to extend your arms using the center part of your rifle as the strike area, and cut off the opponent’s attack by making weapon-to-weapon contact. Strike the opponent’s weapon with enough power to throw him off balance. Blocks are taught by the numbers in two phases:



1. HIGH (LOW) or (SIDE) BLOCK.



2. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.



• High block (Figure 5-20, Steps 1, 2, and 3). Extend your arms upward and forward at a 45-degree angle. This action deflects an opponent’s slash movement by causing his bayonet or upper part of his rifle to strike against the center part of your rifle.





Figure 5-20: High block against slash.





• Low block (Figure 5-21, Steps 1, 2, and 3). Extend your arms downward and forward about 15 degrees from your body. This action deflects an opponent’s butt stroke aimed at the groin by causing the lower part of his rifle stock to strike against the center part of your rifle.



• Side block (Figure 5-22, Steps 1 and 2). Extend your arms with the left hand high and right hand low, thus holding the rifle vertical. This block is designed to stop a butt stroke aimed at your upper body or head. Push the rifle to your left to cause the butt of the opponent’s rifle to strike the center portion of your rifle.





Figure 5-21: Low block against butt stroke to groin.





Figure 5-22: Side block against butt stroke.





• Recovery. Counterattack each block with a thrust, butt stroke, smash, or slash.



• At combat speed, the command is the same. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers perform the movement.




(5) Modified Movements. Two attack movements have been modified to allow the rifle-bayonet fighter to slash or thrust an opponent without removing his hand from the pistol grip of the M16 rifle should the situation dictate.



(a) The modified thrust (Figure 5-23, Steps 1 and 2) is identical to the thrust with the exception of the right hand grasping the pistol grip.



(b) The modified slash (Figure 5-24, Steps 1, 2, 3, and 4) is identical to the slash with the exception of the right hand grasping the pistol grip.





Figure 5-23: Modified thrust.





Figure 5-24: Modified slash.





(6) Follow-up Movements. Follow-up movements are attack movements that naturally follow from the completed position of the previous movement. If the initial thrust, butt stroke, smash, or slash fails to make contact with the opponent’s body, the soldier should instinctively follow up with additional movements until he has disabled or captured the opponent. It is important to follow-up the initial attack with another aggressive action so the initiative is not lost. The instructor explains and demonstrates how instinct should govern your selection of a specific follow-up movement. For example—



• PARRY LEFT, BUTT STROKE TO THE HEAD, SMASH, SLASH, ATTACK POSITION.



• PARRY LEFT, SLASH, BUTT STROKE TO THE KIDNEY, ATTACK POSITION.



• PARRY RIGHT, THRUST, BUTT STROKE TO THE GROIN, SLASH, ATTACK POSITION.



Two examples of commands using follow-up movements are:

• PARRY LEFT (soldier executes), THRUST (soldier executes), BUTT STROKE TO THE HEAD (soldier executes), SMASH (soldier executes), SLASH (soldier executes), ATTACK POSITION (soldier assumes the attack position).



• THRUST (soldier executes), THRUST (soldier executes), THRUST (soldier executes), BUTT STROKE TO THE GROIN (soldier executes), SLASH (soldier executes), ATTACK POSITION (soldier assumes the attack position).



All training will stress damage to the target and violent action, using natural movements as opposed to precise, stereotyped movements. Instinctive, aggressive action and balance are the keys to offense with the rifle and bayonet.



NOTE



For training purposes, the instructor may and should mix up the series of movements.





5-3. BAYONET/KNIFE



As the bayonet is an integral part of the combat soldier’s equipment, it is readily available for use as a multipurpose weapon. The bayonet produces a terrifying mental effect on the enemy when in the hands of a well-trained and confident soldier. The soldier skilled in the use of the knife also increases his ability to defend against larger opponents and multiple attackers. Both these skills increase his chances of surviving and accomplishing the mission. (Although the following paragraphs say “knife,” the information also applies to bayonets.)

a. Grips. The best way to hold the knife is either with the straight grip or the reverse grip.



(1) Straight Grip. Grip the knife in the strong hand by forming a “vee” and by allowing the knife to fit naturally, as in gripping for a handshake. The handle should lay diagonally across the palm. Point the blade toward the enemy, usually with the cutting edge down. The cutting edge can also be held vertically or horizontally to the ground. Use the straight grip when thrusting and slashing.



(2) Reverse Grip. Grip the knife with the blade held parallel with the forearm, cutting edge facing outward. This grip conceals the knife from the enemy’s view. The reverse grip also affords the most power for lethal insertion. Use this grip for slashing, stabbing, and tearing.



b. Stances. The primary stances are the knife fighter’s stance and the modified stance.



(1) Knife Fighter’s Stance. In this stance, the fighter stands with his feet about shoulder-width apart, dominant foot toward the rear. About 70 percent of his weight is on the front foot and 30 percent on the rear foot. He stands on the balls of both feet and holds the knife with the straight grip. The other hand is held close to his body where it is ready to use, but protected (Figure 5-25).



(2) Modified Stance. The difference in the modified stance is the knife is held close to the body with the other hand held close over the knife hand to help conceal it (Figure 5-26).



c. Range. The two primary ranges in knife fighting are long range and medium range. In long-range knife fighting, attacks consist of figure-eight slashes along the No. 1, No. 2, No. 7, and No. 8 angles of attack; horizontal slashes along the No. 3 and No. 4 angles of attack; and lunging thrusts to vital areas on the No. 5 angle of attack. Usually, the straight grip is used. In medium-range knife fighting, the reverse grip provides greater power. It is used to thrust, slash, and tear along all angles of attack.





Figure 5-25: Knife fighter’s stance.





Figure 5-26: Modified stance.





5-4. KNIFE-AGAINST-KNIFE SEQUENCE



The knife fighter must learn to use all available weapons of his body and not limit himself to the knife. The free hand can be used to trap the enemy’s hands to create openings in his defense. The enemy’s attention will be focused on the weapon; therefore, low kicks and knee strikes will seemingly come from nowhere. The knife fighter’s priority of targets are the eyes, throat, abdominal region, and extended limbs. The following knife attack sequences can be used in training to help develop soldiers’ knowledge of movements, principles, and techniques in knife fighting.

a. Nos. 1 and 4 Angles. Two opponents assume the knife fighter’s stance (Figure 5-27, Step 1). The attacker starts with a diagonal slash along the No. 1 angle of attack to the throat (Figure 5-27, Step 2). He then follows through with a slash and continues with a horizontal slash back across the abdomen along the No. 4 angle of attack (Figure 5-27, Step 3). He finishes the attack by using his entire body mass behind a lunging stab into the opponent’s solar plexus (Figure 5-27, Step 4).





Figure 5-27: Nos. 1 and 4 angles.





b. Nos. 5, 3, and 2 Angles. In this sequence, one opponent (attacker) starts an attack with a lunge along the No. 5 angle of attack. At the same time, the other opponent (defender) on the left moves his body off the line of attack, parries the attacking arm, and slices the biceps of his opponent (Figure 5-28, Step 1). The defender slashes back across the groin along the No. 3 angle of attack (Figure 5-28, Step 2). He finishes the attacker by continuing with an upward stroke into the armpit or throat along the No. 2 angle of attack (Figure 5-28, Step 3). Throughout this sequence, the attacker’s weapon hand is controlled with the defenders left hand as he attacks with his own knife hand.



c. Low No. 5 Angle. In the next sequence, the attacker on the right lunges to the stomach along a low No. 5 angle of attack. The defender on the left moves his body off the line of attack while parrying and slashing the wrist of the attacking knife hand as he redirects the arm (Figure 5-29, Step 1). After he slashes the wrist of his attacker, the defender continues to move around the outside and stabs the attacker’s armpit (Figure 5-29, Step 2). He retracts his knife from the armpit, continues his movement around the attacker, and slices his hamstring (Figure 5-29, Step 3).



d. Optional Low No. 5 Angle. The attacker on the right lunges to the stomach of his opponent (the defender) along the low No. 5 angle of attack. The defender moves his body off the line of attack of the knife. Then he turns and, at the same time, delivers a slash to the attacker’s throat along the No. 1 angle of attack (Figure 5-30, Step 1). The defender immediately follows with another slash to the opposite side of the attacker’s throat along the No. 2 angle of attack (Figure 5-30, Step 2). The attacker is finished as the opponent on the left (defender) continues to slice across the abdomen with a stroke along the No. 3 angle (Figure 5-30, Step 3).





Figure 5-28: Nos. 5, 3, and 2 angles.





Figure 5-29: Low No. 5 angle.





5-5. ADVANCED WEAPONS TECHNIQUES AND TRAINING



For advanced training in weapons techniques, training partners should have the same skill level. Attackers can execute attacks along multiple angles of attack in combinations. The attacker must attack with a speed that offers the defender a challenge, but does not overwhelm him. It should not be a contest to see who can win, but a training exercise for both individuals.

a. Continued training in weapons techniques will lead to the partners’ ability to engage in free-response fighting or sparring—that is, the individuals become adept enough to understand the principles of weapons attacks, defense, and movements so they can respond freely when attacking or defending from any angle.





Figure 5-30: Optional low No. 5 angle.





b. Instructors must closely monitor training partners to ensure that the speed and control of the individuals does not become dangerous during advanced training practice. Proper eye protection and padding should be used, when applicable. The instructor should stress the golden rule in free-response fighting—Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.





SECTION II. FIELD-EXPEDIENT WEAPONS



To survive, the soldier in combat must be able to deal with any situation that develops. His ability to adapt any nearby object for use as a weapon in a win-or-die situation is limited only by his ingenuity and resourcefulness. Possible weapons, although not discussed herein, include ink pens or pencils; canteens tied to string to be swung; snap links at the end of sections of rope; kevlar helmets; sand, rocks, or liquids thrown into the enemy’s eyes; or radio antennas. The following techniques demonstrate a few expedient weapons that are readily available to most soldiers for defense and counterattack against the bayonet and rifle with fixed bayonet.



5-6. ENTRENCHING TOOL



Almost all soldiers carry the entrenching tool. It is a versatile and formidable weapon when used by a soldier with some training. It can be used in its straight position—locked out and fully extended—or with its blade bent in a 90-degree configuration.

a. To use the entrenching tool against a rifle with fixed bayonet, the attacker lunges with a thrust to the stomach of the defender along a low No. 5 angle of attack (Figure 5-31, Step 1).



(1) The defender moves just outside to avoid the lunge and meets the attacker’s arm with the blade of the fully extended entrenching tool (Figure 5-31, Step 2).



(2) The defender gashes all the way up the attacker’s arm with the force of both body masses coming together. The hand gripping the entrenching tool is given natural protection from the shape of the handle. The defender continues pushing the blade of the entrenching tool up and into the throat of the attacker, driving him backward and downward (Figure 5-31, Step 3).



b. An optional use of entrenching tool against a rifle with fixed bayonet is for the attacker to lunge to the stomach of the defender (Figure 5-32, Step 1).



(1) The defender steps to the outside of the line of attack at 45 degrees to avoid the weapon. He then turns his body and strikes downward onto the attacking arm (on the radial nerve) with the blade of the entrenching tool (Figure 5-32, Step 2).





Figure 5-31: Entrenching tool against rifle with fixed bayonet.





Figure 5-32: Optional use of the entrenching tool against rifle with fixed bayonet.





(2) He drops his full body weight down with the strike, and the force causes the attacker to collapse forward. The defender then strikes the point of the entrenching tool into the jugular notch, driving it deeply into the attacker (Figure 5-32, Step 3).



c. In the next two sequences, the entrenching tool is used in the bent configuration—that is, the blade is bent 90 degrees to the handle and locked into place.



(1) The attacker tries to stick the bayonet into the chest of the defender (Figure 5-33, Step 1).



(a) When the attack comes, the defender moves his body off the line of attack by stepping to the outside. He allows his weight to shift forward and uses the blade of the entrenching tool to drag along the length of the weapon, scraping the attacker’s arm and hand (Figure 5-33, Step 2). The defender’s hand is protected by the handle’s natural design.



(b) He continues to move forward into the attacker, strikes the point of the blade into the jugular notch, and drives it downward (Figure 5-33, Step 3).



(2) The attacker lunges with a fixed bayonet along the No. 5 angle of attack (Figure 5-34, Step 1). The defender then steps to the outside to move off the line of attack and turns; he strikes the point of the blade of the entrenching tool into the side of the attacker’s throat (Figure 5-34, Step 2).





Figure 5-33: Entrenching tool in bent configuration.





Figure 5-34: Optional use of entrenching tool in bent configuration.





5-7. THREE-FOOT STICK



Since a stick can be found almost anywhere, a soldier should know its uses as a field-expedient weapon. The stick is a versatile weapon; its capability ranges from simple prisoner control to lethal combat.

a. Use a stick about 3 feet long and grip it by placing it in the “vee” formed between the thumb and index finger, as in a handshake. It may also be grasped by two hands and used in an unlimited number of techniques. The stick is not held at the end, but at a comfortable distance from the butt end.



b. When striking with the stick, achieve maximum power by using the entire body weight behind each blow. The desired point of contact of the weapon is the last 2 inches at the tip of the stick. The primary targets for striking with the stick are the vital body points in Chapter 4. Effective striking points are usually the wrist, hand, knees, and other bony protuberances. Soft targets include the side of the neck, jugular notch, solar plexus, and various nerve motor points. Attack soft targets by striking or thrusting the tip of the stick into the area. Three basic methods of striking are—



(1) Thrusting. Grip the stick with both hands and thrust straight into a target with the full body mass behind it.



(2) Whipping. Hold the stick in one hand and whip it in a circular motion; use the whole body mass in motion to generate power.



(3) Snapping. Snap the stick in short, shocking blows, again with the body mass behind each strike.



(a) When the attacker thrusts with a knife to the stomach of the defender with a low No. 5 angle of attack, the defender moves off the line of attack to the outside and strikes vigorously downward onto the attacking wrist, hand, or arm (Figure 5-35, Step 1).



(b) The defender then moves forward, thrusts the tip of the stick into the jugular notch of the attacker (Figure 5-35, Step 2), and drives him to the ground with his body weight—not his upper body strength (Figure 5-35, Step 3).





Figure 5-35: Three-foot stick against knife.





c. When using a three-foot stick against a rifle with fixed bayonet, the defender grasps the stick with two hands, one at each end, as the attacker thrusts forward to the chest (Figure 5-36, Step 1).



(1) He steps off the line of attack to the outside and redirects the weapon with the stick (Figure 5-36, Step 2).



(2) He then strikes forward with the forearm into the attacker’s throat (Figure 5-36, Step 3). The force of the two body weights coming together is devastating. The attacker’s neck is trapped in the notch formed by the stick and the defender’s forearm.



(3) Using the free end of the stick as a lever, the defender steps back and uses his body weight to drive the attacker to the ground. The leverage provided by the stick against the neck creates a tremendous choke with the forearm, and the attacker loses control completely (Figure 5-36, Step 4).





Figure 5-36: Three-foot stick against rifle with fixed bayonet.





5-8. SIX-FOOT POLE



Another field-expedient weapon that can mean the difference between life and death for a soldier in an unarmed conflict is a pole about 6 feet long. Examples of poles suitable for use are mop handles, pry bars, track tools, tent poles, and small trees or limbs cut to form a pole. A soldier skilled in the use of a pole as a weapon is a formidable opponent. The size and weight of the pole requires him to move his whole body to use it effectively. Its length gives the soldier an advantage of distance in most unarmed situations. There are two methods usually used in striking with a pole:

a. Swinging. Becoming effective in swinging the pole requires skilled body movement and practice. The greatest power is developed by striking with the last 2 inches of the pole.



b. Thrusting. The pole is thrust straight along its axis with the user’s body mass firmly behind it.



(1) An attacker tries to thrust forward with a fixed bayonet (Figure 5-37, Step 1). The defender moves his body off the line of attack; he holds the tip of the pole so that the attacker runs into it from his own momentum. He then aims for the jugular notch and anchors his body firmly in place so that the full force of the attack is felt at the attacker’s throat (Figure 5-37, Step 2).



(2) The defender then shifts his entire body weight forward over his lead foot and drives the attacker off his feet (Figure 5-37, Step 3).





NOTE



During high stress, small targets, such as the throat, may be difficult to hit. Good, large targets include the solar plexus and hip/thigh joint.





Figure 5-37: Thrusting with 6-foot pole.





CHAPTER 6





Standing Defense



A soldier cannot count on starting every encounter in a superior position. To survive, he must have simple techniques that will bring him back into his fight plan.





SECTION I. UNARMED OPPONENT



Most grasping type attacks will leave the enemy in striking range. Therefore, elaborate defenses are not necessary. You should simply attack with strikes and force the enemy to either close with you, or when he attempts to respond with strikes, take the opportunity to close or escape yourself. The techniques in this section are directed at escaping from positions that are more difficult.



6-1. DEFENSE AGAINST CHOKES



a. Standing Rear Naked (Figure 6-1). At the moment you feel the enemy’s arm around your neck, your hands should immediately grasp it to keep him from tightening the choke, and you should hang your weight on his arm to feel where his weight is. If he is close to your back, simply lean forward at the waist and, using your hips to lift, throw him straight over your back.





Figure 6-1: Defense against the standing rear naked choke.





Figure 6-1: Defense against the standing rear naked choke. (Continued)





Figure 6-1: Defense against the standing rear naked choke. (Continued)





b. Standing Rear Naked Pulling Back (Figure 6-2). If, when you hang your weight on the enemy’s arm, you feel that he is pulling you back over one of his legs, you should reach back with your leg and wrap it around the outside of the enemy’s leg on the same side as the choking arm. As he tires from holding you up, use your leg as a guide and work your way around to the position shown. Your leg must be behind his, and you must be leaning forward, controlling his arm. Twisting your body, throw him to the ground.





Figure 6-2: Defense against the standing rear naked choke leaning back.





Figure 6-2: Defense against the standing rear naked choke leaning back. (Continued)





Figure 6-2: Defense against the standing rear naked choke leaning back. (Continued)





c. One-Hand Neck Press Against the Wall (Figure 6-3). If the enemy pins you against the wall with one hand, strike his arm with the palm of your hand on the side where his thumb is pushing toward his fingers. This will make his arm slide off of your neck. Follow through with your strike and when your arm is in position, strike with a backward elbow strike to the head.





Figure 6-3: Defense against one-hand neck press against a wall.





Figure 6-3: Defense against one-hand neck press against a wall. (Continued)





d. Two-Hand Neck Press While Pinned Against the Wall (Figure 6-4). If the enemy uses both hands against your neck to press you into the wall, grasp under his elbows with both hands. Step out to either side and throw him against the wall. Finish with a knee strike.





Figure 6-4: Defense against the two-hand neck press against a wall.





Figure 6-4: Defense against the two-hand neck press against a wall. (Continued)





Figure 6-4: Defense against the two-hand neck press against a wall. (Continued)





6-2. DEFENSE AGAINST BEAR HUGS



a. Front Bear Hug Over Your Arms (Figure 6-5). If the enemy attempts to grasp you in a bear hug from the front over your arms, move your hips back and use your arms as a brace between his hips and yours. Your hands should be on his hip bones, and your elbows should be braced against your hips. Keeping one arm as a brace, step to the opposite side to achieve the clinch. Finish with a takedown.





Figure 6-5: Defense against the front bear hug over your arms.





Figure 6-5: Defense against the front bear hug over your arms. (Continued)





b. Front Bear Hug Under Your Arms (Figure 6-6). If the enemy attempts to grasp you under your arms, step back into a strong base and use both hands to push his chin upwards to break his grasp. Finish with a knee strike. If he is exceptionally strong, push upwards against his nose.





Figure 6-6: Defense against the front bear hug under your arms.





Figure 6-6: Defense against the front bear hug under your arms. (Continued)





c. Bear Hug From the Rear, Over the Arms (Figure 6-7). When the enemy attempts to grab you from behind over your arms, drop down into a strong stance and bring your arms up to prevent him from controlling them. Step to the outside and then around his hip so that your legs are behind him. At this point you may attack his groin, or you may lift him with your hips and throw him.





Figure 6-7: Defense against the bear hug from the rear, over the arms.





Figure 6-7: Defense against the bear hug from the rear, over the arms. (Continued)





d. Bear Hug from the Rear Under Your Arms (Figure 6-8). When the enemy grasps you from the rear under your arms, he will probably try to lift you for a throw. If he does so, wrap your leg around his so that you are harder to maneuver for the throw. When he sets you down, or if he did not lift you in the first place, lean your weight forward and place your hands on the ground. Move to one side until one of his legs is between yours. Push backward slightly and reach one hand back to grasp his heel. When you have a good grip, reach back with the other hand. Pull forward with your hands, and when he falls, break his knee by sitting on it as you pull on his leg.





Figure 6-8: Defense against the bear hug from the rear, under the arms.





Figure 6-8: Defense against the bear hug from the rear, under the arms. (Continued)





Figure 6-8: Defense against the bear hug from the rear, under the arms. (Continued)





Figure 6-8: Defense against the bear hug from the rear, under the arms. (Continued)





CAUTION



Care must be taken when practicing this technique to avoid accidental injury.





SECTION II. ARMED OPPONENT



A knife (or bayonet), properly employed, is a deadly weapon; however, using defensive techniques, such as maintaining separation, will greatly enhance the soldier’s ability to fight and win.



6-3. DEFENSE AGAINST AN ARMED OPPONENT



An unarmed defender is always at a distinct disadvantage when facing an armed opponent. It is imperative, therefore, that the unarmed defender understands and uses the following principles to survive.

a. Separation. Maintain a separation of at least 10 feet plus the length of the weapon from the attacker. This distance gives the defender time to react to any attempt by the attacker to close the gap and be upon the defender. The defender should also try to place stationary objects between himself and the attacker.



b. Unarmed Defense. Unarmed defense against an armed opponent should be a last resort. If it is necessary, the defender’s course of action includes:



(1) Move the body out of the line of attack of the weapon. Step off the line of attack or redirect the attack of the weapon so that it clears the body.



(2) Control the weapon. Maintain control of the attacking arm by securing the weapon, hand, wrist, elbow, or arm by using joint locks, if possible.



(3) Stun the attacker with an effective counterattack. Counterattack should be swift and devastating. Take the vigor out of the attacker with a low, unexpected kick, or break a locked joint of the attacking arm. Strikes to motor nerve centers are effective stuns, as are skin tearing, eye gouging, and attacking of the throat. The defender can also take away the attacker’s balance.



(4) Ground the attacker. Take the attacker to the ground where the defender can continue to disarm or further disable him.



(5) Disarm the attacker. Break the attacker’s locked joints. Use leverage or induce pain to disarm the attacker and finish him or to maintain physical control.



c. Precaution. Do not focus full attention on the weapon because the attacker has other body weapons to use. There may even be other attackers that you have not seen.



d. Expedient Aids. Anything available can become an expedient aid to defend against an armed attack. The Kevlar helmet can be used as a shield; similarly, the LCE and shirt jacket can be used to protect the defender against a weapon. The defender can also throw dirt in the attacker’s eyes as a distraction.





6-4 DEFENSE AGAINST A KNIFE



When an unarmed soldier is faced with an enemy armed with a knife, he must be mentally prepared to be cut. The likelihood of being cut severely is less if the fighter is well trained in knife defense and if the principles of weapon defense are followed. A slash wound is not usually lethal or shock inducing; however, a stab wound risks injury to vital organs, arteries, and veins and may also cause instant shock or unconsciousness.

a. Types of Knife Attacks. The first line of defense against an opponent armed with a knife is to avoid close contact. The different types of knife attacks are:



(1) Thrust. The thrust is the most common and most dangerous type of knife attack. It is a strike directed straight into the target by jabbing or lunging.



(2) Slash. The slash is a sweeping surface cut or circular slash. The wound is usually a long cut, varying from a slight surface cut to a deep gash.



(3) Tear. The tear is a cut made by dragging the tip of the blade across the body to create a ripping-type cut.



(4) Hack. The hack is delivered by using the knife to block or chop with.



(5) Butt. The butt is a strike with the knife handle.



b. Knife Defense Drills. Knife defense drills are used to familiarize soldiers with defense movement techniques for various angles of attack. For training, the soldiers should be paired off; one partner is named as the attacker and one is the defender. It is important that the attacker make his attack realistic in terms of distance and angling during training. His strikes must be accurate in hitting the defender at the intended target if the defender does not defend himself or move off the line of attack. For safety, the attacks are delivered first at one-quarter and one-half speed, and then at three-quarter speed as the defender becomes more skilled. Variations can be added by changing grips, stances, and attacks.



(1) No. 1 Angle of Defense—Check and Lift (Figure 6-9). The attacker delivers a slash along the No. 1 angle of attack. The defender meets and checks the movement with his left forearm bone, striking the inside forearm of the attacker (Step 1). The defender’s right hand immediately follows behind the strike to lift, redirect, and take control of the attacker’s knife arm (Step 2). The defender brings the attacking arm around to his right side where he can use an arm bar, wrist lock, and so forth, to disarm the attacker (Step 3). He will have better control by keeping the knife hand as close to his body as possible (Step 4).





Figure 6-9: No. 1 angle of defense—check and lift.





(2) No. 2 Angle of Defense—Check and Ride (Figure 6-10). The attacker slashes with a No. 2 angle of attack. The defender meets the attacking arm with a strike from both forearms against the outside forearm, his bone against the attacker’s muscle tissue (Step 1). The strike checks the forward momentum of the attacking arm. The defender’s right hand is then used to ride the attacking arm clear of his body (Step 2). He redirects the attacker’s energy with strength starting from the right elbow (Step 3).



(3) No. 3 Angle of Defense—Check and Lift (Figure 6-11). The attacker delivers a horizontal slash to the defender’s ribs, kidneys, or hip on the left side (Step 1). The defender meets and checks the attacking arm on the left side of his body with a downward circular motion across the front of his own body. At the same time, he moves his body off the line of attack. He should meet the attacker’s forearm with a strike forceful enough to check its momentum (Step 2). The defender then rides the energy of the attacking arm by wiping downward along the outside of his own left forearm with his right hand. He then redirects the knife hand around to his right side where he can control or disarm the weapon (Step 3).





Figure 6-10: No. 2 angle of defense—check and ride.





Figure 6-11: No. 3 angle of defense—check and lift.





(4) No. 4 Angle of Defense—Check (Figure 6-12). The attacker slashes the defender with a backhand slashing motion to the right side at the ribs, kidneys, or hips. The defender moves his right arm in a downward circular motion and strikes the attacking arm on the outside of the body (Step 1). At the same time, he moves off the line of attack (Step 2). The strike must be forceful enough to check the attack. The left arm is held in a higher guard position to protect from a redirected attack or to assist in checking (Step 3). The defender moves his body to a position where he can choose a proper disarming maneuver (Step 4).





Figure 6-12: No. 4 angle of defense—check.





(5) Low No. 5 Angle of Defense—Parry (Figure 6-13). A lunging thrust to the stomach is made by the attacker along the No. 5 angle of attack (Step 1). The defender moves his body off the line of attack and deflects the attacking arm by parrying with his left hand (Step 2). He deflects the attacking hand toward his right side by redirecting it with his right hand. As he does this, the defender can strike downward with the left forearm or the wrist onto the forearm or wrist of the attacker (Step 3). The defender ends up in a position to lock the elbow of the attacking arm across his body if he steps off the line of attack properly (Step 4).





Figure 6-13: Low No. 5 angle of defense—parry.





(6) High No. 5 Angle of Defense (Figure 6-14). The attacker lunges with a thrust to the face, throat, or solar plexus (Step 1). The defender moves his body off the line of attack while parrying with either hand. He redirects the attacking arm so that the knife clears his body (Step 2). He maintains control of the weapon hand or arm and gouges the eyes of the attacker, driving him backward and off balance (Step 3). If the attacker is much taller than the defender, it may be a more natural movement for the defender to raise his left hand to strike and deflect the attacking arm. He can then gouge his thumb or fingers into the jugular notch of the attacker and force him to the ground. Still another possibility for a high No. 5 angle of attack is for the defender to move his body off the line of attack while parrying. He can then turn his body, rotate his shoulder under the elbow joint of the attacker, and lock it out (Step 4).





Figure 6-14: High No. 5 angle of defense.





(7) No. 6 Angle of Defense (Figure 6-15). The attacker strikes straight downward onto the defender with a stab (Step 1). The defender reacts by moving his body out of the weapon’s path and by parrying or checking and redirecting the attacking arm, as the movement in the high No. 5 angle of defense (Step 2). The reactions may vary as to what is natural for the defender. The defender then takes control of the weapon and disarms the attacker (Step 3).





Figure 6-15: No. 6 angle of defense.





c. Follow-Up Techniques. Once the instructor believes the soldiers are skilled in these basic reactions to attack, follow-up techniques may be introduced and practiced. These drills make up the defense possibilities against the various angles of attack. They also enable the soldier to apply the principles of defense against weapons and allow him to feel the movements. Through repetition, the reactions become natural, and the soldier instinctively reacts to a knife attack with the proper defense. It is important not to associate specific movements or techniques with certain types of attack. The knife fighter must rely on his knowledge of principles and his training experience in reacting to a knife attack. No two attacks or reactions will be the same; thus, memorizing techniques will not ensure a soldier’s survival.



(1) Defend and Clear. When the defender has performed a defensive maneuver and avoided an attack, he can push the attacker away and move out of the attacker’s reach.



(2) Defend and Stun. After the defender performs his first defensive maneuver to a safer position, he can deliver a stunning blow as an immediate counterattack. Strikes to motor nerve points or attacker’s limbs, low kicks, and elbow strikes are especially effective stunning techniques.



(3) Defend and Disarm. The defender also follows up his first defensive maneuver by maintaining control of the attacker’s weapon arm, executing a stunning technique, and disarming the attacker. The stun distracts the attacker and also gives the defender some time to gain possession of the weapon and to execute his disarming technique.





6-5. UNARMED DEFENSE AGAINST A RIFLE WITH FIXED BAYONET



Defense against a rifle with a fixed bayonet involves the same principles as knife defense. The soldier considers the same angles of attack and the proper response for any attack along each angle.

a. Regardless of the type weapon used by the enemy, his attack will always be along one of the nine angles of attack at any one time. The soldier must get his entire body off the line of attack by moving to a safe position. A rifle with a fixed bayonet has two weapons: a knife at one end and a butt stock at the other end. The soldier will be safe as long as he is not in a position where he can be struck by either end during the attack.



b. Usually, he is in a more advantageous position if he moves inside the length of the weapon. He can then counterattack to gain control of the situation as soon as possible. The following counterattacks can be used as defenses against a rifle with a fixed bayonet; they also provide a good basis for training.



(1) Unarmed Defense Against No. 1 Angle of Attack (Figure 6-16). The attacker prepares to slash along the No. 1 angle of attack (Step 1). The defender waits until the last possible moment before moving so he is certain of the angle along which the attack is directed (Step 2). This way, the attacker cannot change his attack in response to movement by the defender. When the defender is certain that the attack is committed along a specific angle (No. 1, in this case), he moves to the inside of the attacker and gouges his eyes (Step 2) while the other hand redirects and controls the weapon. He maintains control of the weapon and lunges his entire body weight into the eye gouge to drive the attacker backward and off balance. The defender now ends up with the weapon, and the attacker is in a poor recovery position (Step 3).





Figure 6-16: Unarmed defense against No. 1 angle of attack.





(2) Unarmed Defense Against No. 2 Angle of Attack (Figure 6-17). The attacker makes a diagonal slash along the No. 2 angle of attack (Step 1). Again, the defender waits until he is sure of the attack before moving. The defender then moves to the outside of the attacker and counterattacks with a thumb jab into the right armpit (Step 2). He receives the momentum of the attacking weapon and controls it with his free hand. He uses the attacker’s momentum against him by pulling the weapon in the direction it is going with one hand and pushing with his thumb of the other hand (Step 3). The attacker is completely off balance, and the defender can gain control of the weapon.





Figure 6-17: Unarmed defense against No. 2 angle of attack.





(3) Unarmed Defense Against No. 3 Angle of Attack (Figure 6-18). The attacker directs a horizontal slash along the No. 3 angle of attack (Step 1). The defender turns and moves to the inside of the attacker; he then strikes with his thumb into the jugular notch (Step 2). His entire body mass is behind the thumb strike and, coupled with the incoming momentum of the attacker, the strike drives the attacker’s head backward and takes his balance (Step 3). The defender turns his body with the momentum of the weapon’s attack to strip the weapon from the attacker’s grip (Step 4).





Figure 6-18: Unarmed defense against No. 3 angle of attack.





(4) Unarmed Defense Against No. 4 Angle of Attack (Figure 6-19). The attack is a horizontal slash along the No. 4 angle of attack (Step 1). The defender moves in to the outside of the attacker (Step 2). He then turns with the attack, delivering an elbow strike to the throat (Step 3). At the same time, the defender’s free hand controls the weapon and pulls it from the attacker as he is knocked off balance from the elbow strike.





Figure 6-19: Unarmed defense against No. 4 angle of attack.





(5) Unarmed Defense Against Low No. 5 Angle of Attack. (Figure 6-20). The attacker thrusts the bayonet at the stomach of the defender (Step 1). The defender shifts his body to the side to avoid the attack and to gouge the eyes of the attacker (Step 2). The defender’s free hand maintains control of and strips the weapon from the attacker as he is driven backward with the eye gouge (Step 3).





Figure 6-20: Unarmed defense against low No. 5 angle of attack.





(6) Unarmed Defense Against High No. 5 Angle of Attack (Figure 6-21). The attacker delivers a thrust to the throat of the defender (Step 1). The defender then shifts to the side to avoid the attack, parries the thrust, and controls the weapon with his trail hand (Step 2). He then shifts his entire body mass forward over the lead foot, slamming a forearm strike into the attacker’s throat (Step 3).





Figure 6-21: Unarmed defense against high No. 5 angle of attack.





(7) Unarmed Defense Against No. 6 Angle of Attack (Figure 6-22). The attacker delivers a downward stroke along the No. 6 angle of attack. The defender shifts to the outside to get off the line of attack and he grabs the weapon (Step 1). Then, he pulls the attacker off balance by causing him to overextend himself (Step 2). The defender shifts his weight backward and causes the attacker to fall, as he strips the weapon from him (Step 3).





Figure 6-22: Unarmed defense against No. 6 angle of attack.





CHAPTER 7





Group Tactics



Most hand-to-hand situations on the battlefield will involve several people. Varying levels of force will be appropriate based on the situation and rules of engagement. Whether there are more friendlies or enemies, or whether or not some of the parties are armed, soldiers should enter a fight with a well-rehearsed plan and an overall fight strategy.





SECTION I. LETHAL FORCE SCENARIOS



The fundamental truth of hand-to-hand fighting is that the winner will be the one whose buddies show up first with a weapon. Given modern equipment, complicated scenarios, and the split seconds available to make life and death decisions, soldiers must be armed with practical and workable solutions.



7-1. RANGE



You will usually find yourself in a hand-to-hand situation unexpectedly; for example, your weapon jams when entering a room during MOUT. The first thing you must do is determine the appropriate actions to take, which will primarily be based on the range to the enemy. Against an armed enemy, the deciding factor of range is whether or not you can close the gap before the enemy can bring his weapon to bear.

a. Close Range. If you are near enough to the enemy to close before he can bring his weapon to bear, you should immediately close the distance and gain control of him.



b. Long Range. If the range is too great, or the enemy has sufficient time to bring his weapon to bear, the only options are to escape or take cover. Give your buddy a clear shot or get where you can clear your weapon to get yourself back in the fight.




7-2. CONTROL



If you have closed the distance, your primary goal is to control the enemy. This means controlling his ability to influence the rest of the fight, and controlling his ability to damage you. You are essentially stalling until someone can come to your aid.

a. Body Control. You must control the enemy’s ability to move, which can be done by gaining and maintaining a dominant body position. This can also be accomplished by pinning the enemy in place (for example, against the wall).



b. Weapon Control. You must immobilize the enemy’s weapon. For example, use your weight to pin his rifle to his chest while you are mounted, or keep him from drawing a side arm by controlling it in the holster. You must also keep your weapons away from the enemy. It does you no good to immobilize the enemy if he can reach your side arm.




7-3. FINISHING



A very conservative approach should be taken to finishing moves. You must remember that the primary means of winning the fight is with the aid of your buddy. Any move that, if unsuccessful, would compromise your ability to control the situation should not be attempted.



SECTION II. RESTRICTIVE FORCE SCENARIOS



The most common error when fighting in groups is to enter the fight without a plan. This results in uncoordinated actions, and often in working against each other. Only practice gives soldiers the necessary confidence in themselves and their comrades and the ability to think and act together under the stress of hand-to-hand combat.


7-4. TWO AGAINST ONE



When fighting two against one, use the following procedures.

a. Angles of Attack. The fighters should advance together, spreading out so that if the enemy turns to face either soldier he will expose his flank to the other.



b. Communication. One soldier should attack the enemy’s legs and the other should concentrate on his upper body. This can be done by signal, or the soldier attacking the flank can automatically go low. After the enemy is on the ground, good communication is necessary so that you can control and then finish him.




7-5. THREE AGAINST TWO



When fighting three against two, use the following procedures.

a. Angles of Attack. The fighters should advance so that the outside two are outside of the enemy. One of the enemies will have to make a choice to face either the outside or inside man. When he does, he will expose his flank to the other one. The fighter who is facing his opponent alone will stall until the other two have finished and can come to his aid.



b. Communication. Not only must the two who are fighting the same opponent communicate with each other, but also the fighter who is alone must keep them abreast of his situation. If he is in trouble, it may be necessary for one of them to disengage and come to his aid.




7-6. PARITY



If both groups have the same number of fighters, one fighter stays in reserve until the enemy has committed their entire force. When they have committed, the reserved fighter will attack the exposed back of the enemy.


7-7. ONE AGAINST TWO



When fighting one against two, use the following procedures.

a. Remain Standing. Defeating two opponents simultaneously is very difficult. When outnumbered, you should usually try to remain standing—mobility is critical to an effective defense or escape. It is very important not to expose your back. You must use the obstacles around you to restrict the enemies’ movements so that you face only one at a time, or maneuver yourself to the flank of the one nearest to you and use him to block the other one. Attack the first enemy using strikes or field-expedient weapons, and then deal with the remaining one.



b. Defense on the Ground. If you should lose your footing or be taken to the ground, you must protect your back. Your best defense is to move into a corner or against a wall. Use a modified guard, so that your legs are not exposed, to limit the enemies’ ability to attack simultaneously.




7-8. TWO AGAINST THREE



When fighting two against three, you should maneuver to the flanks either together or separately.

a. Together. If you can get to one flank together, with the help of restrictive terrain if possible, use strikes to attack one opponent at a time until you have defeated all three.



b. Separately. If you are separated, one of you defends as in one against two while the other attacks the remaining enemy with strikes and then comes to the aid of the first.





PART II





Combat Weapons





The Army Combat Rifle





CHAPTER 1





Introduction to the Army Combat Rifle



The procedures and methods used in the Army rifle marksmanship program are based on the concept that soldiers must be skilled marksmen who can effectively apply their firing skills in combat. FM 25-100 stresses marksmanship as a paramount soldier skill. The basic firing skills and exercises outlined in this manual must be a part of every unit’s marksmanship training program. Unit commanders must gear their advanced marksmanship training programs to their respective METLs. The proficiency attained by a soldier depends on the proper training and application of basic marksmanship fundamentals. During initial marksmanship training, emphasis is on learning the firing fundamentals, which are taught in a progressive program to prepare soldiers for combat-type exercises.




TRAINING STRATEGY



Training strategy is the overall concept for integrating resources into a program to train individual and collective skills needed to perform a unit’s wartime mission.

Training strategies for rifle marksmanship are implemented in TRADOC institutions (IET, NCOES, basic and advanced officer’s courses) and in units. The overall training strategy is multifaceted and is inclusive of the specific strategies used in institution and unit programs. Also included are the supporting strategies that use resources such as publications, ranges, ammunition, training aids, devices, simulators, and simulations. These strategies focus on developing critical soldier skills, and on leader skills that are required for success in combat.

Two primary components compose the training strategies: initial training and sustainment training. Both may include individual and collective skills. Initial training is critical. A task that is taught correctly and learned well is retained longer and skills can be quickly regained and sustained. Therefore, initial training must be taught correctly the first time. However, eventually an individual or unit loses skill proficiency. This learning decay depends on many factors such as the difficulty and complexity of the task. Personnel turnover is a main factor in decay of collective skills, since the loss of critical team members requires retraining to regain proficiency. If a long period elapses between initial and sustainment training sessions or training doctrine is altered, retraining may be required.

The training strategy for rifle marksmanship begins in IET and continues in the unit. An example of this overall process is illustrated in Figure 1-1 and provides a concept of the flow of unit sustainment training. IET provides field units with soldiers who have been trained and who have demonstrated proficiency to standard in basic marksmanship tasks. The soldier graduating from these courses has been trained to maintain the rifle and to hit a point target. He has learned target detection, application of marksmanship fundamentals, and other skills needed to engage a target.

Training continues in units on the basic skills taught in IET. Additional skills such as area fire are trained and then integrated into collective training exercises, which include platoon and squad live-fire STXs. The strategy for sustaining the basic marksmanship skills taught in IET is periodic preliminary rifle instruction, followed by instructional and qualification range firing. However, a unit must set up a year-round program to sustain skills. Key elements include training of trainers, refresher training of nonfiring skills, and use of the Weaponeer or other devices for remedial training. Additional skills trained in the unit include semiautomatic and automatic area fires, night fire, MOPP firing, and moving target training techniques.

In the unit, individual and leader proficiency of marksmanship tasks are integrated into collective training to include squad, section, and platoon drills and STXs; and for the collective tasks in these exercises, and how they are planned and conducted, are in the MTP and battle drills books for each organization. Based on the type organization, collective tasks are evaluated to standard and discussed during leader and trainer after-action reviews. Objective evaluations of both individual and unit proficiency provide readiness indicators and future training requirements.

A critical step in the Army’s overall marksmanship training strategy is to train the trainers and leaders first. Leader courses and unit publications develop officer and NCO proficiencies necessary to plan and conduct marksmanship training and to evaluate the effectiveness of unit marksmanship programs. Training support materials are provided by the proponent schools to include field manuals, training aids, devices, simulators, and programs that are doctrinal foundations and guidance for training the force.





Figure 1-1: Unit marksmanship sustainment strategy.





Once the soldier understands the weapon and has demonstrated skill in zeroing, additional live-fire training and a target acquisition exercise at various ranges are conducted. Target types and scenarios of increasing difficulty must be mastered to develop proficiency.

Initial individual training culminates in the soldier’s proficiency assessment, which is conducted on the standard record fire range or approved alternates. This evaluation also provides an overview of unit proficiency and training effectiveness.

General marksmanship training knowledge and firing well are acquired skills, which perish easily. Skill practice should be conducted for short periods throughout the year. Most units have a readiness requirement that all soldiers must zero their rifles within a certain time after unit assignment. Also, soldiers must confirm the zeros of their assigned rifles before conducting a qualification firing. Units should conduct preliminary training and practice firing throughout the year due to personnel turnover. A year-round marksmanship sustainment program is needed for the unit to maintain the individual and collective firing proficiency requirements to accomplish its mission.


COMBAT FACTORS



The ultimate goal of a unit rifle marksmanship program is well-trained marksmen. In order for a unit to survive and win on the battlefield, the trainer must realize that rifle qualification is not an end but a step toward reaching this combat requirement. To reach this goal, the soldier should consider some of the factors of combat conditions.

• Enemy personnel are seldom visible except when assaulting.



• Most combat fire must be directed at an area where the enemy has been detected or where he is suspected of being located but cannot be seen. Area targets consist of objects or outlines of men irregularly spaced along covered and concealed areas (ground folds, hedges, borders of woods).



• Most combat targets can be detected by smoke, flash, dust, noise, or movement and are visible only for a moment.



• Some combat targets can be engaged by using nearby objects as reference points.



• The range at which enemy soldiers can be detected and effectively engaged rarely exceeds 300 meters.



• The nature of the target and irregularities of terrain and vegetation may require a firer to use a variety of positions in addition to the prone or supported position to fire effectively on the target. In a defensive situation, the firer usually fires from a supported position.



• Choosing an aiming point in elevation is difficult due to the low contrast outline and obscurity of most combat targets.



• Time-stressed fire in combat can be divided into three types:



– A single, fleeing target that must be engaged quickly.



– Area targets that must be engaged with distributed fires that cover the entire area. The firer must maintain sustained fire on the sector he is assigned.



– A surprise target that must be engaged at once with accurate, instinctive fire.





CHAPTER 2





Operation and Function



The procedures and techniques described in this chapter provide commanders, planners, and trainers information on the M16A1 and M16A2 rifles. These include mechanical training, operation, functioning, preventive maintenance, and common malfunctions. Technical data are presented in a logical sequence from basic to the more complex. Additional information is provided in technical manuals for the rifle.





Figure 2-1: Clearing the Rifle.





SECTION I. OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS



This section describes general characteristics of the M16A1 and M16A2 rifles.


M16A1 RIFLE



The M16A1 rifle (Figure 2-2) is a 5.56-mm, magazine-fed, gas-operated, shoulder-fired weapon. It is designed for either semiautomatic or automatic fire through the use of a selector lever (SAFE, SEMI, and AUTO).


M16A2 RIFLE



The M16A2 rifle features several product improvements illustrated in this chapter and the operator’s manual. The rifle (Figure 2-3) is a 5.56-mm, magazine-fed, gas-operated, shoulder-fired weapon. It is designed to fire either semiautomatic or a three-round burst through the use of a selector lever (SAFE, SEMI, and BURST).



NOTE



The procedures for disassembly, inspection, and maintenance of the M16A1 and M16A2 rifles are contained in the appropriate operator’s technical manual.





Figure 2-2: Rifle, 5.56-mm, M16A1.





Figure 2-2: Rifle, 5.56-mm, M16A1. (Continued)





Figure 2-3: Rifle, 5.56-mm, M16A2.





Figure 2-3: Rifle, 5.56-mm, M16A2. (Continued)





SECTION II. FUNCTION



The soldier must understand the rifles’ components and the mechanical sequence of events during the firing cycle. The M16A1 rifle is designed to function in either the semiautomatic or automatic mode. The M16A2 is designed to function in either the semiautomatic or three-round burst mode.


STEPS OF FUNCTIONING



The eight steps of functioning (feeding, chambering, locking, firing, unlocking, extracting, ejecting, and cocking) begin after the loaded magazine has been inserted into the weapon.

Step 1: Feeding (Figure 2-4). As the bolt carrier group moves rearward, it engages the buffer assembly and compresses the action spring into the lower receiver extension. When the bolt carrier group clears the top of the magazine, the expansion of the magazine spring forces the follower and a new round up into the path of the forward movement of the bolt. The expansion of the action spring sends the buffer assembly and bolt carrier group forward with enough force to strip a new round from the magazine.





Figure 2-4: Feeding.





Step 2: Chambering (Figure 2-5). As the bolt carrier group continues to move forward, the face of the bolt thrusts the new round into the chamber. At the same time, the extractor claw grips the rim of the cartridge, and the ejector is compressed.





Figure 2-5: Chambering.





Step 3: Locking (Figure 2-6). As the bolt carrier group moves forward, the bolt is kept in its most forward position by the bolt cam pin riding in the guide channel in the upper receiver. Just before the bolt locking lugs make contact with the barrel extension, the bolt cam pin emerges from the guide channel. The pressure exerted by the contact of the bolt locking lugs and barrel extension causes the bolt cam pin to move along the cam track (located in the bolt carrier) in a counterclockwise direction, rotating the bolt locking lugs in line behind the barrel extension locking lugs. The rifle is then ready to fire.

Step 4: Firing (Figure 2-7). With a round in the chamber, the hammer cocked, and the selector on SEMI, the firer squeezes the trigger. The trigger rotates on the trigger pin, depressing the nose of the trigger and disengaging the notch on the bottom on the hammer. The hammer spring drives the hammer forward. The hammer strikes the head of the firing pin, driving the firing pin through the bolt into the primer of the round.





Figure 2-6: Locking.





Figure 2-7: Firing.





When the primer is struck by the firing pin, it ignites and causes the powder in the cartridge to ignite. The gas generated by the rapid burning of the powder forces the projectile from the cartridge and propels it through the barrel. After the projectile has passed the gas port (located on the upper surface of the barrel under the front sight) and before it leaves the barrel, some gas enters the gas port and moves into the gas tube. The gas tube directs the gas into the bolt carrier key and then into the cylinder between the bolt and bolt carrier, causing the carrier to move rearward.

Step 5: Unlocking (Figure 2-8). As the bolt carrier moves to the rear, the bolt cam pin follows the path of the cam track (located in the bolt carrier). This action causes the cam pin and bolt assembly to rotate at the same time until the locking lugs of the bolt are no longer in line behind the locking lugs of the barrel extension.


STEP 6: EXTRACTING



(Figure 2-9). The bolt carrier group continues to move to the rear. The extractor (which is attached to the bolt) grips the rim of the cartridge case, holds it firmly against the face of the bolt, and withdraws the cartridge case from the chamber.





Figure 2-8: Unlocking.





Figure 2-9: Extracting.





Step 7: Ejecting (Figure 2-10). With the base of a cartridge case firmly against the face of the bolt, the ejector and ejector spring are compressed into the bolt body. As the rearward movement of the bolt carrier group allows the nose of the cartridge case to clear the front of the ejection port, the cartridge is pushed out by the action of the ejector and spring.





Figure 2-10: Ejecting.





Step 8: Cocking (Figure 2-11). The rearward movement of the bolt carrier overrides the hammer, forcing it down into the receiver and compressing the hammer spring, cocking the hammer in the firing position. The action of the rifle is much faster than human reaction; therefore, the firer cannot release the trigger fast enough to prevent multiple firing.





Figure 2-11: Cocking.





SEMIAUTOMATIC MODE (M16A1 AND M16A2)



The disconnector is mechanism installed so that the firer can fire single rounds in the M16A1 and M16A2 rifles. It is attached to the trigger and is rotated forward by action of the disconnector spring. When the hammer is cocked by the recoil of the bolt carrier, the disconnector engages the lower hook of the hammer and holds it until the trigger is released. Then the disconnector rotates to the rear and down, disengaging the hammer and allowing it to rotate forward until caught by the nose of the trigger. This prevents the hammer from following the bolt carrier forward and causing multiple firing. The trigger must be squeezed again before the next round will fire.


AUTOMATIC FIRE MODE (M16A1)



When the selector lever (Figure 2-12) is set on the AUTO position, the rifle continues to fire as long as the trigger is held back and ammunition is in the magazine. The functioning of certain parts of the rifle changes when firing automatically.

Once the trigger is squeezed and the round is fired, the bolt carrier group moves to the rear and the hammer is cocked. The center cam of the selector depresses the rear of the disconnector and prevents the nose of the disconnector from engaging the lower hammer hook. The bottom part of the automatic sear catches the upper hammer hook and holds it until the bolt carrier group moves forward. The bottom part strikes the top of the sear and releases the hammer, causing the rifle to fire automatically.

If the trigger is released, the hammer moves forward and is caught by the nose of the trigger. This ends the automatic cycle of fire until the trigger is squeezed again.





Figure 2-12: Automatic fire mode (M16A1).





BURST FIRE MODE (M16A2)



When the selector lever is set on the BURST position (Figure 2-13), the rifle fires a three-round burst if the trigger is held to the rear during the complete cycle. The weapon continues to fire three-round bursts with each separate trigger pull as long as ammunition is in the magazine. Releasing the trigger or exhausting ammunition at any point in the three-round cycle interrupts fire, producing one or two shots. Reapplying the trigger only completes the interrupted cycle—it does not begin a new one. This is not a malfunction. The M16A2 disconnector has a three-cam mechanism that continuously rotates with each firing cycle. Based on the position of the disconnector cam, the first trigger pull (after initial selection of the BURST position) can produce one, two, or three firing cycles before the trigger must be pulled again. The burst cam rotates until it reaches the stop notch.



NOTE



See the operator’s manual for a detailed discussion on the burst position.





Figure 2-13: Burst fire mode (M16A2).





TROUBLESHOOTING AND DESTRUCTION



Commanders and unit armorers are responsible for the organizational and direct support maintenance of weapons and for the destruction of weapons when necessary. Soldiers are responsible for always keeping their weapons clean and operational in training and in combat and, therefore, should be issued an operator’s technical manual and cleaning equipment for their assigned weapons.

Stoppages

A stoppage is a failure of an automatic or semiautomatic firearm to complete the cycle of operation. The firer can apply immediate or remedial action to clear the stoppage. Some stoppages cannot be cleared by immediate or remedial action and may require weapon repair to correct the problem. A complete understanding of how the weapon functions is an integral part of applying immediate action procedures.

a. Immediate Action. Immediate action involves quickly applying a possible correction to reduce a stoppage without performing troubleshooting procedures to determine the actual cause. The key word SPORTS will help the firer remember the steps in order during a live-fire exercise. To apply immediate action, the soldier:



• Slaps gently upward on the magazine to ensure it is fully seated, and the magazine follower is not jammed (see note).



• Pulls the charging handle fully to the rear.



• Observes for the ejection of a live round or expended cartridge. (If the weapon fails to eject a cartridge, perform remedial action.)



• Releases the charging handle (do not ride it forward).



• Taps the forward assist assembly to ensure bolt closure.



• Squeezes the trigger and tries to fire the rifle.



Only apply immediate action once for a stoppage. If the rifle fails to fire a second time for the same malfunction inspect the weapon to determine the cause of the stoppage or malfunction and take the appropriate remedial action outlined below.



NOTE



When slapping up on the magazine, be careful not to knock a round out of the magazine into the line of the bolt carrier, causing more problems. Slap only hard enough to ensure the magazine is fully seated. Ensure that the magazine is locked into place by quickly pulling down on the magazine.





b. Remedial Action. Remedial action is the continuing effort to determine the cause for a stoppage or malfunction and to try to clear the stoppage once it has been identified. To apply the corrective steps for remedial action, first try to place the weapon on SAFE, then remove the magazine, lock the bolt to the rear, and place the weapon on safe (if not already done).





NOTE



A bolt override may not allow the weapon to be placed on SAFE.





Malfunctions

Malfunctions are caused by procedural or mechanical failures of the rifle, magazine, or ammunition. Pre-firing checks and serviceability inspections identify potential problems before they become malfunctions. This paragraph describes the primary categories of malfunctions.

1. Failure to Feed, Chamber, or Lock.

A malfunction can occur when loading the rifle or during the cycle of operation. Once the magazine has been loaded into the rifle, the forward movement of the bolt carrier group could lack enough force (generated by the expansion of the action spring) to feed, chamber, or lock the bolt (Figure 2-14).

Probable Causes. The cause could be the result of one or more of the following:



• Excess accumulation of dirt or fouling in and around the bolt and bolt carrier.



• Defective magazine (dented, bulged, or a weak magazine spring).





Figure 2-14: Failure to feed, chamber, or lock.





• Improperly loaded magazine.



• Defective round (projectile forced back into the cartridge case, which could result in a stubbed round or the base of the previous cartridge could be separated, leaving the remainder in the chamber).



• Damaged or broken action spring.



• Exterior accumulation of dirt in the lower receiver extension.



• Fouled gas tube resulting in short recoil.



• A magazine resting on the ground or pushed forward could cause an improper lock.



Corrective action. Applying immediate action usually corrects the malfunction. However, to avoid the risk of further jamming, the firer should watch for ejection of a cartridge and ensure that the upper receiver is free of any loose rounds. If immediate action fails to clear the malfunction, remedial action must be taken. The carrier should not be forced. If resistance is encountered, which can occur with an unserviceable round, the bolt should be locked to the rear, magazine removed, and malfunction cleared—for example, a bolt override is when a cartridge has wedged itself between the bolt and charging handle. The best way to relieve this problem is by —

• Ensuring that the charging handle is pushed forward and locked in place.



• Holding the rifle securely and pulling the bolt to the rear until the bolt seats completely into the buffer well.



• Turning the rifle upright and allowing the overridden cartridge to fall out.



2. Failure to Fire Cartridge.

Description. Failure of a cartridge to fire despite the fact that a round has been chambered, the trigger is pulled, and the sear has released the hammer. This occurs when the firing pin fails to strike the primer with enough force or when the ammunition is bad.

Probable causes. Excessive carbon buildup on the firing pin (Figure 2-15A) is often the cause, because the full forward travel of the firing pin is restricted. However, a defective or worn firing pin can give the same results. Inspection of the ammunition could reveal a shallow indentation or no mark on the primer, indicating a firing pin problem (Figure 2-15B). Cartridges that show a normal indentation on the primer but did not fire indicate bad ammunition.

Corrective action. If the malfunction continues, the firing pin, bolt, carrier, and locking lug recesses of the barrel extension should be inspected, and any accumulation of excessive carbon or fouling should be removed. The firing pin should also be inspected for damage. Cartridges that show a normal indentation on the primer but failed to fire could indicate a bad ammunition lot. Those that show a complete penetration of the primer by the firing pin could also indicate a bad ammunition lot or a failure of the cartridge to fully seat in the chamber.





Figure 2-15: Failure to fire.





NOTE



If the round is suspected to be faulty, it is reported and returned to the agency responsible for issuing ammunition





3. Failure to Extract and Eject.

Failure to extract. The cartridge must extract before it can eject.

Description. A failure to extract results when the cartridge case remains in the rifle chamber. While the bolt and bolt carrier could move rearward only a short distance, more commonly the bolt and bolt carrier recoil fully to the rear, leaving the cartridge case in the chamber. A live round is then forced into the base of the cartridge case as the bolt returns in the next feed cycle. This malfunction is one of the hardest to clear.



NOTE



Short recoil can also be caused by a fouled or obstructed gas tube.





WARNING





A failure to extract is considered to be an extremely serious malfunction, requiring the use of tools to clear. A live round could be left in the chamber and be accidentally discharged. If a second live round is fed into the primer of the chambered live round, the rifle could explode and cause personal injury. This malfunction must be properly identified and reported. Failures to eject should not be reported as extraction failures.





Probable cause. Short recoil cycles and fouled or corroded rifle chambers are the most common causes of failures to extract. A damaged extractor or weak/broken extractor spring can also cause this malfunction.

Corrective action. The severity of a failure to extract determines the corrective action procedures. If the bolt has moved rearward far enough so that it strips a live round from the magazine in its forward motion, the bolt and carrier must be locked to the rear.

The magazine and all loose rounds must be removed before clearing the stoppage. Usually, tapping the butt of the rifle on a hard surface causes the cartridge to fall out of the chamber. However, if the cartridge case is ruptured, it can be seized. When this occurs, a cleaning rod can be inserted into the bore from the muzzle end. The cartridge case can be forced from the chamber by tapping the cleaning rod against the inside base of the fired cartridge. When cleaning and inspecting the mechanism and chamber reveal no defects but failures to extract persist, the extractor and extractor spring should be replaced. If the chamber surface is damaged, the entire barrel must be replaced.

Failure to Eject. A failure to eject a cartridge is an element in the cycle of functioning of the rifle, regardless of the mode of fire. A malfunction occurs when the cartridge is not ejected through the ejection port and either remains partly in the chamber or becomes jammed in the upper receiver as the bolt closes. When the firer initially clears the rifle, the cartridge could strike an inside surface of the receiver and bounce back into the path of the bolt.

Probable cause. Ejection failures are hard to diagnose but are often related to a weak or damaged extractor spring and/or ejector spring. Failures to eject can also be caused by a buildup of carbon or fouling on the ejector spring or extractor, or from short recoil. Short recoil is usually due to a buildup of fouling in the carrier mechanism or gas tube, which could result in many failures to include a failure to eject. Resistance caused by a carbon-coated or corroded chamber can impede the extraction, and then the ejection of a cartridge.

Corrective action. While retraction of the charging handle usually frees the cartridge and permits removal, the charging handle must not be released until the position of the next live round is determined. If another live round has been sufficiently stripped from the magazine or remains in the chamber, then the magazine and all live rounds could also require removal before the charging handle can be released. If several malfunctions occur and are not corrected by cleaning and lubricating, the ejector spring, extractor spring, and extractor should be replaced.


OTHER MALFUNCTIONS



Some other malfunctions that can occur are as follows.

• Failure of the bolt to remain in a rearward position after the last round in the magazine is fired. Check for a bad magazine or short recoil.



• Failure of the bolt to lock in the rearward position when the bolt catch has been engaged. Check bolt catch; replace as required.



• Firing two or more rounds when the trigger is pulled and the selection lever is in the SEMI position. This indicates a worn sear, cam, or disconnector. Turn in to armorer to repair and replace trigger group parts as required.



• Trigger will not pull or return after release with the selector set in a firing position. This indicates that the trigger pin (Figure 2-16A) has backed out of the receiver or the hammer spring is broken. Turn in to armorer to replace or repair.



• Failure of the magazine to lock into the rifle (Figure 2-16B). Check the magazine and check magazine catch for damage. Turn in to armorer to adjust the catch; replace as required.



• Failure of any part of the bolt carrier group to function (Figure 2-16C). Check for incorrect assembly of components. Correctly clean and assemble the bolt carrier group, or replace damaged parts.



• Failure of the ammunition to feed from the magazine (Figure 2-16D). Check for damaged magazine. A damaged magazine could cause repeated feeding failures and should be turned in to armorer or exchanged.





NOTE



Additional technical information on troubleshooting malfunctions and repairing components is contained in the organizational and DS maintenance publications and manuals.





Figure 2-16: Other Possible Malfunctions.





SECTION IV. AMMUNITION



This section contains information on different types of standard military ammunition used in the M16A1 and M16A2 rifles. Use only authorized ammunition that is manufactured to U.S. and NATO specifications.


TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS



The characteristics of the M16 family of ammunition are described in this paragraph.

Cartridge, 5.56-mm, Dummy, M199. (Used in both rifles.) The M199 dummy cartridge is used during dry fire and other training (see 3, Figure 2-17). This cartridge can be identified by the six grooves along the side of the case beginning about 1/2 inch from its head. It contains no propellent or primer. The primer well is open to prevent damage to the firing pin.

Cartridge, 5.56-mm, Blank, M200. (Used in the M16A1 or M16A2 rifle.) The M200 blank cartridge has no projectile. The case mouth is closed with a seven-petal rosette crimp and shows a violet tip (see 4, Figure 2-17). (See Appendix C for use of the blank firing attachment.). The original M200 blank cartridge had a white tip. Field use of this cartridge resulted in residue buildup, which caused several malfunctions. Only the violet-tipped M200 cartridge should be used.





Figure 2-17: Ammunition (5.56-mm) for the M16A1 and M16A2.





Cartridge, 5.56-mm, Plastic Practice Ammunition, M862. (Used in the M16A1 and M16A2 rifles.) The M862 PPA is designed exclusively for training. It can be used in lieu of service ammunition on indoor ranges, and by units that have a limited range fan that does not allow the firing of service ammunition. It is used with the M2 training bolt.

Although PPA (see 7, Figure 2-17) closely replicates the trajectory and characteristics of service ammunition out to 25 meters, it should not be used to set the combat battlesight zero of weapons to fire service ammunition. The setting that is placed on the sights for a weapon firing PPA could be different for service ammunition.

If adequate range facilities are not available for sustainment (particularly Reserve Components), PPA can be used for any firing exercises of 25 meters or less. This includes the 25-meter scaled silhouette, 25-meter alternate qualification course, and quick-fire training. Units that have an indoor range with adequate ventilation or MOUT site could use PPA. (See Appendix C for use in training.)

Cartridge, 5.56-mm, Ball, M193. The M193 cartridge is a center-fire cartridge with a 55-grain, gilding-metal, jacketed, lead alloy core bullet. The primer and case are waterproof. The M193 round is the standard cartridge for field use with the M16A1 rifle and has no identifying marks (see 1, Figure 2-17). This cartridge has a projectile weight of 55 grains and is 1.9 cm long, with a solid lead core.

Figure 2-21. Ammunition for 5.56-mm M16A1 (1 through 4 and 7) and M16A2 (3 through 7).

Cartridge, 5.56-mm, Tracer, M196. (Used in the M16A1 rifle.) The M196 cartridge is identified by a red-or orange-painted tip (see 2, Figure 2-17). Its main uses are for observation of fire, incendiary effect, and signaling. Soldiers should avoid long-term use of 100-percent tracer rounds. This could cause deposits of incendiary material/chemical compounds that could cause damage to the barrel. Therefore, when tracer rounds are fired, they are mixed with ball ammunition in a ratio no greater than one-to-one with a preferred ratio of three or four ball rounds to one tracer round.

Cartridge, 5.56-mm, Ball, M855. The M855 cartridge has a 62-grain, gilding-metal, jacketed, lead alloy core bullet with a steel penetrator. The primer and case are waterproof. This is the NATO standard round for the M16A2 rifle (also used in the M249 SAW). It is identified by a green tip (see 5, Figure 2-17). This cartridge has a projectile weight of 62 grains and is 2.3 cm long, with a steel penetrator in the nose.

Cartridge, 5.56-mm, Tracer, M856. (Used in the M16A2 rifle.) The M856 tracer cartridge has similar characteristics as the M196 but has a slightly longer tracer burnout distance. This cartridge has a 63.7-grain bullet. The M856 does not have a steel penetrator. It is also identified by a red tip (orange when linked 4 and 1) (6, Figure 2-17).


CARE AND HANDLING



When necessary to store ammunition in the open, it must be raised on dunnage at least 6 inches from the ground and protected with a cover, leaving enough space for air circulation. Since ammunition and explosives are adversely affected by moisture and high temperatures, the following must be adhered to:

• Do not open ammunition boxes until ready to use.



• Protect ammunition from high temperatures and the direct rays of the sun.



• Do not attempt to disassemble ammunition or any of its components.



• Never use lubricants or grease on ammunition.





SECTION V. DESTRUCTION OF MATERIEL



Rifles subject to capture or abandonment in the combat zone are destroyed only by the authority of the unit commander IAW orders of or policy established by the Army commander. The destruction of equipment is reported through regular command channels.


MEANS OF DESTRUCTION



Certain procedures outlined require use of explosives and incendiary grenades. Issue of these and related principles, and specific conditions under which destruction is effected, are command decisions. Of the several means of destruction, the following apply:

• Mechanical. Requires axe, pick mattock, sledge, crowbar, or other heavy implement.



• Burning. Requires gasoline, oil, incendiary grenades, and other flammables, or welding or cutting torch.



• Demolition. Requires suitable explosives or ammunition. Under some circumstances, hand grenades can be used.



• Disposal. Requires burying in the ground, dumping in streams or marshes, or scattering so widely as to preclude recovery of essential parts.



It is important that the same parts be destroyed on all like material, including spare parts, so that the enemy cannot rebuild one complete unit from several damaged units. If destruction is directed, appropriate safety precautions must be observed.


FIELD-EXPEDIENT METHODS



If destruction of the individual rifle must be performed to prevent enemy use, the rifle must be damaged so it cannot be restored to a usable condition. Expedient destruction requires that key operational parts be separated from the rifle or damaged beyond repair. Priority is given in the following order:

FIRST: Bolt carrier group; removed and discarded or hidden.



SECOND: Upper receiver group; separated and discarded or hidden.



THIRD: Lower receiver group; separated and discarded or hidden.





CHAPTER 3





Rifle Marksmanship Training



The procedures and techniques for implementing the Army rifle marksmanship training program are based on the concept that all soldiers must understand common firing principles, be proficient marksmen, and be confident in applying their firing skills in combat. This depends on their understanding of the rifle and correct application of marksmanship fundamentals. Proficiency is accomplished through practice that is supervised by qualified instructors/trainers and through objective performance assessments by unit leaders. During preliminary training, instructors/trainers emphasize initial learning, reviewing, reinforcing, and practicing of the basics. Soldiers must master weapon maintenance, functions checks, and firing fundamentals before progressing to advanced skills and firing exercises under tactical conditions. The skills the soldier must learn are developed in the following four phases:

– PHASE I. Preliminary Rifle Instruction.



– PHASE II. Downrange Feedback Range Firing.



– PHASE III. Field Firing on Train-Fire Ranges.



– PHASE IV. Advanced and Collective Firing Exercises.



Each soldier progresses through these phases to meet the objective of rifle marksmanship training and sustainment. The accomplishment of these phases are basic and necessary in mastering the correct techniques of marksmanship and when functioning as a soldier in a combat area. (See Chapter 1 and Appendix A.)



SECTION I. BASIC PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION



Knowledgeable instructors/cadre are the key to marksmanship performance. All commanders must be aware of maintaining expertise in marksmanship instruction/training. (See Appendix D.)


INSTRUCTOR/TRAINER SELECTION



Institutional and unit instructors/trainers are selected and assigned from the most highly qualified soldiers. These soldiers must have an impressive background in rifle marksmanship; be proficient in applying these fundamentals; know the importance of marksmanship training; and have a competent and professional attitude. The commander must ensure that selected instructors/trainers can effectively train other soldiers. Local instructor/trainer training courses and marksmanship certification programs must be established to ensure that instructor/trainer skills are developed.

Cadre/trainer refers to a marksmanship instructor/trainer that has more experience and expertise than the firer. He trains soldiers in the effective use of the rifle by maintaining strict discipline on the firing line, insisting on compliance with range procedures and program objectives, and enforcing safety regulations. A good instructor/trainer must understand the training phases and techniques for developing marksmanship skills, and he must possess the following qualifications:

Knowledge. The main qualifications for an effective instructor/trainer are thorough knowledge of the rifle, proficiency in firing, and understanding supporting marksmanship manuals.

Patience. The instructor/trainer must relate to the soldier calmly, persistently, and patiently.

Understanding. The instructor/trainer can enhance success and understanding by emphasizing close observance of rules and instructions.

Consideration. Most soldiers enjoy firing regardless of their performance and begin with great enthusiasm. The instructor/trainer can enhance this enthusiasm by being considerate of his soldiers feelings and by encouraging firing abilities throughout training, which can also make teaching a rewarding experience.

Respect. An experienced cadre is assigned the duties of instructor/trainer, which classifies him as a technical expert and authority. The good instructor/trainer is alert for mistakes and patiently makes needed corrections.

Encouragement. The instructor/trainer can encourage his soldiers by convincing them to achieve good firing performance through practice. His job is to impart knowledge and to assist the soldier so he can gain the practical experience needed to become a good firer.


DUTIES OF THE INSTRUCTOR/TRAINER



The instructor/trainer helps the firer master the fundamentals of rifle marksmanship. He ensures that the firer consistently applies what he has learned. Then, it is a matter of practice, and the firer soon acquires good firing skills. When training the beginner, the instructor/trainer could confront problems such as fear, nervousness, forgetfulness, failure to understand, and a lack of coordination or determination. An expert firer is often unaware that some problems are complicated by arrogance and carelessness. With all types of firers, the instructor/trainer must ensure that firers are aware of their firing errors, understand the causes, and apply remedies. Sometimes errors are not evident. The instructor/trainer must isolate errors, explain them, and help the firer concentrate on correcting them.

Observing the Firer. The instructor/trainer observes the firer during drills and in the act of firing to pinpoint errors. If there is no indication of probable error, then the firer’s position, breath control, shot anticipation, and trigger squeeze are closely observed.

Questioning the Firer. The firer is asked to detect his errors and to explain his firing procedure to include position, aiming, breath control, and trigger squeeze.

Analyzing the Shot Group. This is an important step in detecting and correcting errors. When analyzing a target, the instructor/trainer critiques and correlates observations of the firer to probable errors in performance, according to the shape and size of shot groups. A poor shot group is usually caused by more than one observable error.



SECTION II. CONDUCT OF TRAINING



In the conduct of marksmanship training, the instructor/trainer first discusses an overview of the program to include the progression and step-by-step process in developing firing skills. Once the soldier realizes the tasks and skills involved, he is ready to begin. He receives preliminary rifle instruction before firing any course. Also during this initial phase, an understanding of the service rifle develops through review.


MECHANICAL TRAINING



Mechanical training includes characteristics and capabilities, disassembly and assembly, operations and functioning, serviceability checks, and weapons maintenance. It also stresses the performance of immediate action to clear or reduce a stoppage, and the safe handling of rifles and ammunition (see Chapter 2). Examples of mechanical training drills, along with tasks, conditions, and standards, are provided in Appendix A. These examples are also used for initial entry training at the Army training centers. Mechanical training must encompass all related tasks contained in the soldier’s manual of common tasks (SMCT) to include the correct procedures for disassembly, cleaning, inspection, and reassembly of the rifle and magazine (Figure 3-1).

Serviceability inspections and preventive maintenance checks must be practiced to ensure soldiers have reliable weapons systems during training and in combat. Technical information necessary to conduct mechanical training is contained in the soldier’s operator’s manual (M16A1 – TM 9-1005-249-10; M16A2 – TM 9-1005-319-10). Once the basic procedures have been demonstrated, soldiers should practice the mechanical training skills under varied conditions to include during nighttime, and in MOPP and arctic clothing.

As part of mechanical training, soldiers must be taught and must practice procedures for properly loading ammunition into magazines to include both single loose rounds and speed loading of 10-round clips (Figure 3-2).

Emphasis on maintenance and understanding of the rifle can prevent most problems and malfunctions. However, a soldier could encounter a stoppage or malfunction. The soldier must quickly correct the problem by applying immediate action and continue to place effective fire on the target.

Immediate-action procedures contained in Chapter 2 and the operator’s technical manual should be taught and practiced as part of preliminary dry-fire exercises, and should be reinforced during live-fire exercises.





Figure 3-1: M16A2 field-stripped.





Figure 3-2: Loading and unloading magazine.





Immediate-action drills should be conducted using dummy ammunition (M199) loaded into the magazine. The soldier chambers the first dummy round and assumes a firing position. When he squeezes the trigger and the hammer falls with no recoil, this is the cue to apply the correct immediate-action procedure and to refire. Drill should continue until soldiers can perform the task in three to five seconds.

The word SPORTS is a technique for assisting the soldier in learning the proper procedures for applying immediate action to the M16A1 and M16A2 rifles.

First, THINK, then:

Slap up on the bottom of the magazine.



Pull the charging handle to the rear.



Observe the chamber for an ejection of the round.



Release the charging handle.



Tap the forward assist.



Squeeze the trigger again.





NOTE



When slapping up on the magazine, be careful not to knock a round out of the magazine into the line of the bolt carrier, causing more problems. Slap hard enough only to ensure the magazine is fully seated.





MARKSMANSHIP FUNDAMENTALS



The soldier must understand the four key fundamentals before he approaches the firing line. He must be able to establish a steady position that allows observation of the target. He must aim the rifle at the target by aligning the sight system, and he must fire the rifle without disturbing this alignment by improper breathing or during trigger squeeze. The skills needed to accomplish these are known as rifle marksmanship fundamentals. These simple procedures aid the firer in achieving target hits under many conditions when expanded with additional techniques and information. Applying these four fundamentals rapidly and consistently is called the integrated act of firing.

Steady Position. When the soldier approaches the firing line, he should assume a comfortable, steady firing position in order to hit targets consistently. The time and supervision each soldier has on the firing line are limited (illustrated on the following page in Figure 3-3). Therefore, he must learn how to establish a steady position during dry-fire training. The firer is the best judge as to the quality of his position. If he can hold the front sight post steady through the fall of the hammer, he has a good position. The steady position elements are as follows:

Nonfiring hand grip. The rifle handguard rests on the heel of the hand in the V formed by the thumb and fingers. The grip of the nonfiring hand is light, and slight rearward pressure is exerted.

Rifle butt position. The butt of the stock is placed in the pocket of the firing shoulder. This reduces the effect of recoil and helps ensure a steady position.

Firing hand grip. The firing hand grasps the pistol grip so that it fits the V formed by the thumb and forefinger. The forefinger is placed on the trigger so that the lay of the rifle is not disturbed when the trigger is squeezed. A slight rearward pressure is exerted by the remaining three fingers to ensure that the butt of the stock remains in the pocket of the shoulder, thus minimizing the effect of recoil.





Figure 3-3: Steady position.





Firing elbow placement. The location of the firing elbow is important in providing balance. The exact location, however, depends on the firing/fighting position used—for example, kneeling, prone, or standing. Placement should allow shoulders to remain level.

Nonfiring elbow. The nonfiring elbow is positioned firmly under the rifle to allow for a comfortable and stable position. When the soldier engages a wide sector of fire, moving targets, and targets at various elevations, his nonfiring elbow should remain free from support.

Stock weld. The stock weld is taught as an integral part of various positions. Two key factors emphasized are that the stock weld should provide for a natural line of sight through the center of the rear sight aperture to the front sight post and to the target. The firer’s neck should be relaxed, allowing his cheek to fall naturally onto the stock. Through dry-fire training, the soldier is encouraged to practice this position until he assumes the same stock weld each time he assumes a given position. This provides consistency in aiming, which is the purpose of obtaining a correct stock weld. Proper eye relief is obtained when a soldier establishes a good stock weld. There is normally a small change in eye relief each time he assumes a different firing position. Soldiers should begin by trying to touch his nose close to the charging handle when assuming a firing position.

Support. If artificial support (sandbags, logs, stumps) is available, it should be used to steady the position and to support the rifle. If it is not available, then the bones, not the muscles, in the firer’s upper body must support the rifle.

Muscle relaxation. If support is properly used, the soldier should be able to relax most of his muscles. Using artificial support or bones in the upper body as support allows him to relax and settle into position. Using muscles to support the rifle can cause it to move.

Natural point of aim. When the soldier first assumes his firing position, he orients his rifle in the general direction of his target. Then he adjusts his body to bring the rifle and sights exactly in line with the desired aiming point. When using proper support and consistent stock weld, the soldier should have his rifle and sights aligned naturally on the target. When this correct body-rifle-target alignment is achieved, the front sight post must be held on target, using muscular support and effort. As the rifle fires, the muscles tend to relax, causing the front sight to move away from the target toward the natural point of aim. Adjusting this point to the desired point of aim eliminates this movement. When multiple target exposures are expected (or a sector of fire must be covered), the soldier should adjust his natural point of aim to the center of the expected target exposure area (or center of sector).

Aiming. Focusing on the front sight post is a vital skill the firer must acquire during practice. Having mastered the task of holding the rifle steady, the soldier must align the rifle with the target in exactly the same way for each firing. The firer is the final judge as to where his eye is focused. The instructor/trainer emphasizes this point by having the firer focus on the target and then focus back on the front sight post. He checks the position of the firing eye to ensure it is in line with the rear sight aperture. He uses the M16 sighting device to see what the firer sees through the sights. (See Appendix C.)

Rifle sight alignment. Alignment of the rifle with the target is critical. It involves placing the tip of the front sight post in the center of the rear sight aperture. (Figure 3-4.) Any alignment error between the front and rear sights repeats itself for every 1/2 meter the bullet travels. For example, at the 25-meter line, any error in rifle alignment is multiplied 50 times. If the rifle is misaligned by 1/10 inch, it causes a target at 300 meters to be missed by 5 feet.





Figure 3-4: Correct sight alignment.





Focus of the eye. A proper firing position places the eye directly on line with the center of the rear sight. When the eye is focused on the front sight post, the natural ability of the eye to center objects in a circle and to seek the point of greatest light (center of the aperture) aid in providing correct sight alignment. For the average soldier firing at combat-type targets, the natural ability of the eye can accurately align the sights. Therefore, the firer can place the tip of the front sight post on the aiming point, but the eye must be focused on the tip of the front sight post. This causes the target to appear blurry, while the front sight post is seen clearly. Two reasons for focusing on the tip of the front sight post are:

• Only a minor aiming error should occur since the error reflects only as much as the soldier fails to determine the target center. A greater aiming error can result if the front sight post is blurry due to focusing on the target or other objects.



• Focusing on the tip of the front sight post aids the firer in maintaining proper sight alignment (Figure 3-4).



Sight picture. Once the soldier can correctly align his sights, he can obtain a sight picture. A correct sight picture has the target, front sight post, and rear sight aligned. The sight picture includes two basic elements: sight alignment and placement of the aiming point.

Placement of the aiming point varies, depending on the engagement range. For example, Figure 3-5 shows a silhouette at 250 meters—the aiming point is the center of mass, and the sights are in perfect alignment; this is a correct sight picture.





Figure 3-5: Correct sight picture.





A technique to obtain a good sight picture is the side aiming technique (Figure 3-6). It involves positioning the front sight post to the side of the target in line with the vertical center of mass, keeping the sights aligned. The front sight post is moved horizontally until the target is directly centered on the front sight post.





Figure 3-6: Side aiming technique.





Front sight. The front sight post is vital to proper firing and should be replaced when damaged. Two techniques that can be used are the carbide lamp and the burning plastic spoon. The post should be blackened anytime it is shiny since precise focusing on the tip of the front sight post cannot be done otherwise.

Aiming practice. Aiming practice is conducted before firing live rounds. During day firing, the soldier should practice sight alignment and placement of the aiming point. This can be done by using training aids such as the M15A1 aiming card and the Riddle sighting device.

Breath Control. As the firer’s skills improve and as timed or multiple targets are presented, he must learn to hold his breath at any part of the breathing cycle. Two types of breath control techniques are practiced during dry fire.

• The first is the technique used during zeroing (and when time is available to fire a shot) (Figure 3-7A. There is a moment of natural respiratory pause while breathing when most of the air has been exhaled from the lungs and before inhaling. Breathing should stop after most of the air has been exhaled during the normal breathing cycle. The shot must be fired before the soldier feels any discomfort.



• The second breath control technique is employed during rapid fire (short-exposure targets) (Figure 3-7B). Using this technique, the soldier holds his breath when he is about to squeeze the trigger.



The coach/trainer ensures that the firer uses two breathing techniques and understands them by instructing him to exaggerate his breathing. Also, the firer must be aware of the rifle’s movement (while sighted on a target) as a result of breathing.





Figure 3-7: Breath control.





Trigger Squeeze. A novice firer can learn to place the rifle in a steady position and to correctly aim at the target if he follows basic principles. If the trigger is not properly squeezed, the rifle is misaligned with the target at the moment of firing.

Rifle movement. Trigger squeeze is important for two reasons:

• First, any sudden movement of the finger on the trigger can disturb the lay of the rifle and cause the shot to miss the target.



• Second, the precise instant of firing should be a surprise to the soldier.



The soldier’s natural reflex to compensate for the noise and slight punch in the shoulder can cause him to miss the target if he knows the exact instant the rifle will fire. The soldier usually tenses his shoulders when expecting the rifle to fire, but it is difficult to detect since he does not realize he is flinching. When the hammer drops on a dummy round and does not fire, the soldier’s natural reflexes demonstrate that he is improperly squeezing the trigger.



NOTE



See Appendix C for the Weaponeer and ball-and-dummy exercise. They are good training devices in detecting improper trigger squeeze.





Trigger finger. The trigger finger (index finger on the firing hand) is placed on the trigger between the first joint and the tip of the finger (not the extreme end) and is adjusted depending on hand size, grip, and so on. The trigger finger must squeeze the trigger to the rear so that the hammer falls without disturbing the lay of the rifle. When a live round is fired, it is difficult to see what affect trigger pull had on the lay of the rifle. Therefore, it is important to experiment with many finger positions during dry-fire training to ensure the hammer is falling with little disturbance to the aiming process.

As the firer’s skills increase with practice, he needs less time to spend on trigger squeeze. Novice firers can take five seconds to perform an adequate trigger squeeze, but, as skills improve, he can squeeze the trigger in a second or less. The proper trigger squeeze should start with slight pressure on the trigger during the initial aiming process. The firer applies more pressure after the front sight post is steady on the target and he is holding his breath.

The coach/trainer observes the trigger squeeze, emphasizes the correct procedure, and checks the firer’s applied pressure. He places his finger on the trigger and has the firer squeeze the trigger by applying pressure to the coach/ trainer’s finger. The coach/trainer ensures that the firer squeezes straight to the rear on the trigger avoiding a left or right twisting movement. A steady position reduces disturbance of the rifle during trigger squeeze.

From an unsupported position, the firer experiences a greater wobble area than from a supported position. Wobble area is the movement of the front sight around the aiming point when the rifle is in the steadiest position. If the front sight strays from the target during the firing process, pressure on the trigger should be held constant and resumed as soon as sighting is corrected. The position must provide for the smallest possible wobble area. From a supported position, there should be minimal wobble area and little reason to detect movement. If movement of the rifle causes the front sight to leave the target, more practice is needed. The firer should never try to quickly squeeze the trigger while the sight is on the target. The best firing performance results when the trigger is squeezed continuously, and the rifle is fired without disturbing its lay.


FIRING POSITIONS



All firing positions are taught during basic rifle marksmanship training. During initial fundamental training, the basic firing positions are used. The other positions are added later in training to support tactical conditions.

Basic Firing Positions. Two firing positions are used during initial fundamental training: the individual supported fighting position and prone unsupported position. Both offer a stable platform for firing the rifle. They are also the positions used during basic record fire.

Supported fighting position. This position provides the most stable platform for engaging targets (Figure 3-8). Upon entering the position, the soldier adds or removes dirt, sandbags, or other supports to adjust for his height. He then faces the target, executes a half-face to his firing side, and leans forward until his chest is against the firing-hand corner of the position. He places the rifle handguard in a V formed by the thumb and fingers of his nonfiring hand, and rests the nonfiring hand on the material (sandbags or berm) to the front of the position. The soldier places the stock butt in the pocket of his firing shoulder and rests his firing elbow on the ground outside the position. (When prepared positions are not available, the prone supported position can be substituted.)

Once the supported fighting position has been mastered, the firer should practice various unsupported positions to obtain the smallest possible wobble area during final aiming and hammer fall. The coach/trainer can check the steadiness of the position by observing movement at the forward part of the rifle, by looking through the M16 sighting device, or by checking to see that support is being used.





Figure 3-8: Supported fighting position.





NOTE



The objective is to establish a steady position under various conditions. The ultimate performance of this task is in a combat environment. Although the firer must be positioned high enough to observe all targets, he must remain as low as possible to provide added protection from enemy fire.





Prone unsupported position. This firing position (Figure 3-9) offers another stable firing platform for engaging targets. To assume this position, the soldier faces his target, spreads his feet a comfortable distance apart, and drops to his knees. Using the butt of the rifle as a pivot, the firer rolls onto his nonfiring side, placing the nonfiring elbow close to the side of the magazine. He places the rifle butt in the pocket formed by the firing shoulder, grasps the pistol grip with his firing hand, and lowers the firing elbow to the ground. The rifle rests in the V formed by the thumb and fingers of the nonfiring hand. The soldier adjusts the position of his firing elbow until his shoulders are about level, and pulls back firmly on the rifle with both hands. To complete the position, he obtains a stock weld and relaxes, keeping his heels close to the ground.

Advanced Positions. After mastering the four marksmanship fundamentals in the two basic firing positions, the soldier is taught the advanced positions. He is trained to assume different positions to adapt to the combat situation.





Figure 3-9: Prone unsupported position.





Alternate prone position (Figure 3-10). This position is an alternative to both prone supported and unsupported fighting positions, allowing the firer to cock his firing leg. The firer can assume a comfortable position while maintaining the same relationship between his body and the axis of the rifle. This position relaxes the stomach muscles and allows the firer to breathe naturally.





Figure 3-10: Alternate prone position.





Kneeling supported position (Figure 3-11). This position allows the soldier to obtain the height necessary to better observe many target areas, taking advantage of available cover. Solid cover that can support any part of the body or rifle assists in firing accuracy.





Figure 3-11: Kneeling supported position.





Kneeling unsupported position (Figure 3-12). This position is assumed quickly, places the soldier high enough to see over small brush, and provides for a stable firing position. The nonfiring elbow should be pushed forward of the knee so that the upper arm is resting on a flat portion of the knee to provide stability. The trailing foot can be placed in a comfortable position.





Figure 3-12: Kneeling unsupported position.





Standing position (Figure 3-13). To assume the standing position, the soldier faces his target, executes a facing movement to his firing side, and spreads his feet a comfortable distance apart. With his firing hand on the pistol grip and his nonfiring hand on either the upper handguard or the bottom of the magazine, the soldier places the butt of the rifle in the pocket formed by his firing shoulder so that the sights are level with his eyes. The weight of the rifle is supported by the firing shoulder pocket and nonfiring hand. The soldier shifts his feet until he is aiming naturally at the target and his weight is evenly distributed on both feet. The standing position provides the least stability but could be needed for observing the target area since it can be assumed quickly while moving. Support for any portion of the body or rifle improves stability. More stability can be obtained by adjusting the ammunition pouch to support the nonfiring elbow, allowing the rifle magazine to rest in the nonfiring hand.

Modified Firing Positions. Once the basic firing skills have been mastered during initial training, the soldier should be encouraged to modify positions, to take advantage of available cover, to use anything that helps to steady the rifle, or to make any change that allows him to hit more combat targets. The position shown in Figure 3-14 uses sandbags to support the handguard and frees the nonfiring hand to be used on any part of the rifle to hold it steady.





Figure 3-13: Standing position.





Figure 3-14: Modified firing position.





NOTE



Modified positions can result in small zero changes due to shifting pressure and grip on the rifle.





MOUT Firing Positions. Although the same principles of rifle marksmanship apply, the selection and use of firing positions during MOUT requires some special considerations. Firing from around corners could require the soldier to fire from the opposite shoulder to avoid exposing himself to enemy fire.

The requirement for long-range observation can dictate that positions be occupied that are high above ground. Figure 3-15 shows a soldier firing over rooftops, exposing only the parts of his body necessary to engage a target. Figure 3-16 shows a soldier firing around obstacles. Figure 3-17 highlights the need to stay in the shadows while firing from windows, and the requirements for cover and rifle support.





Figure 3-15: Firing over rooftops.





Figure 3-16: Firing around obstacles.





Figure 3-17: Firing from windows.





SECTION III. DRY-FIRE



Dry-fire exercises are conducted as they relate to each of the fundamentals of rifle marksmanship. The standard 25-meter zero targets (Figures 3-18 and 3-19) are mounted as illustrated, because they provide the consistent aiming point the soldier must use throughout preparatory marksmanship training.


CONDUCT OF DRY-FIRE TRAINING



A skilled instructor/trainer should supervise soldiers on dry-fire training. Once an explanation and demonstration are provided, soldiers should be allowed to work at their own pace, receiving assistance as needed. The peer coach-and-pupil technique can be effectively used during dry-fire training with the coach observing performance and offering suggestions. Several training aids are available to correctly conduct initial dry-fire training of the four fundamentals.

A supported firing position should be used to begin dry-fire training. Sandbags and chest-high support are used to effectively teach this position. While any targets at any range can be used, the primary aim point should be a standard silhouette zeroing target placed at a distance of 25 meters from the firing position. The other scaled-silhouette targets—slow fire and timed fire—are also excellent for advanced dry-fire training.

After the soldier understands and has practiced the four fundamentals, he proceeds to integrated dry-fire exercises. The objective of integrated dry-fire is to master the four fundamentals of marksmanship in a complete firing environment. With proper dry-fire training, a soldier can assume a good, comfortable, steady firing position when he moves to the firing line. He must understand the aiming process, breath control is second nature, and correct trigger squeeze has been practiced many times. Also, by adding dummy ammunition to the soldier’s magazine, other skills can be integrated into the dry-fire exercise to include practicing loading and unloading, reinforcing immediate-action drills, and using the dime (washer) exercise.

When correctly integrated, dry-fire is an effective procedure to use before firing live bullets for grouping and zeroing, scaled silhouettes, field firing, or practice record fire. It can be used for remedial training or opportunity training, or as a primary training technique to maintain marksmanship proficiency.


PEER COACHING



Peer coaching is using two soldiers of equal firing proficiency and experience to assist (coach) each other during marksmanship training. Some problems exist with peer coaching. If the new soldier does not have adequate guidance, a “blind-leading-the-blind” situation results, which can lead to negative training and safety violations. However, when adequate instruction is provided, peer coaching can be helpful even in the IET environment. Since all soldiers in units have completed BRM, peer coaching should yield better results.

Benefits. The pairing of soldiers can enhance learning for both of them. The coach learns what to look for and what to check as he provides guidance to the firer. Communication between peers is different than communication between a firer and drill sergeant or senior NCO. Peers have the chance to ask simple questions and to discuss areas that are not understood. Pairing soldiers who have demonstrated good firing proficiency with those who have firing problems can improve the performance of problem firers.

Duties. The peer coach assists the firer in obtaining a good position and in adjusting sandbags. He watches the firer—not the target—to see that the firer maintains a proper, relaxed, steady position; that he holds his breath before the final trigger squeeze; that he applies initial pressure to the trigger; and that no noticeable trigger jerk, flinch, eye blink, or other reaction can be observed in anticipating the rifle firing. The peer coach can use an M16 sighting device, allowing him to see what the firer sees through the sights.

The peer coach can load magazines, providing a chance to use ball and dummy. At other times, he could be required to observe the target area—for example, when field-fire targets are being engaged and the firer cannot see where he is missing targets. The peer coach can add to range safety procedures by helping safety personnel with preliminary rifle checks.



NOTE



When a peer coach is used during M16A1 live-fire exercises, a brass deflector should be attached to the rifle and eye protection should be worn.





Figure 3-18: The M16A1 and M16A2 zero targets.





Figure 3-19: Zero target placed in the center of an E-type silhouette.





CHECKLIST FOR THE COACH



The procedures to determine and eliminate rifle and firer deficiencies follows.

The coach checks to see that the—



• Rifle is cleared and defective parts have been replaced.



• Ammunition is clean, and the magazine is properly placed in the pouch.



• Sights are blackened and set correctly for long/short range.



The coach observes the firer to see that he—



• Uses the correct position and properly applies the steady-position elements.



• Properly loads the rifle.



• Obtains the correct sight alignment (with the aid of an M16 sighting device).



• Holds his breath correctly (by watching his back at times).



• Applies proper trigger squeeze; determines whether he flinches or jerks by watching his head, shoulders, trigger finger, and firing hand and arm.



• Is tense and nervous. If the firer is nervous, the coach has the firer breathe deeply several times to relax.



Supervisory personnel and peer coaches correct errors as they are detected. If many common errors are observed, it is appropriate to call the group together for more discussion and demonstration of proper procedures and to provide feedback.


POSITION OF THE COACH



The coach constantly checks and assists the firer in applying marksmanship fundamentals during firing. He observes the firer’s position and his application of the steady position elements. The coach is valuable in checking factors the firer is unable to observe for himself and in preventing the firer from repeating errors.

During an exercise, the coach should be positioned where he can best observe the firer when he assumes position. He then moves to various points around the firer (sides and rear) to check the correctness of the firer’s position. The coach requires the firer to make adjustments until the firer obtains a correct position.

When the coach is satisfied with the firing position, he assumes a coaching position alongside the firer. The coach usually assumes a position like that of the firer (Figure 3-20), which is on the firing side of the soldier.





Figure 3-20: Prone position of coach (right-handed firer).





GROUPING



Shot grouping is a form of practice firing with two primary objectives: firing tight shot groups and consistently placing those groups in the same location. Shot grouping should be conducted between dry-fire training and zeroing. The initial live-fire training should be a grouping exercise with the purpose of practicing and refining marksmanship fundamentals. Since this is not a zeroing exercise, few sight changes are made. Grouping exercises can be conducted on a live-fire range that provides precise location of bullet hits and misses such as a 25-meter zeroing range or KD range.


CONCEPT OF ZEROING



The purpose of battlesight zeroing is to align the fire control system (sights) with the rifle barrel, considering the given ammunition ballistics. When this is accomplished correctly, the fire control and point of aim are point of impact at a standard battlesight zero range such as 250 (300) meters.

When a rifle is zeroed, the sights are adjusted so that bullet strike is the same as point of aim at some given range. A battlesight zero (250 meters, M16A1; 300 meters, M16A2) is the sight setting that provides the highest hit probability for most combat targets with minimum adjustment to the aiming point.

When standard zeroing procedures are followed, a rifle that is properly zeroed for one soldier is close to the zero for another soldier. When a straight line is drawn from target center to the tip of the front sight post and through the center of the rear aperture, it makes little difference whose eye is looking along this line. There are many subtle factors that result in differences among individual zeros; however, the similarity of individual zeros should be emphasized instead of the differences.

Most firers can fire with the same zeroed rifle if they are properly applying marksmanship fundamentals. If a soldier is having difficulty zeroing and the problem cannot be diagnosed, having a good firer zero the rifle could find the problem. When a soldier must fire another soldier’s rifle without opportunity to verify the zero by firing—for example, picking up another man’s rifle on the battlefield—it is closer to actual zero if the rifle sights are left unchanged. This information is useful in deciding initial sight settings and recording of zeros. All rifles in the arms room, even those not assigned, should have their sights aligned (zeroed) for battlesight zero.

There is no relationship between the specific sight setting a soldier uses on one rifle (his zero) to the sight setting he needs on another rifle. For example, a soldier could be required to move the rear sight of his assigned rifle 10 clicks left of center for zero, and the next rifle he is assigned could be adjusted 10 clicks right of center for zero. This is due to the inherent variability from rifle to rifle, which makes it essential that each soldier is assigned a permanent rifle on which all marksmanship training is conducted. Therefore, all newly assigned personnel should be required to fire their rifle for zero as soon as possible after assignment to the unit. The same rule must apply anytime a soldier is assigned a new rifle, a rifle is returned from DS or GS maintenance, or the zero is in question.


M16A1 STANDARD SIGHTS AND ZEROING



To battlesight zero the rifle, the soldier must understand sight adjustment procedures. The best possible zero is obtained by zeroing at actual range. Because facilities normally do not exist for zeroing at 250 meters, most zeroing is conducted at 25 meters. By pushing the rear sight forward so the L is exposed, the bullet crosses line of sight at 25 meters, reaches a maximum height above line of sight of about 11 inches at 225 meters, and crosses line of sight again at 375 meters (Figure 3-21).





Figure 3-21: M16A1 zero trajectory.





To gain the many benefits associated with having bullets hit exactly where the rifle is aimed during 25-meter firing, the long-range sight is used on the zero range. Therefore, when bullets are adjusted to hit the same place the rifle is aimed at 25 meters, the bullet also hits where the rifle is aimed at 375 meters. After making this adjustment and flipping back to the short-range sight and aiming center of mass at a 42-meter target, the bullet crosses the line of sight at 42 meters and again at 250 meters as shown in Figure 3-22.

Most combat targets are expected to be engaged in the ranges from 0 to 300 meters; therefore, the 250-meter battlesight zero is the setting that remains on the rifle. At 25 meters, the bullet is about 1 inch below line of sight, crossing line of sight at 42 meters. It reaches its highest point above the line of sight (about 5 inches) at a range of about 175 meters, crosses line of sight again at 250 meters, and is about 7 inches below line of sight at 300 meters. Targets can be hit out to a range of 300 meters with no adjustments to point of aim. (A somewhat higher hit probability results with minor adjustments to the aiming point.)





Figure 3-22: M16A1 250-meter trajectory.





Sights. The sights are adjustable for both elevation and windage. Windage adjustments are made on the rear sight; elevation adjustments on the front sight.

Rear sight. The rear sight consists of two apertures and a windage drum with a spring-loaded detent (Figure 3-23). The aperture marked L is used for ranges beyond 300 meters, and the unmarked or short-range aperture is used for ranges up to 300 meters. Adjustments for windage are made by pressing in on the spring-loaded detent with a sharp instrument (or the tip of a cartridge) and rotating the windage drum in the desired direction of change (right or left) in the strike of the bullet.





Figure 3-23: M16A1 rear sight apertures and windage drum.





Front sight. The front sight consists of a round rotating sight post with a five-position, spring-loaded detent (Figure 3-24). Adjustments are made by using a sharp instrument (or the tip of a cartridge). To move the front sight post, the spring-loaded detent is depressed, and the post is rotated in the desired direction of change (up or down) in the strike of the bullet.

Sight Changes. To make sight changes, the firer first locates the center of his three-round shot group and then determines the distance between it and the desired location. An error in elevation is measured vertically, while a windage error is measured horizontally. When using standard zero targets or downrange feedback targets, sight adjustment guidance on the target is provided. (See Appendix F for the elevation and windage rule.)





Figure 3-24: M16A1 front sight.





To raise the strike of the bullet, the firer rotates the front sight post the desired number of clicks clockwise (in the direction of the arrow marked UP in Figure 3-24). Thus, the strike of the bullet is raised but the post is lowered. He reverses the direction of rotation to move the strike of the bullet down.

To move the strike of the bullet to the right, the windage drum is rotated the desired number of clicks clockwise (in the direction of the arrow marked R, Figure 3-23). The firer reverses the direction of rotation to move the strike of the bullet to the left.



NOTE



Before making any sight changes, the firer should make a serviceability check of the sights, looking for any bent, broken, or loose parts. The firer must also be able to consistently fire 4-cm shot groups.





M16A2 STANDARD SIGHTS AND ZEROING



When the soldier can consistently place three rounds within a 4-cm circle at 25 meters, regardless of group location, he is ready to zero his rifle.

The front and rear sights are set as follows:

Rear sight. The rear sight consists of two sight apertures, a windage knob, and an elevation knob (Figure 3-25).





Figure 3-25: M16A2 rear sight.





The larger aperture, marked 0–2, is used for moving target engagement and during limited visibility. The unmarked aperture is used for normal firing situations, zeroing, and with the elevation knob for target distances up to 800 meters. The unmarked aperture is used to establish the battlesight zero.

After the elevation knob is set, adjustments for elevation are made by moving the front sight post up or down to complete zeroing the rifle. Adjustments for windage are made by turning the windage knob.

The rear windage knob start point is when the index mark on the 0–2 sight is aligned with the rear sight base index (Figure 3-26).





Figure 3-26: Initial rear sight adjustment.





Front sight. The front sight is adjusted the same as the front sight of the M16A1. It consists of a square, rotating sight post with a four-position, spring-loaded detent (Figure 3-27). Adjustments are made by using a sharp instrument or the tip of a cartridge. To raise or lower the front sight post, the spring-loaded detent is depressed, and the post is rotated in the desired direction of change (Figure 3-28).





Figure 3-27: M16A2 four detent front sight.





Figure 3-28: Front sight adjustment.





DOWNRANGE FEEDBACK TRAINING



The term downrange feedback describes any training method that provides precise knowledge of bullet strike (exactly where bullets hit or miss the intended target) at ranges beyond 25 meters. The soldier gains confidence in his firing abilities by knowing what happens to bullets at range. The inclusion of downrange feedback during the initial learning process and during refresher training improves the soldier’s firing proficiency and record fire scores. Downrange feedback can be incorporated into any part of a unit’s marksmanship program. However, an ideal sequence is to conduct downrange feedback following 25-meter firing and before firing on the field fire range.

The use of a KD firing range is an excellent way of providing downrange feedback. Also a good way to obtain downrange feedback is to modify existing field fire ranges by constructing target-holding frames, which requires the soldier to walk from the firing line to the target to locate bullet strike.

Units can design their own downrange feedback training to accommodate available facilities. Any silhouette target with a backing large enough to catch all bullet misses can be set up at any range. For example, it would be ideal if the confirmation of weapon zero could be conducted at the actual zero range of 250 meters/300 meters.


FIELD FIRE TRAINING



Field fire training provides the transition from unstressed slow firing at known-distance/feedback targets to engaging fleeting combat-type pop-up silhouettes. Two basic types of field firing exercises are single-target and multipletarget engagements, which use 75-, 175-, and 300-meter targets. Once the soldier has developed the unstressed firing skills necessary to hit single KD targets, he must learn to detect and quickly engage combat-type targets at various ranges. Time standards are provided during this instruction to add stress and to simulate the short exposure times of combat targets. The soldier must, therefore, detect, acquire, and engage the target before the exposure ends. During field fire training, the firer learns to quickly detect and apply the fundamentals at the same time.


PRACTICE RECORD FIRE



Practice record fire is a training exercise designed to progressively develop and refine the soldiers combat firing skills. During this exercise, the soldier is exposed to a more difficult course of fire with increased time stress to include single and multiple target engagements at six distances ranging from 50 to 300 meters. This exercise also provides the opportunity to practice and demonstrate skills learned during target detection. To perform well, a soldier must integrate all the tasks learned from previous training. When firing exercises are properly organized, conducted, and critiqued, the soldier gains knowledge and confidence in his firing performance. Through close observation, coaching, and critiquing, instructors/trainers can base remedial training on specific needs.


RECORD FIRE



Qualification ratings and first-time GO rates are important during record fire, if properly used. They provide goals for the soldier and aid the commander in identifying the quality of his training. This should be considered in the assignment of priorities, instructor personnel, and obtaining valuable training resources. The objective of record firing is to access and confirm the individual proficiency of firers and the effectiveness of the training program.





CHAPTER 4





Combat Fire Techniques



The test of a soldier’s training is applying the fundamentals of marksmanship and firing skills in combat. The marksmanship skills mastered during training, practice, and record fire exercises must be applied to many combat situations (attack, assault, ambush, MOUT). Although these situations present problems, only two modifications of the basic techniques and fundamentals are necessary (see Chapter 3): changes to the rate of fire and alterations in weapon/target alignment. The necessary changes are significant and must be thoroughly taught and practiced before discussing live-fire exercises.





NOTE



For tactical applications of fire see FM 7–8.





SECTION I. SUPPRESSIVE FIRE



In many tactical situations, combat rifle fire will be directed to suppress enemy personnel or weapons positions. Rifle fire, which is precisely aimed at a definite point or area target, is suppressive fire. Some situations may require a soldier to place suppressive fire into a wide area such as a wood line, hedgerow, or small building. While at other times, the target may be a bunker or window. Suppressive fire is used to control the enemy and the area he occupies. Suppressive fire is employed to kill the enemy or to prevent him from observing the battlefield or effectively using his weapons. When a sustained volume of accurate suppressive fire is placed on enemy locations to contain him, it can be effective even though he cannot be seen. When the enemy is effectively pinned down behind cover, this reduces his ability to deliver fire and allows friendly forces to move.


NATURE OF THE TARGET



Many soldiers have difficulty delivering effective suppressive fire when they cannot see a definite target. They must fire at likely locations or in a general area where the enemy is known to exist. Even though definite targets cannot be seen, most suppressive fire should be well aimed. Figure 4-1, page 4–2, shows a landscape target suitable for suppressive fire training. When this type target is used, trainers must develop a firing program to include areas of engagement and designated target areas that will be credited as sustained effective suppressive fire. At 25 meters, this target provides the firer with an area to suppress without definite targets to engage.


POINT OF AIM



Suppressive fire should be well-aimed, sustained, semiautomatic fire. Although lacking a definite target, the soldier must be taught to control and accurately deliver fire within the limits of the suppressed area. The sights are used as when engaging a point-type target—with the front sight post placed so that each shot impacts within the desired area (window, firing portal, tree line).


RATE OF FIRE



During most phases of live fire (grouping, zeroing, qualifying), shots are delivered using the slow semiautomatic rate of fire (one round every 3 to 10 seconds). During training, this allows for a slow and precise application of the fundamentals. Successful suppressive fire requires that a faster but sustained rate of fire be used. Sometimes firing full automatic bursts (13 rounds per second) for a few seconds may be necessary to gain initial fire superiority. Rapid semiautomatic fire (one round every one or two seconds) allows the firer to sustain a large volume of accurate fire while conserving ammunition. The tactical situation dictates the most useful rate of fire, but the following must be considered:





Figure 4-1: Landscape target.





Applying Fundamentals. As the stress of combat increases, some soldiers may fail to apply the fundamentals of marksmanship. This factor contributes to soldiers firing less accurately and without obtaining the intended results. While some modifications are appropriate, the basic fundamentals should be applied and emphasized regardless of the rate of fire or combat stress.

Making Rapid Magazine Changes. One of the keys to sustained suppressive fire is rapidly reloading the rifle. Rapid magazine changes must be correctly taught and practiced during dry-fire and live-fire exercises until the soldier becomes proficient. Small-unit training exercises must be conducted so that soldiers who are providing suppressive fire practice magazine changes that are staggered. Firing is, therefore, controlled and coordinated so that a continuous volume of accurate suppressive fire is delivered to the target area.

Conserving Ammunition. Soldiers must be taught to make each round count. Automatic fire should be used sparingly and only to gain initial fire superiority. Depending on the tactical situation, the rate of fire should be adjusted so that a minimum number of rounds are expended. Accurate fire conserves ammunition, while preventing the enemy from placing effective fire on friendly positions.



SECTION II. RAPID SEMIAUTOMATIC FIRE



Rapid semiautomatic fire delivers a large volume of accurate fire into a target or target area. Increases in speed and volume should be sought only after the soldier has demonstrated expertise and accuracy during slow semiautomatic fire. The rapid application of the four fundamentals will result in a well-aimed shot every one or two seconds. This technique of fire allows a unit to place the most effective volume of fire in a target area while conserving ammunition. It is the most accurate means of delivering suppressive fire.


EFFECTIVENESS OF RAPID FIRE



When a soldier uses rapid semiautomatic fire, he is sacrificing accuracy to deliver a greater volume of fire. The difference in accuracy between slow and rapid semiautomatic fire diminishes with proper training and repeated practice. Training and practice improve the soldier’s marksmanship skills to the point that accuracy differences become minimal. There is little difference in the volume of effective fire that would be delivered by units using much less accurate automatic fire.



NOTE



Learning rapid fire techniques also improves the soldier’s response time to short-exposure, multiple, and moving targets.





MODIFICATIONS FOR RAPID FIRE



Trainers must consider the impact of the increased rate of fire on the soldier’s ability to properly apply the fundamentals of marksmanship and other combat firing skills. These fundamentals/skills include:

Immediate Action. To maintain an increased rate of suppressive fire, immediate action must be applied quickly. The firer must identify the problem and correct the stoppage immediately. Repeated dry-fire practice, using blanks or dummy rounds, followed by live-fire training and evaluation ensures that soldiers can rapidly apply immediate action while other soldiers initiate fire.

Marksmanship Fundamentals. The four fundamentals are used when firing in the rapid semiautomatic mode. The following differences apply:

Steady position. Good support improves accuracy and reduces recovery time between shots, somewhat tighter grip on the handguards assists in recovery time and in rapidly shifting or distributing fire to subsequent targets. When possible, the rifle should pivot at the point where the nonfiring hand meets the support. The soldier should avoid changing the position of the nonfiring hand on the support, because it is awkward and time-consuming when rapidly firing a series of shots.

Aiming. The aiming process does not change during rapid semiautomatic fire. The firer’s head remains on the stock, his firing eye is aligned with the rear aperture, and his focus is on the front sight post.

Breath control. Breath control must be modified because the soldier does not have time to take a complete breath between shots. He must hold his breath at some point in the firing process and take shallow breaths between shots.

Trigger squeeze. To maintain the desired rate of fire, the soldier has only a short period to squeeze the trigger (one well-aimed shot every one or two seconds).

The firer must cause the rifle to fire in a period of about one-half of a second or less and still not anticipate the precise instant of firing. Rapid semiautomatic trigger squeeze is difficult to master. It is important that initial trigger pressure be applied as soon as a target is identified and while the front sight post is being brought to the desired point of aim. When the post reaches the point of aim, final pressure must be applied to cause the rifle to fire almost at once. This added pressure, or final trigger squeeze, must be applied without disturbing the lay of the rifle.

Repeated dry-fire training, using the Weaponeer device, and live-fire practice ensure the soldier can squeeze the trigger and maintain a rapid rate of fire consistently and accurately.



NOTE



When presented with multiple targets, the soldier may fire the first round, release pressure on the trigger to reset the sear, then reapply more pressure to fire the next shot. This technique eliminates the time used in releasing all the trigger pressure. It allows the firer to rapidly deliver subsequent rounds. Training and practice sessions are required for soldiers to become proficient in the technique of rapid trigger squeeze.





Magazine Changes. Rapid magazine changes are an integral part of sustaining rapid semiautomatic suppressive fire. Soldiers must quickly reload their rifles and resume accurate firing.

Magazine handling. Most units establish the soldier’s basic load of ammunition and loaded magazines. The number of magazines vary based on the mission and tactical situation. During combat, some magazines are lost, but it is the soldier’s responsibility to keep this loss to a minimum. While training a soldier to reload his magazines, the trainer must emphasize the need to account for these magazines.

The sequence for magazine handling during rapid changes is illustrated for right- and left-handed firers in Figure 4-2.

Rifle loading. Removing a magazine from the firing side ammunition pouch is the same for both right- and left-handed firers. Empty magazines must be removed from the rifle before performing the following.

To remove a magazine from the pouch, the magazine is grasped on the long edge with the thumb, and the first and second fingers are placed on the short edge.

The magazine is withdrawn from the ammunition pouch, and the arm is extended forward, rotating the hand and wrist so that the magazine is in position (open end up and long edge to the rear) to load into the rifle. It is loaded into the rifle by inserting the magazine straight up into the magazine well until it is seated. The base of the magazine is tapped with the heel of the hand to ensure the magazine is fully seated.

Removing a magazine from the nonfiring side of the ammunition pouch requires the firer to support the rifle with his firing hand. His nonfiring hand grasps the magazine and loads it into the rifle.

Rapid magazine changing. Training and repeated practice in this procedure improves soldier proficiency. The firer does not move the selector lever to SAFE during a rapid magazine change, but he must maintain a safe posture during the change.





Figure 4-2: Rapid magazine changing.





The following is a step-by-step sequence for rapid magazine changing.

• Right-handed firer. Remove the index finger from the trigger and depress the magazine catch button while keeping a secure grip on the rifle with the nonfiring hand (Figure 4-3). Release the pistol grip, grasp and remove the empty magazine with the right (firing) hand, and secure it. Grasp the loaded magazine with the right hand (rounds up and forward). Insert the loaded magazine into the magazine well and tap upward with the palm of the right hand. This ensures that the magazine is fully seated and locked into the rifle. Depress the upper half of the bolt catch with the fingers of the right hand. This allows the bolt to go forward, chambering the first round. If necessary, use the right hand to tap the forward assist to fully chamber the first round. Return the right hand to its original firing position on the pistol grip. Return the index finger to the trigger.



• Left-handed firer. Remove the index finger from the trigger and release the pistol grip. Depress the magazine catch button with the index finger of the left (firing) hand. Remove the empty magazine with the left hand and secure it. Grasp the loaded magazine with the left hand (rounds up, bullets forward). Insert the loaded magazine into the magazine well and tap upward with the palm of the left hand. This ensures that the magazine is fully seated and locked into the rifle. Depress the upper half of the bolt catch with a finger of the left hand. This allows the bolt to go forward, chambering the first round. If necessary, use the right hand to tap the forward assist to fully chamber the first round. Return the left hand to its original firing position on the pistol grip. Return the index finger to the trigger. The firer must maintain a safe posture during the change.





Figure 4-3: Magazine release catch button being depressed (right-handed firer).





When loading from the nonfiring side, the previous steps are followed with with this exception: the loaded magazine is secured and inserted into the magazine well with the nonfiring hand. The firing hand supports the rifle at the pistol grip. After the magazine is inserted, the firer should shift the rifle’s weight to his nonfiring hand and continue with the recommended sequence.


RAPID-FIRE TRAINING



Soldiers should be well trained in all aspects of slow semiautomatic firing before attempting any rapid-fire training. Those who display a lack of knowledge of the fundamental skills should not advance to rapid semiautomatic training until these skills are learned. Initial training should focus on the modifications to the fundamentals and other basic combat skills necessary during rapid semiautomatic firing.

Dry-Fire Exercises. Repeated dry-fire exercises are the most efficient means available to ensure soldiers can apply modifications to the fundamentals. Multiple dry-fire exercises are needed, emphasizing a rapid shift in position and point of aim, followed by breath control and fast trigger squeeze. Blanks or dummy rounds may be used to train rapid magazine changes and the application of immediate action. The soldier should display knowledge and skill during these dry-fire exercises before attempting live fire.

Live-Fire Exercises. There are two types of live-fire exercises.

Individual. Emphasis is on each soldier maintaining a heavy volume of accurate fire. Weapon down time (during immediate action and rapid magazine changes) is kept to a minimum. Firing should begin at shorter ranges, progressing to longer ranges as soldiers display increased proficiency. Exposure or engagement times are shortened and the number of rounds increased to simulate the need for a heavy volume of fire. Downrange feedback is necessary to determine accuracy of fire.

Unit. Rapid semiautomatic fire should be the primary means of delivering fire during a unit LFX. It is the most accurate technique of placing a large volume of fire on poorly defined targets or target areas. Emphasis should be on staggered rapid magazine changes, maintaining a continuous volume of fire and conserving ammunition.



SECTION III. AUTOMATIC FIRE



Automatic fire delivers the maximum amount of rounds into a target area. It should be trained only after the soldier has demonstrated expertise during slow and rapid semiautomatic fire. Automatic fire involves the rapid application of the four fundamentals while delivering from 3 to 13 rounds per second into a designated area. This technique of fire allows a unit to place the most fire in a target area (when conserving ammunition is not a consideration). It is a specialized technique of delivering suppressive fire and may not apply to most combat engagements. The M16A1 rifle has a full automatic setting. (The M16A2 uses a three-round burst capability.) Soldiers must be taught the advantages and disadvantages of automatic firing so they know when it should be used. Without this knowledge, in a life-threatening situation the soldier will tend to switch to the automatic/burst mode. This fire can be effective in some situations. It is vital for the unit to train and practice the appropriate use of automatic fire.


EFFECTIVENESS OF AUTOMATIC FIRE



Automatic fire is inherently less accurate than semiautomatic fire. The first automatic shot fired may be on target, but recoil and high-cyclic rate of fire often combine to place subsequent rounds far from the desired point of impact. Even controlled (three-round burst) automatic fire may place only one round on the target. Because of these inaccuracies, it is difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of automatic fire, and even more difficult to establish absolute guidelines for its use.

Closely spaced multiple targets, appearing at the same time at 50 meters or closer, may be engaged effectively with automatic/burst fire. More widely spaced targets appearing at greater distances should be engaged with semiautomatic fire.

The M16A1 and M16A2 rifles should normally be employed in the semiautomatic mode. Depending on the tactical situation, the following conditions would be factors against the use of automatic fire:

• Ammunition is in short supply or resupply may be difficult.



• Single targets are being engaged.



• Widely spaced multiple targets are being engaged.



• The distance to the target is beyond 50 meters.



• The effect of bullets on the target cannot be observed.



• Artificial support is not available.



• Targets may be effectively engaged using semiautomatic fire.



In some combat situations, the use of automatic fire can improve survivability and enhance mission accomplishment. Clearing buildings, final assaults, FPF, and ambushes may require the limited use of automatic fire. Depending on the tactical situation, the following conditions may favor the use of automatic fire:

• Enough available ammunition. Problems are not anticipated with resupply.



• Closely spaced multiple targets appear at 50 meters or less.



• Maximum fire is immediately required at an area target.



• Tracers or some other means can be used to observe the effect of bullets on the target.



• Leaders can maintain adequate control over rifles firing on automatic.



• Good artificial support is available.



• The initial sound of gunfire disperses closely spaced targets.



Trainers must ensure soldiers understand the capabilities and limitations of automatic fire. They must know when it should and should not be used.


MODIFICATIONS FOR AUTOMATIC FIRE POSITIONS



Trainers must consider the impact of the greatly increased rate of fire on the soldier’s ability to properly apply the fundamentals of marksmanship and other combat firing skills. These fundamentals/skills include:

Immediate Action. To maintain automatic fire, immediate action must be applied quickly. The firer must identify the problem and correct it immediately. Repeated dry-fire practice, using blanks or dummy rounds, followed by live-fire training and evaluation ensures that soldiers can rapidly apply immediate action.

Marksmanship Fundamentals. The four fundamentals are used when firing in the automatic mode. The following differences apply:

Steady position (Figure 4-4). Maximum use of available artificial support is necessary during automatic fire. The rifle should be gripped more firmly and pulled into the shoulder more securely than when firing in the semiautomatic mode. This support and increased grip help to offset the progressive displacement of weapon/target alignment caused by recoil. To provide maximum stability, prone and supported positions are best. One possible modification involves forming a 5-inch loop with the sling at the upper sling swivel, grasping this loop with the nonfiring hand, and pulling down and to the rear while firing. Another modification involves grasping the small of the stock with the nonfiring hand, and applying pressure down and to the rear while firing. If a bipod is not available, sandbags may be used to support the rifle. The nonfiring hand may be positioned on the rifle wherever it provides the most stability and flexibility. The goal is to maintain weapon stability and minimize recoil.

Aiming. The aiming process does not change during automatic fire. The firer’s head remains on the stock, his firing eye stays aligned with the rear sight aperture, and his focus is on the front sight post. Although recoil may disrupt this process, the firer must try to apply the aiming techniques throughout recoil.

Breath control. Breath control must be modified because the firer will not have the time to breathe between shots. He must hold his breath for each burst and adapt his breathing cycle, taking breaths between bursts.

Trigger squeeze. Training and repeated dry-fire practice will aid the soldier in applying proper trigger squeeze during automatic firing. Live-fire exercises will enable him to improve this skill.



NOTE



The trigger is not slapped or jerked. It is squeezed and pressure is quickly released.





Figure 4-4: Steady positions.





• M16A1. Trigger squeeze is applied in the normal manner up to the instant the rifle fires. Because three-round bursts are the most effective rate of fire, pressure on the trigger should be released as soon as possible. The index finger should remain on the trigger, but a quick release of pressure is necessary to prevent an excessive amount of rounds from being fired in one burst. With much dry-fire practice, the soldier can become proficient at delivering three-round bursts with the squeeze/release technique.



• M16A2. Trigger squeeze is applied in the normal manner up to the instant the rifle fires. Using the burst-mode, the firer holds the trigger to the rear until three rounds are fired. He then releases pressure on the trigger until it resets, then reapplies pressure for the next three-round burst.





NOTE



Depending on the position of the burst cam when the selector is moved to the burst mode, the rifle may fire one, two, or three rounds when the trigger is held to the rear the first time. If the rifle fires only one or two rounds, the firer must quickly release pressure on the trigger and squeeze again, holding it to the rear until a three-round burst is completed.





Magazine Changes. Rapid magazine changes are vital in maintaining automatic fire. (See SECTION II. RAPID SEMIAUTOMATIC FIRE, Magazine Handling, for detailed information on rapid magazine changes.)


TRAINING OF AUTOMATIC FIRE TECHNIQUES



Soldiers should be well trained in all aspects of slow semiautomatic firing before attempting any automatic training. Those who display a lack of knowledge of the fundamental skills should not advance to automatic fire training until these skills are learned. Initial training should focus on the modifications to the fundamentals and other basic combat skills necessary during automatic firing.

Dry-Fire Exercises. Repeated dry-fire exercises are the most efficient means available to ensure soldiers can apply these modifications. Multiple dry-fire exercises are needed, emphasizing a stable position and point of aim, followed by breath control and the appropriate trigger squeeze. Blanks or dummy rounds may be used to train trigger squeeze, rapid magazine changes, and application of immediate action. The soldier should display knowledge and skill during these exercises before attempting live-fire.

Live-Fire Exercises. There are two types of live-fire exercises.

Individual. Emphasis is on each individual maintaining a heavy volume of fire. Weapon down time (during immediate action and rapid magazine changes) is held to a minimum. Firing can begin at 25 meters, progressing to 50 meters as soldiers display increased proficiency. Exposure or engagement times, as well as ranges, are varied to best simulate the need for a heavy volume of fire. Downrange feedback is necessary to determine effectiveness of fire. The course of fire should allow the soldier to decide whether he should engage a given target or area with automatic or semiautomatic fire.

A soldier’s zero during automatic fire may be different than his semiautomatic (battlesight) zero. This is due to the tendency of the lightweight M16 barrel to respond to external pressure such as the bipod or pulling on the sling. However, it is recommended that the battlesight zero be retained on the rifle and holdoff used to place automatic fire on the target. This holdoff training requires downrange feedback and should be conducted before other live-fire exercises.

The soldier can begin by loading and firing one round from an automatic fire position. Three of these rounds, treated as a single group, can establish where the first shot of a three-round burst will probably strike. Loading and firing two rounds simulates the dispersion of the second shot of a three-round burst. Finally, several three-round bursts should be fired to refine any necessary holdoff to center these larger groups on the desired point of impact.

Unit. Unit LFXs should include the careful use of automatic fire. Emphasis should be on staggered rapid magazine changes, maintaining a continuous volume of heavy fire, and conserving ammunition.



SECTION IV. QUICK-FIRE



The two main techniques of directing fire with a rifle are to aim using the sights; and to use weapon alignment, instinct, bullet strike, or tracers to direct the fire. The preferred technique is to use the sights, but sometimes quick reflex action is needed to survive. Quick-fire is a technique used to deliver fast, effective fire on surprise personnel targets at close ranges (25 meters or less). Quick-fire procedures have also been referred to as “instinct firing” or “quick kill.”


EFFECTIVENESS OF QUICK FIRE



Quick-fire techniques are appropriate for soldiers who are presented with close, suddenly appearing, surprise enemy targets; or when close engagement is imminent. Fire may be delivered in the SEMIAUTO or BURST/AUTO mode. For example, a point man in a patrol may carry the weapon on BURST/AUTO. This may also be required when clearing a room or bunker. Initial training should be in the SEMI mode. Two techniques of delivering quick-fire are —

Aimed. When presented with a target, the soldier brings the rifle up to his shoulder and quickly fires a single shot. His firing eye looks through or just over the rear sight aperture, and he uses the front sight post to aim at the target (Figure 4-5). Using this technique, a target at 25 meters or less may be accurately engaged in one second or less.

Pointed. When presented with a target, the soldier keeps the rifle at his side and quickly fires a single shot or burst. He keeps both eyes open and uses his instinct and peripheral vision to line up the rifle with the target (Figure 4-6). Using this technique, a target at 15 meters or less may be engaged in less than one second.

The difference in speed of delivery between these two techniques is small. Pointed quick fire can be used to fire a shot about one-tenth of a second faster than aimed quick-fire. The difference in accuracy, however, is more pronounced. A soldier well trained in pointed quick fire can hit an E-type silhouette target at 15 meters, although the shot may strike anywhere on the target. A soldier well trained in aimed quick fire can hit an E-type silhouette target at 25 meters, with the shot or burst striking 5 inches from the center of mass.





Figure 4-5: Aimed quick-fire.





Figure 4-6: Pointed quick-fire.





The key to the successful employment of either technique is practice. Both pointed and aimed quick-fire must be repeatedly practiced during dry-fire training. Live-fire exercises provide further skill enhancement and illustrate the difference in accuracy between the two techniques. Tactical considerations dictate which technique is most effective in a given situation, and when single shot versus burst fire is used.

Pointed and aimed quick fire should be used only when a target cannot be engaged fast enough using the sights in a normal manner. These techniques should be limited to targets appearing at 25 meters or less.


MODIFICATIONS FOR QUICK-FIRE TECHNIQUES



Quick-fire techniques require major modifications to the four fundamentals of marksmanship. These modifications represent a significant departure from the normal applications of the four fundamentals. Initial training in these differences, followed by repeated dry-fire exercises, will be necessary to prepare the soldier for live-fire.

Steady Position. The quickness of shot delivery prevents the soldier from assuming a stable firing position. He must fire from his present position when the target appears. If the soldier is moving, he must stop. Adjustments for stability and support cannot be made before the round being fired.

Aimed. The butt of the rifle is pulled into the pocket of the shoulder as the cheek comes in contact with the stock. Both hands firmly grip the rifle, applying rearward pressure. The firing eye looks through or just over the rear sight aperture (Figure 4-5, page 4–12). The firer’s sight is in focus and placed on the target.

Pointed. The rifle is pulled into the soldier’s side and both hands firmly grip the rifle, applying rearward pressure (Figure 4-6, page 4–12).

Aiming. This fundamental must be highly modified because the soldier may not have time to look through the rear sight, find the front sight, and align it with the target.

Aimed. The soldier’s initial focus is on the target. As the rifle is brought up, the firing eye looks through or just over the rear sight aperture at the target. Using his peripheral vision, the soldier locates the front sight post and brings it to the center of the target. When the front sight post is in focus, the shot is fired. Focus remains on the front sight post throughout the aiming process.

Pointed. The soldier’s focus is placed on the center or slightly below the center of the target as the rifle is aligned with it and is fired. The soldier’s instinctive pointing ability and peripheral vision are used to aid in proper alignment.



NOTE



When using either aiming technique, bullets may tend to impact above the desired location. Repeated live-fire practice is necessary to determine the best aim point on the target or the best focus. Such practice should begin with the soldier using a center mass arms/focus.





Breath Control. This fundamental has little application to the first shot of quick-fire. The round must be fired before a conscious decision can be made about breathing. If subsequent shots are necessary, breathing must not interfere with the necessity to fire quickly. When possible, use short, shallow breaths.

Trigger Squeeze. Initial pressure is applied as weapon alignment is moved toward the target. Trigger squeeze is exerted so that when weapon/target alignment is achieved, the round is fired at once. The soldier requires much training and practice to perfect this rapid squeezing of the trigger.


TRAINING OF QUICK-FIRE TECHNIQUES



Initial training should focus on the major modifications to the fundamentals during quick-fire.

Dry-Fire Exercises. This dry-fire exercise requires no elaborate preparations or range facilities, yet it provides the soldier with an opportunity to learn and practice quick-fire techniques. Repeated dry-fire exercises ensure soldiers can apply the modifications to the fundamentals. Multiple dry-fire exercises are needed, emphasizing a consistent firing position and weapon alignment with the target, followed by rapid trigger squeeze. No more than one second should elapse between the appearance of the target and a bullet striking it. One example of a dry-fire exercise is:

The trainer/coach places an E-type silhouette target 15 meters in front of the soldier. The soldier stands facing the general direction of the target (vary direction to simulate targets appearing at different locations), holding his rifle at or above waist level. His firing hand should be on the pistol grip; the nonfiring hand cradling the rifle under the handguards.

The trainer/coach should stand slightly behind the soldier, out of his field of view. The trainer/coach claps his hands, signaling target appearance. Immediately after clapping his hands, the trainer/coach counts out loud “one thousand one.”

The soldier must either point or aim, squeeze the trigger, and hear the hammer fall before the trainer/coach finishes speaking (about one second or less).



NOTE



When using the aiming technique, the soldier holds his aim and confirms alignment of the rifle with the target. He keeps the rifle pointed toward the target after the hammer falls and looks through the sights to check his actual point of aim for that shot.





Live-Fire Exercises. There are two types of live-fire exercises.

Individual. Emphasis is on engaging each target in one second or less. The previously described timing technique may be used, or pop-up targets set to lock in the full upright position may be used. Pop-up targets require about one second to move from the down to the full up position. Targets set to lock in the upright position must be engaged as they are being raised to “kill” them. This gives the soldier a one-second time limit. At 15 meters (the maximum recommended range), an E-type silhouette engaged using pointed quick fire may be hit anywhere. Using aimed quick fire at the same target, hits should fall within a 10-inch circle located center of target.



NOTE



Repeated live-fire exercises are necessary to train the soldier. If 5.56-mm service ammunition is in short supply, the 5.56-mm practice ammunition and M2 bolt or the .22-caliber rim fire adapter device may be used.





Unit. Unit MOUT LFXs should include the use of quick-fire. Targets should be presented at 25 meters or less and soldiers must engage them within one second.



SECTION V. MOPP FIRING



All soldiers must effectively fire their weapons to accomplish combat missions in an NBC environment. With proper training and practice, soldiers can gain confidence in their ability to effectively hit targets in full MOPP equipment. MOPP firing proficiency must be a part of every unit’s training program.


EFFECTS OF MOPP EQUIPMENT ON FIRING



Firing weapons is only part of overall NBC training. Soldiers must first be familiar with NBC equipment, its use, and proper wear before they progress to learning the techniques of MOPP firing. Trainers must consider the impact of MOPP equipment (hood/mask, gloves, overgarments) on the soldier’s ability to properly apply the fundamentals of marksmanship and combat firing skills.

Immediate Action. Under normal conditions a soldier should be able to clear a stoppage in three to five seconds. Under full MOPP, however, this may take as long as ten seconds to successfully complete. Dry-fire practice under these conditions is necessary to reduce time and streamline actions. Hood/mask and gloves must be worn. Care must be taken not to snag or damage the gloves or dislodge the hood/mask during movements. Applying immediate action to a variety of stoppages during dry-fire must be practiced using dummy or blank ammunition until such actions can be performed by instinct.

Target Detection. Techniques and principles outlined in Chapter 3 remain valid for target detection while in MOPP, but considerations must be made for limiting factors imposed by MOPP equipment.

Vision is limited to what can be seen through the mask lenses/faceplate. Peripheral vision is severely restricted. The lenses/faceplate may be scratched or partly fogged, thus further restricting vision. Soldiers requiring corrective lenses must be issued insert lenses before training.

Scanning movement may be restricted by the hood/mask. Any of these factors could adversely affect the soldier’s ability to quickly and accurately detect targets. Additional skill practice should be conducted.

Marksmanship Fundamentals. Although the four marksmanship fundamentals remain valid during MOPP firing, some modifications may be needed to accommodate the equipment.

Steady position. Due to the added bulk of the overgarments, firing positions may need adjustment for stability and comfort. Dry and live firing while standing, crouching, or squatting may be necessary to reduce body contact with contaminated ground or foliage. A consistent spot/stock weld is difficult to maintain due to the shape of the protective masks. This requires the firer to hold his head in an awkward position to place the eye behind the sight.

Aiming. The wearing of a protective mask may force firers to rotate (cant) the rifle a certain amount to see through the rear aperture. The weapon should be rotated the least amount to properly see through and line up the sights, as previously discussed in Chapter 3. The center tip of the front sight post should be placed on the ideal aiming point. This ideal aiming procedure (Figure 4-7, page 4–16) should be the initial procedure taught and practiced. If this cannot be achieved, a canted sight picture may be practiced.

Breath control. Breathing is restricted and more difficult while wearing the protective mask. Physical exertion can produce labored breathing and make settling down into a normal breath control routine much more difficult. More physical effort is needed to move around when encumbered by MOPP equipment, which can increase the breath rate. All of these factors make holding and controlling the breath to produce a well-aimed shot more energy- and time-consuming. Emphasis must be placed on rapid target engagement during the limited amount of time a firer can control his breath.

Trigger squeeze. Grasping the pistol grip and squeezing the trigger with the index finger are altered when the firer is wearing MOPP gloves. The action of the trigger finger is restricted, and the fit of the glove may require the release of the swing-down trigger guard. Because the trigger feels different, control differs from that used in bare-handed firing. This difference cannot be accurately predicted. Dry-fire training using dime (washer) exercises is necessary to ensure the firer knows the changes he will encounter during live-fire.





Figure 4-7: Sight picture when canting the rifle (75-meter target).





EFFECTS OF AIMING MODIFICATIONS



The normal amount of cant needed by most firers to properly see through the sights has a limited influence on rounds fired at ranges of 75 meters or less. At longer ranges, however, the change in bullet strike becomes more pronounced.

Rifle ballistics (Appendix F) causes the strike of the bullet to impact low in the direction of the cant (when a cant is used) at longer ranges. Due to this shift in bullet strike and the many individual differences in sight alignment when wearing a protective mask, it is important to conduct downrange feedback training (Appendix G) at ranges beyond 75 meters. This allows soldiers to determine what aiming adjustments are needed to achieve center target hits. Figure 4-8 shows what might be expected for a right-handed firer engaging a target at 175 meters with no cant, a certain amount of cant, and the adjustment in point of aim needed to move the bullet strike to the center of the target. Figure 4-9 shows what might be expected for a right-handed firer engaging a 300-meter target (the adjustments in point of aim for left-handed firers are the opposite of those shown in Figures 4-8 and 4-9).

Although bullet strike is displaced when using a cant, individual differences are such that center-of-mass aiming should be used until the individual knows what aiming adjustment is needed. When distant targets are missed, a right-handed firer should usually adjust his point of aim to the right and high; a left-handed firer should adjust to the left and high. Then, the aiming rules are clear. All targets should initially be engaged by aiming center mass, regardless of cant. When targets are missed while using a cant, firers should adjust the point of aim higher and opposite the direction of the cant. Actual displacement of the aiming point must be determined by using downrange feedback targets at ranges beyond 75 meters.





Figure 4-8: Engagement of 175-meter target.





Figure 4-9: Engagement of 300-meter target.





OPERATION AND FUNCTION MODIFICATIONS



Handling the rifle, performing operation and function checks, loading and unloading, and cleaning are affected by MOPP equipment. Movements are slowed, tasks take longer to complete and often require more effort, vision is impaired, and care is needed to avoid damaging MOPP equipment and possible exposure to lethal agents. Because of the great differences between no MOPP and MOPP4, soldiers must be trained in all aspects of operation and maintenance of the weapon while practicing at the highest MOPP level. Only through repeated training and practice can the soldier be expected to perform all tasks efficiently.


MOPP FIRE EXERCISES



The many difficulties the soldier encounters while firing with MOPP gear must be experienced and overcome during training.

Dry-Fire MOPP Exercises. Repeated dry-fire exercises covering all aspects of MOPP firing are the most effective means available to ensure all soldiers can function during a live-fire MOPP situation. Multiple dry-fire exercises must be conducted before the first live round is fired. Otherwise, valuable ammunition and training time are wasted in trying to teach soldiers the basics. The soldier is trained in the fundamentals; repeated dry-fire or Weaponeer exercises are conducted; grouping, zeroing, qualifying, and evaluating are performed using standard non-MOPP firing; the differences and modifications are trained for MOPP firing; and repeated MOPP dry-fire exercises are conducted. The soldier is now ready to move on to MOPP live-fire.

Live-Fire MOPP Exercises. These exercises further develop the learned firing skills and allow the soldier to experience the effects of wearing MOPP equipment on downrange performance.

Individual. Application of immediate action, rapid magazine changes, grouping, and adjusted point of aim at 25 meters should all be tested and evaluated for further training. After soldiers exhibit proficiency at these tasks, further training and evaluation at extended ranges are indicated.

Unit. Parts of unit LFXs should be conducted in the highest MOPP level with a planned system of target hit evaluation. As in all aspects of marksmanship training, the emphasis is on soldier knowledge and skills displayed.

Basic 25-meter proficiency course. Initial live-fire exercises are conducted at 25 meters. This training provides all soldiers the basic techniques and introduces firing the rifle in MOPP equipment. This basic proficiency exercise must be fired while wearing gloves and protective mask with hood. The basic 25-meter proficiency exercise is fired to standard and is an annual/semiannual GO/NO-GO requirement for most soldiers. It is entered on the record fire scorecard when completed.

The course of fire can be conducted on any range equipped with mechanical target lifters. Soldiers are given initial instruction and a demonstration of the techniques of firing in MOPP equipment.

Each soldier is issued 20 rounds of 5.56-mm ball ammunition to engage 20 three-to-five-second exposures of F-type silhouette targets at 25 meters. Initial firing is performed with 10 rounds from the individual fighting position (supported), and 10 rounds from a prone unsupported position. Each soldier must obtain a minimum of 11 target hits out of 20 exposures to meet the basic requirement. This initial basic 25-meter exercise prepares soldiers for future individual and unit training in full MOPP gear.

Downrange feedback. Once the soldier has mastered basic marksmanship proficiency, he should be introduced to firing at range. This phase of firing should provide the maximum hit-and-miss performance feedback; it can be conducted on a KD or modified field fire range at 75, 175, and 300 meters.

Practice firing under full MOPP can also be conducted on the standard RETS ranges—for example, the standard record fire tables may be fired in MOPP. MOPP fire must also be part of unit tactical exercises, which are fired on MPRC as part of STXs.



NOTE



The .22-caliber rimfire adapter or plastic practice ammunition may be used during live-fire practice at scaled 25-meter targets when 5.56-mm ammunition is not available.





When the rimfire adapter, plastic ammunition, or live-fire range is not available, the Weaponeer device may be used. Scaled silhouette targets may also be used at this distance to introduce the many target sizes common at longer ranges.

Having mastered the 25-meter firing phase, the soldier is then introduced to firing at range, using the standard 75-, 175-, and 300-meter downrange feedback targets (Chapter 3). Adjusted point of aim, for individual differences of cant, is first used during this training. Live-fire training is conducted on a KD or modified field fire range, giving the soldier feedback on targets engaged at many ranges.



SECTION VI. MOVING TARGET ENGAGEMENT



The enemy normally moves by rushing from one covered or concealed position to another. While making the rush, the enemy soldier presents a rapidly moving target. However, for a brief time as he begins, movement is slow since many steps are needed to gain speed. Many steps are needed to slow down at the new position. A moving target is open to aimed fire both times.


MOVING TARGET TECHNIQUES



There are two primary techniques of engaging moving targets.

Tracking. Tracking is a more accurate technique of engaging targets by experienced firers. It involves the establishment and maintaining of the aiming point in relationship to the target and maintaining that sight picture (moving with the target) while squeezing the trigger. As the target moves, this technique puts the firer in position for a second shot if the first one misses.

Trapping. Trapping is the setting up of an aiming point forward of the target and along the target path. The trigger is squeezed as the target comes into the sights. This is a technique that works on targets with slow lateral movement. It does not require tracking skills. It does require that the firer know precisely when the rifle is going to fire. Some soldiers can squeeze the trigger without reacting to the rifle firing, and they may fire better using this technique.

Another technique is to use a modified 25-meter scaled timed-fire silhouette (see Figure 4-10). Trainers evaluate performance based on where shot groups are placed when the lead rule is applied. This target can be used for both the M16A1 and M16A2 rifles.





Figure 4-10: Timed-fire targets.





MOVING TARGET FUNDAMENTALS



The fundamentals needed to hit moving targets are similar to those needed to hit stationary targets. The main skill is to engage moving targets with the least changes to procedures. Another consideration is that soldiers in a combat defensive position do not know if their next target will be stationary or moving—they must fire immediately at whatever targets occur.

The fundamentals for engaging stationary targets are steady position, aiming, breath control, and trigger squeeze. They are also used to engage moving targets. Considering the environment and the variables of the rifle and ammunition, the well-trained soldier should be able to hit 300-meter stationary silhouette targets with a .5 PH. When the target has lateral movement, hits at 150 meters may be seven out of ten times, which is a good performance. Therefore, twice as much variability, twice as much dispersion, and a few more erratic shots are expected when soldiers are trained to hit moving targets.

The procedures used to engage moving targets vary as the angle and speed of the target vary. For example, when a moving target is moving directly at the firer, the same procedures are used as would be used if the target were stationary. However, if it is a close, fast-moving target at a 90-degree angle, the rifle and entire upper body of the firer must be free from support so that the target can be tracked. To hit moving targets, the firer must move the rifle smoothly and steadily as the target moves. The front sight post is placed with the trailing edge at target center, breath is held, and the trigger is squeezed. Several factors complicate this process.

Steady position. When firing from a firing position, the firer is in the standard supported position and is flexible enough to track any target in his sector. When a moving target is moving directly at the firer, directly away, or at a slight angle, the target is engaged without changing the firing position. When targets have much lateral movement, only minor changes are needed to allow for effective target engagement. Most moving targets are missed in the horizontal plane (firing in front of or behind the target) and not in the vertical plane (firing too low or too high). Therefore, a smooth track is needed on the target, even if the support arm must be lifted. Other adjustments include the following:

– Nonfiring hand. The grip of the nonfiring hand may need to be increased and more pressure applied to the rear. This helps to maintain positive control of the rifle and steady it for rapid trigger action.



– Nonfiring elbow. The elbow is lifted from the support position only to maintain a smooth track.



– Grip of the right hand. Rearward pressure may be applied to the pistol grip to steady the rifle during trigger squeeze.



– Firing elbow. The firing elbow is lifted from support only to help maintain a smooth track.





NOTE



The rifle pocket on the shoulder and the stock weld are the same for stationary targets.





Aiming. The trailing edge of the front sight post is at target center.

Breath control. Breathing is locked at the moment of trigger squeeze.

Trigger squeeze. Rearward pressure on the handguard and pistol grip is applied to hold the rifle steady while pressure is applied to the trigger. The trigger is squeezed fast (almost a controlled jerk). Heavy pressure is applied on the trigger (at least half the pressure it takes to make the rifle fire) before squeezing the trigger.


SINGLE-LEAD RULE FOR MOVING TARGETS



A target moving directly toward the firer can be engaged the same way as a stationary target. However, to hit a target moving laterally, the firer places the trailing edge of the front sight post at target center. The sight-target relationship is shown in Figure 4-11 (page 4–22). The single-lead rule automatically increases the lead as the range to the target increases.

Figure 4-12 (page 4–22) shows how this works, with the front sight post covering about 1.6 inches at 15 meters and about 16 inches at 150 meters. Since the center of the front sight post is the actual aiming point, this technique of placing the trailing edge of the front sight post at target center provides for an .8-inch lead on a 15-meter target, and an 8-inch lead on a target at 150 meters.

This rule provides for a dead-center hit on a 15-meter target that is moving at 7 mph at a 25-degree angle because the target moves .8 inch between the time the rifle is fired and the bullet arrives at the target. A 150-meter target moving at 7 mph at a 25-degree angle moves 8 inches between the time the weapon is fired and the bullet arrives. This rule provides for hits on the majority of high-priority combat targets.





Figure 4-11: Single-lead rule.





Figure 4-12: Lead increasing at greater ranges.





LEAD REQUIREMENTS



To effectively engage moving targets on the battlefield, soldiers must understand lead requirements. Figure 4-13 shows the amount of lead required to hit a 300-meter target when it is moving 8 mph at an angle of 90 degrees. Aiming directly at the target would result in missing it. When an enemy soldier is running 8 mph, 90 degrees to the firer, and at a range of 300 meters, he covers 4 1/2 feet while the bullet is traveling toward him. To get a hit, the firer must aim and fire at position D when the enemy is at position A. This indicates the need for target lead and for marksmanship trainers to know bullet speed and how it relates to the range, angle, and speed of the target. Soldiers must understand that targets moving fast and laterally are led by some distance if they are to be hit.

Target Speed. Figure 4-14 reflects the differences in lateral speed for various angles of target movement for a target that is traveling at 8 mph at a distance of 150 meters from the firer. The angle of target movement is the angle between the target-firer line and the target’s direction of movement. An 8-mph target moves 24 inches during the bullet’s flight time. If the target is moving on a 15-degree angle, it moves 6 inches (the equivalent of 2 mph). For the firer to apply precise lead rules, he must accurately estimate speed, angle, and range to the target during the enemy soldier’s brief exposure. The single-lead rule (place the trailing edge of the front sight post at target center) places effective fire on most high-priority combat targets. At 100 meters, the rule begins to break down for targets moving at slight and large angles.

Since the target lead is half the perceived width of the front sight post, at 100 meters the standard sight provides for 5.4 inches of lead for the M16A1 and M16A2 front sights (Figure 4-15, page 4–24).





Figure 4-13: Lead requirement based on distance and approach angle.





Figure 4-14: Target movement (distance) at various angles.





Target Distance. The front sight post covers only a small part of close-in targets, providing for target hits on close targets moving at any angle and any speed. However, if the lead rule is applied on more distant targets moving at a slight angle—for example, 5 degrees at 100 meters—the bullet strikes forward of target center, about 4 inches with standard sights and about 7 inches with LLLSS sights. Therefore, soldiers are taught to fire at targets as though they are stationary until lateral movement is observed (15 degrees).

The rule provides for many speed-angle combinations that place the bullet within 2 inches of target center (Figure 4-16, page 4–25). Since the soldier is expected to fire a 12-inch group on moving targets at 100 meters, the rule provides for hits on the majority of targets. Even the worst case (a 90-degree target moving at 8 mph) would result in the shot-group center being located 9.8 inches behind target center. If bullets were evenly distributed within a 12-inch group, this would result in hitting the target 40 percent of the time.

Soldiers should be taught to increase their lead when targets are missed. This increases their probability of hitting all targets. The amount of additional lead required should be developed through experience with only general guidance provided. For example, if there is much lateral movement of the target and the soldier feels by applying the lead rule and firing fundamentals he has missed the target, then he should increase his lead.

The training program must be simple and provide soldiers with only relevant information to improve their performance in combat. First, all soldiers should understand and apply the single-lead rule in the absence of more information. Second, soldiers should understand that moving targets coming toward them or on a slight angle (0 to 15 degrees) should be engaged as stationary targets. Third, information should be presented and practice allowed on applying additional lead to targets for soldiers who demonstrate an aptitude for this skill.





Figure 4-15: Angle of target movement.





Target Angle. The rule does not apply to targets moving at small and large angles (Figure 4-16). For example, a walking enemy soldier at 250 meters is hit dead center when he is moving at 40 degrees. Hits can be obtained if he is moving on any angle between 15 and 75 degrees. When he is running (a center hit is obtained when the target is on an angle of 18 degrees), misses occur when he exceeds an angle of 30 to 35 degrees. The information provided in Figures 4-13, page 4–23, and 4–14, page 4–24, is designed to enhance instructor understanding so proper concepts are presented during instruction. For example, a target at 100 meters moving at 6 mph receives a center hit when moving at 29 degrees. When moving at an angle less than 29 degrees, the bullet strikes somewhat in front of target center. When moving at an angle of more than 29 degrees, the bullet strikes somewhat behind target center.





Figure 4-16: Target angle when dead center: hits accure using single lead rule.





MULTIPURPOSE RANGE COMPLEX TRAIN-UP



MPRCs require soldiers to hit moving targets. Ranges are used for collective training. Commanders should try to use the MPRCs for individual training and to teach the individual to engage moving targets. If no MPRCs are available for individual training, any range can be used that will support any type of moving target. Building a moving target range is limited only by the imagination of the trainer, but always within safety constraints. The following are examples that can be incorporated on many ranges.

Popsicle Sticks. This requires placing an E-type silhouette on a long stick and having an individual walk back and forth behind a high berm (high enough to protect the individual from fire) the length of the berm. Feedback should be made available for the firer such as for lowering the target when a hit is scored or reversing direction upon a hit.

Sled Targets. This requires constructing a simple sled that has one or more targets attached. The sled is pulled by a rope or cable across and off the range safely by a vehicle.





CHAPTER 5





Night Firing



All units must be able to fight during limited visibility. All soldiers should know the procedures for weapons employment during such time. Soldiers must experience the various conditions of night combat—from total darkness, to the many types of artificial illumination, to the use of surveillance aids. All units must include basic, unassisted night fire training annually in their unit marksmanship programs. Combat units should conduct tactical night fire training at least quarterly. This tactical training should include MILES during force-on-force training as well as live-fire. Night-fire training must include the use of applicable night vision devices when this equipment is part of a TOE. The many effects darkness has on night firing are discussed herein.



NOTE



Although this chapter addresses night firing, the appropriate modifications to the fundamentals of firing may be applied whenever visibility is limited.





CONSIDERATIONS



Trainers must consider the impact of limited visibility on the soldier’s ability to properly apply the fundamentals of marksmanship and combat firing skills. These fundamentals/skills include:

Operation and Maintenance of the Weapon. Handling the weapon, performing operation and function checks, loading and unloading, and maintenance are affected by nighttime conditions. Movements are slowed, tasks take longer to complete, vision is impaired, and equipment is more easily misplaced or lost. Because combat conditions and enforcement of noise and light discipline restrict the use of illumination, soldiers must be trained to operate (load, unload, and clear), service, and clean their weapons using the lowest lighting conditions. Although initial practice of these tasks should occur during daylight (using simulated darkness) to facilitate control and error correction, repeated practice during actual nighttime conditions should be integrated with other training. Only through repeated practice and training can the soldier be expected to perform all tasks efficiently.

Immediate Action. Under normal conditions, a soldier should clear a stoppage in three to five seconds. After dark, this task usually takes longer. Identifying the problem may be frustrating and difficult for the soldier. A tactile (hands only) technique of identifying a stoppage must be taught and practiced. Clearing the stoppage using few or no visual indicators must also be included. The firer must apply immediate action with his eyes closed. Dry-fire practice using dummy or blank rounds under these conditions is necessary to reduce time and build confidence. Training should be practiced first during daylight for better control and error correction by the trainer. Practice during darkness can be simulated by closing the eyes or using a blindfold. Once the soldier is confident in applying immediate action in daylight or darkness, he can perform such actions rapidly on the firing line.

Target Detection. Light from a cigarette or flashlight, discharge of a rifle (muzzle flash), or reflected moonlight/starlight are the main means of target location. Sounds may also be indicators of target areas. Because the other techniques of detection (movement, contrast) are less apparent at night, light and sound detection must be taught, trained, and reviewed repeatedly in practice exercises. Exercises should also emphasize shortened scanning ranges, night vision adaptation, and use of off-center vision. Target detection exercises should be integrated into all collective training tasks.



NOTE



Binoculars are often overlooked as night vision aids. Because they amplify the available light, binoculars or spotting/rifle scopes can provide the firer with another means to locate targets during limited visibility. Also, the use of MILES equipment is effective for use in engaging detected targets.





Marksmanship Fundamentals. The four marksmanship fundamentals apply to night firing. Some modifications are needed depending on the conditions. The firer must still place effective fire on the targets or target areas that have been detected.

Steady position. When the firer is firing unassisted, changes in his head position/stock weld will be necessary, especially when using weapon-target alignment techniques. When using rifle-mounted night vision devices, head position/stock weld must be changed to bring the firing eye in line with the device. Also, such mounted devices alter the rifle’s weight and center of gravity, forcing a shift in placement of the support (nonfiring arm or sandbags). Repeated dry-fire practice, followed by live-fire training, is necessary to learn and refine these modifications and still achieve the most steady position.

Aiming. Modifications to the aiming process vary from very little (when using LLLSSs) to extensive (when using modified quick-fire techniques). When firing unassisted, the firer’s off-center vision is used instead of pinpoint focus. When using a mounted night vision device, the firer’s conventional iron sights are not used. The soldier uses the necessary aiming process to properly use the device.

Breathing. Weapon movement caused by breathing becomes more apparent when using night vision devices that magnify the field of view. This fundamental is not greatly affected by night fire conditions.

Trigger squeeze. This important fundamental does not change during night fire. The objective is to not disrupt alignment of the weapon with the target.


PRINCIPLES OF NIGHT VISION



For a soldier to effectively engage targets at night, he must apply the three principles of night vision:

Dark Adaptation. Moving from lighted to darkened areas (as in leaving a tent) can be temporarily blinding. After several minutes have passed, the soldier can slowly see his surroundings. If he remains in this completely darkened environment, he adapts to the dark in about 30 minutes. This does not mean he can see in the dark at the end of this time. After about 30 minutes, his visibility reaches its maximum level. If light is encountered, the eyes must adapt again. The fire on the end of a cigarette or a red-lensed flashlight can degrade night vision; larger light sources cause more severe losses.

Off-Center Vision. During the day, the soldier focuses his vision on the object he wants to see. Shifting this pinpoint focus slightly to one side causes the object to become blurry or lose detail. At night, the opposite is true. Focusing directly on an object after dark results in that object being visible for only a few seconds. After that, the object becomes almost invisible. To view an object at night, the soldier must shift his gaze slightly to one side. This allows the light-sensitive parts of the eye (parts not used during daylight) to be used. These can detect faint light sources or reflections and relay their image to the brain (Figures 5-1 and 5-2).



NOTE



Vision is shifted slightly to one side, but attention is still on the object. Because of the blind spot at the center of vision, directing attention to an off-centered objective is possible (with practice).





Scanning. Scanning is the short, abrupt, irregular movement of the soldier’s eyes around an object or area every 4 to 10 seconds. Off-center vision is used. Scanning ranges vary according to visibility.


TARGET ENGAGEMENT TECHNIQUES



Night fire usually occurs under three general conditions.

Unassisted Firing Exercise. The firer must detect and engage targets without artificial illumination or night vision devices. Potential target areas are scanned. When a target is detected, the firer should engage it using a modified quick-fire position. His head is positioned high so that he is aligning the weapon on the target and looking just over the iron sights. His cheek should remain in contact with the stock.





Figure 5-1: Daytime field of view using pinpoint focus.





Figure 5-2: Nighttime field of view using off-center vision.





The firer should take a few seconds to improve weapon/target alignment by pointing slightly low to compensate for the usual tendency to fire high. Both eyes are open to the maximum advantage of any available light, and the focus is downrange. Off-center vision is used to keep the target in sight. Tracer ammunition may provide feedback on the line of trajectory and facilitate any adjustments in weapon/target alignment.

Repeated dry-fire training, target detection, and proper aiming practice are the most efficient means to ensure the soldier can successfully engage short-range targets (50 meters or closer) unassisted during MILES exercises, and then live-fire training.

Artificial Illumination. Targets as distant as 175 meters can be engaged successfully with some type of artificial illumination. Illumination may be from hand flares, mortar or artillery fire, or bright incandescent lights such as searchlights.

When artificial illumination is used, the eyes lose most of their night adaption, and off-center vision is no longer useful. Aiming is accomplished as it is during the day. Artificial illumination allows the firer to use the iron sights as he does during the day (M16A2 users should keep the large rear sight aperture flipped up during darkness).

Engaging targets under artificial illumination allows for better target detection and long-range accuracy than the unassisted technique. When the light is gone, time must be spent in regaining night vision and adaptation. Only when the light level drops enough so that the target cannot be seen through the iron sights should the firer resume short-range scanning, looking just over the sights.

Soldiers have sometimes been taught to close their eyes during artificial illumination to preserve their night vision. This technique is effective but also renders the soldier (or entire unit) blind for the duration of the illumination. Keeping one eye closed to preserve its night vision results in a drastically altered sense of perception when both eyes are opened, following the illumination burnout. Tactical considerations should be the deciding factor as to which technique to use. Repeated dry-fire training and target detection practice are the keys to successful engagement of targets out to 150 meters or more during live-fire under artificial illumination.

Night Vision Devices. Rifle-mounted night vision devices are the most effective night fire aids. By using these devices, the firer can observe the area, detect and engage any suitable targets, and direct the fire of soldiers who are firing unassisted.

NVDs can be used to engage targets out to 300 meters. Repeated training, dry-fire practice, and correct zeroing are vital to the proper employment of NVDs during live-fire training.


TRAINING



Dry-fire training and live-fire training are necessary to mastering basic rifle marksmanship. The soldier must adhere to the following procedures and applications to be effective in combat.

Dry-Fire Exercises. Repeated training and dry-fire practice are the most effective means available to ensure all soldiers can function efficiently after dark.

Target detection and dry-fire exercises must be conducted before the first live round is fired. They can take place almost anywhere—elaborate live-fire range facilities are not needed. Modified fundamentals can be taught in a classroom/practical exercise situation. Further training in the proper zeroing and engagement techniques can take place anywhere that targets can be set up and darkness can be expected.

Without extensive dry-fire training, soldiers do not perform to standards during live-fire. Valuable range time and ammunition are wasted in a final attempt to teach the basics.

The soldier must demonstrate skill during daylight live-fire. Next, he is trained in the differences and modifications needed for successful night firing. Many dry-fire exercises are conducted until skill at night firing is displayed. Only then is the soldier ready to move on to the night live-fire exercises.

Live-Fire Exercises. These exercises continue to develop the firing skills acquired during dry-fire exercises, and they allow the soldier to experience the effects of darkness on downrange performance.

The basic unassisted live-fire exercise allows all soldiers to apply night-fire principles, and to gain confidence in their abilities to effectively engage targets at 25 and 50 meters. Practice and proficiency firing can be conducted on any range equipped with mechanical lifters and muzzle flash simulators. A small square of reflective material and a shielded low wattage flashing light (protected from bullet impact) may be used to facilitate target detection (Figures 5-3, page 5–6). The light should be placed to highlight the center of the target with a flashing, faint glow (intended to represent a muzzle flash). The light should not be on constantly, when the target is not exposed, or on when the target is exposed but not being used in actual engagement. The light should provide the firer with a momentary indication that a target is presenting itself for engagement. It should not be attached to the target or provide the firer with a distinct aiming point, regardless of how dim it may be. Practice can also be accomplished by the use of MILES equipment and target interface devices.

When an automated record fire range (RETS) is used for this exercise, the two 50-meter mechanisms are used. Before training, one E-type silhouette target is replaced with an F-type silhouette target. The F-type silhouette target is engaged at 25 meters from the prone unsupported position. The soldier is issued one magazine of 15 rounds (5 rounds ball; 10 rounds tracer) and presented 15 ten-second exposures. The firing line is moved, and the soldier engages the E-type silhouette target at 50 meters. He is issued a second 15-round magazine (5 rounds ball; 10 rounds tracer) to engage 15 ten-second exposures.





Figure 5-3: Night fire target.





When the automated range is used, the soldier’s performance is recorded in the tower. If automatic scoring is not available, F-type and E-type silhouette paper facings are attached to the mechanical target, and bullet holes are counted. Facings may be repaired or replaced for each firer.

To meet the annual/semiannual minimum performance requirements, all soldiers must hit and kill seven separate targets out of 30 exposures. The results are annotated on the soldier’s record fire scorecard.

• Individual. Application of immediate action, rapid magazine changes, and refinements of the modified quick-fire aiming point should be tested and evaluated for further training.



– Unassisted. After soldiers exhibit proficiency of individual tasks, training and evaluation at ranges beyond those possible using only the rifle are indicated.



– Artificial illumination. After mastering the unassisted night fire task and after repeated dry-fire training under artificial illumination, the soldier is ready to be tested and evaluated using live-fire under illumination. Pop-up or stationary targets at ranges out to 175 meters (depending on light conditions, terrain features, and vegetation) may be used. Illumination is provided by flares, mortar/artillery, or floodlights. Once these tasks are mastered, further training and evaluation using NVDs is indicated. Multipurpose range complexes can be used for night firing by using artificial illumination. Automated field fire or record fire ranges can also be used by adding lighting. During this training, soldiers engage targets at 75 to 175 meters. Several target scenarios are possible. A typical training exercise would present 30 random exposures of the 75-meter and 175-meter targets (or optional 100-meter and 200-meter targets). Soldiers should be expected to hit at least 10 targets. Tracer ammunition can be used to enhance training.



– Night vision devices. Repeated training and dry-fire practice on the proper use of NVDs are essential to the successful conduct of any live-fire training using these devices. Firers must understand the equipment and skillfully employ it. NVDs can provide engagement capabilities out to 300 meters.





NOTE



Spotlights or floodlights can be modified through use of a rheostat to simulate the flickering, bright/dim nature of artificial illumination. Lights should not be used to continuously spotlight targets. Unanticipated artificial illumination may render NVDs difficult to see through or may shut the device off. Live-fire training should consider any problems incurred by such unexpected illumination.





• Unit. Parts of unit STXs, FTXs, and LFXs should be conducted at night. This training should include target detection, unassisted MILES and live-fire, artificial illumination, and NVDs. Targets out to 300 meters may be used, depending on the existing conditions. Emphasis is on soldier knowledge and skills displayed.





Sniper Training





CHAPTER 1





Introduction to Sniper Training



The sniper has special abilities, training, and equipment. His job is to deliver discriminatory highly accurate rifle fire against enemy targets, which cannot be engaged successfully by the rifleman because of range, size, location, fleeting nature, or visibility. Sniping requires the development of basic infantry skills to a high degree of perfection. A sniper’s training incorporates a wide variety of subjects designed to increase his value as a force multiplier and to ensure his survival on the battlefield. The art of sniping requires learning and repetitiously practicing these skills until mastered. A sniper must be highly trained in long-range rifle marksmanship and field craft skills to ensure maximum effective engagements with minimum risk.




1-1. MISSION



The primary mission of a sniper in combat is to support combat operations by delivering precise long-range fire on selected targets. By this, the sniper creates casualties among enemy troops, slows enemy movement, frightens enemy soldiers, lowers morale, and adds confusion to their operations. The secondary mission of the sniper is collecting and reporting battlefield information.

a. A well-trained sniper, combined with the inherent accuracy of his rifle and ammunition, is a versatile supporting arm available to an infantry commander. The importance of the sniper cannot be measured simply by the number of casualties he inflicts upon the enemy. Realization of the sniper’s presence instills fear in enemy troop elements and influences their decisions and actions. A sniper enhances a unit’s firepower and augments the varied means for destruction and harassment of the enemy. Whether a sniper is organic or attached, he will provide that unit with extra supporting fire. The sniper’s role is unique in that it is the sole means by which a unit can engage point targets at distances beyond the effective range of the M16 rifle. This role becomes more significant when the target is entrenched or positioned among civilians, or during riot control missions. The fires of automatic weapons in such operations can result in the wounding or killing of noncombatants.



b. Snipers are employed in all levels of conflict. This includes conventional offensive and defensive combat in which precision fire is delivered at long ranges. It also includes combat patrols, ambushes, countersniper operations, forward observation elements, military operations in urbanized terrain, and retrograde operations in which snipers are part of forces left in contact or as stay-behind forces.




1-2. ORGANIZATION



In light infantry divisions, the sniper element is composed of six battalion personnel organized into three 2-man teams. The commander designates missions and priorities of targets for the team and may attach or place the team under the operational control of a company or platoon. They may perform dual missions, depending on the need. In the mechanized infantry battalions, the sniper element is composed of two riflemen (one team) located in a rifle squad. In some specialized units, snipers may be organized according to the needs of the tactical situation.

a. Sniper teams should be centrally controlled by the commander or the sniper employment officer. The SEO is responsible for the command and control of snipers assigned to the unit. In light infantry units, the SEO will be the reconnaissance platoon leader or the platoon sergeant. In heavy or mechanized units, the SEO may be the company commander or the executive officer. The duties and responsibilities of the SEO areas follows:



(1) To advise the unit commander on the employment of snipers.



(2) To issue orders to the team leader.



(3) To assign missions and types of employment.



(4) To coordinate between the sniper team and unit commander.



(5) To brief the unit commander and team leaders.



(6) To debrief the unit commander and team leaders.



(7) To train the teams.



b. Snipers work and train in 2-man teams. One sniper’s primary duty is that of the sniper and team leader while the other sniper serves as the observer. The sniper team leader is responsible for the day-to-day activities of the sniper team. His responsibilities areas follows:



(1) To assume the responsibilities of the SEO that pertain to the team in the SEO’s absence.



(2) To train the team.



(3) To issue necessary orders to the team.



(4) To prepare for missions.



(5) To control the team during missions.



c. The sniper’s weapon is the sniper weapon system. The observer has the M16 rifle and an M203, which gives the team greater suppressive fire and protection. Night capability is enhanced by using night observation devices.




1-3. PERSONNEL SELECTION CRITERIA



Candidates for sniper training require careful screening. Commanders must screen the individual’s records for potential aptitude as a sniper. The rigorous training program and the increased personal risk in combat require high motivation and the ability to learn a variety of skills. Aspiring snipers must have an excellent personal record.

a. The basic guidelines used to screen sniper candidates are as follows:



(1) Marksmanship. The sniper trainee must be an expert marksman. Repeated annual qualification as expert is necessary. Successful participation in the annual competition-in-arms program and an extensive hunting background also indicate good sniper potential.



(2) Physical condition. The sniper, often employed in extended operations with little sleep, food, or water, must be in outstanding physical condition. Good health means better reflexes, better muscular control, and greater stamina. The self-confidence and control that come from athletics, especially team sports, are definite assets to a sniper trainee.



(3) Vision. Eyesight is the sniper’s prime tool. Therefore, a sniper must have 20/20 vision or vision correctable to 20/20. However, wearing glasses could become a liability if glasses are lost or damaged. Color blindness is also considered a liability to the sniper, due to his inability to detect concealed targets that blend in with the natural surroundings.



(4) Smoking. The sniper should not be a smoker or use smokeless tobacco. Smoke or an unsuppressed smoker’s cough can betray the sniper’s position. Even though a sniper may not smoke or use smokeless tobacco on a mission, his refrainment may cause nervousness and irritation, which lowers his efficiency.



(5) Mental condition. When commanders screen sniper candidates, they should look for traits that indicate the candidate has the right qualities to be a sniper. The commander must determine if the candidate will pull the trigger at the right time and place. Some traits to look for are reliability, initiative, loyalty, discipline, and emotional stability. A psychological evaluation of the candidate can aid the commander in the selection process.



(6) Intelligence. A sniper’s duties require a wide variety of skills. He must learn the following:



• Ballistics.



• Ammunition types and capabilities.



• Adjustment of optical devices.



• Radio operation and procedures.



• Observation and adjustment of mortar and artillery fire.



• Land navigation skills.



• Military intelligence collecting and reporting.



• Identification of threat uniforms and equipment.



b. In sniper team operations involving prolonged independent employment, the sniper must be self-reliant, display good judgment and common sense. This requires two other important qualifications: emotional balance and field craft.



(1) Emotional balance. The sniper must be able to calmly and deliberately kill targets that may not pose an immediate threat to him. It is much easier to kill in self-defense or in the defense of others than it is to kill without apparent provocation. The sniper must not be susceptible to emotions such as anxiety or remorse. Candidates whose motivation toward sniper training rests mainly in the desire for prestige may not be capable of the cold rationality that the sniper’s job requires.



(2) Field craft. The sniper must be familiar with and comfortable in a field environment. An extensive background in the outdoors and knowledge of natural occurrences in the outdoors will assist the sniper in many of his tasks. Individuals with such a background will often have great potential as a sniper.



c. Commander involvement in personnel selection is critical. To ensure his candidate’s successful completion of sniper training and contribution of his talents to his unit’s mission, the commander ensures that the sniper candidate meets the following prerequisites before attending the U.S. Army Sniper School:



• Male.



• PFC to SFC (waiverable for MSG and above).



• Active duty or ARNG and USAR.



• Good performance record.



• No history of alcohol or drug abuse.



• A volunteer (with commander recommendation).



• Vision of 20/20 or correctable to 20/20.



• No record of disciplinary action.



• Expert marksman with M16A1 or M16A2 rifle.



• Minimum of one-year retrainability.



• Career management field 11.



• Pass APFT (70 percent, each event).




1-4. SNIPER AND OBSERVER RESPONSIBILITIES



Each member of the sniper team has specific responsibilities. Only through repeated practice can the team begin to function properly. Responsibilities of team members areas follows:

a. The sniper—



• Builds a steady, comfortable position.



• Locates and identifies the designated target.



• Estimates the range to the target.



• Dials in the proper elevation and windage to engage the target.



• Notifies the observer of readiness to fire.



• Takes aim at the designated target.



• Controls breathing at natural respiratory pause.



• Executes proper trigger control.



• Follows through.



• Makes an accurate and timely shot call.



• Prepares to fire subsequent shots, if necessary.



b. The observer—



• Properly positions himself.



• Selects an appropriate target.



• Assists in range estimation.



• Calculates the effect of existing weather conditions on ballistics.



• Reports sight adjustment data to the sniper.



• Uses the M49 observation telescope for shot observation.



• Critiques performance.




1-5. TEAM FIRING TECHNIQUES



A sniper team must be able to move and survive in a combat environment. The sniper team’s mission is to deliver precision fire. This calls for a coordinated team effort. Together, the sniper and observer—

• Determine the effects of weather on ballistics.



• Calculate the range to the target.



• Make necessary sight changes.



• Observe bullet impact.



• Critique performance before any subsequent shots.





CHAPTER 2





Equipment



This chapter describes the equipment necessary for the sniper to effectively peform his mission. The sniper carries only what is essential to successfully complete his mission. He requires a durable rifle with the capability of long-range precision fire. The current U.S. Army sniper weapon system is the M24. (See Appendix B for the M21 sniper weapon system.)





SECTION I. M24 SNIPER WEAPON SYSTEM



The M24 sniper weapon system is a 7.62-mm, bolt-action, six-shot repeating rifle (one round in the chamber and five rounds in the magazine). It is designed for use with either the M3A telescope (day optic sight) (usually called the M3A scope) or the metallic iron sights. The sniper must know the M24’s components, and the procedures required to operate them (Figure 2-1). The deployment kit is a repair/maintenance kit with tools and repair parts for the operator to perform operator level maintenance (Figure 2-2).





Figure 2-1: M24 sniper weapon system.





Figure 2-2: The deployment kit.





2-1. OPERATIONS AND FUNCTIONS



To operate the M24 sniper weapon system, the sniper must know the information and instructions pertaining to the safety, bolt assembly, trigger assembly, and stock adjustment.

a. Safety. The safety is located on the right rear side of the receiver. When properly engaged, the safety provides protection against accidental discharge in normal usage.



(1) To engage the safety, place it in the “S” position (Figure 2-3).



(2) Always place the safety in the “S” position before handling, loading, or unloading the weapon.



(3) When the weapon is ready to be fired, place the safety in the “F” position (Figure 2-3).





Figure 2-3: Safety.





b. Bolt Assembly. The bolt assembly locks the cartridge into the chamber and extracts the cartridge from the chamber.



(1) To remove the bolt from the receiver, release the internal magazine, place the safety in the “S” position, raise the bolt handle, and pull it back until it stops. Then push the bolt stop release (Figure 2-4) and pull the bolt from the receiver.



(2) To replace the bolt, ensure the safety is in the “S” position, align the lugs on the bolt assembly with the receiver (Figure 2-5), slide the bolt all the way into the receiver, and then push the bolt handle down.





Figure 2-4: Bolt stop release.





Figure 2-5: Bolt alignment.





WARNING





Never remove the trigger mechanism, or make adjustments to the trigger assembly, except for the trigger pull force adjustment.





c. Trigger Assembly. Pulling the trigger fires the rifle when the safety is in the “F” position. The operator may adjust the trigger pull force from a minimum of 2 pounds to a maximum or 8 pounds. This is done using the 1/16-inch socket head screw key provided in the deployment kit. Turning the trigger adjustment screw (Figure 2-6) clockwise increases the force needed to pull the trigger. Turning it counterclockwise decreases the force needed. This is the only trigger adjustment the sniper should make.





Figure 2-6: Trigger adjustment.





d. Stock Adjustment. The M24’s stock has an adjustable butt plate to accommodate the length of pull. The stock adjustment (Figure 2-7) consists of a thin wheel and a thick wheel. The thick wheel adjusts the shoulder stock. The thin wheel locks the shoulder stock.



(1) Turn the thick wheel clockwise to lengthen the stock.



(2) Turn the thick wheel counterclockwise to shorten the stock.



(3) To lock the shoulder stock into position, turn the thin wheel clockwise against the thick wheel.



(4) To unlock the shoulder stock, turn the thin wheel counterclockwise away from the thick wheel.





Figure 2-7: Stock adjustment.





e. Sling Adjustment The sling helps hold the weapon steady without muscular effort. The more the muscles are used the harder it is to hold the weapon steady. The sling tends to bind the parts of the body used in aiming into a rigid bone brace, requiring less effort than would be necessary if no sling were used. When properly adjusted, the sling permits part of the recoil of the rifle to reabsorbed by the nonfiring arm and hand, removing recoil from the firing shoulder.



(1) The sling consists of two different lengths of leather straps joined together by a metal D ring (Figure 2-8). The longer strap is connected to the sling swivel on the rear stud on the forearm of the rifle. The shorter strap is attached to the sling swivel on the buttstock of the rifle. There are two leather loops on the long strap known as keepers. The keepers are used to adjust the tension on the sling. The frogs are hooks that are used to adjust the length of the sling.





Figure 2-8: Leather sling.





(2) To adjust the sling, the sniper disconnects the sling from the buttstock swivel. Then, he adjusts the length of the metal D ring that joins the two halves of the sling. He then makes sure it is even with the comb of the stock when attaching the sling to the front swivel (Figure 2-9).





Figure 2-9: Sling adjustment.





(3) The sniper adjusts the length of the sling by placing the frog on the long strap of the sling in the 4th to the 7th set of adjustment holes on the rounded end of the long strap that goes through the sling swivel on the forearm (Figure 2-10).



(4) After adjusting the length, the sniper places the weapon on his firing hip and supports the weapon with his firing arm. The sniper turns the sling away from him 90 degrees and inserts his nonfiring arm.





Figure 2-10: Adjusting the length of the sling.





(5) The sniper slides the loop in the large section of the sling up the nonfiring arm until it is just below the armpit (Figure 2-11). He then slides both leather keepers down the sling until they bind the loop snugly round the nonfiring arm.





Figure 2-11: Placing the sling around the nonfiring arm.





(6) The sniper moves his nonfiring hand from the outside of the sling to the inside of the sling between the rifle and the sling. The sniper then grasps the forearm of the weapon, just behind the sling swivel with his nonfiring hand. He forces it outward and away from his body with the nonfiring hand (Figure 2-12).



(7) The sniper pulls the butt of the weapon into the pocket of his shoulder with the firing hand. He then grasps the weapon at the small of the stock and begins the aiming process.





Figure 2-12: Proper placement of the sling.





2-2. INSPECTION



The sniper performs PMCS on the M24 SWS. Deficiencies that cannot be repaired by the sniper requires manufacturer repair. He must refer to TM 9-1005-306-10 that is furnished with each weapon system. The sniper must know this technical manual. He should cheek the following areas when inspecting the M24:

a. Check the appearance and completeness of all parts.



b. Check the bolt to ensure it locks, unlocks, and moves smoothly.



c. Check the safety to ensure it can be positively placed into the “S” and “F” positions easily without being too hard or moving too freely.



d. Check the trigger to ensure the weapon will not fire when the safety is in the “S” position, and that it has a smooth, crisp trigger pull when the safety is in the “F” position.



e. Check the trigger guard screws (rear of trigger guard and front of internal magazine) for proper torque (65 inch-pounds).



f. Check the scope mounting ring nuts for proper torque (65 inch-pounds).



g. Check the stock for any cracks, splits, or any contact it may have with the barrel.



h. Inspect the scope for obstructions such as dirt, dust, moisture, or loose or damaged lenses.




2-3. CARE AND MAINTENANCE



Maintenance is any measure taken to keep the M24 SWS in top operating condition. It includes inspection, repair, cleaning and lubrication-inspection reveals the need for repair, cleaning, or lubrication. It also reveals any damages or defects. When sheltered in garrison and infrequently used, the M24 SWS must be inspected often to detect dirt, moisture, and signs of corrosion, and it must be cleaned accordingly. The M24 SWS that is in use and subject to the elements, however, requires no inspection for cleanliness, since the fact of its use and exposure is evidence that it requires repeated cleaning and lubrication.

a. M24 SWS Maintenance. The following materials are required for cleaning and maintaining the M24 SWS:



• One-piece plastic-coated .30 caliber cleaning rod with jag (36 inches).



• Bronze bristle bore brushes (.30 and .45 calibers).



• Cleaning patches (small and large sizes).



• Carbon cleaner.



• Copper cleaner.



• Rust prevention.



• Cleaner, lubricant, preservative.



• Rifle grease.



• Bore guide (long action).



• Swabs.



• Pipe cleaners.



• Medicine dropper.



• Shaving brush.



• Pistol cleaning rod.



• Rags.



• Camel’s-hair brush.



• Lens tissue.



• Lens cleaning fluid (denatured or isopropyl alcohol).



b. M24 SWS Disassembly. The M24 SWS will be disassembled only when necessary, not for daily cleaning. For example, when removing an obstruction from the SWS that is stuck between the stock and the barrel. When disassembly is required, the recommended procedure is as follows:



• Place the weapon so that is it pointing in a safe direction.



• Ensure the safety is in the “S” position.



• Remove the bolt assembly.



• Loosen the mounting ring nuts on the telescope and remove the telescope.



• Remove the action screws.



• Lift the stock from the barrel assembly.



c. M24 SWS Cleaning Procedures. The M24 SWS must always be cleaned before and after firing.



(1) The SWS must always be cleaned before firing. Firing a weapon with a dirty bore or chamber will multiply and speed up any corrosive action. Oil in the bore and chamber of a SWS will cause pressures to vary and first-round accuracy will suffer. Clean and dry the bore and chamber before departure on a mission and use extreme care to keep the SWS clean and dry en route to the objective area. Firing a SWS with oil or moisture in the bore will cause smoke that can disclose the firing position.



(2) The SWS must be cleaned after firing since firing produces deposits of primer fouling, powder ashes, carbon, and metal fouling. Although ammunition has a noncorrosive primer that makes cleaning easier, the primer residue can still cause rust if not removed. Firing leaves two major types of fouling that require different solvents to remove carbon fouling and copper jacket fouling. The SWS must be cleaned within a reasonable time after firing. Use common sense when cleaning between rounds of firing. Repeated firing will not injure the weapon if it is properly cleaned before the first round is fired.



(3) Lay the SWS on a table or other flat surface with the muzzle away from the body and the sling down. Make sure not to strike the muzzle or telescopic sight on the table. The cleaning cradle is ideal for holding the SWS.



(4) Always clean the bore from the chamber toward the muzzle, attempting to keep the muzzle lower than the chamber to prevent the bore cleaner from running into the receiver or firing mechanism. Be careful not to get any type of fluid between the stock and receiver. If fluid does collect between the stock and receiver, the receiver will slide on the bedding every time the SWS recoils, thereby decreasing accuracy and increasing wear and tear on the receiver and bedding material.



(5) Always use a bore guide to keep the cleaning rod centered in the bore during the cleaning process.



(6) Push several patches saturated with carbon cleaner through the barrel to loosen the powder fouling and begin the solvent action on the copper jacket fouling.



(7) Saturate the bronze bristle brush (NEVER USE STAINLESS STEEL BORE BRUSHES-THEY WILL SCRATCH THE BARREL) with carbon cleaner (shake the bottle regularly to keep the ingredients mixed) using the medicine dropper to prevent contamination of the carbon cleaner. Run the bore brush through at least 20 times. Make sure the bore brush passes completely through the barrel before reversing its direction; otherwise, the bristles will break off.



(8) Use a pistol cleaning rod and a .45 caliber bronze bristle bore brush, clean the chamber by rotating the patch-wrapped brush 8 to 10 times. DO NOT scrub the brush in and out of the chamber.



(9) Push several patches saturated with carbon cleaner through the bore to push out the loosened powder fouling.



(10) Continue using the bore brush and patches with carbon cleaner until the patches have no traces of black/gray powder fouling and are green/blue. This indicates that the powder fouling has been removed and only copper fouling remains. Remove the carbon cleaner from the barrel with several clean patches. This is important since solvents should never be mixed in the barrel.



(11) Push several patches saturated with copper cleaner through the bore, using a scrubbing motion to work the solvent into the copper. Let the solvent work for 10 to 15 minutes (NEVER LEAVE THE COPPER CLEANER IN THE BARREL FOR MORE THAN 30 MINUTES).



(12) While waiting, scrub the bolt with the toothbrush moistened with carbon cleaner and wipe down the remainder of the weapon with a cloth.



(13) Push several patches saturated with copper cleaner through the barrel. The patches will appear dark blue at first, indicating the amount of copper fouling removed. Continue this process until the saturated patches have no traces of blue/green. If the patches continue to come out dark blue after several treatments with copper cleaner, use the bronze brush saturated with copper cleaner to increase the scrubbing action. Be sure to clean the bronze brush thoroughly afterwards with hot running water (quick scrub cleaner/degreaser is preferred) as the copper cleaner acts upon its bristles as well.



(14) When the barrel is clean, dry it with several tight fitting patches. Also, dry the chamber using the .45 caliber bronze bristle bore brush with a patch wrapped around it.



(15) Run a patch saturated with rust prevention (not CLP) down the barrel and chamber if the weapon is to be stored for any length of time. Stainless steel barrels are not immune from corrosion. Be sure to remove the preservative by running dry patches through the bore and chamber before firing.



(16) Place a small amount of rifle grease on the rear surfaces of the bolt lugs. This will prevent galling of the metal surfaces.



(17) Wipe down the exterior of the weapon (if it is not covered with camouflage paint) with a CLP-saturated cloth to protect it during storage.



d. Barrel Break-in Procedure. To increase barrel life, accuracy, and reduce cleaning requirement the following barrel break-in procedure must be used. This procedure is best accomplished when the SWS is new or newly rebarreled. The break-in period is accomplished by polishing the barrel surface under heat and pressure. This procedure should only be done by qualified personnel. The barrel must be cleaned of all fouling, both powder and copper. The barrel is dried, and one round is fired. The barrel is then cleaned again using carbon cleaner and then copper cleaner. The barrel must be cleaned again, and another round is fired. The procedure must be repeated for a total of 10 rounds. After the 10th round the SWS is then tested for groups by firing three-round shot groups, with a complete barrel cleaning between shot groups for a total of five shot groups (15 rounds total). The barrel is now broken in, and will provide superior accuracy and a longer usable barrel life. Additionally, the barrel will be easier to clean because the surface is smoother. Again the barrel should be cleaned at least every 50 rounds to increase the barrel life.



e. Storage. The M24 SWS should be stored (Figure 2-13) using the following procedures:



• Clear the SWS, close the bolt, and squeeze the trigger.



• Open the lens caps to prevent gathering of moisture.



• Hang the weapon upside down by the rear sling swivel.



• Place all other items in the system case.



• Transport the weapon in the system case during nontactical situations.



• Protect the weapon at all times during tactical movement.





NOTE



Rod clean swabs through the bore before firing. This procedure ensures first-round accuracy and reduces the signature.





f. Cold Climates. In temperatures below freezing, the SWS must be kept free of moisture and heavy oil, both of which will freeze, causing the working parts to freeze or operate sluggishly. The SWS should be stored in a room with the temperature equal to the outside temperature. When the SWS is taken into a warm area, condensation occurs, thus requiring a thorough cleaning and drying before taking it into the cold. Otherwise, the condensation causes icing on exposed metal parts and optics. The firing pin should be disassembled and cleaned thoroughly with a degreasing agent. It should then be lubricated with CLP. Rifle grease hardens and causes the firing pin to fall sluggishly.





Figure 2-13: Maintenance for storing or using.





g. Salt Water Exposure. Saltwater and saltwater atmosphere have extreme and rapid corrosive effects on the metal parts of the SWS. During periods of exposure, the SWS must be checked and cleaned as often as possible, even if it means only lubricating the SWS. The SWS should always be well lubricated, including the bore, except when actually firing. Before firing, always run a dry patch through the bore, if possible.



h. Jungle Operations (High Humidity). In hot and humid temperatures, keep the SWS lubricated and cased when not in use. Protect the SWS from rain and moisture whenever possible. Keep ammunition clean and dry. Clean the SWS, the bore, and the chamber daily. Keep the caps on the telescope when not in use. If moisture or fungus develops on the inside of the telescope, replace it. Clean and dry the stock daily. Dry the carrying case and SWS in the sun whenever possible.



i. Desert Operations. Keep the SWS dry and free of CLP and grease except on the rear of the bolt lugs. Keep the SWS free of sand by using the carrying sleeve or carrying case when not in use. Protect the SWS by using a wrap. Slide the wrap between the stock and barrel, then cross over on top of the scope. Next, cross under the SWS (over the magazine) and secure it. The SWS can still be placed into immediate operation but all critical parts are covered. The sealed hard case is preferred in the desert if the situation permits. Keep the telescope protected from the direct rays of the sun. Keep ammunition clean and protected from the direct rays of the sun. Use a toothbrush to remove sand from the bolt and receiver. Clean the bore and chamber daily. Protect the muzzle and receiver from blowing sand by covering with a clean cloth. To protect the free-floating barrel of the SWS, take an 8- or 9-inch strip of cloth and tie a knot in each end. Before going on a mission, slide the cloth between the barrel and stock all the way to the receiver and leave it there. When in position, slide the cloth out, taking all restrictive debris and sand with it.




2-4. DISASSEMBLY



Occasionally, the weapon requires disassembly however, this should be done only when absolutely necessary, not for daily maintenance. An example of this would be to remove an obstruction that is stuck between the forestock and the barrel. When disassembly is required, the recommended procedure is as follows:

a. Point the rifle in a safe direction.



b. Put the safety in the “S” position.



c. Remove the bolt assembly.



d. Use the 1/2-inch combination wrench, loosen the front and rear mounting ring nuts (Figure 2-14) on the scope, and remove the scope.





Figure 2-14: Mounting ring nuts.





e. Loosen the front and rear trigger guard screws (Figure 2-15).



f. Lift the stock assembly from the barrel assembly (Figure 2-16).



g. Reassemble in reverse order.





Figure 2-15: Trigger guard screws.





Figure 2-16: Disassembled weapon.





WARNING





Always keep fingers away from the trigger until ready to fire, make sure the rifle is not loaded by inspecting the magazine and chamber, use authorized ammunition and check the condition before loading the rifle..





2-5. LOADING AND UNLOADING



Before loading, the sniper should ensure that the M24 SWS is on SAFE, and the bolt is in a forward position. Before unloading, he should ensure the M24 SWS is on SAFE, and the bolt is toward the rear.

a. Loading. The M24 has an internal, five-round capacity magazine. To load the rifle—



(1) Point the weapon in a safe direction.



(2) Ensure the safety is in the “S” position.



(3) Raise the bolt handle. Then pull the bolt handle all the way back.



(4) Push five cartridges of 7.62-mm special ball ammunition one at a time through the ejection port into the magazine. Ensure the bullet end of the cartridges is aligned toward the chamber.



(5) To ensure proper functioning, cartridges should be set fully rearward in the magazine.



(6) Use a finger to push the cartridges into the magazine and all the way down. Slowly slide the bolt forward so that the bolt slides over the top of the cartridges in the magazine.



(7) Push the bolt handle down. The magazine is now loaded.



(8) To chamber a cartridge, raise the bolt and pull it back until it stops.



(9) Push the bolt forward. The bolt removes a cartridge from the magazine and pushes it into the chamber.



(10) Push the bolt handle down.



(11) To fire, place the safety in the “F” position and squeeze the trigger.





WARNING





Ensure the chamber and magazine are clear of cartridges.





b. Unloading. To unload the M24 SWS—



(1) Point the muzzle in a safe direction.



(2) Ensure the safety is in the “S” position.



(3) Raise the bolt handle.



(4) Put one hand over the top ejection port. Slowly pull the bolt handle back with the other hand to remove the cartridge from the chamber.



(5) Remove the cartridge from the rifle.



(6) Put a hand under the floor plate.



(7) Push the floor plate latch to release the floor plate (Figure 2-17). The magazine spring and follower will be released from the magazine.



(8) Remove the released cartridges.



(9) Push in the magazine follower, then close the floor plate.





Figure 2-17: Floor plate latch.





2-6. STORAGE



The M24 SWS should be stored as follows:

a. Hang the weapon in an upside down position by the rear sling swivel.



b. Close the bolt and squeeze the trigger.



c. Open the lens caps to prevent gathering of moisture.



d. Place all other items in the system case.



e. Protect the weapon at all times during tactical movement. (See Chapter 4.)





SECTION II. AMMUNITION



The sniper uses the 7.62-mm special ball (M118) ammunition with the sniper weapon system. The sniper must rezero the weapon each time he fires a different type or lot of ammunition. This information should be maintained in the sniper data book.


2-7. TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS



The types and characteristics of sniper ammunition are described in this paragraph.

a. M118 Special Ball Bullet. The 7.62-mm special ball (M118) bullet consists of a gilding metal jacket and a lead antimony slug. It is a boat-tailed bullet (rear of bullet is tapered) and weighs 173 grains. The tip of the bullet is not colored. The base of the cartridge is stamped with the year of manufacture and a circle that has vertical and horizontal lines, sectioning it into quarters. Its spread (accuracy standard) for a 10-shot group is no more than 12 inches at 550 meters (fired from an accuracy barrel in a test cradle).



b. M82 Blank Ammunition. The 7.62-mm M82 blank ammunition is used during sniper field training. It provides the muzzle blast and flash that can be detected by trainers during the exercises that evaluate the sniper’s ability to conceal himself while firing his weapon.





NOTE



Regular 7.62-mm ball ammunition should be used only in an emergency situation. No damage will occur to the barrel when firing regular 7.62-mm ball ammunition. The M3A scope’s bullet drop compensator is designed for M118 special ball, and there will be a significant change in zero. Therefore the rifle will not be as accurate when firing regular 7.62-mm ball ammunition. The 7.62-mm ball ammunition should be test fired and the ballistic data recorded in the data book.





2-8. ROUND-COUNT BOOK



The sniper maintains a log of the number of cartridge fired through the M24 SWS. It is imperative to accurately maintain the round-count book as the barrel should be replaced after 5,000 rounds of firing. The round-count book is issued and maintained in the arms room.


2-9. M24 MALFUNCTIONS AND CORRECTIONS



Table 2-1 does not reflect all malfunctions that can occur, or all causes and corrective actions. If a malfunction is not correctable, the complete weapon system must be turned in to the proper maintenance/supply channel for return to the contractor.

Table 2-1: M24 malfunctions and corrections.





SECTION III. SNIPER SIGHTING DEVICES



The sniper has two sighting devices: the M3A scope and iron sights. The M3A scope allows the sniper to see the cross hairs and the image of the target with identical sharpness. It can be easily removed and replaced with less than 1/2 minute of angle change in zero. However, the M3A scope should be left on the rifle. Iron sights are used only as a backup sighting system and can be quickly installed.


2-10. M3A SCOPE



The M3A scope is an optical instrument that the sniper uses to improve his ability to see his target clearly in most situations. Usually, the M3A scope presents the target at an increased size (as governed by scope magnification), relative to the same target at the same distance without a scope. The M3A scope helps the sniper to identify recognize the target. His increased sighting ability also helps him to successfully engage the target.



NOTE



The adjustment dials are under the adjustment dust cover.





a. M3A Scope Adjustments. The sniper must use the following adjustment procedures on the M3A scope:



(1) Focus adjustment dial. The focus adjustment dial (Figure 2-18) is on the left side of the scope barrel. This dial has limiting stops with the two extreme positions shown by the infinity mark and the largest dot. The focus adjustment dial keeps the target in focus. If the target is close, the dial is set at a position near the largest dot.





NOTE



Each minute of angle is an angular unit of measure.





(2) Elevation adjustment dial. The elevation adjustment dial (Figure 2-18) is on top of the scope barrel. This dial has calibrated index markings from 1 to 10. These markings represent the elevation setting adjustments needed at varying distances: 1 = 100 meters, 3 = 300 meters, 7 = 700 meters, and so on. Each click of the elevation dial equals 1 minute of angle.



(3) Windage adjustment dial. The windage adjustment dial (Figure 2-18) is on the right side of the scope barrel. This dial is used to make lateral adjustments to the scope. Turning the dial in the indicated direction moves the point of impact in that direction. Each click on the windage dial equals .5 minute of angle.



(4) Eyepiece adjustment. The eyepiece (Figure 2-19) is adjusted by turning it in or out of the barrel until the reticle appears crisp and clear. Focusing the eyepiece should be done after mounting the scope. The sniper grasps the eyepiece and backs it away from the lock ring. He does not attempt to loosen the lock ring first; it loosens automatically when he backs away from the eyepiece (no tools needed). The eyepiece is turned several turns to move it at least 1/8 inch. It takes this much change to achieve any measurable effect on the focus. The sniper looks through the scope at the sky or a blank wall and checks to see if the reticle appears sharp and crisp. He locks the lock ring after achieving reticle clarity.





WARNINGS





1. Securely fasten the mounting base to the rifle. Loose mounting may cause the M3A

scope and base mount assembly to come off the rifle when firing, possibly injuring

the firer.

2. During recoil prevent the m3a scope from striking the face by maintaining an average

distance of 2 to 3 inches between the eye and the scope.





b. M3A Scope Mount. The M3A scope mount has a baseplate with four screws; a pair of scope rings with eight ring screws, each with an upper and lower ring half with eight ring screws and two ring mounting bolts with nuts (Figure 2-20). The baseplate is mounted to the rifle by screwing the four baseplate screws through the plate and into the top of the receiver. The screws must not protrude into the receiver and interrupt the functioning of the bolt. After the baseplate is mounted, the scope rings are mounted.





Figure 2-18. Focus, elevation, and windage adjustment dials.





Figure 2-19: Eyepiece adjustment.





NOTE



The M3A scope has two sets of mounting slots. The sniper selects the set of slots that provides proper eye relief (the distance that the eye is positioned behind the telescopic sight). The average distance is 2 to 3 inches. The sniper adjusts eye relief to obtain a full field of view.





Figure 2-20: Scope mount.





(1) Before mounting the M3A scope, lubricate the threads of each mounting ring nut.



(2) Ensure smooth movement of each mounting ring nut and mount claw.



(3) Inspect for burrs and foreign matter between each mounting ring nut and mount claw. Remove burrs or foreign matter before mounting.



(4) Mount the sight and rings to the base.





NOTE



Once a set of slots is chosen, the same set should always be used in order for the SWS to retain zero.





(5) Ensure the mounting surface is free of dirt, oil, or grease.



(6) Set each ring bolt spline into the selected slot.



(7) Slide the rear mount claw against the base and finger-tighten the mounting ring nut.



(8) If the scope needs to be adjusted loosen the mounting ring nuts and align the ring bolts with the other set of slots on the base Repeat this process.



(9) Slide the front mount claw against the base, and finger-tighten the mounting ring nut.



(10) Use the T-handle torque wrench, which is preset to 65 inch-pounds, to tighten the rear mounting ring nut.



c. Care and Maintenance of the M3A Scope. Dirt, rough handling, or abuse of optical equipment will result in inaccuracy and malfunction. When not in use, the rifle and scope should be cased, and the lens should be capped.



(1) Lens. The lens are coated with a special magnesium fluoride reflection-reducing material. This coat is thin and great care is required to prevent damage to it.



(a) To remove dust, lint, or other foreign matter from the lens, lightly brush the lens with a clean camel’s-hair brush.



(b) To remove oil or grease from the optical surfaces, apply a drop of lens cleaning fluid or robbing alcohol on a lens tissue. Carefully wipe off the surface of the lens in circular motions (from the center to the outside edge). Dry off the lens with a clean lens tissue. In the field, if the proper supplies are not available, breathe heavily on the glass and wipe with a soft, clean cloth.



(2) Scope. The scope is a delicate instrument and must be handled with care. The following precautions will prevent damage.



(a) Check and tighten all mounting screws periodically and always before an operation. Be careful not to change the coarse windage adjustment.



(b) Keep the lens free from oil and grease and never touch them with the fingers. Body grease and perspiration can injure them. Keep the cap on the lens.



(c) Do not force the elevation and windage screws or knobs.



(d) Do not allow the scope to remain in direct sunlight, and avoid letting the sun’s rays shine through the lens. The lens magnify and concentrate sunlight into a pinpoint of intense heat, which is focused on the mil-scale reticle. This may melt the mil dots and damage the scope internally. Keep the lens covered and the entire scope covered when not in use.



(e) Avoid dropping the scope or striking it with another object. This could permanently damage the telescope as well as change the zero.



(f) To avoid damage to the scope or any other piece of sniper equipment, snipers or armorers should be the only personnel handling the equipment. Anyone who does not know how to use this equipment could cause damage.



(3) Climate conditions. Climate conditions play an important part in taking care of optical equipment.



(a) Cold climates. In extreme cold, care must be taken to avoid condensation and congealing of oil on the glass of the optical equipment. If the temperature is not excessive, condensation can be removed by placing the instrument in a warm place. Concentrated heat must not be applied because it causes expansion and damage can occur. Moisture may also be blotted from the optics with lens tissue or a soft, dry cloth. In cold temperatures, oil thickens and causes sluggish operation or failure. Focusing parts are sensitive to freezing oils. Breathing forms frost, so the optical surfaces must be cleaned with lens tissue, preferably dampened lightly with alcohol. DO NOT apply alcohol on the glass of the optics.



(b) Jungle operations (high humidity). In hot and humid temperatures, keep the caps on the scope when not in use. If moisture or fungus develops on the inside of the telescope, replace it.



(c) Desert operations. Keep the scope protected from the direct rays of the sun.



(d) Hot climate and salt water exposure. The scope is vulnerable to hot, humid climates and salt water atmosphere. It MUST NOT be exposed to direct sunlight. In humid and salt air conditions, the scope must be inspected, cleaned, and lightly oiled to avoid rust and corrosion. Perspiration can also cause the equipment to rust; therefore, the instruments must be thoroughly dried and lightly oiled.



d. M3A Scope Operation. When using the M3A scope, the sniper looks at the target and determines the distance to it by using the mil dots on the reticle. The mil-dot reticle (Figure 2-21) is a duplex-style reticle that has thick outer sections and thin inner sections. Superimposed on the thin center section of the reticle is a series of dots. There are 4 dots on each side of the center and 4 dots above and below the center. These 4 dots are spaced 1 mil apart, and 1 mil from both the center and the start of the thick section of the reticle. This spacing allows the sniper to make close estimates of target range, assuming there is an object of known size (estimate) in the field of view. For example, a human target appears to be 6 feet tall, which equals 1.83 meters tall, and at 500 meters, 3.65 dots high (nominally, about 3.5 dots high). Another example is a 1-meter target at a 1,000-meter range. This target is the height between 2 dots, or the width between 2 dots. If the sniper is given a good estimate of the object’s size, then he may accurately determine target range using the mil-dot system.





Figure 2-21: Mil-dot reticle.





e. Zeroing. Zeroing the M3A scope should be done on a known-distance range (preferably 900 meters long) with bull’s-eye-type targets (200-yard targets). When zeroing the scope, the sniper—



(1) Assumes a good prone-supported position 100 meters from the target.



(2) Ensures the “1” on the elevation dial is lined up with the elevation index line, and the “0” on the windage dial is lined up with the windage index line.



(3) Fires three rounds at the center of the target, keeping the same aiming point each time and triangulate.



(4) After the strike of the rounds has been noted, turns the elevation and windage dials to make the needed adjustments to the scope.



• Each click on the elevation dial equals one minute of angle.



• One minute of angle at 100 meters equals 1.145 inches or about 1 inch.



• Each click on the windage dial equals .5 minute of angle.



• .5 minute of angle at 100 meters equals about .5 inch.



(5) Repeats steps 3 and 4 until a three-round shot group is centered on the target.



(6) Once the shot group is centered, loosens the hex head screws on the elevation and windage dials. He turns the elevation dial to the index line marked “1” (if needed). He turns the windage dial to the index line marked “0” (if needed) and tighten the hex head screws.



(7) After zeroing at 100 meters and calibrating the dial, confirms this zero by firing and recording sight settings (see Chapter 3) at 100-meter increments through 900 meters.



f. Field-Expedient Confirmation/Zeroing. The sniper may need to confirm zero in a field environment. Examples are shortly after receiving a mission, a weapon was dropped, or excessive climatic changes as may be experienced by deploying to another part of the world. Two techniques of achieving a crude zero are the 25yard/900-inch method and the observation of impact method.



(1) 25-yard/900-inch method. Dial the scope to 300 meters for elevation and to “0” for windage. Aim and fire at a target that is at a 25-yard distance. Adjust the scope until rounds are impacting 5/8 of an inch above the point of aim. To confirm, set the elevation to 500 meters. The rounds should impact 2 1/4 inches above the point of aim.



(2) Observation of impact method. When a known distance range is unavailable, locate a target so that the observer can see the impact of rounds clearly. Determine the exact range to the target, dial in the appropriate range, and fire. Watch the impact of the rounds; the observer gives the sight adjustments until a point of aim or point of impact is achieved.




2-11. IRON SIGHTS



Depending on the situation, a sniper may be required to deliver an effective shot at ranges up to 900 meters or more. This requires the sniper to zero his rifle with the iron sights and the M3A scope at most ranges that he can be expected to fire.

a. Mounting. To mount iron sights, the sniper must remove the M3A scope first.



(1) Attach the front sight to the barrel, align the front sight and the front sight base, and slide the sight over the base and tighten the screw (Figure 2-22).





Figure 2-22: Front sight attachment.





(2) The aperture insert may be either skeleton or translucent plastic (Figure 2-23). The skeleton aperture is the most widely used. The translucent plastic aperture is preferred by some shooters and is available in clear plastic. Both apertures are available in various sizes. A common error is selecting an aperture that is too small. Select an aperture that appears to be at least twice the diameter of the bull’s-eye. An aperture selected under one light condition may, under a different light, form a halo around the bull or make the bull appear indistinct or oblong. The aperture selected should reveal a wide line of white around the bull and allow the bull to standout in clear definition against this background.



(3) Remove one of the three sets of screws from the rear sight base located on the left rear of the receiver. Align the rear sight with the rear sight base taking care to use the hole that provides the operator the desired eye relief. Then tighten the screw to secure the rear sight to the base.





Figure 2-23: Aperture insert.





NOTE



Operator-desired eye relief determines the set screw that must be removed.





b. Adjustment Scales. Adjustment scales are of the vernier type. Each graduation on the scale inscribed on the sight base equals 3 minutes of angle. (See the minutes of angle chart in Chapter 3.) Each graduation of the adjustable scale plates equals 1 minute of angle. To use the vernier-type adjustment scales—



(1) Note the point at which graduations on both the top and the bottom scales are aligned.



(2) Count the numbers of full 3 minutes of angle graduations from "0" on the fixed scale to"0" on the adjustable scale. Add this figure to the number of 1 minute angle graduations from "0" on the adjustable scale to the point where the two graduations are aligned.



c. Zeroing. Zeroing iron sights should be done on the same type of range and targets as in paragraph 2-10a. To set a mechanical zero on the iron sights for windage, the sniper turns the windage dial all the way to the left or right, then he counts the number of clicks it takes to get from one side to the other. He divides this number by 2—for example, 120 divided by 2 equals 60. The sniper turns the windage dial 60 clicks back to the center. If the two zeros on the windage indicator plate do not align, he loosens the screw on the windage indicator plate and aligns the two zeros. The sniper uses the same procedure to set a mechanical zero for elevation. Once a mechanical zero has been set, he assumes a good prone-supported position, 100 meters from the target. He fires three rounds at the center of the target, observing the same aiming point each time. After noting the strike of the rounds, the sniper turns the elevation and windage dials to make needed adjustments to the iron sights as follows (Figure 2-24):



(1) Each click of adjustment is 1/4 minute of angle (one minute of angle equals about 1 inch at 100 yards, 6 inches at 600 yards, and so forth). There are twelve 1/4 minutes of angle, equaling 3 minutes of angle adjustments in each dial revolution. The total elevation adjustment is 60 minutes of angle (600 inches at 1,000 yards) total windage adjustment is 36 minutes of angle (360 inches at 1,000 yards).



(2) Turn the elevation dial in the direction marked UP to raise the point of impact: turn the elevation dial in the opposite direction to lower the point or impact. Turn the windage dial in the direction marked R to move the point of impact to the right; then turn the windage dial in the opposite direction to move the point of impact to the left.



(3) Continue firing and adjusting shot groups until the point of aim or point of impact is achieved.



After zeroing the rifle sight to the preferred range, the sniper loosens the elevation and windage indicator plate screws with the socket head screw key provided. Now, he loosens the spring tension screw, aligns the “0” on the plate with the “0” on the sight body, and retightens the plate screws. Then the sniper loosens the spring tension screws and set screws in each dial, and aligns the “0” of the dial with the reference line on the sight. He presses the dial against the sight, tightens the set screws, and equally tightens the spring tension screws until a definite “click” can be felt when the dial is turned. This click can be sharpened or softened to preference by equally loosening or tightening the spring screws on each dial. The sniper makes windage and elevation corrections, and returns quickly to “zero” standard.





Figure 2-24: Zeroing adjustment dials.





SECTION IV. OTHER EQUIPMENT



The sniper must use special equipment to reduce the possibility of detection. The types and characteristics are discussed in this section.


2-12. M16A1/A2 RIFLE WITH M203 GRENADE LAUNCHER



The observer carries the M16A1/A2 rifle with the M203 grenade launcher. The sniper, carrying the M24 SWS, lacks the firepower required to break contact with enemy forces-that is, ambush or chance contact. The rapid-fire ability of the M16A1/A2 rifle, combined with the destructive abilities of the M203 40-mm grenade launcher (Figure 2-25), gives the sniper team a lightweight, easily operated way to deliver the firepower required to break contact.





Figure 2-25: The M203 40-mm grenade launcher attached to M16A1 rifle.





2-13. IMAGE INTENSIFICATION AND INFRARED DEVICES



The sniper team employs night and limited visibility devices to conduct continuous operations.

a. Night Vision Sight, AN/PVS-4. The AN/PVS-4 is a portable, battery-operated, electro-optical instrument that can be hand-held for visual observation or weapon-mounted for precision fire at night (Figure 2-26). The observer can detect and resolve distant targets through the unique capability of the sight to amplify reflected ambient light (moon, stars, or sky glow). The sight is passive thus, it is free from enemy detection by visual or electronic means. This sight, with appropriate weapons adapter bracket, can be mounted on the M16 rifle.



(1) Uses. The M16 rifle with the mounted AN/PVS-4 is effective in achieving a first-round hit out to and beyond 300 meters, depending on the light conditions. The AN/PVS-4 is mounted on the M16 since the nightsight’s limited range does not make its use practical for the sniper weapon system. This avoids problems that may occur when removing and replacing the sniperscope. The nightsight provides an effective observation ability during night combat operations. The sight does not give the width, depth, or clarity of daylight vision; however, a well-trained operator can see enough to analyze the tactical situation, to detect enemy targets, and to place effective fire on them. The sniper team uses the AN/PVS-4 to accomplish the following:





Figure 2-26: Night vision sight, AN/PVS-4.





(a) To enhance their night observation capability.



(b) To locate and suppress hostile fire at night.



(c) To deny enemy movement at night.



(d) To demoralize the enemy with effective first-round kills at night.



(2) Employment factors. Since the sight requires target illumination and does not project its own light source, it will not function in total darkness. The sight works best on a bright, moonlit night. When there is no light or the ambient light level is low (such as in heavy vegetation), the use of artificial or infrared light improves the sight’s performance.




(a) Fog, smoke, dust, hail, or rain limit the range and decrease the resolution of the instrument.



(b) The sight does not allow seeing through objects in the field of view. For example, the operator will experience the same range restrictions when viewing dense wood lines as he would when using other optical sights.



(c) The observer may experience eye fatigue when viewing for prolonged periods. Viewing should be limited to 10 minutes, followed by a rest period of 10 minutes. After several periods of viewing, he can safely extend this time limit. To assist in maintaining a continuous viewing, capability and to reduce eye fatigue, the observer should use one eye then the other while viewing through the sight.



(3) Zeroing. The operator may zero the sight during daylight or darkness; however, he may have some difficulty in zeroing just before darkness. The light level at dusk is too low to permit the operator to resolve his zero target with the lens cap cover in place, but it is still intense enough to cause the sight to automatically turnoff unless the lens cap cover is in position over the objective lens. The sniper normally zeros the sight for the maximum practical range that he can be expected to observe and fire, depending on the level or light.



b. Night Vision Goggles, AN/PVS-5. The AN/PVS-5 is a lightweight, passive night vision system that gives the sniper team another means of observing an area during darkness (Figure 2-27). The sniper normally carries the goggles, because the observer has the M16 mounted with the nightsight. The goggles make it easier to see due to their design. However, the same limitations that apply to the nightsight also apply to the goggles.





Figure 2-27: Night vision goggles, AN/PVS-5.





c. Night Vision Goggles, AN/PVS-7 Series. The night vision goggles, AN/PVS-7 series (Figure 2-28) has a better resolution and viewing ability than the AN/PVS-5 goggles. The AN/PVS-7 series goggles have a headmount assembly that allows them to be mounted in front of the face so that both hands can be free. The goggles can be used without the mount assembly for hand-held viewing.



d. Laser Observation Set AN/GVS-5. Depending on the mission, snipers can use the AN/GVS-5 to determine the range to the target. The AN/GVS-5 (LR) (Figure 2-29) is an individually operated, hand-held, distance-measuring device designed for distances from 200 to 9,990 meters (with an error of plus or minus 10 meters). It measures distances by firing an infrared beam at a target and by measuring the time the reflected beam takes to return to the operator. It then displays the target distance, in meters, inside the viewer. The reticle pattern in the viewer is graduated in 10-mil increments and has display lights to indicate low battery and multiple target hits. If the beam hits more than one target, the display gives a reading of the closest target hit. The beam that is fired from the set poses a safety hazard; therefore, snipers planning to use this equipment should be thoroughly trained in its safe operation.





Figure 2-28: Night vision goggles, AN/PVS-7 series.





Figure 2-29: User observation set, AN/GVS-5.





e. Mini-Eyesafe Laser Infrared Observation Set, AN/PVS-6. The AN/PVS-6 (Figure 2-30) contains the following components: mini-eyesafe laser range finder; batteries, BA-6516/U, nonrechargeable, lithium thionyl chloride; carrying case; shipping case; tripod; lens cleaning compound and lens cleaning tissue; and operator’s manual. The laser range finder is the major component of the AN/PVS-6. It is lightweight, individually operated, and hand-held or tripod mounted; it can accurately determine ranges from 50 to 9,995 meters in 5-meter increments and displays the range in the eyepiece. It can also be mounted with and bore-sighted to the night observation device, AN/TAS-6, long-range.





Figure 2-30: Mini-eyesafe laser infrared observation set AV/PVS-6.





2-14. M49 OBSERVATION TELESCOPE



The M49 observation telescope is a prismatic optical instrument of 20-power magnification (Figure 2-31). The telescope is focused by turning the eyepiece in or out until the image of the object being viewed is crisp and clear to the viewer. The sniper team carries the telescope on all missions. The observer uses the telescope to determine wind speed and direction by reading mirage, observing the bullet trace, and observing the bullet impact. The sniper uses this information to make quick and accurate adjustments for wind conditions. The lens are coated with a hard film of magnesium fluoride for maximum light transmission. Its high magnification makes observation, target detection, and target identification possible where conditions and range would otherwise preclude this ability. Camouflaged targets and those in deep shadows can be more readily distinguished. The team can observe troop movements at greater distances and identify selective targets with ease.





Figure 2-31: M49 observation telescope.





a. Components. Components of the telescope include a removable eyepiece and objective lens covers, an M15 tripod with canvas carrier, and a hard ease carrier for the telescope.



b. Storage. When storing the M49 observation telescope, the sniper must remove it from the hard case earner and remove the lens caps to prevent moisture from gathering on the inside of the scope. Maintenance consists of—



(1) Wiping dirt and foreign materials from the scope tube, hard case carrier, and M15 tripod with a damp rag.



(2) Cleaning the M49 lens with lens cleaning solution and lens tissue only.



(3) Brushing dirt and foreign agents from the M15 carrying case with a stiff-bristled brush; cleaning the threading of lens caps on the M49 and the tripod elevation adjustment screw on the M15 with a toothbrush, then applying a thin coat of grease and moving the lens caps and elevation adjustment screw back and forth to evenly coat threading.




2-15. M19 BINOCULARS



The M19 is the preferred optical instrument for conducting hasty scans. This binocular (Figure 2-32) has 7-power magnification with a 50-mm objective lens, and an interpupillary scale located on the hinge. The sniper should adjust the binocular until one sharp circle appears while looking through them. After adjusting the binoculars’ interpupillary distance (distance between a person’s pupils), the sniper should make a mental note of the reading on this scale for future reference. The eyepieces are also adjustable. The sniper can adjust one eyepiece at a time by turning the eyepiece with one hand while placing the palm of the other hand over the objective lens of the other monocular. While keeping both eyes open, he adjusts the eyepiece until he can see a crisp, clear view. After one eyepiece is adjusted, he repeats the procedure with the remaining eyepiece. The sniper should also make a mental note of the diopter scale reading on both eyepieces for future reference. One side of the binoculars has a laminated reticle pattern (Figure 2-32) that consists of a vertical and horizontal mil scale that is graduated in 10-mil increments. Using this reticle pattern aids the sniper in determining range and adjusting indirect-fires. The sniper uses the binoculars for—

• Calling for and adjusting indirect fires.



• Observing target areas.



• Observing enemy movement and positions.



• Identifying aircraft.



• Improving low-light level viewing.



• Estimating range.





Figure 2-32: M19 binoculars and reticle.





2-16. M22 BINOCULARS



The M22 binoculars (Figure 2-33) can be used instead of the M19. These binoculars have the same features as the M19, plus fold-down eyepiece cups for personnel who wear glasses to reduce the distance between the eyes and the eyepiece. It also has protective covers for the objective and eyepiece lenses. The binoculars have laser protection filters on the inside of the objective lenses (direct sunlight can reflect off these lenses). The reticle pattern (Figure 2-33) is different than the M19 binocular reticle.


2-17. OTHER SNIPER EQUIPMENT



Other equipment the sniper needs to complete a successful mission follows:

a. Sidearms. Each member of the team should have a sidearm, such as an M9, 9-mm Beretta, or a caliber .45 pistol. A sidearm gives a sniper the needed protection from a nearby threat while on the ground moving or while in the confines of a sniper position.



b. Compass. Each member of the sniper team must have a lensatic compass for land navigation.



c. Maps. The team must have military maps of their area of operations.



d. Calculator. The sniper team needs a pocket-size calculator to figure distances when using the mil-relation formula. Solar-powered calculators usually work well, but under low-light conditions, battery power may be preferred. If a battery-powered calculator is to be used in low-light conditions, it should have a lighted display.





Figure 2-33: M22 binoculars and reticle.





e. Rucksack. The sniper’s rucksack should contain at least a two-quart canteen, an entrenching tool, a first-aid kit, pruning shears, a sewing kit with canvas needles and nylon thread, spare netting and garnish, rations, and personal items as needed. The sniper also carries his ghillie suit (Chapter 4, paragraph 4–4) in his rucksack until the mission requires its use.



f. Measuring Tape. A standard 10-foot to 25-foot metal carpenter’s tape allows the sniper to measure items in his operational area. This information is recorded in the sniper data book. (See Chapter 4 for range estimation.)





SECTION V. COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT



The sniper team must have a man-portable radio that gives the team secure communications with the units involved in their mission.


2-18. AN/PRC-77 RADIO



The basic radio for the sniper team is the AN/PRC-77 (Figure 2-34). This radio is a short-range, man-pack portable, frequency modulated receiver-transmitter that provides two-way voice communication. The set can net with all other infantry and artillery FM radio sets on common frequencies. The AN/KY-57 should be installed with the AN/PRC-77. This allows the sniper team to communicate securely with all units supporting or being supported by the sniper team.





Figure 2-34: AN/PRC-77 radio.





2-19. AN/PRC-104A RADIO TRANSCEIVER



The AN/PRC-104A is a state-of-the-am lightweight radio transceiver that operates in the high frequency and in the upper part of the low frequency portions of the radio spectrum (Figure 2-35). The receiver/transmitter circuits can be tuned to any frequency between 2.0000 and 29.9999 MHz in 100 Hz increments, making it possible to tune up to 280,000 separate frequencies. The radio operates in the upper or lower side bank modes for voice communications, CW for Morse code, or FSK (frequency-shift keying) for transmission of teletype or other data.

a. In the man-pack configuration, the radio set is carried and operated by one man or, with the proper accessories, it can be configured for vehicle or fixed-station use. The radio set with antenna and handset weighs 15.7 pounds.



b. The control panel, human-engineered for ease of operation, makes it possible to adjust all controls even while wearing heavy gloves. Unlike older, similar radio sets, there are no front panel meters or indicator lights on the AN/PRC-104A. All functions that formerly required these types of indicators are monitored by the radio and communicated to the operator as special tones in the handset. This feature is highly useful during tactical blackout operations. The superior design and innovative features of the AN/PRC-104A radio set make it possible to maintain a reliable long-range communications link. The radio uses lightweight, portable equipment that can be operated by personnel who have minimum training.





Figure 2-35: AN/PRC-104A radio transceiver.





2-20. AN/PRC-119 RADIO



The AN/PRC-119 (Figure 2-36) replaces the AN/PRC-77, although the AN/PRC-77 is still in use. The AN/PRC-119 is a man-pack portable, VHF/FM radio that is designed for simple, quick operation using a 16-element keypad for push-button tuning. It can also be used for short-range and long-range operation for voice, FSK, or digital data communications. It can also be used for single-channel operation or in a jam-resistant, frequency-hopping mode, which can be changed as needed This radio has a built-in self-test with visual and audio readbacks. It is compatible with the AN/KY-57 for secure communications.





Figure 2-36: AN/PRC-119 radio.





CHAPTER 3





Marksmanship



Sniper marksmanship is an extension of basic rifle marksmanship and focuses on the techniques needed to engage targets at extended ranges. To successfully engage targets at increased distances, the sniper team must be proficient in marksmanship fundamentals and advanced marksmanship skills. Examples of these skills are determining the effects of weather conditions on ballistics, holding off for elevation and windage, engaging moving targets, using and adjusting scopes, and zeroing procedures. Markmanship skills should be practiced often.





SECTION I. FUNDAMENTALS



The sniper team must be thoroughly trained in the fundamentals of marksmanship. These include assuming a position, aiming, breath control, and trigger control. These fundamentals develop fixed and correct firing habits for instinctive application. Every sniper should periodically refamiliarize himself with these fundamentals regardless of his experience.


3-1. STEADY POSITION ELEMENTS



The sniper should assume a good firing position (Figure 3-1) in order to engage targets with any consistency. A good position enables the sniper to relax and concentrate when preparing to fire.

a. Position Elements. Establishing a mental checklist of steady position elements enhances the sniper’s ability to achieve a first-round hit.



(1) Nonfiring hand. Use the nonfiring hand to support the butt of the weapon. Place the hand next to the cheat and rest the tip of the butt on it. Bail the hand into a fist to raise the weapon’s butt or loosen the fist to lower the weapon’s butt. An effective method is to hold a sock full of sand in the nonfiring hand and to place the weapon butt on the sock. This reduces body contact with the weapon. To raise the butt, squeeze the sock and to lower it, loosen the grip on the sock.



(2) Butt of the stock. Place the butt of the stock firmly in the pocket of the shoulder. Insert a pad on the ghillie suit (see Chapter 4) where contact with the butt is made to reduce the effects of pulse beat and breathing, which can be transmitted to the weapon.



(3) Firing hand. With the firing hand, grip the small of the stock. Using the middle through little fingers, exert a slight rearward pull to keep the butt of the weapon firmly in the pocket of the shoulder. Place the thumb over the top of the small of the stock. Place the index finger on the trigger, ensuring it does not touch the stock of the weapon. This avoids disturbing the lay of the rifle when the trigger is squeezed.



(4) Elbows. Find a comfortable position that provides the greatest support.



(5) Stock weld. Place the cheek in the same place on the stock with each shot. A change in stock weld tends to cause poor sight alignment, reducing accuracy.



(6) Bone support. Bone support is the foundation of the firing position; they provide steady support of the weapon.



(7) Muscle relaxation. When using bone support, the sniper can relax muscles, reducing any movement that could be caused by tense or trembling muscles. Aside from tension in the trigger finger and firing hand, any use of the muscle generates movement of the sniper’s cross hairs.



(8) Natural point of aim. The point at which the rifle naturally rest in relation to the aiming point is called natural point of aim.





Figure 3-1: Firing position.





(a)Once the sniper is in position and aimed in on his target, the method for checking for natural point of aim is for the sniper to close his eyes, take a couple of breaths, and relax as much as possible. Upon opening his eyes, the scope’s cross hairs should be positioned at the sniper’s preferred aiming point. Since the rifle becomes an extension of the sniper’s body, it is necessary to adjust the position of the body until the rifle points naturally at the preferred aiming point on the target.



(b)Once the natural point of aim has been determined, the sniper must maintain his position to the target. To maintain his natural point of aim in all shooting positions, the natural point of aim can be readjusted and checked periodically.



(c) The sniper can change the elevation of the natural point of aim by leaving his elbows in place and by sliding his body forward or rearward. This raises or lowers the muzzle of the weapon, respectively. To maintain the natural point of aim after the weapon has been fired, proper bolt operation becomes critical. The sniper must practice reloading while in the prone position without removing the butt of the weapon from the firing shoulder. This may be difficult for the left-hand firer. The two techniques for accomplishing this task are as follows:



• After firing, move the bolt slowly to the rear while canting the weapon to the right. Execution of this task causes the spent cartridge to fall next to the weapon.



• After firing, move the bolt to the rear with the thumb of the firing hand. Using the index and middle fingers, reach into the receiver and catch the spent cartridge as it is being ejected. This technique does not require canting the weapon.





NOTE



The sniper conducts bolt operation under a veil or equivalent camouflage to improve concealment.





b. Steady Firing Position. On the battlefield, the sniper must assume a steady firing position with maximum use of cover and concealment. Considering the variables of terrain, vegetation, and tactical situations, the sniper can use many variations of the basic positions. When assuming a firing position, he must adhere to the following basic rules:



(1) Use any support available.



(2)Avoid touching the support with the barrel of the weapon since it interferes with barrel harmonics and reduces accuracy.



(3) Use a cushion between the weapon and the support to prevent slippage of the weapon.



(4) Use the prone supported position whenever possible.



c. Types of Firing Positions. Due to the importance of delivering precision fire, the sniper makes maximum use of artificial support and eliminates any variable that may prevent adhering to the basic rules. He uses the prone supported; prone unsupported; kneeling unsupported; kneeling, sling supported; standing supported; and the Hawkins firing positions.



(1) Prone supported position. The prone supported position is the steadiest position; it should be used whenever possible (Figure 3-2). To assume the prone supported position, the sniper should—



(a) Lie down and place the weapon on a support that allows pointing in the direction of the target. Keep the position as low as possible. (For field-expedient weapon supports, see paragraph 3–1d.)



(b) Remove the nonfiring hand from underneath the fore-end of the weapon by folding the arm underneath the receiver and trigger, grasping the rear sling swivel. This removes any chance of subconsciously trying to exert control over the weapon’s natural point of aim. Keep the elbows in a comfortable position that provides the greatest support.





Figure 3-2: Prone supported position.





(c) Keep the body in line with the weapon as much as possible-not at an angle. This presents less of a target to the enemy and more body mass to absorb recoil.



(d) Spread legs a comfortable distance apart with the heels on the ground or as close as possible without causing strain.



(2) Prone unsupported position. The prone unsupported position (Figure 3-3) offers another stable firing platform for engaging targets. To assume this position, the sniper faces his target, spreads his feet a comfortable distance apart, and drops to his knees. Using the butt of the rifle as a pivot, the firer rolls onto his nonfiring side. He places the rifle butt in the pocket formed by the firing shoulder, grasps the pistol grip in his firing hand, and lowers the firing elbow to the ground. The rifle rests in the V formed by the thumb and fingers of the nonfiring hand. The sniper adjusts the position of his firing elbow until his shoulders are about level, and pulls back firmly on the rifle with both hands. To complete the position, he obtains a stock weld and relaxes, keeping his heels close to the ground.





Figure 3-3: Prone unsupported position.





(3) Kneeling unsupported position. The kneeling unsupported position (Figure 3-4) is assumed quickly. It places the sniper high enough to see over small brush and provides for a stable position.



(a) Place the body at a 45-degree angle to the target.



(b) Kneel and place the right knee on the ground.



(c) Keep the left leg as perpendicular to the ground as possible; sit back on the right heel, placing it as directly under the spinal column as possible. A variation is to turn the toe inward and sit squarely on the right foot.



(d) Grasp the small of the stock of the weapon with the firing hand, and cradle the fore-end of the weapon in a crook formed with the left arm.



(e) Place the butt of the weapon in the pocket of the shoulder, then place the meaty underside of the left elbow on top of the left knee.



(f) Reach under the weapon with the left hand, and lightly grasp the firing arm.



(g) Relax forward and into the support position, using the left shoulder as a contact point. This reduces transmission of the pulsebeat into the sight picture.



(h) Lean against a tree, building, or vehicle for body support.





Figure 3-4: Kneeling unsupported position.





(4) Kneeling, sling supported position. If vegetation presents a problem, the sniper can raise his kneeling position by using the rifle sling. To assume the kneeling, sling supported position, he executes the first three steps for assuming a kneeling unsupported position. With the leather sling mounted to the weapon, the sniper turns the sling one-quarter turn to the left. The lower part of the sling will then form a loop.



(a) Place the left arm (nonfiring) through the loop; pull the sling up the arm and place it on the upper arm between the elbow and shoulder, but not directly over the biceps.



(b) Tighten the sling by sliding the sling keeper against the loop holding the arm.



(c) Rotate the left arm in a clockwise motion around the sling and under the rifle with the sling secured to the upper arm. Place the fore-end of the stock in the V formed by the thumb and forefinger of the left hand. Relax the left arm and hand, let the sling support the weight of the weapon.



(d) Place the butt of the rifle against the right shoulder and place the left elbow on top of the left knee (Figure 3-5). Pull the left hand back along the fore-end of the rifle toward the trigger guard to add to stability.



(5) Standing supported position. The standing supported position is the least steady of the supported positions and should be used only as a last resort (Figure 3-6).



(a) To assume the standing supported position with horizontal support, such as a wall or ledge, the sniper proceeds as follows:



• Locate a solid object for support. Avoid branches as they tend to sway when wind is present.



• Form a V with the thumb and forefinger of the nonfiring hand.



• Place the nonfiring hand against the support with the fore-end of the weapon resting in the V of the hand. This steadies the weapon and allows quick recovery from recoil.



• Then place the butt of the weapon in the pocket of the shoulder.





Figure 3-5: Kneeling, sling supported position.





Figure 3-6: Standing supported position (horizontal support).





(b) To use vertical support (Figure 3-7), such as a tree, telephone pole, comer of building, or vehicle, the sniper proceeds as follows:



• Locate stable support. Face the target, then turn 45 degrees to the right of the target, and place the palm of the nonfiring hand at arm’s length against the support.



• Lock the left arm straight, let the left leg buckle, and place body weight against the nonfiring hand. Keep the trail leg straight.



• Place the fore-end of the weapon in the V formed by extending the thumb of the nonfiring hand.



• Exert more pressure to the rear with the firing hand.



(6) Hawkins position. The Hawkins position (Figure 3-8) is a variation of the prone unsupported position. The sniper uses it when firing from a low bank or a depression in the ground, over a roof, or so forth. It cannot be used on level ground since the muzzle cannot be raised high enough to aim at the target. It is a low-profile position with excellent stability and aids concealment. To assume this position, the sniper uses the weapon’s sling and proceeds as follows:





Figure 3-7: Standing supported position (vertical support).





CAUTION



Lock the nonfiring arm straight or the face will absorb the weapon’s recoil.





(a) After assuming a prone position, grasp the upper sling swivel and sling with the nonfiring hand, forming a fist to support the front of the weapon.



(b) Ensure the nonfiring arm is locked straight since it will absorb the weapon’s recoil. Wearing a glove is advisable.



(c) Rest the butt of the weapon on the ground and place it under the firing shoulder.



The sniper can make minor adjustments in muzzle elevation by tightening or relaxing the fist of the nonfiring hand. If more elevation is required, he can place a support under the nonfiring fist.





Figure 3-8: Hawkins position.





d. Field-Expedient Weapon Support. Support of the weapon is critical to the sniper’s success in engaging targets. Unlike a well-equipped firing range with sandbags for weapon support, the sniper can encounter situations where weapon support relies on common sense and imagination. The sniper should practice using these supports at every opportunity and select the one that best suits his needs. He must train as if in combat to avoid confusion and self-doubt. The following items are commonly used as field-expedient weapon supports



(1) Sand sock. The sniper needs the sand sock when delivering precision fire at lone ranges. He uses a standard issue, olive-drab wool sock filled one-half to three-quarters full of sand and knotted off. He places it under the rear sling swivel when in the prone supported position for added stability (Figure 3-9). By limiting minor movement and reducing pulse beat, the sniper can concentrate on trigger control and aiming. He uses the nonfiring hand to grip the sand sock, rather than the rear sung swivel. The sniper makes minor changes in muzzle elevation by squeezing or relaxing his grip on the sock. He uses the sand sock as padding between the weapon and a rigid support also.





Figure 3-9: Sand sock.





(2) Rucksack. If the sniper is in terrain without any natural support, he may use his rucksack (Figure 3-10). He must consider the height and presence of rigid objects within the rucksack. The rucksack must conform to weapon contours to add stability.



(3) Sandbag. The sniper can fill an empty sandbag (Figure 3-11) on site.





Figure 3-10: Rucksack.





Figure 3-11: Sandbag.





(4) Tripod. The sniper can build a field-expedient tripod (Figure 3-12) by tying together three 12-inch long sticks (one thicker than the others) with 550 cord or the equivalent. When tying the sticks, he wraps the cord at the center point and leaves enough slack to fold the legs out into a triangular base. Then, he places the fore-end of the weapon between the three uprights.



(5) Bipod. The sniper can build a field-expedient bipod (Figure 3-12) by tying together two 12-inch sticks, thick enough to support the weight of the weapon. Using 550 cord or the equivalent, he ties the sticks at the center point, leaving enough slack to fold them out in a scissor-like manner. He then places the weapon between the two uprights. The bipod is not as stable as other fieldexpedient items, and it should be used only in the absence of other techniques.



(6) Forked stake. The tactical situation determines the use of the forked stake. Unless the sniper can drive a forked stake into the ground, this is the least desirable of the techniques; that is, he must use his nonfiring hand to hold the stake in an upright position (Figure 3-12). Delivering long-range precision fire is a nearimpossibility due to the unsteadiness or the position.





Figure 3-12: Field-expedient tripod, bipod, and forked stake.





e. Sniper and Observer Positioning. The sniper should find a place on the ground that allows him to build a steady, comfortable position with the best cover, concealment, and visibility of the target area. Once established, the observer should position himself out of the sniper’s field of view on his firing side.



(1) The closer the observer gets his spotting telescope to the sniper’s line of bore, the easier it is to follow the trace (path) of the bullet and observe the point of impact. A position at 4 to 5 o’clock (7 to 8 o’clock for lefthanded firers) from the firing shoulder and close to (but not touching) the sniper is best (Figure 3-13).





NOTE



Trace is the visible trail of a bullet and is created by the shock wave of a supersonic bullet. The Shockwave compresses the air along the leading edge of a bullet causing water vapor in the air to momentary condense and become visible. To the observer, located to the rear of the sniper, trace appears as a rapidly moving V-shaped vortex in the air following the trajectory of the bullet. Through close observation and practice, trace can be used to judge the bullet’s trajectory relative to the aiming point, making corrections easier for a follow-up shot. Trace can best be seen if the observer’s optics are directly in line with the axis of the sniper’s rifle barrel. Watching the trace and the effects of the bullet’s impact are the primary means by which the observer assists the sniper in calling the shot.





Figure 3-13: Sniper team positioning.





(2) If the sniper is without weapon support in his position, he uses the observer’s body as a support (Figure 3-14). This support is not recommended since the sniper must contend with his own movement and the observer’s body movement. The sniper should practice and prepare to use an observer supported position. A variety of positions can be used; however, the two most stable are when the observer is in a prone or sitting position.



(a) Prone. To assume the prone position, the observer lies at a 45-to 75-degree angle to the target and observes the area through his spotting telescope. The sniper assumes a a prone supported position, using the back of the observer’s thigh for support. Due to the offset angle, the observer may only see the bullet impact.





Figure 3-14: Prone observer supported position.





(b) Sitting. If vegetation prevents the sniper from assuming a prone position, the sniper has the observer face the target area and assume a cross-legged sitting position. The observer places his elbows on his knees to stabilize his position. For observation, the observer uses binoculars held in his hands. The spotting telescope is not recommended due to its higher magnification and the unsteadiness of this position. The sniper is behind the observer in an open-legged, cross-legged, or kneeling position, depending on the target’s elevation (Figure 3-15). The sniper places the fore-end of the weapon across the observer’s left shoulder, stabilizing the weapon with the forefinger of the nonfiring hand. When using these positions, the sniper’s effective engagement of targets at extended ranges is difficult and used only as a last resort. When practicing these positions, the sniper and observer must enter respiratory pause together to eliminate movement from breathing.





Figure 3-15: Sitting position.





3-2. AIMING



The sniper begins the aiming process by aligning the rifle with the target when assuming a firing position. He should point the rifle naturally at the desired point of aim. If his muscles are used to adjust the weapon onto the point of aim, they automatically relax as the rifle fires, and the rifle begins to move toward its natural point of aim. Because this movement begins just before the weapon discharge, the rifle is moving as the bullet leaves the muzzle. This causes inaccurate shots with no apparent cause (recoil disguises the movement). By adjusting the weapon and body as a single unit, rechecking, and readjusting as needed, the sniper achieves a true natural point of aim. Once the position is established, the sniper then aims the weapon at the exact point on the target. Aiming involves: eye relief, sight alignment, and sight picture.

a. Eye Relief. This is the distance from the sniper’s firing eye to the rear sight or the rear of the scope tube. When using iron sights, the sniper ensures the distance remains consistent from shot to shot to preclude changing what he views through the rear sight. However, relief will vary from firing position to firing position and from sniper to sniper, according to the sniper’s neck length, his angle of head approach to the stock, the depth of his shoulder pocket, and his firing position. This distance (Figure 3-16) is more rigidly controlled with telescopic sights than with iron sights. The sniper must take care to prevent eye injury caused by the scope tube striking his brow during recoil. Regardless of the sighting system he uses, he must place his head as upright as possible with his firing eye located directly behind the rear portion of the sighting system. This head placement also allows the muscles surrounding his eye to relax. Incorrect head placement causes the sniper to look out of the top or corner of his eye, resulting in muscular strain. Such strain leads to blurred vision and can also cause eye strain. The sniper can avoid eye strain by not staring through the telescopic or iron sights for extended periods. The best aid to consistent eye relief is maintaining the same stock weld from shot to shot.





Figure 3-16: Eye relief.





b. Sight Alignment. With telescopic sights, sight alignment is the relationship between the cross hairs (reticle) and a full field of view as seen by the sniper. The sniper must place his head so that a full field of view fills the tube, with no dark shadows or crescents to cause inaccurate shots. He centers the reticle in a full field of view, ensuring the vertical cross hair is straight up and down so the rifle is not canted. Again, the center is easiest for the sniper to locate and allows for consistent reticle placement. With iron sights, sight alignment is the relationship between the front and rear sights as seen by the sniper (Figure 3-17). The sniper centers the top edge of the front sight blade horizontally and vertically within the rear aperture. (The center of aperture is easiest for the eye to locate and allows the sniper to be consistent in blade location.)





Figure 3-17: Sight alignment.





c. Sight Picture. With telescopic sights, the sight picture is the relationship between the reticle and full field of view and the target as seen by the sniper. The sniper centers the reticle in a full field of view. He then places the reticle center of the largest visible mass of the target (as in iron sights). The center of mass of the target is easiest for the sniper to locate, and it surrounds the intended point or impact with a maximum amount of target area. With iron sights, sight picture is the relationship between the rear aperture, the front sight blade, and the target as seen by the sniper (Figure 3-18). The sniper centers the top edge of the blade in the rear aperture. He then places the top edge of the blade in the center of the largest visible mass of the target (disregard the head and use the center of the torso).





Figure 3-18: Sight picture.





d. Sight Alignment Error. When sight alignment and picture are perfect (regardless of sighting system) and all else is done correctly, the shot will hit center of mass on the target. However, with an error insight alignment, the bullet is displaced in the direction of the error. Such an error creates an angular displacement between the line of sight and the line of bore. This displacement increases as range increases; the amount of bullet displacement depends on the size of alignment error. Close targets show little or no visible error. Distant targets can show great displacement or can be missed altogether due to severe sight misalignment. An inexperienced sniper is prone to this kind of error, since he is unsure of what correctly aligned sights look like (especially telescopic sights); a sniper varies his head position (and eye relief) from shot to shot, and he is apt to make mistakes while firing.



e. Sight Picture Error. An error in sight picture is an error in the placement of the aiming point. This causes no displacement between the line of sight and the line of bore. The weapon is simply pointed at the wrong spot on the target. Because no displacement exists as range increases, close and far targets are hit or missed depending on where the front sight or the reticle is when the rifle fires. All snipers face this kind of error every time they shoot. This is because, regardless of firing position stability, the weapon will always be moving. A supported rifle moves much less than an unsupported one, but both still move in what is known as a wobble area. The sniper must adjust his firing position so that his wobble area is as small as possible and centered on the target. With proper adjustments, the sniper should be able to fire the shot while the front sight blade or reticle is on the target at, or very near, the desired aiming point. How far the blade or reticle is from this point when the weapon fires is the amount of sight picture error all snipers face.



f. Dominant Eye. To determine which eye is dominant, the sniper extends one arm to the front and points the index finger skyward to select an aiming point. With both eyes open, he aligns the index finger with the aiming point, then closes one eye at a time while looking at the aiming point. One eye will make the finger appear to move off the aiming point; the other eye will stay on the aiming point. The dominant eye is the eye that does not move the finger from the aiming point. Some individuals may have difficulty aiming because of interference from their dominant eye, if this is not the eye used in the aiming process. This may require the sniper to fire from the other side of the weapon (right-handed firer will fire left-handed). Such individuals must close the dominant eye while shooting.




3-3. BREATH CONTROL



Breath control is important with respect to the aiming process. If the sniper breathes while trying to aim, the rise and fall of his chest causes the rifle to move. He must, therefore, accomplish sight alignment during breathing. To do this, he first inhales then exhales normally and stops at the moment of natural respiratory pause.

a. A respiratory cycle lasts 4 to 5 seconds. Inhalation and exhalation require only about 2 seconds. Thus, between each respiratory cycle there is a pause of 2 to 3 seconds. This pause can be extended to 10 seconds without any special effort or unpleasant sensations. The sniper should shoot during this pause when his breathing muscles relax. This avoids strain on his diaphragm.



b. A sniper should assume his firing position and breathe naturally until his hold begins to settle. Many snipers then take a slightly deeper breath, exhale, and pause, expecting to fire the shot during the pause. If the hold does not settle enough to allow the shot to be fired, the sniper resumes normal breathing and repeats the process.



c. The respiratory pause should never feel unnatural. If it is too long, the body suffers from oxygen deficiency and sends out signals to resume breathing. These signals produce involuntary movements in the diaphragm and interfere with the sniper’s ability to concentrate. About 8 to 10 seconds is the maximum safe period for the respiratory pause. During multiple, rapid engagements, the breathing cycle should be forced through a rapid, shallow cycle between shots instead of trying to hold the breath or breathing. Firing should be accomplished at the forced respiratory pause.




3-4. TRIGGER CONTROL



Trigger control is the most important of the sniper marksmanship fundamentals. It is defined as causing the rifle to fire when the sight picture is at its best, without causing the rifle to move. Trigger squeeze is uniformly increasing pressure straight to the rear until the rifle fires.

a. Proper trigger control occurs when the sniper places his firing finger as low on the trigger as possible and still clears the trigger guard, thereby achieving maximum mechanical advantage and movement of the finger to the entire rifle.



b. The sniper maintains trigger control beat by assuming a stable position, adjusting on the target, and beginning a breathing cycle. As the sniper exhales the final breath toward a natural respiratory pause, he secures his finger on the trigger. As the front blade or reticle settles at the desired point of aim, and the natural respiratory pause is entered, the sniper applies initial pressure. He increases the tension on the trigger during the respiratory pause as long as the front blade or reticle remains in the area of the target that ensures a wellplaced shot. If the front blade or reticle moves away from the desired point of aim on the target, and the pause is free of strain or tension, the sniper stops increasing the tension on the trigger, waits for the front blade or reticle to return to the desired point, and then continues to squeeze the trigger. If movement is too large for recovery or if the pause has become uncomfortable (extended too long), the sniper should carefully release the pressure on the trigger and begin the respiratory cycle again.



c. As the stability of a firing position decreases, the wobble area increases. The larger the wobble area, the harder it is to fire the shot without reacting to it. This reaction occurs when the sniper—



(1) Anticipates recoil. The firing shoulder begins to move forward just before the round fires.



(2) Jerks the trigger. The trigger finger moves the trigger in a quick, choppy, spasmodic attempt to fire the shot before the front blade or reticle can move away from the desired point of aim.



(3) Flinches. The sniper’s entire upper body (or parts thereof) overreacts to anticipated noise or recoil. This is usually due to unfamiliarity with the weapon.



(4) Avoids recoil. The sniper tries to avoid recoil or noise by moving away from the weapon or by closing the firing eye just before the round fires. This, again, is caused by a lack of knowledge of the weapon’s actions upon firing.




3-5. FOLLOW-THROUGH



Applying the fundamentals increases the odds of a well-aimed shot being fired. When mastered, additional skills can make that first-round kill even more of a certainty. One of these skills is the follow-through.

a. Follow-through is the act of continuing to apply all the sniper marksmanship fundamentals as the weapon fires as well as immediately after it fires. It consists of—



(1) Keeping the head infirm contact with the stock (stock weld).



(2) Keeping the finger on the trigger all the way to the rear.



(3) Continuing to look through the rear aperture or scope tube.



(4) Keeping muscles relaxed.



(5) Avoiding reaction to recoil and or noise.



(6) Releasing the trigger only after the recoil has stopped.



b. A good follow-through ensures the weapon is allowed to fire and recoil naturally. The sniper/rifle combination reacts as a single unit to such actions.




3-6. CALLING THE SHOT



Calling the shot is being able to tell where the round should impact on the target. Because live targets invariably move when hit, the sniper will find it almost impossible to use his scope to locate the target after the round is fired. Using iron sights, the sniper will find that searching for a downrange hit is beyond his abilities. He must be able to accurately call his shots. Proper follow-through will aid in calling the shot. The dominant factor in shot calling is knowing where the reticle or blade is located when the weapon discharges. This location is called the final focus point.

a. With iron sights, the final focus point should be on the top edge of the front sight blade. The blade is the only part of the sight picture that is moving (in the wobble area). Focusing on it aids in calling the shot and detecting any errors insight alignment or sight picture. Of course, lining up the sights and the target initially requires the sniper to shift his focus from the target to the blade and back until he is satisfied that he is properly aligned with the target. This shifting exposes two more facts about eye focus. The eye can instantly shift focus from near objects (the blade) to far objects (the target).



b. The final focus is easily placed with telescopic sights because of the sight’s optical qualities. Properly focused, a scope should present both the field of view and the reticle in sharp detail. Final focus should then be on the target. While focusing on the target, the sniper moves his head slightly from side to side. The reticle may seem to move across the target face, even though the rifle and scope are motionless. This movement is parallax. Parallax is present when the target image is not correctly focused on the reticle’s focal plane. Therefore, the target image and the reticle appear to be in two separate positions inside the scope, causing the effect of reticle movement across the target. The M3A scope on the M24 has a focus adjustment that eliminates parallax in the scope. The sniper should adjust the focus knob until the target’s image is on the same focal plane as the reticle. To determine if the target’s image appears at the ideal location, the sniper should move his head slightly left and right to see if the reticle appears to move. If it does not move, the focus is properly adjusted and no parallax will be present.




3-7. INTEGRATED ACT OF FIRING



Once the sniper has been taught the fundamentals of marksmanship, his primary concern is his ability to apply it in the performance of his mission. An effective method of applying fundamentals is through the use of the integrated act of firing one round. The integrated act is a logical, step-by-step development of fundamentals whereby the sniper can develop habits that enable him to fire each shot the same way. The integrated act of firing can be divided into four distinct phases:

a. Preparation Phase. Before departing the preparation area, the sniper ensures that—



(1) The team is mentally conditioned and knows what mission they are to accomplish.



(2) A systematic check is made of equipment for completeness and serviceability including, but not limited to—



(a) Properly cleaned and lubricated rifles.



(b) Properly mounted and torqued scopes.



(c) Zero-sighted systems and recorded data in the sniper data book.



(d) Study of the weather conditions to determine their possible effects on the team’s performance of the mission.



b. Before-Firing Phase. On arrival at the mission site, the team exercises care in selecting positions. The sniper ensures the selected positions support the mission. During this phase, the sniper—



(1) Maintains strict adherence to the fundamentals of position. He ensures that the firing position is as relaxed as possible, making the most of available external support. He also makes sure the support is stable, conforms to the position, and allows a correct, natural point of aim for each designated area or target.



(2) Once in position, removes the scope covers and checks the field(s) of fire, making any needed corrections to ensure clear, unobstructed firing lanes.



(3) Makes dry firing and natural point of aim checks.



(4) Double-checks ammunition for serviceability and completes final magazine loading.



(5) Notifies the observer he is ready to engage targets. The observer must be constantly aware of weather conditions that may affect the accuracy of the shots. He must also stay ahead of the tactical situation.



c. Firing Phase. Upon detection, or if directed to a suitable target, the sniper makes appropriate sight changes, aims, and tells the observer he is ready to fire. The observer then gives the needed windage and observes the target. To fire the rifle, the sniper should remember the key word, “BRASS.” Each letter is explained as follows:



(1) Breathe. The sniper inhales and exhales to the natural respiratory pause. He checks for consistent head placement and stock weld. He ensures eye relief is correct (full field of view through the scope; no shadows present). At the same time, he begins aligning the cross hairs or front blade with the target at the desired point of aim.



(2) Relax. As the sniper exhales, he relaxes as many muscles as possible, while maintaining control of the weapon and position.



(3) Aim. If the sniper has a good, natural point of aim, the rifle points at the desired target during the respiratory pause. If the aim is off, the sniper should make a slight adjustment to acquire the desired point of aim. He avoids “muscling” the weapon toward the aiming point.



(4) Squeeze. As long as the sight picture is satisfactory, the sniper squeezes the trigger. The pressure applied to the trigger must be straight to the rear without disturbing the lay of the rifle or the desired point of aim.



d.After-Firing Phase. The sniper must analyze his performance If the shot impacted at the desired spot (a target hit), it may be assumed the integrated act of firing one round was correctly followed. If however, the shot was off call, the sniper and observer must check for Possible errors.



(1) Failure to follow the keyword, BRASS (partial field of view, breath held incorrectly, trigger jerked, rifle muscled into position, and so on).



(2) Target improperly ranged with scope (causing high or low shots).



(3) Incorrectly compensated for wind (causing right or left shots).



(4) Possible weapon/ammunition malfunction (used only as a last resort when no other errors are detected).



Once the probable reasons for an off-call shot is determined the sniper must make note of the errors. He pays close attention to the problem areas to increase the accuracy of future shots.



SECTION II. BALLISTICS



As applied to sniper marksmanship, types of ballistics may be defined as the study of the firing, flight, and effect of ammunition. Proper execution of marksmanship fundamentals and a thorough knowledge of ballistics ensure the successful completion of the mission. Tables and formulas in this section should be used only as guidelines since every rifle performs differently. Maximum ballistics data eventually result in a well-kept sniper data book and knowledge gained through experience.


3-8. TYPES OF BALLISTICS



Ballistics are divided into three distinct types: internal external, and terminal.

a. Internal-the interior workings of a weapon and the functioning of its ammunition.



b. External-the flight of the bullet from the muzzle to the target.



c. Termninal-what happens to the bullet after it hits the target. (See paragraph 3-16.)




3-9. TERMINOLOGY



To fully understand ballistics, the sniper should be familiar with the following terms:

a. Muzzle Velocity-the speed of the bullet as it leaves the rifle barrel, measured in feet per second. It varies according to various factors, such as ammunition type and lot number, temperature, and humidity.



b. Line of Sight-straight line from the eye through the aiming device to the point of aim.



c. Line of Departure-the line defined by the bore of the rifle or the path the bullet would take without gravity.



d. Trajectory-the path of the bullet as it travels to the target.



e. Midrange Trajectory/Maximum Ordinate-the highest point the bullet reaches on its way to the target. This point must be known to engage a target that requires firing underneath an overhead obstacle, such as a bridge or a tree. In attention to midrange trajectory may cause the sniper to hit the obstacle instead of the target.



f. Bullet Drop—how far the bullet drops from the line of departure to the point of impact.



g. Time of Flight-the amount of time it takes for the bullet to reach the target from the time the round exits the rifle.



h. Retained Velocity-the speed of the bullet when it reaches the target. Due to drag, the velocity will be reduced.




3-10. EFFECTS ON TRAJECTORY



To be effective, the sniper must know marksmanship fundamentals and what effect gravity and drag will have on those fundamentals.

a. Gravity. As soon as the bullet exits the muzzle of the weapon, gravity begins to pull it down, requiring the sniper to use his elevation adjustment. At extended ranges, the sniper actually aims the muzzle of his rifle above his line of sight and lets gravity pull the bullet down into the target. Gravity is always present, and the sniper must compensate for this through elevation adjustments or hold-off techniques.



b. Drag. Drag is the slowing effect the atmosphere has on the bullet. This effect decreases the speed of the bullet according to the air—that is, the less dense the air, the leas drag and vice versa. Factors affecting drag/density are temperature, altitude/barometric pressure, humidity, efficiency of the bullet, and wind.



(1) Temperature. The higher the temperature, the less dense the air. (See Section III.) If the sniper zeros at 60 degrees F and he fires at 80 degrees, the air is leas dense, thereby causing an increase in muzzle velocity and higher point of impact. A 20-degree change equals a one-minute elevation change in the strike of the bullet.



(2) Altitude/barometric pressure. Since the air pressure is less at higher altitudes, the air is less dense. Thus, the bullet is more efficient and impacts higher due to less drag. (Table 3-1 shows the approximate effect of change of the point of impact from sea level to 10,000 feet if the rifle is zeroed at sea level.) Impact will be the point of aim at sea level. For example, a rifle zeroed at sea level and fired at a range of 700 meters at an altitude of 5,000 feet will hit 1.6 minutes high.



(3) Humidity. Humidity varies along with the altitude and temperature. Figure 3-19 considers the changes in altitudes. Problems can occur if extreme humidity changes exist in the area of operations. That is, when humidity goes up, impact goes down; when humidity goes down, impact goes up. Since impact is affected by humidity, a 20 percent change in humidity equals about one minute as a rule of thumb. Keeping a good sniper data book during training and acquiring experience are the best teachers.



Table 3-1: Point of Impact rises as altitude Increases (data are in MOA).





(4) Efficiency of the bullet. This is called a bullet’s ballistic coefficient. The imaginary perfect bullet is rated as being 1.00. Match bullets range from .500 to about .600. The 7.62-mm special ball (M118) is rated at .530 (Table 3-2).



(5) Wind. Wind is discussed in Section III.



Table 3-2: Muzzle velocity data for 7.62-mm special ball (M118).





3-11. ANGLE FIRING



Most practice firing conducted by the sniper team involves the use of military range facilities, which are relatively flat. However, as a sniper being deployed to other regions of the world, the chance exists for operating in a mountainous or urban environment. This requires target engagements at higher and lower elevations. Unless the sniper takes corrective action, bullet impact will be above the point of aim. How high the bullet hits is determined by the range and angle to the target (Table 3-3). The amount of elevation change applied to the telescope of the rifle for angle firing is known as slope dope.

Table 3-3: Bullet rise at given angle and range in minutes.





SECTION III. EFFECTS OF WEATHER



For the highly trained sniper, the effects of weather are the main causes of error in the strike of the bullet. Wind, mirage, light, temperature, and humidity affect the bullet, the sniper, or both. Some effects are minor; however, sniping is often done in extremes of weather and all effects must be considered.


3-12. WIND CLASSIFICATION



Wind poses the biggest problem for the sniper. The effect that wind has on the bullet increases with range. This is due mainly to the slowing of the bullet’s velocity combined with a longer flight time. This allows the wind to have a greater effect on the round as distances increase. The result is a loss of stability.

a. Wind also has a considerable effect on the sniper. The stronger the wind, the more difficult it is for him to hold the rifle steady. This can be partly offset by training, conditioning and the use of supported positions.



b. Since the sniper must know how much effect the wind will have on the bullet, he must be able to classify the wind. The best method is to use the clock system (Figure 3-19). With the sniper at the center of the clock and the target at 12 o’clock, the wind is assigned three values: full, half, and no value. Full value means that the force of the wind will have a full effect on the flight of the bullet. These winds come from 3 and 9 o’clock. Half value means that a wind at the same speed, but from 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, and 11 o’clock, will move the bullet only half as much as a full-value wind. No value means that a wind from 6 or 12 o’clock will have little or no effect on the flight of the bullet.





Figure 3-19: Clock system.





3-13. WIND VELOCITY



Before adjusting the sight to compensate for wind, the sniper must determine wind direction and velocity. He may use certain indicators to accomplish this. These are range flags, smoke, trees, grass, rain, and the sense of feel. However, the preferred method of determining wind direction and velocity is reading mirage (see paragraph d below). In most cases, wind direction can be determined simply by observing the indicators.

a. A common method of estimating the velocity of the wind during training is to watch the range flag (Figure 3-20). The sniper determines the angle between the flag and pole, in degrees, then divides by the constant number 4. The result gives the approximate velocity in miles per hour.





Figure 3-20: The Flag method.





b. If no flag is visible, the sniper holds a piece of paper, grass, cotton, or some other light material at shoulder level, then drops it. He then points directly at the spot where it lands and divides the angle between his body and arm by the constant number 4. This gives him the approximate wind velocity in miles per hour.



c. If these methods cannot be used, the following information is helpful in determining velocity. Winds under 3 miles per hour can barely be felt, although smoke will drift. A 3- to 5-mile-per-hour wind can barely be felt on the face. With a 5- to 8-mile-per-hour wind, the leaves in the trees are in constant motion, and with a 12- to 15-mile-per-hour wind, small trees begin to sway.



d. A mirage is a reflection of the heat through layers of air at different temperatures and density as seen on a warm day (Figure 3-21). With the telescope, the sniper can see a mirage as long as there is a difference in ground and air temperatures. Proper reading of the mirage enables the sniper to estimate wind speed and direction with a high degree of accuracy. The sniper uses the M49 observation telescope to read the mirage. Since the wind nearest to midrange has the greatest effect on the bullet, he tries to determine velocity at that point. He can do this in one of two ways:



(1) He focuses on an object at midrange, then places the scope back onto the target without readjusting the focus.



(2) He can also focus on the target, then back off the focus one-quarter turn counterclockwise. This makes the target appear fuzzy, but the mirage will be clear.





Figure 3-21: Types of mirages.





e. As observed through the telescope, the mirage appears to move with the same velocity as the wind, except when blowing straight into or away from the scope. Then, the mirage gives the appearance of moving straight upward with no lateral movement. This is called a boiling mirage. A boiling mirage may also be seen when the wind is constantly changing direction. For example, a full-value wind blowing from 9 o’clock to 3 o’clock suddenly changes direction. The mirage will appear to stop moving from left to right and present a boiling appearance. When this occurs, the inexperienced observer directs the sniper to fire with the “0” wind. As the sniper fires, the wind begins blowing from 3 o’clock to 9 o’clock, causing the bullet to miss the target therefore, firing in a “boil” can hamper shot placement. Unless there is a no-value wind, the sniper must wait until the boil disappears. In general, changes in the velocity of the wind, up to about 12 miles per hour, can be readily determined by observing the mirage. Beyond that speed, the movement of the mirage is too fast for detection of minor changes.




3-14. CONVERSION OF WIND VELOCITY TO MINUTES OF ANGLE



All telescopic sights have windage adjustments that are graduated in minutes or angle or fractions thereof. A minute of angle is l/60th of a degree (Figure 3-22). This equals about 1 inch (1.145 inches) for every 100 meters.



EXAMPLE



1 MOA = 2 inches at 200 meters



1 MOA = 5 inches at 500 meters





a. Snipers use minutes of angle (Figure 3-22) to determine and adjust the elevation and windage needed on the weapon’s scope. After finding the wind direction and velocity in miles per hour, the sniper must then convert it into minutes of angle, using the wind formula as a rule of thumb only. The wind formula is—





The constant depends on the target’s range.

100 to 500 “C” = 15

600 “C” = 14



700 to 800 “C” = 13

900 “C” = 12



1,000 “C” = 11



If the target is 700 meters away and the wind velocity is 10 mph, the formula is—





This determines the number of minutes for a full-value wind. For a half-value wind, the 5.38 would be divided in half.





Figure 3-22: Minutes of angle.





b. The observer makes his own adjustment estimations, then compares them to the wind conversion table, which can be a valuable training tool. He must not rely on this table; if it is lost, his ability to perform the mission could be severely hampered. Until the observer gains skill in estimating wind speed and computing sight changes, he may refer to Table 3-4.



Table 3-4: Wind conversion table.





3-15. EFFECTS OF LIGHT



Light does not affect the trajectory of the bullet; however, it does affect the way the sniper sees the target through the scope. This effect can be compared to the refraction (bending) of light through a medium, such as a prism or a fish bowl. The same effect, although not as drastic, can be observed on a day with high humidity and with sunlight from high angles. The only way the sniper can adjust for this effect is to refer to past firing recorded in the sniper data book. He can then compare different light and humidity conditions and their effect on marksmanship. Light may also affect firing on unknown distance ranges since it affects range determination capabilities.


3-16. EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE



Temperature affects the firer, ammunition, and density of the air. When ammunition sits in direct sunlight, the bum rate of powder is increased, resulting in greater muzzle velocity and higher impact. The greatest effect is on the density of the air. As the temperature rises, the air density is lowered. Since there is less resistance, velocity increases and once again the point of impact rises. This is in relation to the temperature at which the rifle was zeroed. If the sniper zeros at 50 degrees and he is now firing at 90 degrees, the point of impact rises considerably. How high it rises is best determined once again by past firing recorded in the sniper data book. The general role, however, is that when the rifle is zeroed, a 20-degree increase in temperature will raise the point of impact by one minute; conversely, a 20-degree decrease will drop the point of impact by one minute.


3-17. EFFECTS OF HUMIDITY



Humidity varies along with the altitude and temperature. The sniper can encounter problems if drastic humidity changes occur in his area of operation. Remember, if humidity goes up, impact goes down; if humidity goes down, impact goes up. As a rule of thumb, a 20-percent change will equal about one minute, affecting the point of impact. The sniper should keep a good sniper data book during training and refer to his own record.



SECTION IV. SNIPER DATA BOOK



The sniper data book contains a collection of data cards. The sniper uses the data cards to record firing results and all elements that had an effect on firing the weapon. This can vary from information about weather conditions to the attitude of the firer on that particular day. The sniper can refer to this information later to understand his weapon, the weather effects, and his shooting ability on a given day. One of the most important items of information he will record is the cold barrel zero of his weapon. A cold barrel zero refers to the first round fired from the weapon at a given range. It is critical that the sniper shoots the first round daily at different ranges. For example, Monday, 400 meters; Tuesday, 500 meters; Wednesday, 600 meters. When the barrel warms up, later shots begin to group one or two minutes higher or lower, depending on specific rifle characteristics. Information is recorded on DA Form 5785-R (Sniper’s Data Card) (Figure 3-23). (A blank copy of this form is located in the back of this publication for local reproduction.)





Figure 3-23: Example of completed DA Form 5785-R.





3-18. ENTRIES



Three phases in writing information on the data card (Figure 3-23) are before firing, during firing, and after firing.

a. Before Firing. Information that is written before firing is—



(1) Range. The distance to the target.



(2) Rifle and scope number. The serial numbers of the rifle and scope.



(3) Date. Date of firing.



(4) Ammunition. Type and lot number of ammunition.



(5) Light. Amount of light (overcast, clear, and so forth).



(6) Mirage. Whether a mirage can be seem or not (good, bad, fair, and so forth).



(7) Temperature. Temperature on the range.



(8) Hour. Time of firing.



(9) Light (diagram). Draw an arrow in the direction the light is shining.



(10) Wind. Draw an arrow in the direction the wind is blowing, and record its average velocity and cardinal direction (N, NE, S, SW, and so forth).



b. During Firing. Information that is written while firing is—



(1) Elevation. Elevation setting used and any correction needed. For example: The target distance is 600 meters; the sniper sets the elevation dial to 6. The sniper fires and the round hits the target 6 inches low of center. He then adds one minute (one click) of elevation (+1).



(2) Windage. Windage setting used and any correction needed. For example The sniper fires at a 600-meter target with windage setting on 0; the round impacts 15 inches right of center. He will then add 21/2 minutes left to the windage dial (L/21/2).



(3) Shot. The column of information about a particular shot. For example: Column 1 is for the first round; column 10 is for the tenth round.



(4) Elevation. Elevation used (6 +1, 6,6 -1, and so on).



(5) Wind. Windage used (L/2 1/2, O, R/l/2, and so on).



(6) Call. Where the aiming point was when the weapon fired.



(7) Large silhouette. Used to record the exact impact of the round on the target. This is recorded by writing the shot’s number on the large silhouette in the same place it hit the target.



c. After Firing. After firing, the sniper records any comments about firing in the remarks section. This can be comments about the weapon, firing conditions (time allowed for fire), or his condition (nervous, felt bad, felt good, and so forth).




3-19. ANALYSIS



When the sniper leaves the firing line, he compares weather conditions to the information needed to hit the point of aim/point of impact. Since he fires in all types of weather conditions, he must be aware of temperature, light, mirage, and wind. The sniper must consider other major points or tasks to complete

a. Compare sight settings with previous firing sessions. If the sniper always has to fine-tune for windage or elevation, there is a chance he needs a sight change (slip a scale).



b. Compare ammunition by lot number for best rifle and ammunition combination.



c. Compare all groups fired under each condition. Check the low and high shots as well as those to the left and the right of the main group—the less dispersion, the better. If groups are tight, they are easily moved to the center of the target; if loose, there is a problem. Check the scope focus and make sure the rifle is cleaned correctly. Remarks in the sniper data book will also help.



d. Make corrections. Record corrections in the sniper data book, such as position and sight adjustment information, to ensure retention.



e. Analyze a group on a target. This is important for marksmanship training. The firer may not notice errors during firing, but errors become apparent when analyzing a group. This can only be done if the sniper data book has been used correctly. A checklist that will aid in shot group/performance analysis follows:



(1) Group tends to be low and right.



• Left hand not positioned properly.



• Right elbow slipping.



• Improper trigger control.



(2) Group scattered about the target.



• Incorrect eye relief or sight picture.



• Concentration on the target (iron sights).



• Stock weld changed.



• Unstable firing position.



(3) Good group but with several erratic shots.



• Flinching. Shots may be anywhere.



• Bucking. Shots from 7 to 10 o’clock.



• Jerking. Shots may be anywhere.



(4) Group strung up and down through the target.



• Breathing while firing.



• Improper vertical alignment of cross hairs.



• Stock weld changed.



(5) Compact group out of the target.



• Incorrect zero.



• Failure to compensate for wind.



• Bad natural point of aim.



• Scope shadow.



(6) Group center of the target out the bottom.



• Scope shadow.



• Position of the rifle changed in the shoulder.



(7) Horizontal group across the target.



• Scope shadow.



• Canted weapon.



• Bad natural point of aim.





Figure 3-24: Elevation.





SECTION V. HOLDOFF



Holdoff is shifting the point of aim to achieve a desired point of impact. Certain situations, such as multiple targets at varying ranges and rapidly changing winds, do not allow proper windage and elevation adjustments. Therefore, familiarization and practice of elevation and windage holdoff techniques prepare the sniper to meet these situations.





Figure 3-25: Trajectory chart.





3-20. ELEVATION



This technique is used only when the sniper does not have time to change his sight setting. The sniper rarely achieves pinpoint accuracy when holding off, since a minor error in range determination or a lack of a precise aiming point might cause the bullet to miss the desired point. He uses holdoff with the sniperscope only if several targets appear at various ranges, and time does not permit adjusting the scope for each target.

a. The sniper uses holdoff to hit a target at ranges other than the range for which the rifle is presently adjusted. When the sniper aims directly at a target at ranges greater than the set range, his bullet will hit below the point of aim. At lesser ranges, his bullet will hit higher than the point of aim. If the sniper understands this and knows about trajectory and bullet drop, he will be able to hit the target at ranges other than that for which the rifle was adjusted. For example, the sniper adjusts the rifle for a target located 500 meters downrange and another target appears at a range of 600 meters. The holdoff would be 25 inches, that is, the sniper should hold off 25 inches above the center of visible mass in order to hit the center of mass of that particular target (Figure 3-24). If another target were to appear at 400 meters, the sniper would aim 14 inches below the ureter of visible mass in order to hit the center of mass (Figure 3-25).



b. The vertical mil dots on the M3A scope’s reticle can be used as aiming points when using elevation holdoffs. For example, if the sniper has to engage a target at 500 meters and the scope is set at 400 meters, he would place the first mil dot 5 inches below the vertical line on the target’s center mass. This gives the sniper a 15-inch holdoff at 500 meters.




3-21. WINDAGE



The sniper can use holdoff in three ways to compensate for the effect of wind.

a. When using the M3A scope, the sniper uses the horizontal mil dots on the reticle to hold off for wind. For example, if the sniper has a target at 500 meters that requires a 10-inch holdoff, he would place the target’s center mass halfway between the cross hair and the first mil dot (1/2 mil) (Figure 3-26).



b. When holding off, the sniper aims into the wind. If the wind is moving from the right to left, his point of aim is to the right. If the wind is moving from left to right, his point of aim is to the left.



c. Constant practice in wind estimation can bring about proficiency in making sight adjustments or learning to apply holdoff correctly. If the sniper misses the target and the point of impact of the round is observed, he notes the lateral distance of his error and refires, holding off that distance in the opposite direction.





Figure 3-26: Holdoff for 7.62-mm special ball (M118).





SECTION VI. ENGAGEMENT OF MOVING TARGETS



Engaging moving targets not only requires the sniper to determine the target distance and wind effects on the round, but he must also consider the lateral and speed angle of the target, the round’s time of flight, and the placement of a proper lead to compensate for both. These added variables increase the chance of a miss. Therefore, the sniper should engage moving targets when it is the only option.


3-22. TECHNIQUES



To engage moving targets, the sniper employs the following techniques:


• Leading.



• Tracking.



• Trapping or ambushing.



• Tracking and holding.



• Firing a snap shot.



a. Leading. Engaging moving targets requires the sniper to place the cross hairs ahead of the target’s movement. The distance the cross hairs are placed in front of the target’s movement is called a lead. There are four factors in determining leads:



(1) Speed of the target. As a target moves faster, it will move a greater distance during the bullet’s flight. Therefore, the lead increases as the target’s speed increases.



(2) Angle of movement. A target moving perpendicular to the bullet’s flight path moves a greater lateral distance than a target moving at an angle away from or toward the bullet’s path. Therefore, a target moving at a 45-degree angle covers less ground than a target moving at a 90-degree angle.



(3) Range to the target. The farther away a target is, the longer it takes for the bullet to reach it. Therefore, the lead must be increased as the distance to the target increases.



(4) Wind effects. The sniper must consider how the wind will affect the trajectory of the round. A wind blowing against the target’s direction of movement requires less of a lead than a wind blowing in the same direction as the target’s movement.



b. Tracking. Hacking requires the sniper to establish an aiming point ahead of the target’s movement and to maintain it as the weapon is fired. This requires the weapon and body position to be moved while following the target and firing.



c. Trapping or Ambushing. Trapping or ambushing is the sniper’s preferred method of engaging moving targets. The sniper must establish an aiming point ahead of the target and pull the trigger when the target reaches it. This method allows the sniper’s weapon and body position to remain motionless. With practice, a sniper can determine exact leads and aiming points using the horizontal stadia lines in the mil dots in the M3A.



d. Tracking and Holding. The sniper uses this technique to engage an erratically moving target. That is, while the target is moving, the sniper keeps his cross hairs centered as much as possible and adjusts his position with the target. When the target stops, the sniper quickly perfects his hold and fires. This technique requires concentration and discipline to keep from firing before the target comes to a complete halt.



e. Firing a Snap Shot. A sniper may often attempt to engage a target that only presents itself briefly, then resumes cover. Once he establishes a pattern, he can aim in the vicinity of the target’s expected appearance and fire a snap shot at the moment of exposure.




3-23. COMMON ERRORS



When engaging moving targets, the sniper makes common errors because he is under greater stress than with a stationary target. There are more considerations, such as retaining a steady position and the correct aiming point, how fast the target is moving, and how far away it is. The more practice a sniper has shooting moving targets, the better he will become. Some common mistakes are as follows:

a. The sniper has a tendency to watch his target instead of his aiming point. He must force himself to watch his lead point.



b. The sniper may jerk or flinch at the moment his weapon fires because he thinks he must fire NOW. This can be overcome through practice on a live-fire range.



c. The sniper may hurry and thus forget to apply wind as needed. Windage must be calculated for moving targets just as for stationary targets. Failure to do this when squiring a lead will result in a miss.




3-24. CALCULATION OF LEADS



Once the required lead has been determined, the sniper should use the mil scale in the scope for precise holdoff. The mil scale can be mentally sectioned into 1/4-mil increments for leads. The chosen point on the mil scale becomes the sniper’s point of concentration just as the cross hairs are for stationary targets. The sniper concentrates on the lead point and fires the weapon when the target is at this point. The following formulas are used to determine moving target leads:

TIME OF FLIGHT X TARGET SPEED = LEAD.



Time of flight = flight time of the round in seconds.



Target speed = speed the target is moving in fps.



Lead = distance aiming point must be placed ahead of movement in feet.



Average speed of a man during—



Slow patrol = 1 fps/0.8 mph



Fast patrol = 2 fps/1.3 mph



Slow walk = 4 fps/2.5 mph



Fast walk = 6 fps/3.7 mph



To convert leads in feet to meters:



LEAD IN FEET X 0,3048 = METERS



To convert leads in meters to mils:





SECTION VII. NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, CHEMICAL



Performance of long-range precision fire is difficult at best. Enemy NBC warfare creates new problems for the sniper. Not only must the sniper properly execute the fundamentals of marksmanship and contend with the forces of nature, he must overcome obstacles presented by protective equipment. Testing conducted by the U.S. Army Sniper School, Fort Benning, GA during 1989 to 1990 uncovered several problem areas. Evaluation of this testing discovered ways to help the sniper overcome these problems while firing in an NBC environment.


3-25. PROTECTIVE MASK



The greatest problem while firing the M24 with the M17-series protective mask was that of recoil breaking the seal of the mask. Also, due to filter elements and hard eye lenses, the sniper could not gain and maintain proper stock weld and eye relief. Additionally, the observer could not gain the required eye relief for observation through his M49 observation telescope. However, testing of the M25-series protective mask provided the following results:

a. Because of its separate filtering canister, the stock weld was gained and maintained with minimal effort.



b. Its flexible face shield allowed for excellent observation. This also allowed the sniper and observer to achieve proper eye relief, which was needed for observation with their respective telescopes.




3-26. MISSION-ORIENTED PROTECTION POSTURE



Firing while in MOPP has a significant effect on the ability to deliver precision fire. The following problems and solutions have been identified

a. Eye Relief. Special emphasis must be made in maintaining proper eye relief and the absence of scope shadow. Maintaining consistent stock weld is a must.



b. Trigger Control. Problems encountered with trigger control consist of the sense of touch and stock drag.



(1) Sense of touch. When gloves are worn, the sniper cannot determine the amount of pressure he is applying to the trigger. This is of particular importance if the sniper has the trigger adjusted for a light pull. Training with a glove will be beneficial; however, the trigger should be adjusted to allow the sniper to feel the trigger without accidental discharge.



(2) Stock drag. While training, the sniper should have his observer watch his trigger finger to ensure that the finger and glove are not touching any part of the rifle but the trigger. The glove or finger resting on the trigger guard moves the rifle as the trigger is pulled to the rear. The sniper must wear a well-fitted glove.



c. Vertical Sight Picture. The sniper naturally cants the rifle into the cheek of the face while firing with a protective mask.



d. Sniper/Observer Communications. The absence of a voice emitter on the M2S-series protective mask creates an obstacle in relaying information. The team either speaks louder or uses written messages. A system of foot taps, finger taps, or hand signals may be devised. Communication is a must; training should include the development and practice of communications at different MOPP levels.





CHAPTER 4





Field Techniques



The primary mission of the sniper team is to eliminate selected enemy targets with long-range precision fire. How well the sniper accomplishes his mission depends on knowledge, understanding and application of various field techniques that allow him to move, hide, observe, and detect targets. This chapter discusses the field techniques and skills that the sniper must learn before employment in support of combat operations. The sniper’s application of these skills will affect his survival on the battlefield.




SECTION I. CAMOUFLAGE



Camouflage is one of the basic weapons of war. It can mean the difference between a successful or unsuccessful mission. To the sniper team, it can mean the difference between life and death. Camouflage measures are important since the team cannot afford to be detected at any time while moving alone, as part of another element, or while operating from a firing position. Marksmanship training teaches the sniper to hit a target, and a knowledge of camouflage teaches him how to avoid becoming a target. Paying attention to camouflage fundamentals is a mark of a well-trained sniper.


4-1. TARGET INDICATORS



To become proficient in camouflage, the sniper team must first understand target indicators. Target indicators are anything a soldier does or fails to do that could result in detection. A sniper team must know and understand target indication not only to move undetected, but also to detect enemy movement. Target indicators are sound, movement, improper camouflage, disturbance of wildlife, and odors.

a. Sound.



• Most noticeable during hours of darkness.



• Caused by movement, equipment rattling, or talking.



• Small noises may be dismissed as natural, but talking will not.



b. Movement.



• Most noticeable during hours of daylight.



• The human eye is attracted to movement.



• Quick or jerky movement will be detected faster than slow movement.



c. Improper camouflage.



• Shine.



• Outline.



• Contrast with the background.



d. Disturbance of wildlife.



• Birds suddenly flying away.



• Sudden stop of animal noises.



• Animals being frightened.



e. Odors.



• Cooking.



• Smoking.



• Soap and lotions.



• Insect repellents.




4-2. BASIC METHODS



The sniper team can use three basic methods of camouflage. It may use one of these methods or a combination of all three to accomplish its objective. The three basic methods a sniper team can use are hiding, blending, and deceiving.

a. Hiding. Hiding is used to conceal the body from observation by lying behind an objector thick vegetation.



b. Blending. Blending is used to match personal camouflage with the surrounding area to a point where the sniper cannot be seen.



c. Deceiving. Deceiving is used to fool the enemy into false conclusions about the location of the sniper team.




4-3. TYPES OF CAMOUFLAGE



The two types of camouflage that the sniper team can use are natural and artificial.

a. Natural. Natural camouflage is vegetation or materials that are native to the given area. The sniper augments his appearance by using natural camouflage.



b. Artificial. Artificial camouflage is any material or substance that is produced for the purpose of coloring or covering something in order to conceal it. Camouflage sticks or face paints are used to cover all exposed areas of skin such as face, hands, and the back of the neck. The parts of the face that form shadows should be lightened, and the parts that shine should be darkened. The three types of camouflage patterns the sniper team uses are striping, blotching, and combination.



(1) Striping. Used when in heavily wooded areas and when leafy vegetation is scarce.



(2) Blotching. Used when an area is thick with leafy vegetation.



(3) Combination. Used when moving through changing terrain. It is normally the best all-round pattern.




4-4. GHILLIE SUIT



The ghillie suit is a specially made camouflage uniform that is covered with irregular patterns of garnish or netting (Figure 4-1).

a. Ghillie suits can be made from BDUs or one-piece aviator-type uniforms. Turning the uniform inside out places the pockets inside the suit. This protects items in the pockets from damage caused by crawling on the ground. The front of the ghillie suit should be covered with canvas or some type of heavy cloth to reinforce it. The knees and elbows should be covered with two layers of canvas, and the seam of the crotch should be reinforced with heavy nylon thread since these areas are prone to wear out quicker.



b. The garnish or netting should cover the shoulders and reach down to the elbows on the sleeves. The garnish applied to the back of the suit should be long enough to cover the sides of the sniper when he is in the prone position. A bush hat is also covered with garnish or netting. The garnish should belong enough to breakup the outline of the sniper’s neck, but it should not be so long in front to obscure his vision or hinder movement.



c. A veil can be made from a net or piece of cloth covered with garnish or netting. It covers the weapon and sniper’s head when in a firing position. The veil can be sewn into the ghillie suit or carried separately. A ghillie suit does not make one invisible and is only a camouflage base. Natural vegetation should be added to help blend with the surroundings.




4-5. FIELD-EXPEDIENT CAMOUFLAGE



The sniper team may have to use field-expedient camouflage if other means are not available. Instead of camouflage sticks or face paint, the team may use charcoal, walnut stain, mud, or whatever works. The team will not use oil or grease due to the strong odor. Natural vegetation can be attached to the body by boot bands or rubber bands or by cutting holes in the uniform.

a. The sniper team also camouflages its equipment. However, the camouflage must not interfere with or hinder the operation of the equipment.





Figure 4-1: Ghillie suit.





(1) Rifles. The sniper weapon system and the M16/M203 should also. be camouflaged to break up their outlines. The sniper weapon system can be carried in a “drag bag” (Figure 4-2), which is a rifle case made of canvas and covered with garnish similar to the ghillie suit.



(2) Optics. Optics used by the sniper team must also be camouflaged to breakup the outline and to reduce the possibility of light reflecting off the lenses. Lenses can be covered with mesh-type webbing or nylon hose material.



(3) ALICE pack. If the sniper uses the ALICE pack while wearing the ghillie suit, he must camouflage the pack the same as the suit.





Figure 4-2: Drag bag.





b. The sniper team alters its camouflage to blend in with changes in vegetation and terrain in different geographic areas. Examples of such changes are as follows:



(1) Snow areas. Blending of colors is more effective than texture camouflage in snowy areas. In areas with heavy snow or in wooded areas with trees covered with snow, a full white camouflage suit should be worn. In areas with snow on the ground but not on the trees, white trousers with green and brown tops should be worn.



(2) Desert areas. In sandy desert areas that have little vegetation, the blending of tan and brown colors is important. In these areas, the sniper team must make full use of the terrain and the vegetation that is available to remain unnoticed.



(3) Jungle areas. In jungle areas, textured camouflage, contrasting colors, and natural vegetation must be used.



(4) Urban areas. In urban areas, the sniper team’s camouflage should be a blended color (shades of gray usually work best). Texutred camouflage is not as important in these environments.



c. The sniper team must be camouflage conscious from the time it departs on a mission until it returns. It must constantly use the terrain, vegetation, and shadows to remain undetected. At no other time during the mission will the sniper team have a greater tendency to be careless than during its return to a friendly area. Fatigue and undue haste may override caution and planning. Therefore, the team needs to pay close attention to its camouflage discipline on return from missions.




4-6. COVER AND CONCEALMENT



The proper understanding and application of the principles of cover and concealment used with the proper application of camouflage protects the sniper team from enemy observation.

a. Cover is natural or artificial protection from the fire of enemy weapons. Natural cover (ravines, hollows, reverse slopes) and artificial cover (fighting positions, trenches, walls) protect the sniper team from flat trajectory fires and partly protect it from high-angle fires and the effects of nuclear explosions. Even the smallest depression or fold in the ground may provide some cover when the team needs it most. A 6-inch depression, properly used, may provide enough cover to save the sniper team under fire. Snipers must always look for and take advantage of all the cover that the terrain provides. By combining this habit with proper movement techniques, the team can protect itself from enemy fire. To get protection from enemy fire when moving, the team uses routes that put cover between itself and the enemy.



b. Concealment is natural or artificial protection from enemy observation. The surroundings may provide natural concealment that needs no change before use (bushes, grass, and shadows). The sniper team creates artificial concealment from materials such as burlap and camouflage nets, or it can move natural materials (bushes, leaves, and grass) from their original location. The sniper team must consider the effects of the change of seasons on the concealment provided by both natural and artificial materials. The principles of concealment include the following



(1) Avoid unnecessary movement. Remain still—movement attracts attention. The position of the sniper team is concealed when the team remains still, but the sniper’s position is easily detected when the team moves. Movement against a stationary background makes the team stand out clearly. When the team must change positions, it moves carefully over a concealed route to a new position, preferably during limited visibility. Snipers move inches at a time, slowly and cautiously, always scanning ahead for the next position.



(2) Use all available concealment. Available concealment includes the following:



(a) Background. Background is important the sniper team must blend with it to prevent detection. The trees, bushes, grass, earth, and man-made structures that form the background vary in color and appearance. This makes it possible for the team to blend with them. The team selects trees or bushes to blend with the uniform and to absorb the figure outline. Snipers must always assume they are under observation.



(b) Shadows. The sniper team in the open stands out clearly, but the sniper team in the shadows is difficult to see. Shadows exist under most conditions, day and night. A sniper team should never fire from the edge of a wood line; it should fire from a position inside the wood line (in the shade or shadows provided by the tree tops).



(3) Stay low to observe. A low silhouette makes it difficult for the enemy to see a sniper team. Therefore, the team observes from a crouch, a squat, or a prone position.



(4) Avoid shiny reflections. Reflection of light on a shiny surface instantly attracts attention and can be seen from great distances. The sniper uncovers his rifle scope only when indexing and aiming at a target. He uses optics cautiously in bright sunshine because of the reflections they cause.



(5) Avoid skylining. Figures on the skyline can be seen from a great distance, even at night, because a dark outline stands out against the lighter sky. The silhouette formed by the body makes a good target.



(6) Alter familiar outlines. Military equipment and the human body are familiar outlines to the enemy. The sniper team alters or disguises these revealing shapes by using the ghillie suit or outer smock that is covered with irregular patterns of garnish. The team must alter its outline from the head to the soles of the boots.



(7) Observe noise discipline. Noise, such as talking, can be picked up by enemy patrols or observation posts. The sniper team silences gear before a mission so that it makes no sound when the team walks or runs.




SECTION II. MOVEMENT



A sniper team’s mission and method of employment differ in many ways from those of the infantry squad. One of the most noticeable differences is the movement technique used by the sniper team. Movement by teams must not be detected or even suspected by the enemy. Because of this, a sniper team must master individual sniper movement techniques.


4-7. RULES OF MOVEMENT



When moving, the sniper team should always remember the following rules:

a. Always assume the area is under enemy observation.



b. Move slowly. A sniper counts his movement progress by feet and inches.



c. Do not cause overhead movement of trees, bushes, or tall grasses by rubbing against them.



d. Plan every movement and move in segments of the route at a time.



e. Stop, look, and listen often.



f. Move during disturbances such as gunfire, explosions, aircraft noise, wind, or anything that will distract the enemy’s attention or conceal the team’s movement.




4-8. INDIVIDUAL MOVEMENT TECHNIQUES



The individual movement techniques used by the sniper team are designed to allow movement without being detected. These movement techniques are sniper low crawl, medium crawl, high crawl, hand-and-knees crawl, and walking.

a. Sniper Low Crawl. The sniper low crawl (Figure 4-3) is used when concealment is extremely limited, when close to the enemy, or when occupying a firing position.





Figure 4-3: Sniper low crawl.





b. Medium Crawl. The medium crawl (Figure 4-4) is used when concealment is limited and the team needs to move faster-than the sniper low crawl allows. The medium crawl is similar to the infantryman’s low crawl.



c. High Crawl. The high crawl (Figure 4-5) is used when concealment is limited but high enough to allow the sniper to raise his body off the ground. The high crawl is similar to the infantry high crawl.



d. Hand-and-knees Crawl. The hand-and-knees crawl (Figure 4-6) is used when some concealment is available and the sniper team needs to move faster than the medium crawl.



e. Walking. Walking (Figure 4-7) is used when there is good concealment, it is not likely the enemy is close, and speed is required.




4-9. SNIPER TEAM MOVEMENT AND NAVIGATION



Due to lack of personnel and firepower, the sniper team cannot afford detection by the enemy nor can it successfully fight the enemy in sustained engagements.





Figure 4-4: Medium crawl.





Figure 4-5: High crawl.





Figure 4-6: Hand-and-knees crawl.





Figure 4-7: Walking.





a. When possible, the sniper team should be attached to a security element (squad/platoon). The security element allows the team to reach its area of operations quicker and safer than the team operating alone. Plus, the security element provides the team a reaction force should the team be detected. Snipers use the following guidelines when attached to a security element:



(1) The security element leader is in charge of the team while it is attached to the element.



(2) The sniper team always appears as an integral part of the element.



(3) The sniper team wears the same uniform as the element members.



(4) The sniper team maintains proper intends and positions in all formations.



(5) The sniper weapon system is carried in line and close to the body, hiding its outline and barrel length.



(6) All equipment that is unique to sniper teams is concealed from view (optics, ghillie suits, and so forth).



b. Once in the area of operation, the sniper team separates from the security element and operates alone. Two examples of a sniper team separating from security elements are as follows:



(1) The security element provides security while the team prepares for operation.



(a) The team dons the ghillie suits and camouflages itself and its equipment (if mission requires).



(b) The team ensures all equipment is secure and caches any nonessential equipment (if mission requires).



(c) Once the team is prepared, it assumes a concealed position, and the security element departs the area.



(d) Once the security element has departed, the team waits in position long enough to ensure neither itself nor the security element has been compromised. Then, the team moves to its tentative position.



(2) The security element conducts a short security halt at the separation point. The sniper team halts, ensuring they have good available concealment and know each other’s location. The security element then proceeds, leaving the sniper team in place. The sniper team remains in position until the security element is clear of the area. The team then organizes itself as required by the mission and moves on to its tentative position. This type of separation also works well in MOUT situations.



c. When selecting routes, the sniper team must remember its strengths and weaknesses. The following guidelines should be used when selecting routes:



(1) Avoid known enemy positions and obstacles.



(2) Seek terrain that offers the best cover and concealment.



(3) Take advantage of difficult terrain (swamps, dense woods, and so forth).



(4) Do not use trails, roads, or footpaths.



(5) Avoid built-up or populated areas.



(6) Avoid areas of heavy enemy guerrilla activity.



d. When the sniper team moves, it must always assume its area is under enemy observation. Because of this and the size of the team with the small amount of firepower it has, the team uses only one type of formation-the sniper movement formation. Characteristics of the formation are as follows:



(1) The observer is the point man; the sniper follows.



(2) The observer’s sector of security is 3 o’clock to 9 o’clock; the sniper’s sector of security is 9 o’clock to 3 o’clock (overlapping).



(3) Visual contact must be maintained even when lying on the ground.



(4) An interval of no more than 20 meters is maintained.



(5) The sniper reacts to the point man’s actions.



(6) The team leader designates the movement techniques and routes used.



(7) The team leader designates rally points.



e. A sniper team must never become decisively engaged with the enemy. The team must rehearse immediate action drills to the extent that they become a natural and immediate reaction should it make unexpected contact with the enemy. Examples of such actions are as follows:



(1) Visual contact. If the sniper team sees the enemy and the enemy does not see the team, it freezes. If the team has time, it will do the following:



(a) Assume the best covered and concealed position.



(b) Remain in position until the enemy has passed.





NOTE



The team will not initiate contact.





(2) Ambush. In an ambush, the sniper team’s objective is to break contact immediately. One example of this involves performing the following



(a) The observer delivers rapid fire on the enemy.



(b) The sniper throws smoke grenades between the observer and the enemy.



(c) The sniper delivers well-aimed shots at the most threatening targets until smoke covers the area.



(d) The observer then throws fragmentation grenades and withdraws toward the sniper, ensuring he does not mask the sniper’s fire.



(e) The team moves to a location where the enemy cannot observe or place direct fire on it.



(f) If contact cannot be broken, the sniper calls for indirect fires or a security element (if attached).



(g) If team members get separated, they should return to the next-to-last designated en route rally point.



(3) Indirect fire. When reacting to indirect fires, the team must move out of the area as quickly as possible. This sudden movement can result in the team’s exact location and direction being pinpointed. Therefore, the team must not only react to indirect fire but also take actions to conceal its movement once it is out of the impact area.



(a) The team leader moves the team out of the impact area using the quickest route by giving the direction and distance (clock method).



(b) Team members move out of the impact area the designated distance and direction.



(c) The team leader then moves the team farther away from the impact area by using the most direct concealed route. They continue the mission using an alternate route.



(d) If team members get separated, they should return to the next-to-last designated en route rally point.



(4) Air attack.



(a) Team members assume the best available covered and concealed positions.



(b) Between passes of aircraft, team members move to positions that offer better cover and concealment.



(c) The team does not engage the aircraft.



(d) Team members remain in positions until attacking aircraft depart.



(e) If team members get separated, they return to the next-to-last designated en route rally point.



f. To aid the sniper team in navigation, the team should memorize the route by studying maps, aerial photos, or sketches. The team notes distinctive features (hills, streams, roads) and its location in relation to the route. It plans an alternate route in case the primary route cannot be used. It plans offsets to circumvent known obstacles to movement. The team uses terrain countdown, which involves memorizing terrain features from the start point to the objective, to maintain the route. During the mission, the sniper team mentally counts each terrain feature, thus ensuring it maintains the proper route.



g. The sniper team maintains orientation at all times. As it moves, it observes the terrain carefully and mentally checks off the distinctive features noted in the planning and study of the route. Many aids are available to ensure orientation. The following are examples:



(1) The location and direction of flow of principal streams.



(2) Hills, valleys, roads, and other peculiar terrain features.



(3) Railroad tracks, power lines, and other man-made objects.




SECTION III. SELECTION, OCCUPATION,

AND CONSTRUCTION OF SNIPER POSITIONS



Selecting the location for a position is one of the most important tasks a sniper team accomplishes during the mission planning phase of an operation. After selecting the location, the team also determines how it will move into the area to locate and occupy the final position.


4-10. SELECTION



Upon receiving a mission, the sniper team locates the target area and then determines the best location for a tentative position by using one or more of the following sources of information: topographic maps, aerial photographs, visual reconnaissance before the mission, and information gained from units operating in the area.

a. The sniper team ensures the position provides an optimum balance between the following considerations:



• Maximum fields of fire and observation of the target area.



• Concealment from enemy observation.



• Covered routes into and out of the position.



• Located no closer than 300 meters from the target area.



• A natural or man-made obstacle between the position and the target area.



b. A sniper team must remember that a position that appears to be in an ideal location may also appear that way to the enemy. Therefore, the team avoids choosing locations that are—



• On a point or crest of prominent terrain features.



• Close to isolated objects.



• At bends or ends of roads, trails, or streams.



• In populated areas, unless it is required.



c. The sniper team must use its imagination and ingenuity in choosing a good location for the given mission. The team chooses a location that not only allows the team to be effective but also must appear to the enemy to be the least likely place for a team position. The following are examples of such positions:



• Under logs in a deadfall area.



• Tunnels bored from one side of a knoll to the other.



• Swamps.



• Deep shadows.



• Inside rubble piles.




4-11. OCCUPATION



During the mission planning phase, the sniper also selects an objective rally point. From this point, the sniper team reconnoiters the tentative position to determine the exact location of its final position. The location of the ORP should provide cover and concealment from enemy fire and observation, be located as close to the selected area as possible, and have good routes into and out of the selected area.

a. From the ORP, the team moves foward to a location that allows the team to view the tentative position area (Figure 4-8). One member remains in this location to cover the other member who reconnoiters the area to locate a final position. Once a suitable location has been found, the covering team member moves to the position. While conducting the reconnaissance or moving to the position, the team—



• Moves slowly and deliberately, using the sniper low crawl.



• Avoids unnecessary movement of trees, bushes, and grass.



• Avoids making any noises.



• Stays in the shadows, if there are any.



• Stops, looks, and listens every few feet.



b. When the sniper team arrives at the firing position, it—



• Conducts a detailed search of the target area.



• Starts construction of the firing position, if required.



• Organizes equipment so that it is easily accessible.



• Establishes a system of observing eating resting, and latrine calls.





Figure 4-8: Tentative position areas.





4-12. CONSTRUCTION



A sniper mission always requires the team to occupy some type of position. These positions can range from a hasty position, which a team may use for a few hours, to a more permanent position, which the team could occupy for a few days. The team should always plan to build its position during limited visibility.

a. Sniper Position Considerations. Whether a sniper team is in a position for a few minutes or a few days, the basic considerations in choosing a type of position remain the same.



(1) Location:



(a) Type of terrain and soil. Digging and boring of tunnels can be very difficult in hard soil or in fine, loose sand. The team takes advantage of what the terrain offers (gullies, holes, hollow tree stumps, and so forth).



(b) Enemy location and capabilities. Enemy patrols in the area may be close enough to the position to hear any noises that may accidentally be made during any construction. The team also considers the enemy’s night vision and detection capabilities.



(2) Time:



(a) Amount of time to be occupied. If the sniper team’s mission requires it to be in position for a long time, the team constructs a position that provides more survivability. This allows the team to operate more effectively for a longer time.



(b) Time required for construction. The time required to build a position must be considered, especially during the mission planning phase.



(3) Personnel and equipment:



(a) Equipment needed for construction. The team plans for the use of any extra equipment needed for construction (bow saws, picks, axes, and so forth).



(b) Personnel needed for construction. Coordination is made if the position requires more personnel to build it or a security element to secure the area during construction.



b. Construction Techniques. Belly and semipermanent hide positions can be constructed of stone, brick, wood, or turf. Regardless of material, every effort is made to bulletproof the front of the hide position. The team can use the following techniques:



• Pack protective jackets around the loophole areas.



• Emplace an angled armor plate with a loophole cut into it behind the hide loophole.



• Sandbag the loopholes from the inside.



(1) Pit. Hide construction begins with the pit since it protects the sniper team. All excavated dirt is removed (placed in sandbags, taken away on a poncho, and so forth) and hidden (plowed fields, under a log, or away from the hide site).



(2) Overhead cover. In a semipermanent hide position, logs should be used as the base of the roof. The sniper team places a dust cover over the base (such as a poncho, layers of empty sandbags, or canvas), a layer of dirt, and a layer of gravel, if available. The team spreads another layer of dirt, and then adds camouflage. Due to the various materials, the roof is difficult to conceal if not countersunk.



(3) Entrance. To prevent detection, the sniper team should construct an entrance door sturdy enough to bear a man’s weight.



(4) Loopholes. The construction of loopholes (Figure 4-9) requires care and practice to ensure they afford adequate fields of fire. Loopholes must be camouflaged by foliage or other material that blends with or is natural to the surroundings.



(5) Approaches. It is vital that the natural appearance of the ground remains unaltered and camouflage blends with the surroundings. Construction time is wasted if the enemy observes a team entering the hide; therefore, approached must be concealed. Teams try to enter the hide during darkness, keeping movement to a minimum and adhering to trail discipline. In built-up areas, a secure and quiet approach is needed. Teams must avoid drawing attention to the mission and carefully plan movement. A possible ploy is to use a house search with sniper gear hidden among other gear. Sewers may be used for movement also.



c. Hasty Position. A hasty position is used when the sniper team is in a position for a short time and cannot construct a position due to the location of the enemy, or immediately assumes a position. The hasty position is characterized by the following:



(1) Advantages:



(a) Requires no construction. The sniper team uses what is available for cover and concealment.





Figure 4-9: Loopholes in hide position.





(b) Can be occupied in a short time. As soon as a suitable position is found, the team need only prepare loopholes by moving small amounts of vegetation or by simply backing a few feet away from the vegetation that is already thereto conceal the weapon’s muzzle blast.



(2) Disadvantages:



(a) Affords no freedom of movement. Any movement that is not slow and deliberate may result in the team being compromised.



(b) Restricts observation of large areas. This type of position is normally used to observe a specific target area (intersection, passage, or crossing).



(c) Offers no protection from direct or indirect fires.



(d) Relies heavily on personal camouflage. The team’s only protection against detection is personal camouflage and the ability to use the available terrain.



(3) Occupation time. The team should not remain in this type of position longer than eight hours.



d. Expedient Position. When a sniper team is required to remain in position for a longer time than the hasty position can provide, an expedient position (Figure 4-10) should be constructed. The expedient position lowers the sniper’s silhouette as low to the ground as possible, but it still allows him to fire and observe effectively. The expedient position is characterized by the following



(1) Advantages:



(a) Requires little construction. This position is constructed by digging a hole in the ground just large enough for the team and its equipment. Soil dug from this position can be placed in sandbags and used for building firing platforms.



(b) Conceals most of the body and equipment. The optics, rifles, and heads of the sniper team are the only items that are above ground level in this position.



(c) Provides some protection from direct fires due to its lower silhouette.





Figure 4-10: Expedient position.





(2) Disadvantages:



(a) Affords little freedom of movement. The team has more freedom of movement in this position than in the hasty position. Team members can lower their heads below ground level slowly to ensure a target indicator is not produced.



(b) Allows little protection from indirect fires. This position does not protect the team from shrapnel and debris falling into the position.



(c) Exposes the head, weapons, and optics. The team must rely heavily on the camouflaging of these exposed areas.



(3) Construction time: 1 to 3 hours (depending on the situation).



(4) Occupation time: 6 to 12 hours.



e. Belly Hide. The belly hide (Figure 4-11) is similar to the expedient position, but it has overhead cover that not only protects the team from the effects of indirect fires but also allows more freedom of movement. This position can be dugout under a tree, a rock, or any available object that provides overhead protection and a concealed entrance and exit. The belly hide is characterized by the following:



(1) Advantages:



(a) Allows some freedom of movement. The darkened area inside this position allows the team to move freely. The team must remember to cover the entrance/exit door so outside light does not silhouette the team inside the position or give the position away.



(b) Conceals all but the rifle barrel. All equipment is inside the position except the rifle barrels. Depending on the room available to construct the position, the rifle barrels may also be inside.



(c) Provides protection from direct and indirect fires. The team should try to choose a position that has an object that will provide good overhead protection (rock tracked vehicle, rubble pile, and so forth), or prepare it in the same manner as overhead cover for other infantry positions.



(2) Disadvantages:



(a) Requires extra construction time.



(b) Requires extra materials and tools. Construction of overhead cover requires saws or axes, waterproof material, and so forth.



(c) Has limited space. The sniper team will have to lay in the belly hide without a lot of variation in body position due to limited space and design of the position.



(3) Construction time: 4 to 6 hours.



(4) Occupation time: 12 to 48 hours.





Figure 4-11: Belly hide position.





f. Semipermanent Hide. The semipermanent hide (Figure 4-12) is used mostly in defensive situations. This position requires additional equipment and personnel to construct. However, it allows sniper teams to remain in place for extended periods or to be relieved in place by other sniper teams. Like the belly hide, this position can be constructed by tunneling through a knoll or under natural objects already in place. The semipermanent hide is characterized by the following:



(1) Advantages:



(a) Offers total freedom of movement inside the position. The team members can move about freely. They can stand, sit, or even lie down.



(b) Protects against direct and indirect fires. The sniper team should look for the same items as mentioned in the belly hide.



(c) Is completely concealed. Loopholes are the only part of the position that can be detected. They allow for the smallest exposure possible; yet they still allow the sniper and observer to view the target area. These loopholes should have a large diameter (10 to 14 inches) in the interior of the position and taper down to a smaller diameter (4 to 8 inches) on the outside of the position. A position may have more than two sets of loopholes if needed to cover large areas. The entrance/exit to the position must be covered to prevent light from entering and highlighting the loopholes. Loopholes that are not in use should be covered from the inside with a piece of canvas or suitable material.



(d) Is easily maintained for extended periods. This position allows the team to operate effectively for a longer period.



(2) Disadvantages:



(a) Requires extra personnel and tools to construct. This position requires extensive work and extra tools. It should not be constructed near the enemy. It should be constructed during darkness and be completed before dawn.





Figure 4-12: Semipermanent hide position.





(b) Increases risk of detection. Using a position for several days or having teams relieve each other in a position always increases the risk of detection.



(3) Construction time:4 to 6 hours (4 personnel).



(4) Occupation time:48 hours plus (relieved by other teams).



g. Routines in Sniper Team positions. Although the construction of positions may differ, the routines while in position are the same. The sniper and the observer should have a good firing platform. This gives the sniper a stable platform for the sniper weapon and the observer a platform for the optics. When rotating observation duties, the sniper weapon should remain in place, and the optics are handed from one member to the other. Sniper data book, observation logs, range cards, and the radio should be placed between the team where both members have easy access to them. A system of resting, eating, and latrine calls must be arranged between the team. All latrine calls should be done during darkness, if possible. A hole should be dug to conceal any traces of latrine calls.




4-13. POSITIONS IN URBAN TERRAIN



Positions in urban terrain are quite different than positions in the field. The sniper team normally has several places to choose. These can range from inside attics to street-level positions in basements. This type of terrain is ideal for a sniper, and a sniper team can stop an enemy’s advance through its area of responsibility.

a. When constructing an urban position, the sniper team must be aware of the outside appearance of the structure. Shooting through loopholes in barricaded windows is preferred; the team must make sure all other windows are also barricaded. Building loopholes in other windows also provides more positions to engage targets. When building loopholes, the team should make them different shapes (not perfect squares or circles). Dummy loopholes also confuse the enemy. Positions in attics are also effective. The team removes the shingles and cuts out loopholes in the roof; however, they must make sure there are other shingles missing from the roof so the firing position loophole is not obvious.



(1) The sniper team should not locate the position against contrasting background or in prominent buildings that automatically draw attention. It must stay in the shadows while moving, observing, and engaging targets.



(2) The team must never fire close to a loophole. It should always back away from the hole as far as possible to hide the muzzle flash and to scatter the sound of the weapon when it fires. The snipers may be located in a different room than the loophole; however, they can make a hole through a wall to connect the rooms and fire from inside one room. The team must not fire continually from one position (more than one position should be constructed if time and situation permit). When constructing other positions, the team makes sure the target area can be observed. Sniper team positions should never be used by any personnel other than a sniper team.



b. Common sense and imagination are the sniper team’s only limitation in the construction of urban hide positions. Urban hide positions that can be used are the room hide, crawl space hide, and rafter hide. The team constructs and occupies one of these positions or a variation thereof.





WARNING





When moving through sewers, teams must be alert for booby traps and poisonous gases.





(1) Room hide position. In a room hide position, the sniper team uses an existing room and fires through a window or loophole (Figure 4-13). Weapon support may be achieved through the use of existing furniture-that is, desks or tables. When selecting a position, teams must notice both front and back window positions. To avoid silhouetting, they may need to use a backdrop such as a dark-colored blanket, canvas, carpet, and a screen. Screens (common screening material) are important since they allow the sniper teams maximum observation and deny observation by the enemy. They must not remove curtains; however, they can open windows or remove panes of glass. Remember, teams can randomly remove panes in other windows so the position is not obvious.





Figure 4-13: Room hide position.





(2) Crawl space hide position. The sniper team builds a crawl space hide position in the space between floors in multistory buildings (Figure 4-14). Loopholes are difficult to construct, but a damaged building helps considerably. Escape routes can be holes knocked into the floor or ceiling. Carpet or furniture placed over escape holes or replaced ceiling tiles will conceal them until needed.



(3) Rafter hide position. The sniper team constructs a rafter hide position in the attic of an A-frame-type building. These buildings normally have shingled roofs (A and B, Figure 4-15). Firing from inside the attic around a chimney or other structure helps prevent enemy observation and fire.





Figure 4-14: Crawl space hide position.





Figure 4-15: Rafter hide positions.





c. Sniper teams use the technique best suited for the urban hide position.



(1) The second floor of a building is usually the best location for the position. It presents minimal dead space but provides the team more protection since passersby cannot easily spot it.



(2) Normally, a window is the best viewing aperture/loophole.



(a) If the window is dirty, do not clean it for better viewing.



(b) If curtains are prevalent in the area, do not remove those in the position. Lace or net-type curtains can be seen through from the inside, but they are difficult to see through from the outside.



(c) If strong winds blow the curtains open, staple, tack, or weight them.



(d) Firing a round through a curtain has little effect on accuracy however, ensure the muzzle is far enough away to avoid muzzle blast.



(e) When area routine indicates open curtains, follow suit. Set up well away from the loophole; however, ensure effective coverage of the assigned target area.



(3) Firing through glass should be avoided since more than one shot may be required. The team considers the following options:



(a) Break or open several windows throughout the position before occupation. This can be done during the reconnaissance phase of the operation; however, avoid drawing attention to the area.



(b) Remove or replace panes of glass with plastic.



(4) Other loopholes/viewing apertures are nearly unlimited.



• Battle damage.



• Drilled holes (hand drill).



• Brick removal.



• Loose boards/derelict houses.



(5) Positions can also be set up in attics or between the ceiling and roof. (See rafter hide positions.)



• Gable ends close to the eaves (shadow adding to concealment).



• Battle damage to gables and or roof.



• Loose or removed tiles, shingles, or slates.



• Skylights.



(6) The sniper makes sure the bullet clears the loophole. The muzzle must be far enough from the loophole to ensure the bullet’s path is not in line with the bottom of the loophole.



(7) Front drops, usually netting, may have to be changed (if the situation permits) from dark to light colors at BMNT/EENT due to sunlight or lack of sunlight into the position.



(8) If the site is not multiroomed, partitions can be made by hanging blankets or nets to separate the operating area from the rest/administrative area.



(9) If sandbags are required, they can be filled and carried inside of rucksacks or can be filled in the basement, depending on the situation/location of the position site.



(10) Always plan an escape route that leads to the objective rally point. When forced to vacate the position, the team meets the security element at the ORP. Normally, the team will not be able to leave from the same point at which it gained access; therefore, a separate escape point may be required in emergency situations. The team must consider windows (other than the viewing apertures); anchored ropes to climb down buildings, or a small, preset explosive charge situated on a wall or floor for access into adjoining rooms, buildings, or the outside.



(11) The type of uniform or camouflage to be worn by the team will be dictated by the situation, how they are employed, and area of operation. The following applies:



(a) Most often, the BDU and required equipment are worn.



(b) Urban-camouflaged uniforms can be made or purchased. Urban areas vary in color (mostly gray [cinder block]; red [brick]; white [marble]; black [granite]; or stucco, clay, or wood). Regardless of area color, uniforms should include angular-line patterns.



(c) When necessary, most woodland-patterned BDUs can be worn inside out as they are a gray or green-gray color underneath.



(d) Soft-soled shoes or boots are the preferred footwear in the urban environment.



(e) Civilian clothing can be worn (native/host country populace).



(f) Tradesmen’s or construction worker’s uniforms and accessories can be used.




SECTION IV. OBSERVATION



Throughout history, battles have been won and nations conquered based on an accurate accounting and description of the opposing forces strength, equipment, and location. As the sniper team performs the secondary mission of collecting and reporting battlefield intelligence, the commander can act, rather than react. The purpose of observation is to gather facts and to provide information for a specific intent. Observation uses all of the sniper team’s five senses but often depends on sight and hearing. For example, the sniper team is issued a PIR or OIR for a specific mission. Information gathered by the sniper team is reported, analyzed, and processed into intelligence reports. The sniper team’s success depends upon its powers of observation. In addition to the sniperscope, the sniper team has an observation telescope, binoculars, night vision sight, and night vision goggles to enhance its ability to observe and engage targets. Team members must relieve each other when using this equipment since prolonged use can cause eye fatigue, greatly reducing the effectiveness of observation. Team members rotate periods of observation. During daylight, observation should be limited to 10 minutes followed by a 10-minute rest. When using night vision devices, the observer should limit his initial period of viewing to 10 minutes followed by a 10-minute rest. After several periods of viewing, he can extend the viewing period to 15 minutes and then a 15-minute rest.


4-14. HASTY AND DETAILED SEARCHES



While observing a target area, the sniper team alternately conducts two types of visual searches: hasty and detailed.

a. A hasty search is the first phase of observing a target area. The observer conducts a hasty search immediately after the team occupies the firing position. A hasty search consists of quick glances with binoculars at specific points, terrain features, or other areas that could conceal the enemy. The observer views the area closest to the team’s position first since it could pose the most immediate threat. The observer then searches farther out until the entire target area has been searched. When the observer sees or suspects a target, he uses an M49 observation telescope for a detailed view of the target area. The telescope should not be used to search the area because its narrow field of view would take much longer to cover an area; plus, its stronger magnification can cause eye fatigue sooner than the binoculars.



b. After a hasty search has been completed, the observer then conducts a detailed search of the area. A detailed search is a closer, more thorough search of the target area, using 180-degree area or sweeps, 50 meters in depth, and overlapping each previous sweep at least 10 meters to ensure the entire area has been observed (Figure 4-16). Like the hasty search, the observer begins by searching the area closest to the sniper team position.



c. This cycle of a hasty search followed by a detailed search should be repeated three or four times. This allows the sniper team to become accustomed to the area; plus, the team will look closer at various points with each consecutive pass over the area. After the initial searches, the observer should view the area, using a combination of both hasty and detailed searches. While the observer conducts the initial searches of the area, the sniper should record prominent features, reference points, and distances on a range card. The team members should alternate the task of observing the area about every 30 minutes.





Figure 4-16: Detailed search.





4-15. ELEMENTS OF OBSERVATION



The four elements in the process of observation include awareness, understanding, recording, and response. Each of these elements may be accomplished as a separate processor accomplished at the same time.

a. Awareness. Awareness is being consciously attuned to a specific fact. A sniper team must always be aware of the surroundings and take nothing for granted. The team also considers certain elements that influence and distort awareness.



(1) An object’s size and shape can be misinterpreted if viewed incompletely or inaccurately.



(2) Distractions degrade the quality of observations.



(3) Active participation or degree of interest can diminish toward the event.



(4) Physical abilities (five senses) have limitations.



(5) Environmental changes affect accuracy.



(6) Imagination may cause possible exaggerations or inaccuracy.



b. Understanding. Understanding is derived from education, training, practice, and experience. It enhances the sniper team’s knowledge about what should be observed, broadens its ability to view and consider all aspects, and aids in its evaluation of information.



c. Recording. Recording is the ability to save and recall what was observed. Usually, the sniper team has mechanical aids, such as writing utensils, sniper data book, sketch kits, tape recorders, and cameras, to support the recording of events; however, the most accessible method is memory. The ability to record, retain, and recall depends on the team’s mental capacity (and alertness) and ability to recognize what is essential to record. Added factors that affect recording include:



(1) The amount of training and practice in observation.



(2) Skill gained through experience.



(3) Similarity of previous incidents.



(4) Time interval between observing and recording.



(5) The ability to understand or convey messages through oral or other communications.



d. Response. Response is the sniper team’s action toward information. It may be as simple as recording events in a sniper data book, making a communications call, or firing a well-aimed shot.





NOTE



See Chapter 9 for discussion on the keep-in-memory (KIM) game.





4-16. TWILIGHT TECHNIQUES



Twilight induces a false sense of security, and the sniper team must be extremely cautious. The enemy is also prone to carelessness and more likely to expose himself at twilight. During twilight, snipers should be alert to OP locations for future reference. The M3A telescope reticle is still visible and capable of accurate fire 30 minutes before BMNT and 30 minutes after EENT.


4-17. NIGHT TECHNIQUES



Without night vision devices, the sniper team must depend upon eyesight. Regardless of night brightness, the human eye cannot function at night with daylight precision. For maximum effectiveness, the sniper team must apply the following principles of night vision:

a. Night Adaptation. The sniper team should wear sunglasses or red-lensed goggles in lighted areas before departing on a mission. After departure, the team makes a darkness adaptation and listening halt for 30 minutes.



b. Off-Center Vision. In dim light, an object under direct focus blurs, appears to change, and sometimes fades out entirely. However, when the eyes are focused at different points, about 5 to 10 degrees away from an object, peripheral vision provides a true picture. This allows the light-sensitive portion of the eye, that’s not used during the day, to be used.



c. Factors Affecting Night Vision. The sniper team has control over the following night vision factors:



(1) Lack of vitamin A impairs night vision. However, an overdose of vitamin A will not improve night vision capability.



(2) Colds, fatigue, narcotics, headaches, smoking, and alcohol reduce night vision.



(3) Exposure to bright light degrades night vision and requires a readaption to darkness.




4-18. ILLUMINATION AIDS



The sniper team may occasionally have artificial illumination for observing and firing. Examples are artillery illumination fire, campfires, or lighted buildings.

a. Artillery Illumination Fire. The M301A2 illuminating cartridge provides 50,000 candlepower.



b. Campfires. Poorly disciplined enemy soldiers may use campfires, or fires may be created by battlefield damage. These opportunities give the sniper enough illumination for aiming.



c. Lighted Buildings. The sniper can use lighted buildings to eliminate occupants of the building or personnel in the immediate area of the light source.




SECTION V. TARGET DETECTION AND SELECTION



Recording the type and location of targets in the area helps the sniper team to determine engageable targets. The sniper team must select key targets that will do the greatest harm to the enemy in a given situation. It must also consider the use of indirect fire on targets. Some targets, due to their size or location, may be better engaged with indirect fire.


4-19. TARGET INDEXING



To index targets, the sniper team uses the prepared range card for a reference since it can greatly reduce the engagement time. When indexing a target to the sniper, the observer locates a prominent terrain feature near the target. He indicates this feature and any other information to the sniper to assist in finding the target. Information between team members varies with the situation. The observer may sound like an FO giving a call for fire to an FDC depending on the condition of the battlefield and the total number of possible targets from which to choose.

a. Purpose. The sniper team indexes targets for the following reasons:



(1) Sniper teams may occupy an FFP in advance of an attack to locate, index, and record target locations; and to decide on the priority of targets.



(2) Indiscriminate firing may alert more valuable and closer enemy targets.



(3) Engagement of a distant target may result in disclosure of the FFP to a closer enemy.



(4) A system is needed to remember location if several targets are sighted at the same time.



b. Considerations. The sniper team must consider the following factors when indexing targets:



(1) Exposure times. Moving targets may expose themselves for only a short time The sniper team must note the point of disappearance of each target, if possible, before engagement. By doing so, the team may be able to take several targets under fire in rapid succession.



(2) Number of targets. If several targets appear and disappear at the same time, the point of disappearance of each is hard to determine; therefore, sniper teams concentrate on the most important targets.



(3) Spacing/distance between targets. The greater the distance between targets, the harder it is to see their movement. In such cases, the team should locate and engage the nearest targets.



(4) Evacuation of aiming points. Targets that disappear behind good aiming points are easily recorded and remembered, targets with poor aiming points are easily lost. Assuming that two such targets are of equal value and danger, the team should engage the more dangerous aiming point target first.



c. Determination of Location of Hidden Fires. When using the crack-thump method, the team listens for the crack of the round and the thump of the weapon being fired. By using this method, the sniper can obtain both a direction and a distance.



(1) Distance to firer. The time difference between the crack and the thump can be converted into an approximate range. A one-second lapse between the two is about 600 yards with most calibers; a one-half-second lapse is about 300 yards.



(2) Location of firer. By observing in the direction of the thump and near the predetermined range, the sniper team has a good chance of seeing the enemy’s muzzle flash or blast from subsequent shots.



(3) Limitations. The crack-thump method has the following limitations:



(a) Isolating the crack and thump is difficult when many shots are being fired.



(b) Mountainous areas, tall buildings, and so forth cause echoes and make this method ineffective.



d. Shot-Hole Analysis. Locating two or more shot holes in trees, walls, dummy heads, and so forth may make it possible to determine the direction of the shots. The team can use the dummy-head pencil method and triangulate on the enemy sniper’s position. However, this method only works if all shots come from the same position.




4-20. TARGET SELECTION



Target selection may be forced upon the sniper team. A target moving rapidly may be lost while obtaining positive identification. The sniper team considers any enemy threatening its position as a high-value target. When selecting key targets, the team must consider the following factors:

a. Threat to the Sniper Team. The sniper team must consider the danger the target presents. This can be an immediate threat, such as an enemy element walking upon its position, or a future threat, such as enemy snipers or dog tracking teams.



b. Probability of First-Round Hit. The sniper team must determine the chances of hitting the target with the first shot by considering the following:



• Distance to the target.



• Direction and velocity of the wind.



• Visibility of the target area.



• Amount of the target that is exposed.



• Amount of time the target is exposed.



• Speed and direction of target movement.



c. Certainty of Target’s Identity. The sniper team must be reasonably certain that the target it is considering is the key target.



d. Target Effect on the Enemy. The sniper team must consider what effect the elimination of the target will have on the enemy’s fighting ability. It must determine that the target is the one available target that will cause the greatest harm to the enemy.



e. Enemy Reaction to Sniper Fire. The sniper team must consider what the enemy will do once the shot has been fired. The team must be prepared for such actions as immediate suppression by indirect fires and enemy sweeps of the area.



f. Effect on the Overall Mission. The sniper team must consider how the engagement will affect the overall mission. The mission may be one of intelligence gathering for a certain period. Firing will not only alert the enemy to a team’s presence, but it may also terminate the mission if the team has to move from its position as a result of the engagement.




4-21. KEY TARGETS



Key personnel targets can be identified by actions or mannerisms, by positions within formations, by rank or insignias, and/or by equipment being worn or carried. Key targets can also include weapon systems and equipment. Examples of key targets areas follows:

a. Snipers. Snipers are the number one target of a sniper team. The enemy sniper not only poses a threat to friendly forces, but he is also the natural enemy of the sniper. The fleeting nature of a sniper is reason enough to engage him because he may never be seen again.



b. Dog Tracking Teams. Dog tracking teams pose a great threat to sniper teams and other special teams that may be working in the area. It is hard to fool a trained dog. When engaging a dog tracking team, the sniper should engage the dog’s handler first. This confuses the dog, and other team members may not be able to control it.



c. Scouts. Scouts are keen observers and provide valuable information about friendly units. This plus their ability to control indirect fires make them dangerous on the battlefield. Scouts must be eliminated.



d. Officers. Officers are another key target of the sniper team. Losing key officers in some forces is such a major disruption to the operation that forces may not be able to coordinate for hours.



e. Noncommissioned Officers. Losing NCOs not only affects the operation of a unit but also affects the morale of lower ranking personnel.



f. Vehicle Commanders and Drivers. Many vehicles are rendered useless without a commander or driver.



g. Communications Personnel. In some forces, only highly trained personnel know how to operate various types of radios. Eliminating these personnel can be a serious blow to the enemy’s communication network.



h. Weapon Crews. Eliminating weapon crews reduces the amount of fire on friendly troops.



i. Optics on Vehicles. Personnel who are in closed vehicles are limited to viewing through optics. The sniper can blind a vehicle by damaging these optic systems.



j. Communication and Radar Equipment. The right shot in the right place can completely ruin a tactically valuable radar or communication system. Also, only highly trained personnel may attempt to repair these systems in place. Eliminating these personnel may impair the enemy’s ability to perform field repair.



k. Weapon Systems. Many high-technology weapons, especially computer-guided systems, can be rendered useless by one well-placed round in the guidance controller of the system.




SECTION VI. RANGE ESTIMATION



A sniper team is required to accurately determine distance, to properly adjust elevation on the sniper weapon system, and to prepare topographical sketches or range cards. Because of this, the team has to be skilled in various range estimation techniques.


4-22. FACTORS AFFECTING RANGE ESTIMATION



Three factors affect range estimation: nature of the target, nature of th eterrain, and light conditions.

a. Nature of the Target.



(1) An object of regular outline, such as a house, appears closer than one of irregular outline, such as a clump of trees.



(2) A target that contrasts with its background appears to be closer than it actually is.



(3) A partly exposed target appears more distant than it actually is.



b. Nature of the Terrain.



(1) As the observer’s eye follows the contour of the terrain, he tends to overestimate distant targets.



(2) Observing over smooth terrain, such as sand, water, or snow, causes the observer to underestimate distant targets.



(3) Looking downhill, the target appears farther away.



(4) Looking uphill, the target appears closer.



c. Light Conditions.



(1) The more clearly a target can be seen, the closer it appears.



(2) When the sun is behind the observer, the target appears to be closer.



(3) When the sun is behind the target, the target is more difficult to see and appears to be farther away.




4-23. RANGE ESTIMATION METHODS



Sniper teams use range estimation methods to determine distance between their position and the target.

a. Paper-Strip Method. The paper-strip method (Figure 4-17) is useful when determining longer distances (1,000 meters plus). When using this method, the sniper places the edge of a strip of paper on the map and ensures it is long enough to reach between the two points. Then he pencils in a tick mark on the paper at the team position and another at the distant location. He places the paper on the map’s bar scale, located at the bottom center of the map, and aligns the left tick mark with the 0 on the scale. Then he reads to the right to the second mark and notes the corresponding distance represented between the two marks.





Figure 4-17: Paper-strip method.





b. 100-Meter-Unit-of-Measure Method. To use this method (Figure 4-18), the sniper team must be able to visualize a distance of 100 meters on the ground. For ranges up to 500 meters, the team determines the number of 100-meter increments between the two objects it wishes to measure. Beyond 500 meters, it must select a point halfway to the object and determine the number of 100-meter increments to the halfway point, then double it to find the range to the object.





Figure 4-18: 100-meter-unit-of-measure method.





c. Appearance-of-Object Method. This method is a means of determining range by the size and other characteristic details of the object. To use the appearance-of-object method with any degree of accuracy, the sniper team must be familiar with the characteristic details of the objects as they appear at various ranges.



d. Bracketing Method. Using this method, the sniper team assumes that the target is no more than X meters but no less than Y meters away. An average of X and Y will be the estimate of the distance to the target.



e. Range-Card Method. The sniper team can also use a range card to quickly determine ranges throughout the target area. Once a target is seen, the team determines where it is located on the card and then reads the proper range to the target.



f. Mil-Relation Formula. The mil-relation formula is the preferred method of range estimation. This method uses a mil-scale reticle located in the M19 binoculars (Figure 4-19) or in the M3A sniperscope (Figure 4-20). The team must know the target size in inches or meters. Once the target size is known, the team then compares the target size to the mil-scale reticle and uses the following formula:





(To convert inches to meters, multiply the number of inches by .0254.)





Figure 4-19: M19 mil-scale reticle.





Figure 4-20: M3A mil-scale reticle.





g. Combination Method. In a combat environment, perfect conditions rarely exist. Therefore, only one method of range estimation may not be enough for the team’s specific mission. Terrain with much dead space limits the accuracy of the 100-meter method. Poor visibility limits the use of the appearance-of-object method. However, by using a combination of two or more methods to determine an unknown range, an experienced sniper team should arrive at an estimated range close to the true range.




4-24. LASER RANGE FINDER



When the sniper team has access to a laser observation set, AN/GVS-5, the set should always be used. It can provide the sniper team range to a specific target with great accuracy. When aiming the laser at a specific target, the sniper should support it much the same as his weapon to ensure accuracy. If the target is too small, aiming the laser at a larger object near the target will suffice (that is, a building, vehicle, tree, or terrain feature).


4-25. ESTIMATION GUIDELINES



If mirage is too heavy to distinguish the bottom of a target, it should be halved.



EXAMPLE



When the target is estimated to be 70 inches high, divide the height into one-half. Use the following mil-relation formula:





By using this technique, estimate range to targets that are only partly visible. Such as:

The normal distance from the breastbone to the top of the head is 19 inches.





OR



Normal height of the human head is 10 inches.





This example may prove to be of specific use when facing an enemy entrenched in bunkers or in dense vegetation.

a. The sniper team should keep a sniper data book complete with measurements.



(1) Vehicles.



• Height of road wheels.



• Vehicle dimensions.



• Length of main gun tubes on tanks.



• Lengths/sizes of different weapon systems.



(2) Average height of human targets in area of operation.



(3) Urban environment.



• Average size of doorways.



• Average size of windows.



• Average width of streets and lanes (average width of a paved road in the United States is 10 feet).



• Height of soda machines.



b. As the sniper team develops a sniper data book, all measurements are converted into constants and computed with different mil readings. An example of this is Table 4-1, which has already been computed for immediate use. This table should be incorporated into the sniper data book



Table 4-1: Range estimation table.





SECTION VII. INFORMATION RECORDS



The secondary mission of the sniper team is the collection and reporting of information. To accomplish this, the sniper team not only needs to be keen observers, but it also must accurately relay the information it has observed. To record this information, the team uses the sniper data book, which contains a range card, a military sketch, and an observation log.


4-26. RANGE CARD



The range card represents the target area drawn as seen from above with annotations indicating distances throughout the target area. Information is recorded on DA Form 5787-R (Sniper’s Range Card) (Figure 4-21). (A blank copy of this form is located in the back of this publication for local reproduction.) The range card provides the sniper team with a quick-range reference and a means to record target locations, since it has preprinted range rings on it. These cards can be divided into sectors by using dashed lines. This provides the team members with a quick reference when locating targets-for example: “The intersection in sector A.” A range card can be prepared on any paper the team has available. The sniper team position and distances to prominent objects and terrain features are drawn on the card. There is not a set maximum range on the range card, because the team may also label any indirect fire targets on its range card. Information contained on range cards includes:

a. Name, rank, SSN, and unit.



b. Method of obtaining range.



c. Left and right limits of engageable area.



d. Major terrain features, roads, and structures.



e. Ranges, elevation, and windage needed at various distances.



f. Distances throughout the area.



g. Temperature and wind. (Cross out previous entry whenever temperature, wind direction, or wind velocity changes.)



h. Target reference points (azimuth, distance, and description).




4-27. MILITARY SKETCH



DA Form 5788-R (Military Sketch) is used to record information about a general area, terrain features, or man-made structures that are not shown on a map. Military sketches provide intelligence sections a detailed, on-the-ground view of an area or object that is otherwise unobtainable. These sketches not only let the viewer see the area in different perspectives but also provide detail such as type of fences, number of telephone wires, present depth of streams, and so forth. There are two types of military sketches as stated in FM 21–26 panoramic sketches and topographic sketches. Information is recorded on DA Form 5788-R.

a. Panoramic. A panoramic sketch (Figure 4-22) is a representation of an area or object drawn to scale as seen from the sniper team’s perspective. It shows details about a specific area or a man-made structure. Information considered in a panoramic sketch includes the following:





Figure 4-21: Example of completed DA Form 5787-R.





(1) Name, rank, SSN, and unit.



(2) Remarks section (two).



(3) Sketch name.



(4) Grid coordinates of sniper team’s position.



(5) Weather.



(6) Magnetic azimuth through the center of sketch.



(7) Sketch number and scale of sketch.



(8) Date and time.



b. Topographic Sketch. A topographic sketch (Figure 4-23) is a topographic representation of an area drawn to scale as seen from above. It provides the sniper team with a method for describing large areas while showing reliable distance and azimuths between major features. This type of sketch is useful in describing road systems, flow of streams/rivers, or locations of natural and man-made obstacles. The field sketch can also be used as an overlay on the range card. Information contained in a field sketch includes the following:



(1) Grid coordinates of the sniper team’s position.



(2) Name, rank, SSN, and unit.





Figure 4-22: Example of completed DA Form 5788-R for panoramic sketch.





(3) Remarks.



(4) Sketch name.



(5) Grid coordinates.



(6) Weather.



(7) Magnetic azimuth.



(8) Sketch number and scale.



(9) Date and time.





Figure 4-23: Example of completed DA Form 5788-R for topographic sketch.





c. Guidelines for Drawing Sketches. As with all drawings, artistic skill is an asset, but satisfactory sketches can be drawn by anyone with practice. The following are guidelines when drawing sketches:



(1) Work from the whole to the part. First determine the boundaries of the sketch. Then sketch the larger objects such as hills, mountains, or outlines of large buildings. After drawing the large objects in the sketch, start drawing the smaller details.



(2) Use common shapes to show common objects. Do not sketch each individual tree, hedgerow, or wood line exactly. Use common shapes to show these types of objects. Do not concentrate on the fine details unless they are of tactical importance.



(3) Draw in perspective; use vanishing points. Try to draw sketches in perspective. To do this, recognize the vanishing points of the area to be sketched. Parallel lines on the ground that are horizontal vanish at a point on the horizon (Figure 4-24). Parallel lines on the ground that slope downward away from the observer vanish at a point below the horizon. Parallel lines on the ground that slope upward, away from the observer vanish at a point above the horizon. Parallel lines that recede to the right vanish on the right and those that recede to the left vanish on the left (Figure 4-24).





Figure 4-24: Vanishing points.





4-28. SNIPER DATA BOOK



The sniper data book is a written, chronological record of all activities and events that take place in a sniper team’s area. It is used with military sketches and range cards; this combination not only gives commanders and intelligence personnel information about the appearance of the area, but it also provides an accurate record of the activity in the area. Information is recorded on DA Form 5786-R (Sniper’s Observation Log) (Figure 4-25). (A blank copy of this form is in the back of this publication for local reproduction.) Information in the observation log includes: (Completion of this form is self-explanatory.)

a. Sheet number and number of total sheets.



b. Observer’s name, rank, SSN, and unit.



c. Date and time of observation and visibility.



d. Grid coordinates of the sniper team’s position.



e. Series number, time, and grid coordinates of each event.



f. The event that has taken place.



g. Action taken and remarks.





Figure 4-25: Example of completed DA Form 5786-R.





CHAPTER 5





Tracking/Countertracking



When a sniper follows a trail, he builds a picture of the enemy in his mind by asking himself questions: How many persons am I following? What is their state of training? How are they equipped? Are they healthy? What is their state of morale? Do they know they are being followed? To answer these questions, the sniper uses available indicators to track the enemy. The sniper looks for signs that reveal an action occurred at a specific time and place. For example, a footprint in soft sand is an excellent indicator, since a sniper can determine the specific time the person passed. By comparing indicators, the sniper obtains answers to his questions. For example, a footprint and a waist-high scuff on a tree may indicate that an armed individual passed this way.





SECTION I. TRACKING



Any indicator the sniper discovers can be defined by one of six tracking concepts: displacement, stains, weather, litter, camouflage, and immediate-use intelligence.


5-1. DISPLACEMENT



Displacement takes place when anything is moved from its original position. A well-defined footprint or shoe print in soft, moist ground is a good example of displacement. By studying the footprint or shoe print, the sniper determines several important facts. For example, a print left by worn footgear or by bare feet may indicate lack of proper equipment. Displacement can also result from clearing a trail by breaking or cutting through heavy vegetation with a machete. These trails are obvious to the most inexperienced sniper who is tracking. Individuals may unconsciously break more branches as they follow someone who is cutting the vegetation. Displacement indicators can also be made by persons carrying heavy loads who stop to rest; prints made by box edges can help to identify the load. When loads are set down at a rest halt or campsite, they usually crush grass and twigs. A reclining soldier also flattens the vegetation.

a. Analyzing Footprints. Footprints may indicate direction, rate of movement, number, sex, and whether the individual knows he is being tracked.



(1) If footprints are deep and the pace is long, rapid movement is apparent. Long strides and deep prints with toe prints deeper than heel prints indicate running (A, Figure 5-1).



(2) Prints that are deep, short, and widely spaced, with signs of scuffing or shuffling indicate the person is carrying a heavy load (B, Figure 5-1).



(3) If the party members realize they are being followed, they may try to hide their tracks. Persons walking backward (C, Figure 5-1) have a short, irregular stride. The prints have an unnaturally deep toe, and soil is displaced in the direction of movement.



(4) To determine the sex (D, Figure 5-1), the sniper should study the size and position of the footprints. Women tend to be pigeon-toed, while men walk with their feet straight ahead or pointed slightly to the outside. Prints left by women are usually smaller and the stride is usually shorter than prints left by men.



b. Determining Key Prints. The last individual in the file usually leaves the clearest footprints; these become the key prints. The sniper cuts a stick to match the length of the prints and notches it to indicate the width at the widest part of the sole. He can then study the angle of the key prints to the direction of march. The sniper looks for an identifying mark or feature, such as worn or frayed footwear, to help him identify the key prints. If the trail becomes vague, erased, or merges with another, the sniper can use his stick-measuring devices and, with close study, can identify the key prints. This method helps the sniper to stay on the trail. A technique used to count the total number of individuals being tracked is the box method. There are two methods the sniper can use to employ the box method.



(1) The most accurate is to use the stride as a unit of measure (Figure 5-2) when key prints can be determined. The sniper uses the set of key prints and the edges of the road or trail to box in an area to analyze. This method is accurate under the right conditions for counting up to 18 persons.





Figure 5-1: Different types of footprints.





Figure 5-2: Stride measurement.





(2) The sniper may also use the the 36-inch box method (Figure 5-3) if key prints are not evident. To use the 36-inch box method, the sniper uses the edges of the road or trail as the sides of the box. He measures a cross section of the area 36 inches long, counting each indentation in the box and dividing by two. This method gives a close estimate of the number of individuals who made the prints; however, this system is not as accurate as the stride measurement.





Figure 5-3: 36-inch box method.





c. Recognizing Other Signs of Displacement. Foliage, moss, vines, sticks, or rocks that are scuffed or snagged from their original position form valuable indicators. Vines may be dragged, dew droplets displaced, or stones and sticks overturned (A, Figure 5-4) to show a different color underneath. Grass or other vegetation may be bent or broken in the direction of movement (B, Figure 5-4).



(1) The sniper inspects all areas for bits of clothing, threads, or dirt from footgear that can be torn or can fall and be left on thorns, snags, or the ground.



(2) Flushed from their natural habitat, wild animals and birds are another example of displacement. Cries of birds excited by unnatural movement is an indicator; moving tops of tall grass or brush on a windless day indicates that someone is moving the vegetation.



(3) Changes in the normal life of insects and spiders may indicate that someone has recently passed. Valuable clues are disturbed bees, ant holes uncovered by someone moving over them, or torn spider webs. Spiders often spin webs across open areas, trails, or roads to trap flying insects. If the tracked person does not avoid these webs, he leaves an indicator to an observant sniper.



(4) If the person being followed tries to use a stream to cover his trail, the sniper can still follow successfully. Algae and other water plants can be displaced by lost footing or by careless walking. Rocks can be displaced from their original position or overturned to indicate a lighter or darker color on the opposite side. The person entering or exiting a stream creates slide marks or footprints, or scuffs the bark on roots or sticks (C, Figure 5-4). Normally, a person or animal seeks the path of least resistance; therefore, when searching the stream for an indication of departures, snipers will find signs in open areas along the banks.





Figure 5-4: Other displacements.





5-2. STAINS



A stain occurs when any substance from one organism or article is smeared or deposited on something else. The best example of staining is blood from a profusely bleeding wound. Bloodstains often appear as spatters or drops and are not always on the ground; they also appear smeared on leaves or twigs of trees and bushes.

a. By studying bloodstains, the sniper can determine the wound’s location.



(1) If the blood seems to be dripping steadily, it probably came from a wound on the trunk.



(2) If the blood appears to be slung toward the front, rear, or sides, the wound is probably in the extremity.



(3) Arterial wounds appear to pour blood at regular intervals as if poured from a pitcher. If the wound is veinous, the blood pours steadily.



(4) A lung wound deposits pink, bubbly, and frothy bloodstains.



(5) A bloodstain from a head wound appears heavy, wet, and slimy.



(6) Abdominal wounds often mix blood with digestive juices so the deposit has an odor and is light in color.



The sniper can also determine the seriousness of the wound and how far the wounded person can move unassisted. These prompts may lead the sniper to enemy bodies or indicate where they have been carried.

b. Staining can also occur when muddy footgear is dragged over grass, stones, and shrubs. Thus, staining and displacement combine to indicate movement and direction. Crushed leaves may stain rocky ground that is too hard to show footprints. Roots, stones, and vines may be stained where leaves or berries are crushed by moving feet.



c. The sniper may have difficulty in determining the difference between staining and displacement since both terms can be applied to some indicators. For example, muddied water may indicate recent movement; displaced mud also stains the water. Muddy footgear can stain stones in streams, and algae can be displaced from stones in streams and can stain other stones or the bank. Muddy water collects in new footprints in swampy ground; however, the mud settles and the water clears with time. The sniper can use this information to indicate time; normally, the mud clears in about one hour, although time varies with the terrain.




5-3. WEATHER



Weather either aids or hinders the sniper. It also affects indicators in certain ways so that the sniper can determine their relative ages. However, wind, snow, rain, or sunlight can erase indicators entirely and hinder the sniper. The sniper should know how weather affects soil, vegetation, and other indicators in his area. He cannot determine the age of indicators until he understands the effects that weather has on trail signs.

a. By studying weather effects on indicators, the sniper can determine the age of the sign (for example, when bloodstains are fresh, they are bright red). Air and sunlight first change blood to a deep ruby-red color, then to a dark brown crust when the moisture evaporates. Scuff marks on trees or bushes darken with time; sap oozes, then hardens when it makes contact with the air.



b. Weather affects footprints (Figure 5-5). By carefully studying the weather process, the sniper can estimate the age of the print. If particles of soil are beginning to fall into the print, the sniper should become a stalker. If the edges of the print are dried and crusty, the prints are probably about one hour old. This varies with terrain and should be considered as a guide only.



c. A light rain may round the edges of the print. By remembering when the last rain occurred, the sniper can place the print into a time frame. A heavy rain may erase all signs.



d. Trails exiting streams may appear weathered by rain due to water running from clothing or equipment into the tracks. This is especially true if the party exits the stream single file. Then, each person deposits water into the tracks. The existence of a wet, weathered trail slowly fading into a dry trail indicates the trail is fresh.



e. Wind dries tracks and blows litter, sticks, or leaves into prints. By recalling wind activity, the sniper may estimate the age of the tracks. For example, the sniper may reason “the wind is calm at the present but blew hard about an hour ago. These tracks have litter in them, so they must be over an hour old.” However, he must be sure that the litter was not crushed into them when the prints were made.





Figure 5-5: Weather effects on footprints.





(1) Wind affects sounds and odors. If the wind is blowing toward the sniper, sounds and odors may be carried to him; conversely, if the wind is blowing away from the sniper, he must be extremely cautious since wind also carries sounds toward the enemy. The sniper can determine wind direction by dropping a handful of dust or dried grass from shoulder height. By pointing in the same direction the wind is blowing, the sniper can localize sounds by cupping his hands behind his ears and turning slowly. When sounds are loudest, the sniper is facing the origin.



(2) In calm weather (no wind), air currents that may be too light to detect can carry sounds to the sniper. Air cools in the evening and moves downhill toward the valleys. If the sniper is moving uphill late in the day or at night, air currents will probably be moving toward him if no other wind is blowing. As the morning sun warms the air in the valleys, it moves uphill. The sniper considers these factors when plotting patrol routes or other operations. If he keeps the wind in his face, sounds and odors will be carried to him from his objective or from the party being tracked.



(3) The sun should also be considered by the sniper. It is difficult to fire directly into the sun, but if the sniper has the sun at his back and the wind in his face, he has a slight advantage.




5-4. LITTER



A poorly trained or poorly disciplined unit moving over terrain may leave a trail of litter. Unmistakable signs of recent movement are gum or candy wrappers, food cans, cigarette butts, remains of fires, or human feces. Rain flattens or washes litter away and turns paper into pulp. Exposure to weather can cause food cans to rust at the opened edge; then, the rust moves toward the center. The sniper must consider weather conditions when estimating the age of litter. He can use the last rain or strong wind as the basis for a time frame.


5-5. CAMOUFLAGE



Camouflage applies to tracking when the followed party employs techniques to baffle or slow the sniper. For example, walking backward to leave confusing prints, brushing out trails, and moving over rocky ground or through streams.


5-6. IMMEDIATE-USE INTELLIGENCE



The sniper combines all indicators and interprets what he has seen to form a composite picture for on-the-spot intelligence. For example, indicators may show contact is imminent and require extreme stealth.

a. The sniper avoids reporting his interpretations as facts. He reports what he has seen rather than stating these things exist. There are many ways a sniper can interpret the sex and size of the party, the load, and the type of equipment. Timeframes can be determined by weathering effects on indicators.



b. Immediate-use intelligence is information about the enemy that can be used to gain surprise, to keep him off balance, or to keep him from escaping the area entirely. The commander may have many sources of intelligence reports, documents, or prisoners of war. These sources can be combined to form indicators of the enemy’s last location, future plans, and destination.



c. Tracking, however, gives the commander definite information on which to act immediately. For example, a unit may report there are no men of military age in a village. This information is of value only if it is combined with other information to make a composite enemy picture in the area. Therefore, a sniper who interprets trail signs and reports that he is 30 minutes behind a known enemy unit, moving north, and located at a specific location, gives the commander information on which he can act at once.




5-7. DOG/HANDLER TRACKING TEAMS



Dog/handler tracking teams are a threat to the sniper team. While small and lightly armed, they can increase the area that a rear area security unit can search. Due to the dog/handler tracking team’s effectiveness and its lack of fire-power, a sniper team may be tempted to destroy such an “easy” target. Whether a sniper should fight or run depends on the situation and the sniper. Eliminating or injuring the dog/handler tracking team only confirms that there is a hostile team operating in the area.

a. When looking for sniper teams, trackers use wood line sweeps and area searches. A wood line sweep consists of walking the dog upwind of a suspected wood line or brush line. If the wind is blowing through the woods and out of the wood line, trackers move 50 to 100 meters inside a wooded area to sweep the wood’s edge. Since wood line sweeps tend to be less specific, trackers perform them faster. An area search is used when a team’s location is specific such as a small wooded area or block of houses. The search area is cordoned off, if possible, and the dog/handler tracking teams are brought on line, about 25 to 150 meters apart, depending on terrain and visibility. The handler trackers then advance, each moving their dogs through a specific corridor. The handler tracker controls the dog entirely with voice commands and gestures. He remains under-cover, directing the dog in a search pattern or to a likely target area. The search line moves forward with each dog dashing back and forth in assigned sectors.



b. While dog/handler tracking teams area potent threat, there are counters available to the sniper team. The beat defenses are basic infantry techniques: good camouflage and light, noise, and trash discipline. Dogs find a sniper team either by detecting a trail or by a point source such as human waste odors at the hide site. It is critical to try to obscure or limit trails around the hide, especially along the wood line or area closest to the team’s target area. Surveillance targets are usually the major axis of advance. “Trolling the wood lines” along likely looking roads or intersections is a favorite tactic of dog/handler tracking teams. When moving into a target area, the sniper team should take the following countermeasures:



(1) Remain as faraway from the target area as the situation allows.



(2) Never establish a position at the edge of cover and concealment nearest the target area.



(3) Reduce the track. Try to approach the position area on hard, dry ground or along a stream or river.



(4) Urinate in a hole and cover it up. Never urinate in the same spot.



(5) Bury fecal matter deep. If the duration of the mission permits, use MRE bags sealed with tape and take it with you.



(6) Never smoke.



(7) Carry all trash until it can be buried elsewhere.



(8) Surround the hide site with a 3-cm to 5-cm band of motor oil to mask odor; although less effective but easier to carry, garlic may be used. A dead animal can also be used to mask smell, although it may attract unwanted canine attention.



c. If a dog/handler tracking team moves into the area, the sniper team can employ several actions but should first check wind direction and speed. If the sniper team is downwind of the estimated search area, the chances are minimal that the team’s point smells will probably be detected. If upwind of the search area, the sniper team should attempt to move downwind. Terrain and visibility dictate whether the sniper team can move without being detected visually by the handlers of the tracking team. Remember, sweeps are not always conducted just outside of a wood line. Wind direction determines whether the sweep will be parallel to the outside or 50 to 100 meters inside the wood line.



(1) The sniper team has options if caught inside the search area of a line search. The handlers rely on radio communications and often do not have visual contact with each other. If the sniper team has been generally localized through enemy radio detection-finding equipment, the search net will still be loose during the initial sweep. A sniper team has a small chance of hiding and escaping detection in deep brush or in woodpiles. Larger groups will almost certainly be found. Yet, the sniper team may have the opportunity to eliminate the handler and to escape the search net.



(2) The handler hides behind cover with the dog. He searches for movement and then sends the dog out in a straight line toward the front. Usually, when the dog has moved about 50 to 75 meters, the handler calls the dog back. The handler then moves slowly forward and always from covered position to covered position. Commands are by voice and gesture with a backup whistle to signal the dog to return. If a handler is eliminated or badly injured after he has released the dog, but before he has recalled it, the dog continues to randomly search out and away from the handler. The dog usually returns to another handler or to his former handler’s last position within several minutes. This creates a gap from 25 to 150 meters wide in the search pattern. Response times by the other searchers tend to be fast. Given the high degree of radio communication, the injured handler will probably be quickly missed from the radio net. Killing the dog before the handler will probably delay discovery only by moments. Dogs are so reliable that if the dog does not return immediately, the handler knows something is wrong.



(3) If the sniper does not have a firearm, one dog can be dealt with relatively easy if a knife or large club is available. The sniper must keep low and strike upward using the wrist, never overhand. Dogs are quick and will try to strike the groin or legs. Most attack dogs are trained to go for the groin or throat. If alone and faced with two or more dogs, the sniper should avoid the situation.





SECTION II. COUNTERTRACKING



If an enemy tracker finds the tracks of two men, this may indicate that a highly trained team may be operating in the area. However, a knowledge of countertracking enables the sniper team to survive by remaining undetected.


5-8. EVASION



Evasion of the tracker or pursuit team is a difficult task that requires the use of immediate-action drills to counter the threat. A sniper team skilled in tracking techniques can successfully employ deception drills to lessen signs that the enemy can use against them. However, it is very difficult for a person, especially a group, to move across any area without leaving signs noticeable to the trained eye.


5-9. CAMOUFLAGE



The sniper team may use the most used and the least used routes to cover its movement. It also loses travel time when trying to camouflage the trail.

a. Most Used Routes. Movement on lightly traveled sandy or soft trails is easily tracked. However, a sniper may try to confuse the tracker by moving on hard-surfaced, often-traveled roads or by merging with civilians. These routes should be carefully examined; if a well-defined approach leads to the enemy, it will probably be mined, ambushed, or covered by snipers.



b. Least Used Routes. Least used routes avoid all man-made trails or roads and confuse the tracker. These routes are normally magnetic azimuths between two points. However, the tracker can use the proper concepts to follow the sniper team if he is experienced and persistent.



c. Reduction of Trail Signs. A sniper who tries to hide his trail moves at reduced speed; therefore, the experienced tracker gains time. Common methods to reduce trail signs areas follows:



(1) Wrap footgear with rags or wear soft-soled sneakers, which make footprints rounded and leas distinctive.



(2) Brush out the trail. This is rarely done without leaving signs.



(3) Change into footgear with a different tread immediately following a deceptive maneuver.



(4) Walk on hard or rocky ground.




5-10. DECEPTION TECHNIQUES



Evading a skilled and persistent enemy tracker requires skillfully executed maneuvers to deceive the tracker and to cause him to lose the trail. An enemy tracker cannot be outrun by a sniper team that is carrying equipment, because he travels light and is escorted by enemy forces designed for pursuit. The size of the pursuing force dictates the sniper team’s chances of success in employing ambush-type maneuvers. Sniper teams use some of the following techniques in immediate-action drills and deception drills.

a. Backward Walking. One of the basic techniques used is that of walking backward (Figure 5-6) in tracks already made, and then stepping off the trail onto terrain or objects that leave little sign. Skillful use of this maneuver causes the tracker to look in the wrong direction once he has lost the trail.



b. Large Tree. A good deception tactic is to change directions at large trees (Figure 5-7). To do this, the sniper moves in any given direction and walks past a large tree (12 inches wide or larger) from 5 to 10 paces. He carefully walks backward to the forward side of the tree and makes a 90-degree change in the direction of travel, passing the tree on its forward side. This technique uses the tree as a screen to hide the new trail from the pursuing tracker.





NOTE



By studying signs, a tracker may determine if an attempt is being made to confuse him. If the sniper team loses the tracker by walking backward, footprints will be deepened at the toe and soil will be scuffed or dragged in the direction of movement. By following carefully the tracker can normally find a turnaround point.





Figure 5-6: Walking backward.





Figure 5-7: Large tree.





c. Cut the Corner. Cut-the-corner technique is used when approaching a known road or trail. About 100 meters from the road, the sniper team changes its direction of movement, either 45 degrees left or right. Once the road is reached, the sniper team leaves a visible trail in the same direction of the deception for a short distance on the road. The tracker should believe that the sniper team “cut the corner” to save time. The sniper team backtracks on the trail to the point where it entered the road, and then it carefully moves on the road without leaving a good trail. Once the desired distance is achieved, the sniper team changes direction and continues movement (Figure 5-8).





Figure 5-8: Cut the corner.





d. Slip the Stream. The sniper team uses slip-the-stream technique when approaching a known stream. The sniper team executes this method the same as the cut the comer technique. The sniper team establishes the 45-degree deception maneuver upstream, then enters the stream. The sniper team moves upstream to prevent floating debris and silt from compromising its direction of travel, and the sniper team establishes false trails upstream if time permits. Then, it moves downstream to escape since creeks and streams gain tributaries that offer more escape alternatives (Figure 5-9).





Figure 5-9: Slip the stream.





e. Arctic Circle. The sniper team uses the arctic circle technique in snow-covered terrain to escape pursuers or to hide a patrol base. It establishes a trail in a circle (Figure 5-10) as large as possible. The trail that starts on a road and returns to the same start point is effective. At some point along the circular trail, the sniper team removes snowshoes (if used) and carefully steps off the trail, leaving one set of tracks. The large tree maneuver can be used to screen the trail. From the hide position, the sniper team returns over the same steps and carefully fills them with snow one at a time. This technique is especially effective if it is snowing.





Figure 5-10: Arctic circle.





f. Fishhook. The sniper team uses the fishhook technique to double back (Figure 5-11) on its own trail in an overwatch position. The sniper team can observe the back trail for trackers or ambush pursuers. If the pursuing force is too large to be destroyed, the sniper team strives to eliminate the tracker. The sniper team uses the hit-and-run tactics, then moves to another ambush position. The terrain must be used to advantage.





Figure 5-11: Fishhook.





The Army Combat Pistol





CHAPTER 1





Components and Functioning



This chapter describes the M9 and M11 semiautomatic pistols, their maintenance requirements, and their operation and functioning.





SECTION I. DESCRIPTION AND COMPONENTS



The M9 (Figure 1-1) and M11 (Figure 1-2) pistols are 9-mm, semiautomatic, magazine-fed, recoil-operation, double-action weapons chambered for the 9-mm cartridge.





Figure 1-1: 9-mm pistol, M9.





Figure 1-2: 9-mm pistol, M11.





1-1. DESCRIPTION



Table 1-1 summarizes equipment data for both pistols.





WARNING





The half-cocked position catches the hammer and prevents it from firing if the hammer is released while manually cocking the weapon. It is not to be used as a safety position. The pistol will fire from the half-cocked position if the trigger is pulled.





1-2. COMPONENTS



The major components of the M9 (Figure 1-3) and M11 (Figure 1-4) pistols are:

a. Slide and Barrel Assembly: Houses the firing pin, striker, and extractor. Cocks the hammer during recoil cycle.



b. Recoil Spring and Recoil Spring Guide: Absorbs recoil and returns the slide assembly to its forward position.



c. Barrel and Locking Block Assembly: Houses cartridge for firing, directs projectile, and locks barrel in position during firing.



d. Receiver: Serves as a support for all the major components. Houses action of the pistol through four major components. Controls functioning of the pistol.



e. Magazine: Holds cartridges in place for stripping and chambering.





Figure 1-3: Major components, M9.





Figure 1-4: Major components, M11.





1-3. AMMUNITION



M9 and M11 pistols use several different types of 9-mm ammunition. Soldiers should use only authorized ammunition that is manufactured to U.S. and NATO specifications.

a. Type and Characteristics. The specific type ammunition (Figure 1-5) and its characteristics are as follows:



(1) Cartridge, 9-mm ball, M882 with/without cannelure.



(2) Cartridge, 9-mm dummy, M917.





WARNING





Do not fire heavily corroded or dented cartridges, cartridges with loose bullets, or any other rounds detected as defective through visual inspection.





b. Care, Handling, and Preservation.



(1) Protect ammunition from mud, sand, and water. If the ammunition gets wet or dirty, wipe it off at once with a clean dry cloth. Wipe off light corrosion as soon as it is discovered. Turn in heavily corroded cartridges.



(2) Do not expose ammunition to the direct rays of the sun. If the powder is hot, excessive pressure may develop when the pistol is fired.



(3) Do not oil or grease ammunition. Dust and other abrasives that collect on greasy ammunition may cause damage to the operating parts of the pistol. Oiled cartridges produce excessive chamber pressure.





Figure 1-5: Ammunition.





SECTION II. MAINTENANCE



Maintenance procedures include clearing, dissembling, inspecting, cleaning, lubricating, assembling, and checking the functioning of the M9 or M11 pistol.


1-4. CLEARING PROCEDURES



The first step in maintenance is to clear the weapon. This applies in all situations, not just after firing. Soldiers must always assume the weapon is loaded. To clear the pistol, perform the following procedures:

a. Place the decocking/safety lever in the SAFE down position.



b. Hold the pistol in the raised pistol position.



c. Depress the magazine release button and remove the magazine from the pistol.



d. Pull the slide to the rear and remove any chambered round.



e. Push the slide stop up, locking the slide to the rear.



f. Look into the chamber to ensure that it is empty.




1-5. GENERAL DISASSEMBLE



To disassemble the pistol, perform the following procedures:

a. Depress the slide stop and let the slide go forward.



b. Hold the pistol in the right hand with the muzzle slightly raised.



c. Press the disassembly lever button with the forefinger.



d. Rotate the disassembly lever downward until it stops.



e. Pull the slide and barrel assembly forward and remove it from the receiver.



f. Carefully and lightly compress the recoil spring and spring guide. At the same time, lift up and remove them.



g. Separate the recoil spring from the spring guide.



h. Push in on the locking block plunger while pushing the barrel forward slightly.



i. Lift and remove the locking block and barrel assembly from the slide.




1-6. INSPECTION



Inspection begins with the pistol disassembled in its major components. Shiny surfaces do not mean the parts are unserviceable. Inspect all surfaces for visible damage, cracks, burns, and chips.


1-7. CLEANING, LUBRICATION, AND PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE



The M9 or M11 pistol should be disassembled into its major components and cleaned immediately after firing. All metal components and surfaces that have been exposed to powder fouling should be cleaned using CLP on a bore-cleaning patch. The same procedure is used to clean the receiver. After it has been cleaned and wiped dry, a thin coat of CLP is applied by rubbing with a cloth. This lubricates and preserves the exposed metal parts during all normal temperature ranges. When not in use, the pistol should be inspected weekly and cleaned and lubricated when necessary.

CAUTION



When using CLP, do not use any other type cleaner. Never mix CLP with RBC or LSA.





a. Clear and disassemble the weapon.



b. Wipe or brush dirt, dust, and carbon buildup from the disassembled pistol.



c. Use CLP to help remove carbon buildup and stubborn dirt and grime.



d. Pay particular attention to the bolt face, guide rails on the receiver, grooves on the slide, and other hard-to-reach areas.





NOTE



Do not use mineral spirits, paint thinner, or dry cleaning solvent to clean the pistol. Use only issued lubricants and cleaners, such as CLP or LSA.





e. Clean the bore and chamber using CLP and fresh swabs.



f. Lubricate the pistol by covering all surfaces including the bore and chamber with a light coat of CLP. In extremely hot or cold weather, refer to the technical manual for lubricating procedures and materials.




1-8. GENERAL ASSEMBLY



To assemble the M9 or M11 pistol, simply reverse the procedures used to disassemble the pistol.

a. Grasp the slide with the bottom facing up.



b. With the other hand, grasp the barrel assembly with the locking block facing up.



c. Insert the muzzle into the forward end of the slide and, at the same time, lower the rear of the barrel assembly by aligning the extractor cutout with the extractor.





NOTE



The locking block will fall into the locked position in the slide.





d. Insert the recoil spring onto the recoil spring guide.



CAUTION



Maintain spring tension until the spring guide is fully seated in the cutaway on the locking block.





e. Insert the end of the recoil spring and the recoil spring guide into the recoil spring housing. At the same time, compress the recoil spring guide until it is fully seated on the locking block cutaway.



CAUTION



Do not pull the trigger while placing the slide on the receiver.





f. Ensure that the hammer is unlocked, the firing pin block is in the DOWN position, and the decocking/safety lever is in the SAFE position.



g. Grasp the slide and barrel assembly with the sights UP, and align the slide on the receiver assembly guide rails.



h. Push until the rear of the slide is a short distance beyond the rear of the receiver assembly and hold. At the same time, rotate the disassembly latch lever upward. A click indicates a positive lock.




1-9. FUNCTION CHECK



Always perform a function check after the pistol is reassembled to ensure it is working properly. To perform a function check:

a. Clear the pistol in accordance with the unloading procedures.



b. Depress the slide stop, letting the slide go forward.



c. Insert an empty magazine into the pistol.



d. Retract the slide fully and release it. The slide should lock to the rear.



e. Depress the magazine release button and remove the magazine.



f. Ensure the decocking/safety lever is in the SAFE position.



g. Depress the slide stop. When the slide goes forward, the hammer should fall to the forward position.



h. Squeeze and release the trigger. The firing pin block should move up and down and the hammer should not move.



i. Place the decocking/safety lever in the fire POSITION.



j. Squeeze the trigger to check double action. The hammer should cock and fall.



k. Squeeze the trigger again. Hold it to the rear. Manually retract and release the slide. Release the trigger. A click should be heard and the hammer should not fall.



l. Squeeze the trigger to check the single action. The hammer should fall.




SECTION III. OPERATION AND FUNCTION



This section provides detailed information on the functioning of M9 and M11 pistols.


1-10. OPERATION



With the weapon loaded and the hammer cocked, the shot is discharged by pulling the trigger.

a. Trigger movement is transmitted by the trigger bar, which draws the sear out of register with the full-cock hammer notch via the safety lever. With a slight timing lag, the safety lever also cams the safety lock upward to free the firing pin immediately before the hammer drops. The hammer forces the firing pin forward to strike and detonate the cartridge primer.



b. Blowback reaction generated by the exploding charge thrusts the locked barrel/slide system rearward against the recoil spring. After recoiling about 3 mm (1/8Лќ), the barrel and slide unlock, allowing the barrel to tilt down into the locked position. The slide continues rearward until it abuts against the receiver stop.



c. During slide recoil, the hammer is cocked; the spent case is extracted and ejected as it strikes the ejector. In the initial recoil phase, the safety lever and safety lock separate, automatically rendering the firing pin safety lock effective again. As recoil continues, the slide depresses the trigger bar, disconnecting it from the safety lever. Sear spring pressure returns the sear and safety lever to their initial positions.



d. After contacting the receiver stop, the slide is thrust forward by the compressed recoil spring, stripping a round from the magazine and chambering it on the way. Just before reaching the forward end position, the slide again locks up with the barrel. The complete system is then thrust fully into the forward battery position by recoil spring pressure. Releasing the trigger allows the trigger bar and safety lever to re-engage.



e. The weapon is now cocked and ready to fire. After firing the last shot, the slide is locked in the rearmost position by the slide catch lever. This catch is actuated positively by the magazine follower, which is raised by magazine spring pressure.




1-11. LOADING



To load the pistol—

• Hold the pistol in the raised pistol position.



• Insert the magazine into the pistol.



• Pull the slide to the rear and release the slide to chamber a round.



• Push the decocking/safety lever to the SAFE position.



a. Always make sure the muzzle is pointing in a safe direction, with the finger off the trigger.



b. Never attempt to load or unload any firearm inside a vehicle, building, or other confined space (except a properly constructed shooting range or bullet trap). Enclosed areas frequently offer no completely safe direction in which to point the firearm; if an accidental discharge occurs, there is great risk of injury or property damage.



c. Before loading, always clean excess grease and oil from the bore and chamber, and ensure that no obstruction is in the barrel. Any foreign matter in the barrel could result in a bulged or burst barrel or other damage to the firearm and could cause serious injury to the shooter or to others.




1-12. UNLOADING AND CLEARING



To unload and clear the pistol—

• Hold the pistol in the raised pistol position.



• Depress the magazine release button and remove the magazine.



• Pull the slide to the rear and lock it in its rearward position by pushing up on the slide stop.



• Point the pistol skyward and look into the chamber to ensure it is clear.



• Let the slide go forward and pull the trigger to release the spring tension.



a. Perform this task in an area designated for this process.



b. Keep your finger off the trigger, and always make sure the muzzle is pointed in a safe direction.



c. Remember to clear the chamber after removing the magazine.



d. Never assume that a pistol is unloaded until you have personally checked it both visually and physically.



e. After every shooting practice, make a final check to be certain the firearm is unloaded before leaving the range.




1-13. CYCLE OF OPERATION



Each time a cartridge is fired, the parts inside the weapon function in a given order. This is known as the functioning cycle or cycle of operation. The cycle of operation of the weapon is divided into eight steps: feeding, chambering, locking, firing, unlocking, extracting, ejecting, and cocking. The steps are listed in the order in which functioning occurs; however, more than one step may occur at the same time.

a. A magazine containing ammunition is placed in the receiver. The slide is pulled fully to the rear and released. As the slide moves forward, it strips the top round from the magazine and pushes it into the chamber. The hammer remains in the cocked position, and the weapon is ready to fire.



b. The weapon fires one round each time the trigger is pulled. Each time a cartridge is fired, the slide and barrel recoil or move a short distance locked together. This permits the bullet and expanding powder gases to escape from the muzzle before the unlocking is completed.



c. The barrel then unlocks from the slide and continues to the rear, extracting the cartridge case from the chamber and ejecting it from the weapon. During this rearward movement, the magazine feeds another cartridge, the recoil spring is compressed, and the hammer is cocked.



d. At the end of the rearward movement, the recoil spring expands, forcing the slide forward, locking the barrel and slide together. The weapon is ready to fire again. The same cycle of operation continues until the ammunition is expended.



e. As the last round is fired, the magazine spring exerts upward pressure on the magazine follower. The stop on the follower strikes the slide stop, forcing it into the recess on the bottom of the slide and locking the slide to the rear. This action indicates that the magazine is empty and aids in faster reloading.




SECTION IV. PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS



Possible performance problems of M9 and M11 pistols are sluggish operation and stoppages. This section discusses immediate and remedial action to correct such problems.


1-14. MALFUNCTIONS



The following malfunctions may occur to the M9 and M11 pistols. Take these corrective actions to correct any problems that may occur.

a. Sluggish Operation. Sluggish operation is usually due to excessive friction caused by carbon build up, lack of lubrication, or burred parts. Corrective action includes cleaning, lubricating, inspecting, and replacing parts as necessary.



b. Stoppages. A stoppage is an interruption in the cycle of operation caused by faulty action of the pistol or faulty ammunition. Types of stoppages are:



• Failure to feed.



• Failure to chamber.



• Failure to lock.



• Failure to fire.



• Failure to unlock.



• Failure to extract.



• Failure to eject.



• Failure to cock.




1-15. IMMEDIATE ACTION



Immediate action is the action taken to reduce a stoppage without looking for the cause. Immediate action is taken within 15 seconds of a stoppage.

a. Ensure the decocking/safety lever is in the FIRE position.



b. Squeeze the trigger again.



c. If the pistol does not fire, ensure that the magazine is fully seated, retract the slide to the rear, and release.



d. Squeeze the trigger.



e. If the pistol again does not fire, remove the magazine and retract the slide to eject the chambered cartridge. Insert a new magazine, retract the slide, and release to chamber another cartridge.



f. Squeeze the trigger.



g. If the pistol still does not fire, perform remedial action.




1-16. REMEDIAL ACTION



Remedial action is the action taken to reduce a stoppage by looking for the cause.

a. Clear the pistol.



b. Inspect the pistol for the cause of the stoppage.



c. Correct the cause of the stoppage, load the pistol, and fire.



d. If the pistol again fails to fire, disassemble it for closer inspection, cleaning, and lubrication.





CHAPTER 2





Pistol Marksmanship Training



Marksmanship training is divided into two phases: preparatory marksmanship training and range firing. Each phase may be divided into separate instructional steps. All marksmanship training must be progressive. Combat marksmanship techniques should be practiced after the basics have been mastered.





SECTION I. BASIC MARKSMANSHIP



The main use of the pistol is to engage an enemy at close range with quick, accurate fire. Accurate shooting results from knowing and correctly applying the elements of marksmanship. The elements of combat pistol marksmanship are:

• Grip.



• Aiming.



• Breath control.



• Trigger squeeze.



• Target engagement.



• Positions.




2-1. GRIP



A proper grip is one of the most important fundamentals of quick fire. The weapon must become an extension of the hand and arm; it should replace the finger in pointing at an object. The firer must apply a firm, uniform grip to the weapon.

a. One-Hand Grip. Hold the weapon in the nonfiring hand; form a V with the thumb and forefinger of the strong hand (firing hand). Place the weapon in the V with the front and rear sights in line with the firing arm. Wrap the lower three fingers around the pistol grip, putting equal pressure with all three fingers to the rear. Allow the thumb of the firing hand to rest alongside the weapon without pressure (Figure 2-1). Grip the weapon tightly until the hand begins to tremble; relax until the trembling stops. At this point, the necessary pressure for a proper grip has been applied. Place the trigger finger on the trigger between the tip and second joint so that it can be squeezed to the rear. The trigger finger must work independently of the remaining fingers.





Figure 2-1: One-hand grip.





NOTE



If any of the three fingers on the grip are relaxed, the grip must be reapplied.





b. Two-Hand Grip. The two-hand grip allows the firer to steady the firing hand and provide maximum support during firing. The nonfiring hand becomes a support mechanism for the firing hand by wrapping the fingers of the nonfiring hand around the firing hand. Two-hand grips are recommended for all pistol firing.





WARNING





Do not place the nonfiring thumb in the rear of the weapon. The recoil upon firing could result in personal injury.





(1) Fist Grip. Grip the weapon as with the one-hand grip. Firmly close the fingers of the nonfiring hand over the fingers of the firing hand, ensuring that the index finger from the nonfiring hand is between the middle finger of the firing hand and the trigger guard. Place the nonfiring thumb alongside the firing thumb (Figure 2-2).





NOTE



Depending upon the individual firer, he may chose to place the index finger of his nonfiring hand on the front of the trigger guard since M9 and M11 pistols have a recurved trigger guard designed for this purpose.





Figure 2-2: Fist grip.





(2) Palm-Supported Grip. This grip is commonly called the cup and saucer grip. Grip the firing hand as with the one-hand grip. Place the nonfiring hand under the firing hand, wrapping the nonfiring fingers around the back of the firing hand. Place the nonfiring thumb over the middle finger of the firing hand (Figure 2-3).





Figure 2-3: Palm-supported grip.





(3) Weaver grip. Apply this grip the same as the fist grip. The only exception is that the nonfiring thumb is wrapped over the firing thumb (Figure 2-4).





Figure 2-4: Weaver grip.





c. Isometric Tension. The firer raises his arms to a firing position and applies isometric tension. This is commonly known as the push-pull method for maintaining weapon stability. Isometric tension is when the firer applies forward pressure with the firing hand and pulls rearward with the nonfiring hand with equal pressure. This creates an isometric force but never so much to cause the firer to tremble. This steadies the weapon and reduces barrel rise from recoil. The supporting arm is bent with the elbow pulled downward. The firing arm is fully extended with the elbow and wrist locked. The firer must experiment to find the right amount of isometric tension to apply.





NOTE



The firing hand should exert the same pressure as the nonfiring hand. If it does not, a missed target could result.





d. Natural Point of Aim. The firer should check his grip for use of his natural point of aim. He grips the weapon and sights properly on a distant target. While maintaining his grip and stance, he closes his eyes for three to five seconds. He then opens his eyes and checks for proper sight picture. If the point of aim is disturbed, the firer adjusts his stance to compensate. If the sight alignment is disturbed, the firer adjusts his grip to compensate by removing the weapon from his hand and reapplying the grip. The firer repeats this process until the sight alignment and sight placement remain almost the same when he opens his eyes. With sufficient practice, this enables the firer to determine and use his natural point of aim, which is the most relaxed position for holding and firing the weapon.




2-2. AIMING



Aiming is sight alignment and sight placement (Figure 2-5).

a. Sight alignment is the centering of the front blade in the rear sight notch. The top of the front sight is level with the top of the rear sight and is in correct alignment with the eye. For correct sight alignment, the firer must center the front sight in the rear sight. He raises or lowers the top of the front sight so it is level with the top of the rear sight. Sight alignment is essential for accuracy because of the short sight radius of the pistol. For example, if a 1/10-inch error is made in aligning the front sight in the rear sight, the firer’s bullet will miss the point of aim by about 15 inches at a range of 25 meters. The 1/10-inch error in sight alignment magnifies as the range increases—at 25 meters, it is magnified 150 times.



b. Sight placement is the positioning of the weapon’s sights in relation to the target as seen by the firer when he aims the weapon (Figure 2-5). A correct sight picture consists of correct sight alignment with the front sight placed center mass of the target. The eye can focus on only one object at a time at different distances. Therefore, the last focus of the eye is always on the front sight. When the front sight is seen clearly, the rear sight and target will appear hazy. The firer can maintain correct sight alignment only through focusing on the front sight. His bullet will hit the target even if the sight picture is partly off center but still remains on the target. Therefore, sight alignment is more important than sight placement. Since it is impossible to hold the weapon completely still, the firer must apply trigger squeeze and maintain correct sight alignment while the weapon is moving in and around the center of the target. This natural movement of the weapon is referred to as wobble area. The firer must strive to control the limits of the wobble area through proper grip, breath control, trigger squeeze, and positioning.





Figure 2-5: Correct sight alignment and sight placement.





c. Focusing on the front sight while applying proper trigger squeeze will help the firer resist the urge to jerk the trigger and anticipate the moment the weapon will fire. Mastery of trigger squeeze and sight alignment requires practice. Trainers should use concurrent training stations or have fire ranges to enhance proficiency of marksmanship skills.




2-3. BREATH CONTROL



To attain accuracy, the firer must learn to hold his breath properly at any time during the breathing cycle. This must be done while aiming and squeezing the trigger. While the procedure is simple, it requires explanation, demonstration, and supervised practice. To hold his breath properly, the firer takes a breath, lets it out, then inhales normally, lets a little out until comfortable, holds, and then fires. It is difficult to maintain a steady position keeping the front sight at a precise aiming point while breathing. Therefore, the firer should be taught to inhale, then exhale normally, and hold his breath at the moment of the natural respiratory pause (Figure 2-6). Breath control, firing at a single target. The shot must then be fired before he feels any discomfort from not breathing. When multiple targets are presented, the firer must learn to hold his breath at any part of the breathing cycle (Figure 2-7). Breath control must be practiced during dry-fire exercises until it becomes a natural part of the firing process.





Figure 2-6: Breath control, firing at a single target.





Figure 2-7: Breath control, firing at timed or multiple targets.





2-4. TRIGGER SQUEEZE



Improper trigger squeeze causes more misses than any other step of preparatory marksmanship. Poor shooting is caused by the aim being disturbed before the bullet leaves the barrel of the weapon. This is usually the result of the firer jerking the trigger or flinching. A slight off-center pressure of the trigger finger on the trigger can cause the weapon to move and disturb the firer’s sight alignment. Flinching is an automatic human reflex caused by anticipating the recoil of the weapon. Jerking is an effort to fire the weapon at the precise time the sights align with the target. For more on problems in target engagement, see paragraph 2-5.

a. Trigger squeeze is the independent movement of the trigger finger in applying increasing pressure on the trigger straight to the rear, without disturbing the sight alignment until the weapon fires. The trigger slack, or free play, is taken up first, and the squeeze is continued steadily until the hammer falls. If the trigger is squeezed properly, the firer will not know exactly when the hammer will fall; thus, he will not tend to flinch or heel, resulting in a bad shot. Novice firers must be trained to overcome the urge to anticipate recoil. Proper application of the fundamentals will lower this tendency.



b. To apply correct trigger squeeze, the trigger finger should contact the trigger between the tip of the finger and the second joint (without touching the weapon anywhere else). Where contact is made depends on the length of the firer’s trigger finger. If pressure from the trigger finger is applied to the right side of the trigger or weapon, the strike of the bullet will be to the left. This is due to the normal hinge action of the fingers. When the fingers on the right hand are closed, as in gripping, they hinge or pivot to the left, thereby applying pressure to the left (with left-handed firers, this action is to the right). The firer must not apply pressure left or right but should increase finger pressure straight to the rear. Only the trigger finger should perform this action. Dry-fire training improves a firer’s ability to move the trigger finger straight to the rear without cramping or increasing pressure on the hand grip.



c. Follow-through is the continued effort of the firer to maintain sight alignment before, during, and after the round has fired. The firer must continue the rearward movement of the finger even after the round has been fired. Releasing the trigger too soon after the round has been fired results in an uncontrolled shot, causing a missed target.



(1) The firer who is a good shot holds the sights of the weapon as nearly on the target center as possible and continues to squeeze the trigger with increasing pressure until the weapon fires.



(2) The soldier who is a bad shot tries to “catch his target” as his sight alignment moves past the target and fires the weapon at that instant. This is called ambushing, which causes trigger jerk.





NOTE



The trigger squeeze of the pistol, when fired in the single-action mode, is 5.50 pounds; when fired in double-action mode, it is 12.33 pounds. The firer must be aware of the mode in which he is firing. He must also practice squeezing the trigger in each mode to develop expertise in both single-action and doubleaction target engagements.





2-5. TARGET ENGAGEMENT



To engage a single target, the firer applies the method discussed in paragraph 2-4. When engaging multiple targets in combat, he engages the closest and most dangerous multiple target first and fires at it with two rounds. This is called controlled pairs. The firer then traverses and acquires the next target, aligns the sights in the center of mass, focuses on the front sight, applies trigger squeeze, and fires. He ensures his firing arm elbow and wrist are locked during all engagements. If he has missed the first target and has fired upon the second target, he shifts back to the first and engages it. Some problems in target engagement are as follows:

a. Recoil Anticipation. When a soldier first learns to shoot, he may begin to anticipate recoil. This reaction may cause him to tighten his muscles during or just before the hammer falls. He may fight the recoil by pushing the weapon downward in anticipating or reacting to its firing. In either case, the rounds will not hit the point of aim. A good method to show the firer that he is anticipating the recoil is the ball-and-dummy method (see paragraph 2-14).



b. Trigger Jerk. Trigger jerk occurs when the soldier sees that he has acquired a good sight picture at center mass and “snaps” off a round before the good sight picture is lost. This may become a problem, especially when the soldier is learning to use a flash sight picture (see paragraph 2-7b).



c. Heeling. Heeling is caused by a firer tightening the large muscle in the heel of the hand to keep from jerking the trigger. A firer who has had problems with jerking the trigger tries to correct the fault by tightening the bottom of the hand, which results in a heeled shot. Heeling causes the strike of the bullet to hit high on the firing hand side of the target. The firer can correct shooting errors by knowing and applying correct trigger squeeze.




2-6. POSITIONS



The qualification course is fired from a standing, kneeling, or crouch position. During qualification and combat firing, soldiers must practice all of the firing positions described below so they become natural movements. Though these positions seem natural, practice sessions must be conducted to ensure the habitual attainment of correct firing positions. Practice in assuming correct firing positions ensures that soldiers can quickly assume these positions without a conscious effort. Pistol marksmanship requires a soldier to rapidly apply all the fundamentals at dangerously close targets while under stress. Assuming a proper position to allow for a steady aim is critical to survival.



NOTE



During combat, there may not be time for a soldier to assume a position that will allow him to establish his natural point of aim. Firing from a covered position may require the soldier to adapt his shooting stance to available cover.





a. Pistol-Ready Position. In the pistol-ready position, hold the weapon in the one-hand grip. Hold the upper arm close to the body and the forearm at about a 45-degree angle. Point the weapon toward target center as you move forward (Figure 2-8).





Figure 2-8: Pistol-ready position.





b. Standing Position without Support. Face the target (Figure 2-9). Place feet a comfortable distance apart, about shoulder width. Extend the firing arm and attain a two-hand grip. The wrist and elbow of the firing arm are locked and pointed toward target center. Keep the body straight with the shoulders slightly forward of the buttocks.





Figure 2-9: Standing position without support.





c. Kneeling Position. In the kneeling position, ground only your firing-side knee as the main support (Figure 2-10). Vertically place your firing-side foot, used as the main support, under your buttocks. Rest your body weight on the heel and toes. Rest your nonfiring arm just above the elbow on the knee not used as the main body support. Use the two-handed grip for firing. Extend the firing arm, and lock the firing-arm elbow and wrist to ensure solid arm control.





Figure 2-10: Kneeling position.





d. Crouch Position. Use the crouch position when surprise targets are engaged at close range (Figure 2-11). Place the body in a forward crouch (boxer’s stance) with the knees bent slightly and trunk bent forward from the hips to give faster recovery from recoil. Place the feet naturally in a position that allows another step toward the target. Extend the weapon straight toward the target, and lock the wrist and elbow of the firing arm. It is important to consistently train with this position, since the body will automatically crouch under conditions of stress such as combat. It is also a faster position from which to change direction of fire.





Figure 2-11: Crouch position.





e. Prone Position. Lie flat on the ground, facing the target (Figure 2-12). Extend your arms in front with the firing arm locked. (Your arms may have to be slightly unlocked for firing at high targets.) Rest the butt of the weapon on the ground for single, well-aimed shots. Wrap the fingers of the nonfiring hand around the fingers of the firing hand. Face forward. Keep your head down between your arms and behind the weapon as much as possible.





Figure 2-12: Prone position.





f. Standing Position with Support. Use available cover for support—for example, a tree or wall to stand behind (Figure 2-13). Stand behind a barricade with the firing side on line with the edge of the barricade. Place the knuckles of the nonfiring fist at eye level against the edge of the barricade. Lock the elbow and wrist of the firing arm. Move the foot on the nonfiring side forward until the toe of the boot touches the bottom of the barricade.





Figure 2-13: Standing position with support.





g. Kneeling Supported Position. Use available cover for support—for example, use a low wall, rocks, or vehicle (Figure 2-14). Place your firing-side knee on the ground. Bend the other knee and place the foot (nonfiring side) flat on the ground, pointing toward the target. Extend arms alongside and brace them against available cover. Lock the wrist and elbow of your firing arm. Place the nonfiring hand around the fist to support the firing arm. Rest the nonfiring arm just above the elbow on the nonfiring-side knee.





Figure 2-14: Kneeling supported.





SECTION II. COMBAT MARKSMANSHIP



After a soldier becomes proficient in the fundamentals of marksmanship, he progresses to advanced techniques of combat marksmanship. The main use of the pistol is to engage the enemy at close range with quick, accurate fire. In shooting encounters, it is not the first round fired that wins the engagement, but the first accurately fired round. The soldier should use his sights when engaging the enemy unless this would place the weapon within arm’s reach of the enemy.


2-7. TECHNIQUES OF FIRING



Firing techniques include the use of hand-and-eye coordination, flash sight picture, quick-fire point shooting, and quick-fire sighting.

a. Hand-and-Eye Coordination. Hand-and-eye coordination is not a natural, instinctive ability for all soldiers. It is usually a learned skill obtained by practicing the use of a flash sight picture (see paragraph b below). The more a soldier practices raising the weapon to eye level and obtaining a flash sight picture, the more natural the relationship between soldier, sights, and target becomes. Eventually, proficiency elevates to a point so that the soldier can accurately engage targets in the dark. Each soldier must be aware of this trait and learn how to use it best. Poorly coordinated soldiers can achieve proficiency through close supervision from their trainers. Everyone has the ability to point at an object. Since pointing the forefinger at an object and extending the weapon toward a target are much the same, the combination of the two are natural. Making the soldier aware of this ability and teaching him how to apply it results in success when engaging enemy targets in combat.



(1) The eyes focus instinctively on the center of any object observed. After the object is sighted, the firer aligns his sights on the center of mass, focuses on the front sight, and applies proper trigger squeeze. Most crippling or killing hits result from maintaining the focus on the center of mass. The eyes must remain fixed on some part of the target throughout firing.



(2) When a soldier points, he instinctively points at the feature on the object on which his eyes are focused. An impulse from the brain causes the arm and hand to stop when the finger reaches the proper position. When the eyes are shifted to a new object or feature, the finger, hand, and arm also shift to this point. It is this inherent trait that can be used by the soldier to engage targets rapidly and accurately. This instinct is called hand-and-eye coordination.



b. Flash Sight Picture. Usually, when engaging an enemy at pistol range, the firer has little time to ensure a correct sight picture. The quick-kill (or natural point of aim) method does not always ensure a first-round hit. A compromise between a correct sight picture and the quick-kill method is known as a flash sight picture. As the soldier raises the weapon to eye level, his point of focus switches from the enemy to the front sight, ensuring that the front and rear sights are in proper alignment left and right, but not necessarily up and down. Pressure is applied to the trigger as the front sight is being acquired, and the hammer falls as the flash sight picture is confirmed. Initially, this method should be practiced slowly, with speed gained as proficiency increases.



c. Quick-Fire Point Shooting. This is for engaging an enemy at less than 5 yards and is also useful for night firing. Using a two-hand grip, the firer brings the weapon up close to the body until it reaches chin level. He then thrusts it forward until both arms are straight. The arms and body form a triangle, which can be aimed as a unit. In thrusting the weapon forward, the firer can imagine that there is a box between him and the enemy, and he is thrusting the weapon into the box. The trigger is smoothly squeezed to the rear as the elbows straighten.



d. Quick-Fire Sighting. This technique is for engaging an enemy at 5 to 10 yards away and only when there is no time available to get a full picture. The firing position is the same as for quick-fire point shooting. The sights are aligned left and right to save time, but not up and down. The firer must determine in practice what the sight picture will look like and where the front sight must be aimed to hit the enemy in the chest.




2-8. TARGET ENGAGEMENT



In close combat, there is seldom time to precisely apply all of the fundamentals of marksmanship. When a soldier fires a round at the enemy, he often does not know if he hits his target. Therefore, two rounds should be fired at the target. This is called controlled pairs. If the enemy continues to attack, two more shots should be placed in the pelvic area to break the body’s support structure, causing the enemy to fall.


2-9. TRAVERSING



In close combat, the enemy may be attacking from all sides. The soldier may not have time to constantly change his position to adapt to new situations. The purpose of the crouching or kneeling 360-degree traverse is to fire in any direction without moving the feet.

a. Crouching 360-Degree Traverse. The following instructions are for a right-handed firer. The two-hand grip is used at all times except for over the right shoulder. The firer remains in the crouch position with feet almost parallel to each other. Turning will be natural on the balls of the feet.



(1) Over the Left Shoulder (Figure 2-15): The upper body is turned to the left, the weapon points to the left rear with the elbows of both arms bent. The left elbow is naturally bent more than the right elbow.





Figure 2-15: Traversing over the left shoulder.





(2) Traversing to the Left (Figure 2-16): The upper body turns to the right, and the right firing arm straightens out. The left arm is slightly bent.



(3) Traversing to the Front (Figure 2-17): The upper body turns to the front as the left arm straightens out. Both arms are straight forward.





Figure 2-16: Traversing to the left.





Figure 2-17: Traversing to the front.





(4) Traversing to the Right (Figure 2-18): The upper body turns to the right as both elbows bend. The right elbow is naturally bent more than the left.





Figure 2-18: Traversing to the right.





(5) Traversing to the Right Rear (Figure 2-19): The upper body continues to turn to the right until it reaches a point where it cannot go further comfortably. Eventually the left hand must be released from the fist grip, and the firer will be shooting to the right rear with the right hand.





Figure 2-19: Traversing to the right rear.





b. Kneeling 360-Degree Traverse. The following instructions are for right-handed firers. The hands are in a two-hand grip at all times. The unsupported kneeling position is used. The rear foot must be positioned to the left of the front foot.



(1) Traversing to the Left Side (Figure 2-20): The upper body turns to a comfortable position toward the left. The weapon is aimed to the left. Both elbows are bent with the left elbow naturally bent more than the right elbow.



(2) Traversing to the Front (Figure 2-21): The upper body turns to the front, and a standard unsupported kneeling position is assumed. The right firing arm is straight, and the left elbow is slightly bent.



(3) Traversing to the Right Side (Figure 2-22): The upper body turns to the right as both arms straighten out.



(4) Traversing to the Rear (Figure 2-23): The upper body continues to turn to the right as the left knee is turned to the right and placed on the ground. The right knee is lifted off the ground and becomes the forward knee. The right arm is straight, while the left arm is bent. The direction of the kneeling position has been reversed.





Figure 2-20: Traversing to the left, kneeling.





Figure 2-21: Traversing to the front, kneeling.





Figure 2-22: Traversing to the right, kneeling.





Figure 2-23: Traversing to the rear, kneeling.





(5) Traversing to the New Right Side (Figure 2-24): The upper body continues to the right. Both elbows are straight until the body reaches a point where it cannot go further comfortably. Eventually, the left hand must be released from the fist grip, and the firer is shooting to the right with the one-hand grip.





Figure 2-24: Traversing to the new right side, kneeling.





c. Training Method. This method can be trained and practiced anywhere and, with the firer simulating a two-hand grip, without a weapon. The firer should be familiar with firing in all five directions.




2-10. COMBAT RELOADING TECHNIQUES



Overlooked as a problem for many years, reloading has resulted in many casualties due to soldiers’ hands shaking or errors such as dropped magazines, magazines placed in the pistol backwards, or empty magazines placed back into the weapon. The stress state induced by a life-threatening situation causes soldiers to do things they would not otherwise do. Consistent, repeated training is needed to avoid such mistakes.



NOTE



These procedures should be used only in combat, not on firing ranges.





a. Develop a consistent method for carrying magazines in the ammunition pouches. All magazines should face down with the bullets facing forward and to the center of the body.



b. Know when to reload. When possible, count the number of rounds fired. However, it is possible to lose count in close combat. If this happens, there is a distinct difference in recoil of the pistol when the last round has been fired. Change magazines when two rounds may be left—one in the magazine and one in the chamber. This prevents being caught with an empty weapon at a crucial time. Reloading is faster with a round in the chamber since time is not needed to release the slide.



c. Obtain a firm grip on the magazine. This precludes the magazine being dropped or difficulty in getting the magazine into the weapon. Ensure the knuckles of the hand are toward the body while gripping as much of the magazine as possible. Place the index finger high on the front of the magazine when withdrawing from the pouch. Use the index finger to guide the magazine into the magazine well.



d. Know which reloading procedure to use for the tactical situation. There are three systems of reloading: rapid, tactical, and one-handed. Rapid reloading is used when the soldier’s life is in immediate danger and the reload must be accomplished quickly. Tactical reloading is used when there is more time and it is desirable to keep the replaced magazine because there are rounds still in it or it will be needed again. One-handed reloading is used when there is an arm injury.



(1) Rapid Reloading.



(a) Place your hand on the next magazine in the ammunition pouch to ensure there is another magazine.



(b) Withdraw the magazine from the pouch while releasing the other magazine from the weapon. Let the replaced magazine drop to the ground.



(c) Insert the replacement magazine, guiding it into the magazine well with the index finger.



(d) Release the slide, if necessary.



(e) Pick up the dropped magazine if time allows. Place it in your pocket, not back into the ammunition pouch where it may become mixed with full magazines.



(2) Tactical Reloading.



(a) Place your hand on the next magazine in the ammunition pouch to ensure there is a remaining magazine.



(b) Withdraw the magazine from the pouch.



(c) Drop the used magazine into the palm of the nonfiring hand, which is the same hand holding the replacement magazine.



(d) Insert the replacement magazine, guiding it into the magazine well with the index finger.



(e) Release the slide, if necessary.



(f) Place the used magazine into a pocket. Do not mix it with full magazines.



(3) One-Hand Reloading, Right Hand.



(a) Push the magazine release button with the thumb.



(b) Place the safety ON with the thumb if the slide is forward.



(c) Place the weapon backwards into the holster.





NOTE



If placing the weapon in the holster backwards is a problem, place the weapon between the calf and thigh to hold the weapon.





(d) Insert the replacement magazine.



(e) Withdraw the weapon from the holster.



(f) Remove the safety with the thumb if the slide is forward, or push the slide release if the slide is back.



(4) One-Hand Reloading, Left Hand.



(a) Push the magazine release button with the middle finger.



(b) Place the weapon backwards into the holster.





NOTE



If placing the weapon in the holster backwards is a problem, place the weapon between the calf and thigh to hold the weapon.





(c) Insert the replacement magazine.



(d) Remove the weapon from the holster.



(e) Remove the safety with the thumb if the slide is forward, or push the slide release lever with the middle finger if the slide is back.




2-11. POOR VISIBILITY FIRING



Poor visibility firing with any weapon is difficult since shadows can be misleading to the soldier. This is mainly true during EENT and EMNT (a half hour before dark and a half hour before dawn). Even though the pistol is a shortrange weapon, the hours of darkness and poor visibility further decrease its effect. To compensate, the soldier must use the three principles of night vision.

a. Dark Adaptation. This process conditions the eyes to see during poor visibility conditions. The eyes usually need about 30 minutes to become 98-percent adapted in a totally darkened area.



b. Off-Center Vision. When looking at an object in daylight, a person looks directly at it. However, at night he would see the object only for a few seconds. To see an object in darkness, he must concentrate on it while looking 6 to 10 degrees away from it.



c. Scanning. This is the short, abrupt, irregular movement of the firer’s eyes around an object or area every 4 to 10 seconds. When artificial illumination is used, the firer uses night fire techniques to engage targets, since targets seem to shift without moving.




2–12. NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, CHEMICAL FIRING



When firing a pistol under NBC conditions, the firer should use optical inserts, if applicable. Firing in MOPP levels 1 through 3 should not be a problem for the firer. Unlike wearing a protective mask while firing a rifle, the firer’s sight picture will be acquired the same as without a protective mask. MOPP4 is the only level that may present a problem for a firer since gloves are worn. Gloves may require the firer to adjust his grip to attain a proper grip and proper trigger squeeze. Firers should practice firing in MOPP4 to become proficient in NBC firing.



SECTION III. COACHING AND TRAINING AIDS



Throughout preparatory marksmanship training, the coach-and-pupil method of training should be used. The proficiency of a pupil depends on how well his coach performs his duties. This section provides detailed information on coaching techniques and training aids for pistol marksmanship.


2-13. COACHING



The coach assists the firer by correcting errors, ensuring he takes proper firing positions, and ensuring he observes all safety precautions. The criteria for selecting coaches are a command responsibility; coaches must have experience in pistol marksmanship above that of the student firer. Duties of the coach during instruction practice and record firing include:

a. Checking that the—



• Weapon is cleared.



• Ammunition is clean.



• Magazines are clean and operational.



b. Observing the firer to see that he—



• Takes the correct firing position.



• Loads the weapon properly and only on command.



• Takes up the trigger slack correctly.



• Squeezes the trigger correctly (see paragraph 2-4).



• Calls the shot each time he fires (except for quick fire and rapid fire).



• Holds his breath correctly (see paragraph 2-3).



• Lowers his weapon and rests his arm when he does not fire a round within 5 to 6 seconds.



c. Having the firer breathe deeply several times to relax if he is tense.




2-14. BALL-AND-DUMMY METHOD



In this method, the coach loads the weapon for the firer. He may hand the firer a loaded weapon or an empty one. When firing the empty weapon, the firer observes that in anticipating recoil he is forcing the weapon downward as the hammer falls. Repetition of the ball-and-dummy method helps to alleviate recoil anticipation.


2-15. CALLING THE SHOT



To call the shot is to state where the bullet should strike the target according to the sight picture at the instant the weapon fires—for example: “high,” “a little low,” “to the left,” “to the right,” or “bull’s-eye.” Another method of calling the shot is the clock system—for example, a three-ring hit at 8 o’clock, a four-ring hit at 3 o’clock. Another method is to provide the firer with a target center (placed beside him on the firing line). As soon as the shot is fired, the firer must place a finger on the target face or center where he expects the round to hit on the target. This method avoids guessing and computing for the firer. The immediate placing of the finger on the target face gives an accurate call. If the firer does not call his shot correctly in range firing, he is not concentrating on sight alignment and trigger squeeze. Thus, he does not know that his sight picture is as the weapon fires.


2-16. SLOW-FIRE EXERCISE



The slow-fire exercise is one of the most important exercises for both amateur and competitive marksmen. Coaches should ensure soldiers practice this exercise as much as possible. This is a dry-fire exercise.

a. To perform the slow-fire exercise, the firer assumes the standing position with the weapon pointed at the target. The firer should begin by using a two-hand grip, progressing to the one-hand grip as his skill increases. He takes in a normal breath and lets part of it out, locking the remainder in his lungs by closing his throat. He then relaxes, aims at the target, takes the correct sight alignment and sight picture, takes up the trigger slack, and squeezes the trigger straight to the rear with steady, increasing pressure until the hammer falls, simulating firing.



b. If the firer does not cause the hammer to fall in 5 or 6 seconds, he should come to the pistol ready position, and rest his arm and hand. He then starts the procedure again. The action sequence that makes up this process can be summed up by the key word BRASS. It is a word the firer should think of each time he fires his weapon:



Breathe Take a normal breath, let part of it out, and lock the remainder in the lungs by closing the throat.



Relax Relax the body muscles.



Aim Take correct sight alignment and sight placement, and focus the eye at the top of the front sight.



Slack Take up the trigger slack.



Squeeze Squeeze the trigger straight to the rear with steadily increasing pressure without disturbing sight alignment until the hammer falls.



c. Coaches should observe the front sight for erratic movements during the application of trigger squeeze. Proper application of trigger squeeze allows the hammer to fall without the front sight moving. A small bouncing movement of the front sight is acceptable. Firers should call the shot by the direction of movement of the front sight (high, low, left, or right).




2-17. AIR-OPERATED PISTOL, .177 MM



The air-operated pistol is used as a training device to teach the soldier the method of quick fire, to increase confidence in his ability, and to afford him more practice firing. A range can be set up almost anywhere with a minimum of effort and coordination, which is ideal for USAR and NG. If conducted on a standard range, live firing of pistols can be conducted along with the firing of the .177-mm air-operated pistol. Due to light recoil and little noise of the pistol, the soldier can concentrate on fundamentals. This helps build confidence because the soldier can hit a target faster and more accurately. The air-operated pistol should receive the same respect as any firearm. A thorough explanation of the weapon and a safety briefing are given to each soldier.


2-18. QUICK-FIRE TARGET TRAINING DEVICE



The QTTD (Figures 2-25 and 2-26) is used with the .177-mm air-operated pistol.





Figure 2-25: The quick-fire target training device.





a. Phase I. From 10 feet, five shots at a 20-foot miniature E-type silhouette. After firing each shot, the firer and coach discuss the results and make corrections.



b. Phase II. From 15 feet, five shots at a 20-foot miniature E-type silhouette. The same instructions apply to this exercise as for Phase I.



c. Phase III. From 20 feet, five shots at a 20-foot miniature E-type silhouette. The same instructions apply to this exercise as for Phases I and II.



d. Phase IV. From 15 feet, six shots at two 20-foot miniature E-type silhouettes. This exercise is conducted the same as the previous one, except that the firer is introduced to fire distribution. The targets on the QTTD are held in the up position so they cannot be knocked down when hit.





Figure 2-26: Dimensions for the QTTD.





(1) The firer first engages the 20-foot miniature E-type silhouette on the extreme right of the QTTD (see Figure 2-27). He then traverses between targets and engages the same type target on the extreme left of the QTTD. The firer again shifts back to reengage the first target. The procedure is used to teach the firer to instinctively return to the first target if he misses it with his first shot.



(2) The firer performs this exercise twice, firing three shots each time. Before firing the second time, the coach and firer should discuss the errors made during the first exercise.





Figure 2-27: Miniature E-type silhouette for use with QTTD.





Figure 2-27: Miniature E-type silhouette for use with QTTD. (Continued)





Figure 2-27: Miniature E-type silhouette for use with QTTD. (Continued)





e. Phase V. Seven shots fired from 20, 15, and 10 feet at miniature E-type silhouettes.



(1) The firer starts this exercise 30 feet from the QTTD. The command MOVE OUT is given, and the firer steps out at a normal pace with the weapon held in the ready position. Upon the command FIRE (given at the 20-foot line), the firer assumes the crouch position and engages the 20-foot miniature E-type silhouette on the extreme right of the QTTD. He then traverses between targets, engages the same type target on the extreme left of the QTTD, and shifts back to the first target. If the target is still up, he engages it. The firer then assumes the standing position and returns the weapon to the ready position. (Upon completion of each exercise, the coach makes corrections as the firer returns to the standing position.)



(2) On the command MOVE OUT, the firer again steps off at a normal pace. Upon the command FIRE (given at the 15-foot line), he engages the 15-foot targets on the QTTD. The same sequence of fire distribution is followed as with the previous exercise.



(3) During this exercise, the firer moves forward on command until he reaches the 10-foot line. At the command FIRE, the firer engages the 10-foot miniature E-type silhouette in the center of the QTTD.




2-19. RANGE FIRING COURSES



Range firing is conducted after the firers have satisfactorily completed preparatory marksmanship training. The range firing courses are:

a. Instructional. Instructional firing is practice firing on a range, using the assistance of a coach.



(1) All personnel authorized or required to fire the pistol receive 12 hours of preliminary instruction that includes the following:



• Disassembly and assembly.



• Loading, firing, unloading, and immediate action.



• Preparatory marksmanship.



• Care and cleaning.



(2) The tables fired for instructional practice are prescribed in the combat pistol qualification course in Appendix A. During the instructional firing, the CPQC is fired with a coach or instructor.



b. Combat Pistol Qualification. The CPQC stresses the fundamentals of quick fire. It is the final test of a soldier’s proficiency and the basis for his marksmanship classification. After the soldier completes the instructional practice firing, he shoots the CPQC for record. Appendix A provides a detailed description of the CPQC tables, standards, and conduct of fire. TC 25-8 provides a picture of the course.





NOTE



The alternate pistol qualification course (APQC) can be used for sustainment/qualification if the CPQC is not available.





c. Military Police Firearms Qualification. The military police firearms qualification course is a practical course of instruction for police firearms training (see FM 19-10).





SECTION IV. SAFETY



Safety must be observed during all marksmanship training. Listed below are the precautions for each phase of training. It is not intended to replace AR 385-63 or local range regulations. Range safety requirements vary according to the requirements of the course of fire. It is mandatory that the latest range safety directives and local range regulations be consulted to determine current safety requirements.


2-20. REQUIREMENTS



The following requirements apply to all marksmanship training.

a. Display a red flag prominently on the range during all firing.



b. Soldiers must handle weapons carefully and never point them at anyone except the enemy in actual combat.



c. Always assume a weapon is loaded until it has been thoroughly examined and found to contain no ammunition.



d. Indicate firing limits with red and white striped poles visible to all firers.



e. Never place obstructions in the muzzle of any weapon about to be fired.



f. Keep weapons in a prescribed area with proper safeguards.



g. Refrain from smoking on the range near ammunition, explosives, or flammables.




2-21. BEFORE FIRING



The following requirements must be met before conducting marksmanship training.

a. Close and post guards at all prescribed roadblocks and barriers.



b. Ensure all weapons are clear of ammunition and obstructions, and all slides are locked to the rear.



c. Brief all firers on the firing limits of the range and firing lanes. Firers must keep their fires within prescribed limits.



d. Ensure all firers receive instructions on how to load and unload the weapon and on safety features.



e. Brief all personnel on all safety aspects of fire and of the range pertaining to the conduct of the courses.



f. No one moves forward of the firing line without permission of the tower operator, safety officer, or OIC.



g. Weapons are loaded and unlocked only on command from the tower operator except during conduct of the courses requiring automatic magazine changes.



h. Weapons are not handled except on command from the tower operator.



i. Firers must keep their weapons pointed downrange when loading, preparing to fire, or firing.




2-22. DURING FIRING



The following requirements apply during marksmanship training.

a. A firer does not move from his position until his weapon has been cleared by safety personnel and placed in its proper safety position. An exception is the assault phase.



b. During Table 5 of the CPQC, firers remain on line with other firers on their right or left.



c. Firers must fire only in their own firing lane and must not point the weapon into an adjacent lane, mainly during the assault phase.



d. Firers treat the air-operated pistol as a loaded weapon, observing the same safety precautions as with other weapons.



e. All personnel wear helmets during live-fire exercises.



f. Firers hold the weapon in the raised position except when preparing to fire. They then hold weapons in the ready position, pointed downrange.




2-23. AFTER FIRING



Safety personnel inspect all weapons to ensure they are clear. A check is conducted to determine if any brass or live ammunition is in the possession of the soldiers. Once cleared, pistols are secured with the slides locked to the rear.


2-24. INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICE AND RECORD QUALIFICATION FIRING



During these phases of firing, safety personnel ensure that—

a. The firer understands the conduct of the exercise.



b. The firer has the required ammunition and understands the commands for loading and unloading.



c. The firer complies with all commands from the tower operator.



d. Firers maintain proper alignment with other firers while moving downrange.



e. Weapons are always pointed downrange.



f. Firers fire within the prescribed range limits.



g. Weapons are cleared after each phase of firing, and the tower-operator is aware of the clearance.



h. Malfunctions or failures to fire that are due to no fault of the firer are reported immediately. On command of the tower operator, the weapon is cleared and action is taken to allow the firer to continue with the exercise.





Army Combat Machine Gun Fundamentals





CHAPTER 1





Machine Gun Marksmanship Training



This chapter aids trainers in preparing and conducting machine gun marksmanship training for the machine gun. Machine gun marksmanship training is conducted in three phases: preliminary gunnery, basic gunnery, and advanced gunnery in Chapter 2.





SECTION I. INTRODUCTION



Marksmanship begins with non-firing individual skill proficiency and concludes with collective proficiency firing under demanding conditions.


1-1. OBJECTIVES



The objectives of machine gun marksmanship training are to produce gunners that are thoroughly capable of the following:

a. Accurate Initial Burst. Obtaining an accurate initial burst of fire on the target is essential to good marksmanship. This requires the gunner to estimate range to the target, set the sights, and apply the fundamentals of marksmanship while engaging targets.



b. Adjustment of Fire. The gunner must observe the strike of the rounds when the initial burst is fired. If not on target, he manipulates the T&E mechanism until the rounds do strike the target. The assistant gunner must be proficient in observing the strike of rounds and in observing and using tracers so the gunner can rapidly relay the machine gun on the target for engagement.



c. Speed. Speed is also essential to good marksmanship; it is attained by practice in both dry-fire and live-fire exercises. It is an acquired skill gained through extensive training that combines other skills when delivering fire. Speed should not be stressed to the detriment of accuracy.




1-2. TRAINING PHASES



Marksmanship training for the machine gun is progressive in nature. It begins with nonfiring individual skill proficiency and concludes with collective proficiency firing under demanding conditions. Gunners and leaders must master the fundamentals before attempting individual and collective firings. More effective and efficient marksmanship occurs if live firing is preceded with good preliminary marksmanship training. Likewise, proficient individual firing will achieve more proficient collective firing.

a. Preliminary Gunnery. In this phase, the gunner learns and demonstrates proficiency on individual skills that prepare him to fire live ammunition. This includes mastering mechanical training, the four fundamentals of marksmanship, T&E manipulation, sight adjustments, crew drill, and fire commands.



b. Basic Gunnery. In this phase, the gunner applies the fundamentals in live-fire exercises during day and night conditions. This includes zeroing, 10-meter firing with crew drill, field zeroing, and transition firing with crew drill.



c. Advanced Gunnery. In this phase, gunners are trained on combat techniques of fire, techniques of employment, and live-fire exercise during NBC conditions.




1-3. TRAINING STRATEGY



Training strategy involves the overall concept for integrating resources into a program that trains individual and collective skills needed to perform a wartime mission. The goal of a marksmanship program is to produce well-trained gunners who can win and survive on the battlefield.

a. Leaders implement training strategies for machine gun marksmanship in TRADOC institutions (IET, NCOES, IOBC, and IOAC) and in units. The overall training strategy is multifaceted and is inclusive of the specific strategies used in institution and unit programs. Also included are the supporting strategies that use resources such as publications, ranges, ammunition, training aids, devices, simulators, and simulations. These strategies focus on developing critical soldier skills and leader skills that are required for the intended outcome.



b. The training strategies contain two components: initial training and sustainment training. Both may include individual and collective skills. Initial training is critical because a task that is taught correctly and learned well is retained longer. When an interim of nonuse occurs, well-trained skills are more quickly regained and sustained. The more difficult and complex the task, the harder it is to sustain the skill. Personnel turnover plays a major factor in the decay of collective skills, since the loss of critical team members requires retraining to regain proficiency. Retraining becomes necessary when a long period elapses between initial and sustainment training sessions or when the training doctrine is altered.



c. The training strategy for machine gun marksmanship begins in the institutions and continues in the unit. Figure 1-1, illustrates an example of this overall process, which provides a concept of the flow of unit sustainment training. Combat arms IET provides field units with soldiers who are familiar with standards in basic marksmanship tasks. The soldiers graduating from these courses have been trained to maintain their machine guns and to hit a variety of targets. They have learned range determination, target detection, application of marksmanship fundamentals, and other skills needed to engage a target.



d. Additional skills trained in the institution include techniques for employment, classes of fire, and fire commands. These skills must then be reinforced in the unit. Related soldier skills of camouflage, cover and concealment, maneuver, and preparation and selection of a fighting position are addressed in STP 21–24-SMCT, which must be integrated into tactical training.



e. Training continues in units on the basic skills taught in combat arms IET. Additional skills, such as suppressive fire and supporting fire, are trained and then integrated into collective training exercises, which include squad and platoon live-fire exercises. The strategy for sustaining the basic marksmanship skills that is taught in combat arms IET involves periodic preliminary gunnery, followed by 10-meter, transition firing, and qualification range firing. However, a unit must establish a year-round program to sustain skills. Key elements include training the trainers and refresher training of non-firing skills.



f. In the unit, individual proficiency and leader proficiency of marksmanship tasks are integrated into collective training that includes squad, section, and platoon drills and STXs. Collective tasks are evaluated to standard and discussed during leader and trainer after-action reviews. Objective evaluations of both individual and unit proficiency provide readiness indicators and future training requirements.



g. A critical step in the Army’s overall marksmanship training strategy is to train the trainers and leaders first. Leader courses include limited machine gun training, but unit publications will help develop officer and NCO proficiency necessary to plan and conduct gunnery training and to evaluate the effectiveness of their programs. Proponent schools provide training support materials to include field manuals, training aids, devices, simulators, and programs that are doctrinal foundations and guidance for training the force.



h. Once the soldier understands the weapon, knows how to zero, and has demonstrated proficiency at 10-meter and transition ranges, he should be exposed to more difficult ranges and scenarios.



i. IET culminates in the soldier’s proficiency assessment, which is conducted on the 10-meter and transition and record fire ranges. Unit training culminates in a collective, live-fire, tactical exercise that provides an overview of unit proficiency and training effectiveness.




1-4. TRAINING FOR COMBAT CONDITIONS



The trainer must realize that qualification is not an end but a step towards reaching combat requirements. To reach this goal, the gunner not only considers his position and the use of his weapon, but also some of the following combat conditions as well.





Figure 1-1: Unit marksmanship sustainment strategy.





a. Most engagements will be within 300 meters; however, the gunner must still engage targets out to the maximum range of the machine gun.



b. Enemy personnel are seldom visible except when assaulting.



c. Most combat fire must be directed at an area where the enemy has been detected or where he is suspected of being but cannot be seen. Area targets consist of objects or outlines of men irregularly spaced along covered and concealed areas (ground folds, hedges, borders of woods).



d. Most combat targets can be detected by smoke, flash, dust, noise, or movement, but the targets are only visible for a moment.



e. Some combat targets can be engaged by using reference points, predetermined fire, or range card data.



f. The nature of the target and irregularities of terrain and vegetation may require a gunner to move from one position to another to place effective fire on the target. The most stable position for the gunner is the prone tripod-supported position.



g. Most combat targets have a low contrast outline and are obscured. Therefore, choosing an aiming point in elevation is difficult.



h. Time-stressed fire in combat can be divided into three types: a single, fleeting target that must be engaged quickly; distributed targets that must be engaged within the time they remain available; and a surprise target that must be engaged at once with instinctive, accurate fire.




SECTION II. PRELIMINARY GUNNERY



Once a soldier is proficient in the characteristics and mechanical training of the machine gun, he is ready to be trained on the four fundamentals of marksmanship. As the gunner learns the fundamentals, he should be required to manipulate the sights, use his body to shift and lay the sights on the target, use the T&E mechanism to lay on the target, conduct crew drill, and respond to fire commands. Dry-fire exercises are an excellent method for training to proficiency.


1-5. MARKSMANSHIP FUNDAMENTALS



The four fundamentals for firing are the same for all machine guns, they are steady position, aim, breath control, and trigger control.

a. Steady Position. In automatic fire, position is the most important aspect of marksmanship. If the gunner has a good zero, correctly aims his weapon, and properly applies a steady hold in firing a burst of automatic fire, the first round of that burst hits the target at the point of aim. However, this procedure is not necessarily true of the second and third rounds. The first round hits the aiming point the same as when a round is fired singularly. The recoil from the first and subsequent rounds progressively disturbs the lay of the weapon with each round of the burst. The relationship between the point of impact of the first and subsequent rounds of the burst depends on the stability of the gunner’s position. His body, directly behind the weapon, serves as the foundation, and his grip serves as a lock to hold the weapon against the foundation. The better the body alignment and the steadier the grip, the less dispersed the rounds of a burst of automatic fire will be.



b. Aim. To aim the machine gun, the gunner must align the sights, focus his eye, obtain a correct sight picture, control his breathing, and maintain trigger control.



(1) Sight Alignment. To obtain correct alignment, the gunner centers the front sight post in the aperture of the rear sight. For a correct sight picture, the gunner centers the target over the front sight post so that it appears to rest lightly on top of the sight. The aspects of obtaining an accurate initial burst through sight alignment and sight picture, trigger manipulation, and zeroing are the same for tripod training as for bipod training.



(2) Focus of the Eye. A good firing position places the eye directly in line with the center of the rear sight. The gunner must focus on the tip of the front sight post. The natural ability of the eye to center objects in the rear sight and to seek the point of greatest light aids in providing correct sight alignment.



(3) Sight Picture. A correct sight picture has the target, front sight post, and rear sight aligned. The sight picture consists of sight alignment and placement of the aiming point on the target. The gunner aligns the front sight post in the center of the rear sight and then aligns the sights with the target. The top of the front sight post is aligned on the center base of the target (Figure 1-2).





Figure 1-2: Sight picture.





c. Breath Control. When firing in bipod-mounted mode, two types of breath control are used. When firing single shots, as in zeroing, the gunner stops breathing after most of the air has been exhaled during the normal breathing cycle. He fires before he feels any discomfort. During automatic fire, ideally, the gunner exhales and stops his breath when pressing the trigger. He does not have time to take deep breaths between bursts. He must hold his breath before each burst or adapt his breathing by taking quick shallow breaths or taking deeper breaths between several bursts.



d. Trigger Control. Pressing the trigger straight to the rear and releasing it helps control the number of rounds in each burst and prevents disturbing the lay of the weapon. For this the gunner must learn how to manipulate the trigger so that he may get the desired burst he wishes to obtain.




1-6. FIRING POSITIONS



The bipod-supported prone and fighting positions and the tripod-supported prone and fighting positions are covered in preliminary gunnery.

a. Prone Position, Bipod-Supported.



(1) Assume a prone position to the rear of the weapon (place the shoulder rest on your firing shoulder for the M249 and M60 only). An imaginary line drawn through the weapon should bisect the firing shoulder and buttock, and continue through the heel of your foot.



(2) Spread your legs a comfortable distance apart with your heels as close to the ground as possible, yet comfortable.



(3) Grasp the pistol grip with your firing hand. Place the fleshy end of the index finger so that it rest lightly on the trigger. Place your non-firing hand on the small of the stock with your thumb curled underneath. Then slide your non-firing hand forward until your little finger touches the receiver, so your aiming point will always be the same.



(4) Place your cheek against the forefinger of your non-firing hand to form a stock weld. Try to position your non-firing hand and cheek at the same spot on the stock each time you fire the weapon. The stock weld should provide for a natural line of sight through the center of the rear sight aperture to the front sight post and to the target. Relax your neck so that your cheek rests on your forefinger naturally.



(5) Apply a firm, steady pressure rearward and down, holding the weapon tightly into the hollow of your shoulder while aiming and firing.



(6) Keep your shoulders level and elbows about an equal distance from the receiver of the weapon (Figure 1-3).





Figure 1-3: Prone position, bipod-supported.





NOTE



1. The assistant gunner assumes a prone position along the left side of the gunner to load ammunition and observe.



2. Left-handed firing with the M249 and M60 is discouraged because the ejection pattern of some weapons is almost directly to the rear. When firing any machine gun using the tripod, the gunner must use his left hand to manipulate the T&E mechanism, therefore precluding the gunner from firing the machine gun left handed.



3. If a gunner has problems obtaining a proper sight picture, he should shift to a position that allows him to do so.





b. Fighting Position, Bipod-Supported. This is an excellent position that provides a stable firing platform. The depth of the fighting position and the support should be adjusted for the height and arm length of the gunner. This allows for a steadier position.



(1) Extend the bipod legs and place the machine gun in front of the position.



(2) Place your right (firing side foot) foot sideways against the rear of the fighting position and lean forward until your chest is squarely against the forward wall.



(3) Raise the folding shoulder rest and place it on your firing shoulder (M249 and M60 only). Keep your shoulders level or parallel to the ground.



(4) Grasp the pistol grip with your firing hand, place the fleshy end of the index finger so that it rests lightly on the trigger. Place your non-firing hand on the small of the stock and ensure that your thumb is curled underneath.



(5) Place your cheek against the forefinger of your non-firing hand to form a stock weld. Try to position your non-firing hand and cheek at the same spot on the stock each time you fire the weapon. The stock weld should provide for a natural line of sight through the center of the rear sight aperture to the front sight post and to the target. Relax your neck so that your cheek rests on your forefinger naturally.



(6) Apply a firm, steady pressure rearward and down, holding the weapon tight into the hollow of your shoulder while aiming and firing.



(7) Keep your shoulders level and elbows about an equal distance from the receiver of the weapon (Figure 1-4).





Figure 1-4: Fighting position, bipod-supported.





c. Prone Position, Tripod-Supported. The gunner assumes a prone position to the rear of the weapon (place the shoulder rest on your firing shoulder for the M249 and M60 only). An imaginary line drawn through the weapon should bisect the right shoulder and buttock and continue through the heel of his foot. When using the tripod, the assistant gunner assumes a prone position along the left side of the gunner to load ammunition and observe.



(1) The gunner spreads his legs a comfortable distance apart with his heels as close to the ground as possible and still be comfortable.



(2) Grasps the pistol grip with his right hand with the fleshy end of his index finger resting lightly on the trigger. (The machine gun is not fired left-handed with the tripod because turning the traverse handwheel with the right hand is difficult.)



(3) Grasps the elevating handwheel with his left hand, palm down. Exerts a firm downward pressure with both hands while aiming and firing.



(4) Places both elbows on the ground between the tripod legs and his body. The position of his elbows raises or lowers his body in relation to the machine gun.



(5) Places his shoulder lightly against the stock without applying any pressure. (6) Rests his cheek lightly (if at all) against the stock (Figure 1-5).





Figure 1-5: Prone position, tripod-supported.





d. Fighting Position, Tripod-Supported. (Figure 1-6.) The gunner places his right (firing side) foot sideways against the rear of the fighting position and leans forward until his chest is squarely against the wall.



(1) The gunner grasps the pistol grip with his firing hand with the fleshy end of his index finger resting lightly on the trigger.



(2) Places his left hand on the elevating handwheel, palm down, exerting a firm downward pressure to make either minor or major adjustments in deflection or elevation. (The weapon is stabilized by the support of the tripod.)



(3) Places his elbows on the inside and does not touch the tripod.



(4) Places little or no pressure against the stock of the gun.



(5) Rests his cheek lightly, if at all, against the stock.





Figure 1-6: Fighting position, tripod-supported.





1-7. NIGHT FIRE



Although the same four fundamentals of marksmanship are used for night firing, adjustments must be made to accommodate the night vision devices.

a. Bipod.



(1) Steady Position. When firing unassisted, changes in head position and stock weld are necessary especially when using weapon-target alignment techniques. Normally, the gunner positions his head so that he can align the weapon on the target and look over the sights. In some cases, the lower part of his jaw makes firm contact with his nonfiring hand on the stock, with his eyes an inch or so above the sights. The key is to use the natural pointing ability to align the machine gun on the target. When using NVDs, the head position and stock weld must be altered to be able to use the device. Sometimes height of the NVD may make this impossible. NVDs alter the machine gun’s weight and center of gravity. The gunner must compensate by exerting greater pressure and control with his firing hand on the pistol grip and his nonfiring hand on the stock.



(2) Aim. Various modifications are necessary when aiming the machine gun at night. When firing unassisted, the gunner uses off-center vision instead of pinpoint focus. Both eyes are open and focused downrange on the target and not on the sights. Rather than aim using the sights, the gunner looks over the sights and points the machine gun where he is looking. The normal tendency is to fire high so the gunner must improve weapon-target alignment by pointing slightly low to compensate. When using NVDs, the gunner uses the necessary aiming process to use the device.



(3) Breath Control. This fundamental is not affected by night firing conditions; however, wobble is more pronounced when using NVDs, because they magnify the field of view.



(4) Trigger Control. There is no change to this fundamental during night firing. The objective is to not disrupt alignment of the weapon with the target.



b. Tripod.



(1) Steady Position. When firing at predetermined targets with the weapon laid on each target, there are no differences in steady position at night as compared to day. However, firing at night at targets of opportunity requires modifications. The gunner is required to use weapon-target alignment techniques. He must align the weapon on the target and look over the sights. His head is higher and his lower jaw is lightly on the stock if at all. With night vision devices, the gunner must position his head so that his firing eye is in line with the device.



(2) Aim. For targets of opportunity, the gunner uses the same techniques as with a bipod during night firing except weapon-target alignment is achieved with the T&E mechanism.



(3) Breath Control. There are no changes in this fundamental.



(4) Trigger Control. There are no changes in this fundamental.




1-8. NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, CHEMICAL FIRE



The four fundamentals remain valid in an NBC environment, although some modifications may be needed to accommodate the equipment.

a. Bipod.



(1) Steady Position. The bulk of overgarments may require adjustments to the position for stability and comfort. A consistent stock weld is difficult to maintain because of the shape of the protective masks. The gunner has to hold his head in an awkward position to see through the sight. If necessary, he may cant the weapon to overcome this situation. This procedure relieves the neck muscles and places the eye in line with the center of the rear sight.



(2) Aim. The gunner may have to rotate (cant) the machine gun to see through the rear sight aperture. He should rotate only enough to align the sights, and only if necessary. Ballistics cause rounds to impact low in the direction of the cant at long ranges. If canting at targets beyond 175 meters, the gunner must adjust his point of aim. The best technique is to aim at center base of the target initially and then make adjustments based on the strike of the rounds. Right-handed firers adjust point of aim to the right and high; left-handed firers to the left and high.



(3) Breath Control. Although breathing is somewhat restricted and more difficult while wearing the protective mask, the impact is negligible. Care must be taken to avoid hyperventilating during burst fire. The amount of oxygen inhaled by taking quick shallow breaths or deeper breaths between bursts is significantly reduced.



(4) Trigger Control. Trigger control is affected when the gunner wears gloves. The effect cannot be accurately predicted for each soldier; therefore, practice and training under these conditions is required.



b. Tripod.



(1) Steady Position. Modifications are similar to those in bipod firing. There are two other points of importance. Manipulating the T&E with gloves on is more difficult because the feel of the hand wheel differs. The gunner may not sense the same control as without gloves. Second, hearing is impaired. Together, reduced sense of touch and hearing impairment make T&E manipulations especially difficult. For these reasons, adjustments may be considerably slower.



(2) Aim. Unlike the bipod, the tripod does not allow the machine gun to be canted. This requires the gunner to position his head behind the stock to use the sight. Skilled gunners who make adjustments to the T&E quickly can confirm their sight picture and then look over the sights to observe the strike of the round while firing. This not only provides relief for the neck muscles but aids in making adjustments.



(3) Breath Control. Some considerations apply in the same way as with of the bipod; however, the stable platform of the tripod negates movement associated with breathing.



(4) Trigger Control. Like the bipod, control is different because the trigger feels different. Training familiarizes the gunner with the changes he must make while wearing gloves.




1-9. ENGAGEMENT OF MOVING TARGETS



The fundamentals used to hit moving targets are the same as those needed to hit stationary targets. However, the procedures to engage moving targets vary as the angle, speed, and range of the target varies. Targets moving directly at the gunner are engaged the same as a stationary target; there is no change in the application of the fundamentals. But fast-moving targets at varying ranges and angles do require changes in the application of steady position and aiming.

a. Leads. To hit a moving target, the machine gun must be aimed ahead of the target far enough to cause the bullet and target to arrive at the same time at the same point. This distance is measured in target lengths. One target length as seen by the gunner is one lead. Leads are measured from the center of mass. Table 1-1 gives the amount of lead needed to hit a target moving at right angles, to the gunner, and at speeds and ranges indicated. The gunner makes adjustments as conditions change. If target speed is 71вЃ„2 mph, the amount of lead is half that shown on the table; at 30 mph, double that shown. The angle at which the target moves also changes the lead. If the target is moving on an oblique angle, only half the lead is required. For a target moving directly at the gunner, the aiming point is below the center base of the target depending on range and slope of the ground. For a target moving directly away from a gunner, the aiming point is above the center base of the target (Figure 1-7). Too much lead is better than too little because the target moves into the beaten zone, and observation of the strike of the rounds is easier in relation to the target.



Table 1-1: Vehicle lead table.





SPEED



RANGE OF TARGET





15 mph



300 meters

500 meters

900 meters



1/2 X Target length

1 X Target length

2 X Target length





NOTE



A soldier carrying a full combat load can run as fast as 8 mph for short distances on the battlefield.





Figure 1-7: Moving-target aiming points.





b. Tracking Techniques. The gunner aims at a point ahead of the target equal to the estimated number of leads, maintains this lead by tracking the target (manipulates the weapon at the same angular speed as that of the target), and then fires. Tracking allows the gunner in position for a second burst if the first one misses.



c. Trapping Techniques. The gunner establishes an aiming point forward of the target and along the target path. He pulls the trigger as the target reaches the appropriate point in regard to lead.



d. Position and Aim.



(1) Steady Position. The gunner makes no change in position for targets moving directly toward or away from him. He manipulates the T&E mechanism to obtain the proper lead and sight picture. Some targets at varying speeds, angles, and ranges may require the gunner to reposition when in the prone position. The gunner redistributes his weight to his elbows and toes, raising his body directly behind the weapon. He uses the T&E mechanism to traverse on to the target.



(2) Aim. The gunner uses the T&E mechanism to acquire the appropriate sight picture in relation to leading the target. He must quickly determine speed, angle, and range to the target, decide whether to track or trap, acquire lead, and engage the target. He uses the traversing handwheel to maintain lead.



(3) Breath Control. The gunner makes no change, but he must be quick to hold his breath because of the fleeting nature of moving targets.



(4) Trigger Control. The gunner makes no change in applying this fundamental.



e. Bipod Techniques. For targets moving to or from a gunner using a bipod, the same procedures are used. From a prone position, the gunner may be required to adjust his position quickly depending on range, angle, and speed of the target.



(1) Steady Position. If appropriate lead cannot be achieved by shifting his shoulders right or left (traverse) or by moving his elbows closer or farther apart (search), the gunner redistributes his weight to his elbows and toes and raises his body off the ground. Using his toes, the gunner shifts his body right or left in the opposite direction of the target and pivots on his elbows until the aiming point is well ahead of the target. The gunner rapidly assumes a steady position, obtains the sight picture, and leads and engages the target. Trapping is the preferred technique. In order to apply this method, the bipod legs must move freely. When firing from a fighting position, the gunner must be flexible enough to track any target in his sector. If lead cannot be achieved, he slides the bipod legs in the appropriate direction (left or right) ahead of the target and continues as in the prone position. Trapping is still the preferred technique. If the terrain does not permit sliding the weapon left or right, the gunner lifts the bipod legs off the ground and places them where he can aim ahead of the target, reestablishes a steady position, and continues as before.



(2) Aim. The gunner determines angle, speed, and range quickly; acquires the appropriate lead; and engages the target. He aligns the front sight post in the proper position to lead the target. For targets moving directly away, he places the front sight post above center of mass. For targets moving directly at him, he aligns the front sight post below center of mass. For all other targets, he aligns the front sight with center base of the target applying the appropriate lead.



(3) Breath Control. The gunner must hold his breath quickly because of the fleeting nature of moving targets.



(4) Trigger Control. This is the same as for engaging stationary targets.




1-10. TRAVERSE AND SEARCH



The traverse technique moves the muzzle of the weapon to the left or right to distribute fire laterally. Search moves the muzzle up or down to distribute fire in depth.

a. Tripod.



(1) Traverse. To move the muzzle to the right, the gunner places his left hand on the traversing handwheel, thumb up, and pushes his thumb away from his body (right). To move the muzzle to the left, he pulls his thumb towards his body (left).



(2) Search. To move the muzzle up, the gunner grasps the elevating handwheel with his left hand and pushes his thumb away from his body (add). To move the muzzle down, he pulls his thumb towards his body (drop).



b. Bipod.



(1) Traverse. To make minor changes in direction, the gunner shifts his shoulders to the right or left to select successive aiming points in the target area. Major changes require him to redistribute his weight to his elbows and toes and raise his body off the ground. Using his toes, he shifts his body to the right or left to be in the opposite direction of the target, and pivots on his elbows until he is aligned with the target. The gunner rapidly assumes a steady position, obtains the proper sight picture, and engages the target.



(2) Search. To make changes in elevation, the gunner moves his elbows closer together to lower the muzzle or farther apart to raise the muzzle. He corrects gross errors in range by adjusting the range setting.




1-11. DIRECT LAY



The simplest, quickest, and most effective technique of delivering fire with the machine gun is to align the sights on the target and properly apply fire. This technique of fire is called direct lay.


1-12. APPLICATION OF FIRE



The gunner must aim, fire, and adjust on a certain point of the target. He always keeps the center of his beaten zone at the center base of the target for maximum effect from each burst of fire. When this procedure is done, bullets in the upper half of the cone of fire run through the target if it has height, and the bullets in the lower half of the beaten zone ricochet into the target.


1-13. FIRE ADJUSTMENT



The gunner initially sets his sights with the range to the target, lays on the target (sight alignment and sight picture on the center base of the target), fires a burst, and observes the strike of the rounds or flight of the tracers. When the initial burst is correct, he continues to fire until the target is covered. He must regain a good sight picture before each burst when using the bipod. When using the tripod, the gunner makes a rapid check of the sight picture after each traverse and search adjustment.

a. Sight Corrections Method. A gunner must observe and adjust fire rapidly to be effective. He observes bursts of fire by noting the strike of the rounds in the target area and the tracers in flight. The technique to adjust fire depends on time, range, and amount of adjustment. These factors assist the gunner in determining whether or not to make sight corrections or adjust position and point of aim. When the initial burst is not correctly placed, the gunner may change the elevation and windage on the sights and fire another burst on the target. This method is time-consuming, even for the well-trained soldier.



b. Adjusted Aiming Point Method. In this method of fire adjustment, the gunner uses his sight but does not make sight corrections. This method is quick. If the gunner misses the target with his initial burst, he must rapidly select a new aiming point the same distance from the target as the center of impact of the initial burst, but in the opposite direction. For example, if the initial burst is 20 meters beyond and 10 meters to the right of the target, the gunner rapidly selects an aiming point about 20 meters short and 10 meters to the left of the target, lays on that aiming point, and fires (Figure 1-8).



(1) When selecting a new aiming point from bipod mode, he may have to shift his shoulders slightly to the left or right for windage corrections. For elevation changes, he moves his elbows closer together (lowers the impact) or farther apart (raises the impact). For large corrections, he must move his elbows and realign his body to remain directly behind the weapon. He does this by redistributing weight to his elbows and toes and raises his body off the ground. He shifts his body using his toes, to the right or left, pivoting on his elbows until he is on line with the target. Then he assumes a steady position, obtains the sight picture, and engages the target.



(2) When selecting a new aiming point from tripod mode, the gunner may have to manipulate the T&E mechanism.





Figure 1-8: Adjusting aiming point method.





1-14. EFFECTS OF WIND



The effects of wind vary depending on changes in speed and direction. Wind is classified by the direction it is blowing in relationship to the firer and target line. The clock system is used to indicate wind direction and value (Figure 1-9).

a. Clock System. Winds that blow from the left (9 o’clock) or right (3 o’clock) are called full-value winds, because they have the most effect on the round. Winds that blow at an angle from the front or rear area are called half-value winds, because they have about one-half the effect on the round as full-value winds. Winds that blow straight into the gunner’s face or winds that blow straight into the target are termed no-value winds, because their effect on the round is too small to be a concern. Effects of the wind increase as the range increases. Figure 1-10 shows the effects of a 10-mph wind at varying ranges. A 20-mph wind doubles the effect. Winds at other than right angles have less effect. As indicated in Figure 1-10, wind has almost no effect up to 300 meters.





NOTE



When in doubt, the gunner aims the initial burst directly at the center base of the target and, using the techniques of observation and adjustment of fire, adjusts the fire onto the target.





b. Wind Measurement. Wind is highly variable and sometimes quite different at the firing position than at the target position. Even though the wind is blowing hard at the firing position, trees, brush, or terrain could protect the path of the round. The wind can vary by several miles per hour between the time a measurement is taken and when the round is fired. Therefore, training time should not be wasted trying to teach gunners an exact way to measure wind speed. They should know that even though wind can affect trajectory, it can be overcome by adjusting fire. A wind gauge can be used for precise measurement of wind velocity. When a gauge is not available, velocity is estimated by one of the following methods.





Figure 1-9: Clock method.





Figure 1-10: Effects of winds.





(1) Observation Method. The following information can assist in determining wind velocities.



(a) Winds under 3 mph can barely be felt, but the presence of slight wind can be determined by drifting smoke.



(b) Winds of 5 to 8 mph constantly move the leaves of trees.



(c) Winds of 8 to 12 mph raise dust and loose paper.



(d) Winds of 12 to 15 mph cause small trees to sway.



(2) Pointing Method. A piece of paper or other light material can be dropped from shoulder height. By pointing directly at the spot where it lands, the angle can be estimated. As shown in Figure 1-11, the angle is also divided by the constant number 4 to determine the wind speed in mph. However, this only indicates the conditions at the firing position; the conditions may be different at the target.




1-15. FIRE COMMANDS



The standard fire commands are used as means of control during preliminary, basic, and advanced gunnery. The fire command must be explained to the gunner. The elements are given (as appropriate) before each dry-fire or live-fire exercise. The gunner takes action as directed and repeats each element as it is announced. (For a detailed explanation of fire commands, see Chapter 2.) When using the basic 10-meter range target, the fire command elements are as follows:





Figure 1-11: Pointing method.





a. Alert. The alert is given as “Fire mission.” Upon hearing the alert, the gunner loads his weapon and places the safety on “F”.



b. Direction. Direction is given as FRONT since the targets appear to the gunner’s front on the basic range.



c. Description. Description is given as PASTER NUMBER (pasters 1 through 8 as appropriate), at which time the gunner lays his weapon on the announced paster.



d. Range. The elevation on the rear sight assembly is always used on the basic range. This is announced as FIVE HUNDRED or SEVEN HUNDRED, at which time the gunner must ensure that his rear sight assembly has the correct elevation setting.



e. Method of Fire. Firing on the basic range is at a point target, so the method of fire is announced as FIXED. The gunner fires either single rounds or bursts at a rate slower than the sustained rate; therefore, the rate-of-fire element is omitted.



f. Command to Open Fire. This is announced as AT MY COMMAND. When the gunner is ready, he announces “Up.” When all gunners are ready to fire, the command FIRE is given.




1-16. DRY-FIRE EXERCISES



Dry-fire exercises train the techniques of loading, unloading, immediate action, remedial action, fundamentals of marksmanship, sight settings, and T&E manipulation.

a. Ammunition. These exercises may be conducted using blank or dummy ammunition and should be conducted using fire commands when appropriate. If the blank firing attachment is used, safety restrictions for its use must be enforced. While the gunner performs the tasks, the assistant gunner—



• Checks the sight setting and initial lay.



• Checks the gunner’s position.



• Ensures the gunner simulates firing before adjusting his position.



• Checks for proper body adjustment or manipulation of T&E.



• Critiques the gunner at the end of the exercise.



b. Loading and Unloading Exercises. The procedures for loading and unloading are prescribed in Chapters 1, 2 and 3. They should be reinforced using dummy ammunition. This training instills confidence and proficiency in the operation of the weapon. It also provides training in clearing the weapon.



c. Immediate Action and Remedial Action Exercise. This exercise is conducted using linked dummy rounds and the basic machine gun target. The instructor should use salvage links to link the dummy rounds together. The gunner—



(1) Loads the weapon with dummy ammunition and aims at one of the aiming pasters on the basic machine gun target.



(2) Being conscious of the sight picture, pulls the trigger and the bolt goes forward (simulate firing the weapon). If the sight picture is disturbed, checks his position and grip, and maintains better control of the weapon.



(3) If he has a stoppage, applies immediate action procedures and continues to fire.



(4) If immediate action has failed, applies remedial action procedures and continue to fire.



d. Operational Exercise. The gunner aims and simulates firing each dummy round at the aiming paster on the basic machine gun target.



(1) Observes the sight picture through the feeding, locking, and firing cycle. (This provides feedback on his ability to maintain and hold the sight picture.)



(2) If at the completion of the firing cycle there is significant movement of the sight picture, his position is not steady enough or the tripod is not stable.



(3) Applies immediate action after firing each shot to extract and eject the dummy cartridge, and returns the bolt to the cocked position. Returns the cocking handle to the forward position.





WARNING





The M240B is carried loaded with the bolt locked to the rear in tactical situations where noise discipline is critical to the success of the mission. Trained gun crews are the only personnel authorized to load the M240B and only when command directs the crew to do so. During normal training exercises, the M240B is loaded and carried with the bolt in the forward position.





e. Sight Setting and Sight Change Exercises. These exercises are designed to train the gunner in the operation and adjustment of the rear sight, and making corrections in elevation and windage on the machine gun.



(1) For large adjustments in elevation (range), the gunner manipulates the rear sight to achieve different range settings. For fine adjustments in elevation, the gunner rotates the elevation knob for the machine gun.



(2) To make adjustments for windage, the gunner traverses the rear sight across the windage scale for the machine gun.



f. Practice. Before the dry-fire proficiency examination, soldiers should practice the tasks until they become proficient.



g. Traversing and Searching Exercise. After the gunner knows the principles of sighting and aiming and can assume a satisfactory firing position, he learns how to make minor and major body position changes to obtain an accurate initial lay. He practices shifting the direction of the weapon to successive points by moving his body. The basic machine gun target is placed 10 meters from the weapon for this exercise.



(1) Makes adjustments for large shifts in direction by using his elbows-and-toes technique described earlier. Makes small changes in direction by adjusting his shoulders.



(2) Makes major elevation changes by adjusting the range setting on the rear sight. Makes minor elevation changes by adjusting his elbows.



(3) Traverses and searches the target by sighting on the initial aiming paster (number 5 or 6) and then shifting to each of the other pasters in order (5 through 6 or its reverse).



(4) Upon receiving a fire command, the gunner repeats the instructions, sets the sights, lays the weapon on the designated paster, assumes the correct position, and reports up.



(5) At the command FIRE, the gunner simulates firing two single shots, then shifts to the next paster and simulates firing until the exercise is complete.



h. T&E Manipulation Exercise. After the gunner understands the principles of sighting and aiming and can assume a satisfactory firing position, he is instructed in manipulating the tripod-mounted machine gun to obtain an accurate initial lay. He is taught to shift the direction of the weapon to successive points with proficiency. The basic machine gun target is placed 10 meters from the weapon for this exercise.



(1) Makes large shifts in direction by releasing the traversing slide lock lever and moving the slide to the right or left. Makes minor changes in direction by using the traversing handwheel. (One click on the handwheel moves the strike of the round 1 cm on the target.)



(2) Adjusts for elevation by rotating the elevating handwheel with his left hand.



(3) Traverses and searches the target by laying on the initial aiming paster (number 5 or 6) and then shifts to each of the other pasters in order (5 through 6 or its reverse). (All major shifts in traverse are accomplished by loosening the traversing slide lockding lever.) When shifting from pasters number 7 through 8 or 8 through 7, uses the traversing handwheel.



(4) Upon receiving the command, the gunner repeats the instructions, sets the sights, lays the weapon on the designated paster, assumes the firing position, and reports UP.



(5) At the command FIRE, the gunner repeats the command, simulates firing two single shots, then shifts to the next paster and simulates firing until the exercise is completed.



i. Dry-Fire Proficiency (Performance) Examination. A gunner must demonstrate skill in all the tasks of the dry-fire proficiency examination before he is allowed to progress to 10-meter live firing. This examination emphasizes learning by doing. Proficiency is tested on a pass or fail basis.



j. Remedial Training. Remedial training must be given to soldiers who fail the performance objectives. Gunners who have passed the proficiency test may be used to assist in the training of soldiers having difficulty. Following retraining, the soldiers are retested in those tasks.




1-17. MULTIPURPOSE MACHINE GUN RANGE LAYOUT



The multipurpose machine gun range is used for conducting the 10-meter course as well as transition day, night, and integrated NBC firing. The firing area has 10 lanes. (Detailed setup and target configurations are described in TC 25-8. The layout is shown in Figure 1-12.) Personnel required for conducting the 10-meter range, as well as the transition firing, are the same, and they should perform the same duties for each training period. Local policy may dictate personnel requirements. The following are the minimum required personnel: OIC, NCOIC, safety officer or NCO, ammunition NCO, tower operator, lane NCOs, trainer and assistant gunners, or IAW TC 25-8.





Figure 1-12: Multipurpose machine gun range layout.





NOTE



Targets beyond 800 meters are to be used with a machine gun optic and are not to be used during qualification without a machine gun optic.





1-18. BASIC MACHINE GUN TARGET



The basic machine gun target (FSN 6920-078-5128 and NSN 6920-00-078-5123) is used for the 10-meter firing exercise (Figure 1-13). The following explanation of the target, including the size of the aiming pasters and scoring spaces, aids in zeroing the machine guns and facilitates control during the 10-meter firing exercises. The target consists of four sections lettered A, B, C, and D. Each section has four point targets numbered 1, 2, 3, and 4; and two sets of area targets numbered 5 through 6 and 7 through 8. Each space is 4 cm wide and 5 cm high. The black aiming paster within the numbered scoring spaces is 1 cm square. The target is used to score one gunner—with one refire. Each gunner uses sections A, B and C. Sections C for qualification and section D for refire.

a. Point Targets. Point targets on the basic machine gun target are pasters 1 through 4 of sections A, B, C, and D. Firing at point targets exposes the gunner to zeroing techniques and controlled-burst fire techniques. Targets 1 through 4 can also be used for qualification.



b. Area Targets. Area targets on the basic machine gun target consist of pasters 5 through 6, and 7 through 8 of sections A, B, C, and D. Target group 5 through 6 provides the gunner with targets in depth and allows him to use a series of aiming points to disburse fire across the target by using the T&E mechanism. Target group 7 through 8 provides the gunner with linear targets with depth. This series of targets uses a series of aiming points to disburse fire across the target and in depth by using the T&E mechanism.





Figure 1-13: Basic machine gun target.





c. Grid Square Overlay. This device assists the gunner in zeroing his weapon at 10 meters, while using the basic machine gun target (Figure 1-14). The grid square overlay is used the same as an M16 25-meter zero target, except the material can be made of plastic or view graph transparency. Each square is equal to 1 cm.



1 CLICK = 1 CM. Turn the traversing handwheel to move the strike of the round left or right.



1 CLICK = 1 CM. Turn the elevation handwheel to move the strike of the round up or down.



(1) Sets the sights for 10-meter zeroing, then fires three single rounds to form a three-round shot group. Relays on the target using the T&E mechanism.



(2) After firing the three-round shot group (Figure 1-15), places the grid square overlay over the pasters (1 and 2) (Figure 1-16) and counts the number of clicks it will take for rounds to impact on the black aiming paster. (Corrections for Figure 1-16 would be turn the traverse handwheel to the right one click.)





Figure 1-14: Grid square overlay.





Figure 1-15: Shot group on basic machine gun target.





Figure 1-16: Overlay placed over pasters.





1-19. TARGET ANALYSIS



Targets are analyzed and scored to determine the gunner’s proficiency and to reinforce the fundamentals of marksmanship. In a prone or fighting position firing with a zeroed weapon, a target is best analyzed by considering the common errors of machine gun marksmanship (Figure 1-17).





Figure 1-17: Common errors of marksmanship.





SECTION III. CREW DRILL



This section applies to all three machine guns and will be incorporated in preliminary gunnery and basic gunnery. The machine gun crew drill gives squad and platoon members training in the fundamentals of machine gun operation and confidence in their ability to put the machine gun into action with precision and speed. Rotation of duties during training ensures that every member becomes trained in the duties of each crew position. Precision is attained by learning and practicing correct procedures to include inspecting the machine gun before firing and observing safety procedures. Speed is acquired after precision has been developed. Precision is never sacrificed for speed.


1-20. PREPARATION



The crew drill will be conducted with preliminary gunnery and will be part of the 10-meter and transition firing practice and qualification, concurrently during other courses of fire, or anytime at the discretion of the unit commander. The organization for crew drill described in this section is for training crews in the fundamentals of machine gun operation; it is not the organization to be employed in every tactical situation.

a. To instill realism and relate the crew drill to actual situations, the unit leader should vary his method of instruction. Possible approaches to this method of instruction include the following:



• Conduct the crew drill from the prone position.



• Initiate the crew drill from all types of tactical formations.



• Perform the crew drill in simulated tactical situations.



b. The crew drill, as discussed here, involves the leader and one machine gun crew. The machine gun crew consists of three members (a gunner, assistant gunner, and an ammunition bearer). There are two complete machine gun crews in the light headquarters section of infantry, air assault infantry platoons, and airborne infantry platoons.



c. All commands are given by a leader. This leader may be a team leader, squad leader, or someone placed in charge of the crew. The gunner and assistant gunner repeat all commands. After the machine gun is mounted, the assistant gunner transmits all signals from the leader to the gunner and from the gunner to the leader.




1-21. CREW EQUIPMENT



In addition to individual weapons and equipment, crew members carry equipment for both bipod and tripod training. The following is a suggested assignment of the equipment to the machine gun crew members:

a. Day Time Equipment.



(1) Leader (designated)—binoculars, compass.



(2) Gunner—machine gun, compass, MGO or AN/PAS-13, two bandoleers (with dummy ammunition).



(3) Assistant Gunner—binoculars, spare barrel case (spare barrel and accessories), traversing and elevating mechanism, pintle assembly, and three bandoleers (with dummy ammunition).



(4) Ammunition bearer—compass, tripod and four bandoleers (with dummy ammunition).



b. Night Time Equipment.



(1) Leader (designated)—AN/PVS-7B with 3XMAG, compass.



(2) Gunner—machine gun, compass, AN/PVS-4 or AN/PAS-13, two bandoleers (with dummy ammunition).



(3) Assistant Gunner—AN/PVS-14 with 3XMAG, spare barrel case (spare barrel and accessories), traversing and elevating mechanism, pintle assembly, and three bandoleers (with dummy ammunition).



(4) Ammunition bearer—AN/PVS-7B with 3XMAG, compass, tripod and four bandoleers (with dummy ammunition).




1-22. FORMATION (BIPOD OR TRIPOD)



The leader commands FORM FOR CREW DRILL. The crew forms in a file with five steps between each crew member in this order: gunner, assistant gunner, and ammunition bearer. The gunner is five steps from and facing the leader. When the crew members reach their positions, each assumes the prone position and is ready for the crew drill. (Figure 1-18, page 1-26.)





Figure 1-18: Crew in ready position.





1-23. CROSS-TRAINING PROCEDURES



Duties are rotated during the crew drill to train each soldier in the duties of all crew members. The command to rotate duties is FALL OUT, GUNNER. At this command, the gunner becomes the ammunition bearer, the assistant gunner becomes the gunner, and the ammunition bearer becomes the assistant gunner. When crew members have assumed their new positions, they call out their new duties in order: AMMUNITION BEARER, ASSISTANT GUNNER, GUNNER.


1-24. INSPECTION FOR BIPOD FIRE



An inspection of equipment is made at the beginning of each exercise.

a. Command. After the crew is formed for crew drill, the leader commands INSPECT EQUIPMENT BEFORE FIRING, BIPOD. At the command, each crew member inspects his equipment as explained below.



(1) Inspection by Gunner. The gunner inspects the ammunition first. He ensures that the ammunition is properly linked and free of dirt and corrosion, and that the double link is up (ready for loading). After he inspects the ammunition, he places the cloth slings over his shoulder (except for one bandoleer, which he prepares for loading). He then inspects the machine gun and takes his position parallel to the machine gun (his head on line with the feed tray). The night personnel also check the AN/PVS-4 or AN/PAS-13.



(a) Holding the machine gun with his left hand, using his right hand he lowers the bipod legs and then rest the machine gun on the bipod.



(b) Attaches the bandoleer to the machine gun.



(c) Places the safety on “F”, pulls the cocking handle to the rear, places the safety on “S”, returns the cocking handle to the forward position, and raises the cover assembly.



(d) Calls for the cleaning rod and receives it from the assistant gunner.



(e) Crawls forward, then runs the cleaning rod through the barrel to ensure it is clear.



(f) Checks the flash suppressor for cracks.



(g) Checks the front sight for tightness and for damage to the blade.



(h) Checks the carrying handle to ensure that it can be positioned so it will not be in the way during aiming and firing.



(i) Ensures that the barrel is securely locked to the receiver.



(j) Returns the cleaning rod to the assistant gunner.



(k) Moves to the rear of the machine gun and checks the moving parts in the feed cover.



• Ensures that the feed cam is clean and properly lubricated.



• Pushes back and forth on the feed cam to check for freedom of movement.



• Pushes on the belt feed pawl to ensure that it has spring tension.



• Pushes on the cartridge guides to ensure that they a have spring tension.



(l) Pushes the belt holding pawl to ensure that it has spring tension.



(m) Lowers and latches the cover (without inserting the belt).



(n) Pulls the trigger to check the functioning of the safety.



(o) Places the safety on “F”, pulls the cocking handle to the rear, pulls the trigger, eases the bolt forward manually with the cocking handle.



(p) Checks the rear sight.



(2) Inspection by Assistant Gunner. Remaining in a prone position, the assistant gunner begins by inspecting his ammunition. He takes the cleaning rod from the carrying case and assembles the cleaning rod. He then takes the traversing and elevating mechanism from the case and prepares it as follows. Night personnel will also check AN/PVS-14 with 3X MAG.



(a) Rotates the elevating handwheel, exposing 11вЃ„2 inches or the width of two fingers of threads above the elevating handwheel.



(b) Rotates the traversing slide sleeve, exposing 11вЃ„2 inches or the width of two fingers of threads below the elevating handwheel.



(c) Centers the traversing mechanism.



(d) Checks the to ensure that the locking mechanism that attach to the machine gun are present and in working order.



(e) Replaces the traversing and elevating mechanism in on the case and removes the spare barrel from the spare barrel case.



(f) Checks the barrel.



(g) Checks the flash suppressor for cracks.



(h) Checks the front sight for tightness and for damage to the blade.



(i) Checks the pintle assembly for proper functioning.



(j) Places the spare barrel its case; disassembles the cleaning rod and returns it accessory pocket; and checks the ruptured cartridge extractor, bore brush, chamber brush, receiver brush, and heat protective mitten for serviceability.



(3) Inspection by Ammunition Bearer. Remaining in a prone position, the ammunition bearer inspects his ammunition as described above for gunner and assistant gunner. He then inspects the tripod, pintle assembly and T&E mechanism. Night personnel also check the AN/PVS-7 with the 3XMAG.



(a) Ensures that the front leg will unfold properly and the rear legs unfold and lock securely in place with the sleeve latch.



(b) Checks the sleeve latch to ensure that it has spring tension and will function.



(c) Checks the pintle assembly to ensure that it is locked into the pintle bushing and that the pintle rotates freely within the bushing.



(d) Checks to ensure that the T&E mechanism will lock on the traversing bar and move freely when unlocked for major changes in direction.



(e) Unlocks the pintle and T&E mechanism from the tripod and return to the assistant gunner.



(f) Folds the rear legs by unlocking the sleeve latch and folds the front leg so that the tripod is in the carrying position.



b. Report. When crew members have completed their inspection of the equipment, they call out their report, without command, starting from the rear.



(1) AMMUNITION BEARER CORRECT (or reports deficiencies).



(2) AMMUNITION BEARER AND ASSISTANT GUNNER CORRECT (or reports the ammunition deficiencies.



(3) GUNNER ALL CORRECT (or deficiencies found during the inspections).




1-25. PLACEMENT INTO ACTION (BIPOD)



To place the machine gun into action, the leader commands and signals MACHINE GUN TO BE MOUNTED HERE (pointing to the position where the machine gun is to be mounted), FRONT (pointing in the direction of fire), ACTION (raising fist to shoulder level and thrusting it several times in the direction of the selected position).

a. At the command ACTION, the gunner stands, grasps the carrying handle with his left hand, grasps the top of the stock with his right hand, raises the machine gun to a carrying position (muzzle to the front) and moves to the selected position.



b. Upon arrival at the position, the gunner places the machine gun on the ground. He then assumes a prone position to the rear of the machine gun, positions the carrying handle so that it will not interfere during aiming and firing, aligns the machine gun in the direction of fire, and set the rear sight. He places the safety on “F”, pulls the bolt to the rear, places the safety on “S”, and returns the cocking handle to the forward position. He then raises the feed cover, places the first round of ammunition in the cartridge feed tray groove, and closes the feed cover ensuring that the round does not slip out of the cartridge feed tray groove. He then places the machine gun to his shoulder and puts the safety on “F”.





WARNING





The M240B is carried loaded with the bolt locked to the rear in tactical situations where noise discipline is critical to the success of the mission. Trained gun crews are the only personnel authorized to load the M240B and only when command directs the crew to do so. During normal training exercises, the M240B is loaded and carried with the bolt in the forward position.





c. The assistant gunner times his movements so that he arrives at the position as the gunner is assuming the prone position. He lies prone on his left hip, feet to the rear, and on the left side of the gunner. He places the spare barrel case parallel to the gun with the zippered side towards the machine gun. He opens the case and removes the spare barrel. He places the spare barrel on the case, muzzle to the front and even with the muzzle of the machine gun. (Figure 1-19.)



d. The ammunition bearer times his movements so that he arrives at the position as the assistant gunner is assuming the prone position. He places the folded tripod one step to the left of the muzzle of the machine gun and on line with the machine gun. He unslings his bandoleers and places them next to the folded tripod legs. He then lies prone 10 meters to the left and on line with the position, provides security, and prepares to fire into the target area with his rifle.



e. When ready to fire, the gunner puts the safety lever on “F” and reports UP. The assistant gunner signals READY to the leader.





]Figure 1-19: Crew members in firing position.





1-26. PROCEDURES FOR CHANGING THE BARREL (BIPOD)



To ensure proficiency and speed in changing barrels, the barrel changing process is included in crew drill. When the gunner has reported UP and the assistant gunner has signaled READY, the leader commands CHANGE BARRELS.

a. The gunner ensures that the bolt is to the rear, puts the safety on “S”, and puts the stock on the ground. Next, he moves his left hand to the top of the stock to ensure the weapon stays parallel to the ground. He puts his right hand under the handguard/forearm assembly help support the machine gun when the assistant gunner removes the barrel.



b. The assistant gunner (wearing the heat protective mitten) unlocks the barrel locking lever, removes the barrel, and places the barrel on the spare barrel case. He holds the spare barrel and inserts it into the machine gun.



c. The gunner ensures that the barrel is locked and secured in the receive of the machine gun, moves the safety lever to “F”, assumes the correct firing position, and reports UP. The assistant gunner signals READY to the squad leader.




1-27. REMOVAL FROM ACTION (BIPOD)



To take the machine gun out of action, the leader commands and signals OUT OF ACTION. The gunner and assistant gunner repeat the command.

a. At the command OUT OF ACTION, the ammunition bearer moves to the position, slinging his rifle. He picks up and slings the bandoleers that he previously left there. He gets the tripod and moves 15 steps to the rear of the machine gun. He lies prone, facing the position with the tripod in front of him.



b. The assistant gunner places the spare barrel and the heat protective mitten in the spare barrel case. Before standing, he closes the spare barrel case enough to retain the spare barrel and the traversing and elevating mechanism. He moves 10 steps to the rear of the position and lies prone, facing the position. At this time, he fully closes the spare barrel case.



c. The gunner places the stock on the ground, ensures that the bolt is to the rear, places the safety on “S”, and raises the feed cover. He removes the ammunition from the tray, puts it into the bandoleer, and closes the bandoleer. The gunner examines the chamber to ensure that it is clear; closes the feed cover; pulls the cocking handle to the rear; puts the safety on “F”; and pulls the trigger, easing the bolt forward. Standing, he pivots on his right foot; without turning the machine gun, he raises it to his left hip and moves five steps to the rear. He visually checks to ensure that the ammunition bearer and the assistant gunner are in their positions. He lies prone, facing the position with the machine gun on his right. He folds the bipod legs alongside the barrel and reports UP to the squad leader.




1-28. INSPECTION FOR TRIPOD FIRE



The inspection of equipment for tripod training is the same as for bipod training except that the leader’s command to start the inspection of equipment is INSPECT EQUIPMENT BEFORE FIRING TRIPOD. Also, the gunner inspects the bipod legs and folds them to their position alongside the barrel.


1-29. PLACEMENT INTO ACTION (TRIPOD)



The leader commands and signals MACHINE GUN TO BE MOUNTED HERE, FRONT, ACTION. (Figure 1-20.)





Figure 1-20: Placing the machine gun into action.





a. Upon the command ACTION, the ammunition bearer stands, holds the tripod with his right hand, and moves forward to the position. He kneels on his right knee and rests the shoes of the rear tripod legs on the ground, with the mount in a vertical position. Steadying the mount with his right hand near the tripod head, he raises the front leg with his left hand. He grasps the right shoe with his right hand and the left shoe with is left hand, and raises the tripod chest high. He separates the tripod legs with a quick jerk. Ensuring that the sleeve latch engages the sleeve, he places the tripod on the ground with the front leg pointing in the direction of fire. He rises to his feet and stamps the rear shoes into the ground. He then unslings his bandoleers and places them on line with the front leg of the tripod, one step to the left. He moves 10 meters to the left of the position, unslings his rifle, lies prone, provides security, and prepares to fire into the target area.



b. The assistant gunner times his movements and arrives at the position as the ammunition bearer leaves. He places the spare barrel case (zippered side towards the tripod) parallel to and in line with the spot where the muzzle of the machine gun will be when it is mounted. He lies on his left side, with his hip near the left tripod shoe. He unzips the spare barrel case and removes the spare barrel, mounting equipment necessary to mount the machine gun. He places the spare barrel on the spare barrel case with the muzzle forward.



c. The gunner times his movements and arrives at the position as the assistant gunner assumes the prone position. He stands, holds the carrying handle in his left hand and the stock in his right hand, and raises the gun to the carrying position (muzzle to the front). He mounts the machine gun on the tripod. He then positions the carrying handle to the right so it will not interfere with aiming and firing, raises the rear sight assembly, and lies prone.



d. The assistant gunner assists the gunner in mounting the machine gun to the tripod. They ensure that both the pintle and traversing and elevating mechanism are securely locked in place and working properly.



e. The gunner places the safety on “F”, pulls the bolt to the rear, places the safety on “S”, and returns the cocking handle to the forward position. The assistant gunner places the first round of ammunition in the tray groove and supports the belt, while the gunner closes the cover. The gunner takes the correct position and grip, places the safety on “F”, and reports UP. The assistant gunner signals READY to the squad leader.





WARNING





The M240B is carried loaded with the bolt locked to the rear in tactical situations where noise discipline is critical to the success of the mission. Trained gun crews are the only personnel authorized to load the M240B and only when command directs the crew to do so. During normal training exercises, the M240B is loaded and carried with the bolt in the forward position.





1-30. PROCEDURES FOR CHANGING THE BARREL (TRIPOD)



When the gunner has reported UP and the assistant gunner has signaled READY, the leader commands CHANGE BARRELS.

a. The gunner ensures that the bolt is to the rear, puts the safety on “S”. He also assists the assistant gunner in changing the barrel, if needed.



b. The assistant gunner (wearing the heat protective mitten) unlocks the barrel locking lever, removes the barrel, and places the barrel on the spare barrel case. He holds the spare barrel inserts it into the machine gun.



c. The gunner ensures that the barrel is lock and secured in the receiver of the machine gun, moves the safety lever to “F”, assumes the correct firing position, and reports UP. The assistant gunner signals READY to the squad leader.




1-31. REMOVAL FROM ACTION (TRIPOD)



At the command OUT OF ACTION, the gunner ensures that the bolt is to the rear, places the safety on “S”, and raises the cover. The assistant gunner removes the ammunition from the tray, returns it to the bandoleer, and closes the bandoleer. The gunner inspects the chamber to ensure that it is clear; closes the cover; pulls the cocking handle to the rear; puts the safety on “F”; pulls the trigger, easing the bolt forward. The gunner unlocks the rear of the machine gun from the tripod.

a. The assistant gunner will assist the gunner in dismounting the rear of the machine gun. He puts the spare barrel and heat protective mitten into the case and closes it enough to hold the contents. He stands, moves ten steps to the rear of the position, and lies prone, facing to the front. After receiving all mounting equipment from the ammunition bearer, he puts it in the spare barrel case and fully closes the spare barrel case.



b. After the assistant gunner leaves, the gunner stands, lowers the rear sight, and holds the carrying handle with his left hand. With his right hand, he dismounts the front of the machine gun from the tripod. Holding the stock with his right hand, he pivots to his right as he raises the machine gun to the carrying position. He then moves five steps to the rear of the position and lies prone, facing the front.



c. The ammunition bearer rises, slings his rifle, moves to the machine gun, and secures his bandoleers, timing his arrival so that the gunner and assistant gunner will be clear of the tripod. He grasps the tripod with his left hand and moves five steps to the rear of the position. He turns, facing the front, and kneels on his right knee. He places the tripod in a vertical position with the rear shoes on the ground and supports it with his right hand near the head of the tripod. At this time, he hands the assistant gunner all mounting equipment. He reaches up with his right hand down the right leg, and releases the sleeve latch. He then grasps the shoes and closes the tripod legs. He lowers the tripod to the ground, head to the left, lies prone behind it, and reports UP.




1-32. PRONE POSITION



Machine gun crew drill, as it is described in the preceding paragraphs, is an excellent training vehicle for the machine gun crew. A continuation or second phase of the crew drill is outlined in this paragraph. It should be used only as a technique for adding realism to training.

a. Inspecting Equipment Before Firing. The inspection of equipment for crew drill from the prone position is the same as that for bipod training and tripod training.



b. Placing the Machine Gun Into Action. The leader commands and signals MACHINE GUN TO BE MOUNTED HERE, FRONT, ACTION in the same manner as for bipod training. The procedures for bipod training are the same with one exception—crew members do not get to their feet and movements are executed in the low crawl. Once in position, all actions are performed from the prone position.



c. Training With the Tripod. Upon the command ACTION, the ammunition bearer crawls forward to the designated position and extends the front leg of the tripod. Grasping the rear legs firmly, he emplaces the front leg. Applying downward pressure, he emplaces the rear legs. He then crawls to a position about 10-meters to the left of the machine gun and gets into a good firing position with his rifle.



(1) The assistant gunner crawls forward, timing his movement to arrive as the ammunition bearer leaves. Positioning himself on the left side and facing the tripod, he places the spare barrel case alongside the tripod, unzips the case, and removes the spare barrel and mounting equipment.



(2) The procedures for mounting the machine gun on the tripod remain the same except all are performed in a prone position and all movements are in the low crawl.



d. Taking the Machine Gun Out of Action. The procedures for taking the machine gun out of action remain the same except all are performed in a prone position and all movements are in the low crawl.




SECTION IV. BASIC GUNNERY



In basic marksmanship, the gunner applies the fundamentals in live-fire exercises during day and night. This includes 10-meter zeroing, 10-meter firing, field zeroing, transition firing, and record firing.


1-33. ZERO



Zeroing aligns the sights with the barrel so that the point of aim equals the point of impact. Ten-meter zeroing is for conducting 10-meter fire only and has no further application. (Zeroing at range or field zeroing is the gunner’s battle-sight zero and must be recorded.) Remember to zero both barrels of the machine gun.

a. 10-Meter Zero, Set the Sights (Mechanical Zero). The gunner indexes or places the range scale on a range of 500 meters. He assumes a prone position and sights on the target.



b. Three-Round Group. The gunner fires three single rounds loaded individually at the center base of the aiming points on the basic machine gun marksmanship target. He fires the three rounds without making any adjustments to the sights. The shot group must be about a 4-cm circle or smaller to establish the center of the group in relation to the center base of the aiming paster.



c. Grid Square Overlay. For a more accurate adjustment, the gunner moves downrange and places the grid square overlay over pasters 1 and 2. He ensures that he aligns the overlay with the pasters and squares.



(1) Counts the number of squares it will take to move the shot group to the aiming paster.



(2) Upon completion, returns to the firing line to make corrections to the weapon. (Figure 1-21 illustrates a zero group size on which adjustments can be made and a group that is too loose for adjustments [bipod mode].) If a group is too loose, the gunner checks his position and group.





Figure 1-21: Zero group size.





d. Windage Correction. If the center of the group is to the left or right of the black aiming paster, the gunner must correct for windage.



e. Elevation Correction. If the center of the shot group is above or below of the black aiming paster, the gunner must correct for elevation.



f. Confirmation. The gunner fires another three-shot group (loaded singly) after making his corrections for windage and elevation. If the center of the group is still off the aiming point, he adjusts further until the group is centered on the point of aim.



g. Recording of Zero. There is no reason to record the 10-meter zero, because it applies only to firing at the 10-meter basic machine gun target.





NOTE



Remember to zero both barrels.





WARNING





The M240B is carried loaded with the bolt locked to the rear in tactical situations where noise discipline is critical to the success of the mission. Trained gun crews are the only personnel authorized to load the M240B and only when command directs the crew to do so. During normal training exercises, the M240B is loaded and carried with the bolt in the forward position.





1-34. FIELD ZERO



A gunner must know how to zero the machine gun at distance. He should select a known distance target between 300 and 700 meters. As the range increases, it becomes more difficult to determine where the center of the beaten zone is in relation to the target. Therefore, the 500-meter target on the transition range is recommended because of the ease of determining adjustments.

a. Setting of the Sights. The gunner uses the same procedures as for 10-meter zeroing except that he places the rear sight on the range to the target. The recommended range is 500 meters.



b. Burst. Fire a burst of 5 to 7 rounds for the M249 or 7 to 9 for the M60/M240B. The gunner assumes a good stable position and fires bursts of 5 to 7 rounds for the M249 or 7 to 9 for the M60/M240B at the center base of the target and notes where the burst strikes.



c. Correction for Windage. If the center of the beaten zone is to the left or right of the target, he corrects for windage. He adjusts the windage accordingly.



d. Correction for Elevation. If the center of the beaten zone is high or low in relation to the target, he corrects for elevation. Because determining that relationship is difficult, the gunner relies on trial and error to gain sufficient experience in making reliable estimates. He makes corrections in the same manner as 10-meter zeroing.



e. Confirmation. After making corrections for windage and elevation, the gunner fires confirming bursts of 5 to 7 rounds for the M249 or 7 to 9 rounds for the M60/M240B. If the target is not hit, he repeats the procedures.



f. Recording of Zero. Upon confirming the zero, the gunner records it by counting the number of clicks he moved the sight for windage and elevation from the initial setting.




1-35. 10-METER FIRING



The 10-meter firing trains the gunner to apply the fundamentals of machine gun marksmanship in live-fire exercises. It familiarizes the soldier with the weapon’s characteristics, noise, and recoil. It instills in the soldier confidence in his weapon. Each gunner learns to zero his machine gun, conducts crew drill, controlled-burst fire at point targets, and uses traverse and search techniques of fire at area targets. The 10-meter firing is conducted on a 10-meter range or a multipurpose range using the basic machine gun target. These exercises are fired with the machine gun on the bipod from both the prone position and the fighting position and with the tripod from prone and fighting positions. The 10-meter firing exercises are for practice as well as part of record qualification. All 10-meter firing exercises are recorded and scored to provide the gunner an assessment of his performance. The 10-meter firing is conducted IAW Firing Table I (Table 1-2). There are ten tasks.

a. Task 1—Zero Bipod. The gunner fires single shots to determine his weapon’s zero for 10 meters. This task reinforces the dry-fire experience and allows the gunner to practice loading, while providing the most accurate and tight shot group obtainable. (A1 and A2)



b. Task 2—Controlled-Burst Fire Bipod Fixed. Using point targets, the gunner fires bursts of 5 to 7 rounds for the M249 or 7 to 9 rounds for the M60/M240B. This task exposes the gunner to automatic fire and the action of the weapon and at the same time introduces trigger control. (A3 and A4)



c. Task 3—Controlled-Burst Fire Bipod Fixed. This task requires the gunner to make body position to engage area targets in depth, to use controlled-burst firing, and to use a series of aiming points to disburse fire across the target. (A5 and A6)



d. Task 4—Controlled-Burst Fire Bipod Fixed. This task requires the gunner to make position changes to engage linear targets with depth, to use controlled-burst firing, and to use a series of aiming points to disburse fire across the target. (A7 and A8)



e. Task 5—Zero Tripod. The gunner fires single shots to determine his weapon’s zero for 10 meters. This task reinforces the dry-fire experience and allows the gunner to practice loading, while providing the most accurate and tight shot group obtainable. (B1 and B2)



f. Task 6—Controlled-Burst Fire Tripod. Using point targets, the gunner fires bursts of 5 to 7 rounds for the M249 or 7 to 9 rounds for the M60/M240B. This task exposes the gunner to automatic fire and the action of the weapon and at the same time introduces trigger control. (B1 through B4)



g. Task 7—Traverse and Search Fire. This task requires the gunner to make position changes or manipulate the T&E mechanism to engage linear targets with depth, to use controlled-burst firing, and to use a series of aiming points to disburse fire across the target. (B7 through B8)



h. Task 8—Traverse and Search Fire. This task requires the gunner to make body position changes or manipulate the T&E mechanism to engage area targets in depth, to use controlled-burst firing, and to use a series of aiming points to disburse fire across the target, while wearing a protective mask and gloves. (B5 through B6)



i. Task 9—Search and Traverse Fire Qualification. This task requires the gunner to make position changes or manipulate the T&E mechanism to engage area targets in depth during timed conditions. (C5 through C6)



j. Task 10—Traverse and Search Fire Qualification. This task requires the gunner to engage area targets with width and depth, while making position changes or manipulating the T&E mechanism during timed conditions. (C7 through C8)




1-36. 10-METER CONDUCT OF FIRE



The gunners are instructed on the objectives and fundamentals of firing from the bipod and tripod-supported prone or fighting positions, on fire commands used on the basic range, on the basic machine gun marksmanship target, and on analyzing and scoring the target. The unit is organized in firing orders based on range constraints. Each firing order should consist of a gunner and an assistant gunner. The assistant gunner assists the gunner during prefire checks and zeroing. The assistant gunner also relays signals to the tower operator, checks the gunner’s position, and assists him. During qualification, an assistant gunner is not used. The ten tasks are fired in the following manner:

a. Task 1—Bipod, Zero.



(1) The tower operator gives the command MACHINE GUN TO BE MOUNTED HERE (weapon squad leader’s pointing to the firing points on the 10-meter line), FRONT (weapon squad leader’s pointing to the 10-meter targets), ACTION.



(2) At the command ACTION the machine gun crew conducts, placing the machine gun into action (bipod mode).



(3) The gunner prepares the rear sight for zeroing and checks the front sight.



(4) The gunner assumes a good position.



(5) The tower operator instructs the gunner to prepare a single round.



(6) The following fire command is given. The gunner and assistant gunner repeat each element of the fire command as it is given.



FIRE MISSION (The gunner loads and moves the safety to “F”.)



FRONT (The gunner focuses on the target or target area.)



PASTER A ONE (The gunner locates target.)



FIVE HUNDRED (The gunner adjusts sights and acquires the sight picture.)



FIXED, ONE ROUND (The gunner is given the method of fire.)



COMMENCE FIRING (The gunner fires on command from tower operator, but when ready.)





NOTE



Throughout all firing exercises, the gunner performs the appropriate tasks during each element of the fire command. The number of rounds fired is used instead of the rate for METHOD OF FIRE. This is for control. (Omitting the rate specifies RAPID fire, which is not desirable for the tasks.)





WARNING





The M240B is carried loaded with the bolt locked to the rear in tactical situations where noise discipline is critical to the success of the mission. Trained gun crews are the only personnel authorized to load the M240B and only when command directs the crew to do so. During normal training exercises, the M240B is loaded and carried with the bolt in the forward position.





(7) The gunner loads one round, obtains the proper sight picture, and gives an UP to the assistant gunner.



(8) The assistant gunner relays the READY signal to the tower operator.



(9) The tower operator gives the command COMMENCE FIRING.



(10) The gunner engages paster A1 with three-single shots when he is ready.



(11) The gunner moves downrange to observe, mark, and triangulate the shot group. He makes adjustments as needed.



(12) Steps 3 through 10 are repeated, but the gunner fires at paster A2 firing a single round, then he adjusts.





NOTE



If the gunner should zero his weapon using 9 rounds, he uses the remaining 3 rounds to confirm his zero. If he is unable to zero with 12 rounds, he is removed from the firing line for remedial training.





WARNING





The M240B is carried loaded with the bolt locked to the rear in tactical situations where noise discipline is critical to the success of the mission. Trained gun crews are the only personnel authorized to load the M240B and only when command directs the crew to do so. During normal training exercises, the M240B is loaded and carried with the bolt in the forward position.





b. Task 2—Bipod, Controlled-Burst Fire, Fixed.



(1) The tower operator instructs the gunner to prepare two 7-round belts (M249) or two 9-round belts (M60/M240B).



(2) When the fire command is given, the gunner and assistant gunner repeat each element as it is given.



FIRE MISSION



FRONT



PASTER A THREE



FIVE HUNDRED



FIXED, FIVE- TO SEVEN-ROUND BURSTS (M249) or SEVEN- TO NINE-ROUND BURSTS (M60/M240B).



AT MY COMMAND



(3) The gunner acquires the proper sight picture and gives an UP to the assistant gunner.



(4) The assistant gunner relays the READY signal to the tower operator.



(5) The tower operator gives the command to FIRE.



(6) The gunner fires the first burst of 5 to 7 rounds (M249) or 7 to 9 rounds (M60/M240B) at paster A3.



(7) Steps 2 through 6 are repeated, but the gunner fires at paster A4.



c. Task 3—Bipod, Controlled-Burst Fire, Fixed.



(1) The tower operator instructs the gunner to prepare a 14-round belt (M249) or 18-round belt (M60/M240B).



(2) When the fire command is given, the gunner and assistant gunner repeat each element as it is given.



FIRE MISSION



FRONT



PASTER A FIVE



FIVE HUNDRED



TRAVERSE AND SEARCH, FIVE- TO SEVEN-ROUND BURSTS (M249) OR SEVEN- TO NINE-ROUND BURSTS (M60/M240B)



AT MY COMMAND



(3) The gunner acquires the proper sight picture and gives an UP to the assistant gunner.



(4) The assistant gunner relays the READY signal to the tower operator.



(5) The tower operator gives the command to FIRE.



(6) The gunner fires the first burst of 5 to 7 (M249) OR 7 TO 9 (M60/M240B) rounds at paster A5.



(7) Steps 2 through 6 are repeated, but the gunner fires at paster A6.



d. Task 4—Bipod, Controlled-Burst Fire, Fixed.



(1) The tower operator instructs the gunner to prepare 14-round belt (M249) or 18-round belt (M60/M240B).



(2) When the fire command is given, the gunner and assistant gunner repeat each element as it is given.



FIRE MISSION



FRONT



PASTER A SEVEN FIVE HUNDRED TRAVERSE AND SEARCH, FIVE- TO SEVEN-ROUND BURSTS (M249) or SEVEN- TO NINE-ROUND BURSTS (M60/M240B)



AT MY COMMAND



(3) The gunner acquires the proper sight picture and gives an UP to the assistant gunner.



(4) The assistant gunner relays the READY signal to the tower operator.



(5) The tower operator gives the command to FIRE.



(6) The gunner fires the first burst of 5 to 7 rounds (M249) or 7 to 9 rounds (M60/M240B) at paster A7.



(7) Steps 2 through 6 are repeated, but the gunner fires at paster A8.



(8) The gunner and assistant gunner moves downrange to observe and analyze his target and shot groups.



(9) The tower operator gives the following command when the gunner and assistant gunner return from downrange. OUT OF ACTION.



(10) At the command OUT OF ACTION the machine gun crew conducts, taking the machine gun out of action (bipod mode).



e. Task 5—Tripod, Zero.If the gunner should zero his weapon in 9 rounds, he uses the remaining 3 rounds to confirm his zero. If he is unable to zero in 12 rounds, he is removed from the firing line for remedial training.



(1) The tower operator gives the command MACHINE GUN TO BE MOUNTED HERE (weapon squad leaders point to the firing points on the 10-meter line), FRONT (weapon squad leader points to the 10-meter targets), ACTION.



(2) At the command ACTION the machine gun crew conducts, placing the machine gun into action (tripod mode)



(3) The gunner prepares the rear sight for zeroing and checks the front sight.



(4) The gunner assumes a good tripod position.



(5) The tower operator instructs the gunner to prepare a single round.



(6) The following fire command is given. The gunner and assistant gunner repeat each element of the fire command as it is given.



FIRE MISSION (The gunner loads and moves the safety to “F”.)



FRONT (The gunner focuses on the target or target area.)



PASTER B ONE (The gunner locates target.)



FIVE HUNDRED (The gunner adjusts sights and acquires the sight picture.)



FIXED, ONE ROUND (The gunner is given the method of fire.)



COMMENCE FIRING (The gunner fires on command from tower operator, but when ready.)



(7) The gunner loads one round, obtains the proper sight picture, and gives an UP to the assistant gunner.



(8) The assistant gunner relays the READY signal to the tower operator.



(9) The tower operator gives the command COMMENCE FIRING.



(10) The gunner engages paster B1 with three single shots when he is ready.



(11) The gunner moves downrange to observe, mark, and triangulate the shot group. He makes adjustments as needed.



(12) Steps 3 through 10 are repeated, but the gunner fires at paster B2 firing a single round, then he adjusts.



f. Task 6—Tripod, Controlled-Burst Fire, Traverse.



(1) The tower operator instructs the gunner to prepare a 28-round belt (M249) or 36-round belt (M60/M240B).



(2) When the fire command is given, the gunner and assistant gunner repeat each element as it is given.



FIRE MISSION



FRONT



PASTERS B ONE THROUGH B FOUR



FIVE HUNDRED



FIXED, FIVE TO SEVEN-ROUND BURSTS (M249) or SEVEN- TO NINE-ROUND BURSTS (M60/M240B)



AT MY COMMAND



(3) The gunner acquires the proper sight picture and gives an UP to the assistant gunner.



(4) The assistant gunner relays the READY signal to the tower operator.



(5) The tower operator gives the command to FIRE.



(6) The gunner engages pasters B1 through B4, firing 5- to 7-round bursts (M249) or 7 to 9 round bursts (M60/M240B) at each paster, using traverse technique.



g. Task 7—Tripod, Controlled-Burst Fire, Traverse and Search.



(1) The tower operator instructs the gunner to prepare a 56-round belt (M249) or 63-round belt (M60/M240B).



(2) When the fire command is given, the gunner and assistant gunner repeat each element as it is given.



FIRE MISSION



FRONT



PASTERS B SEVEN THROUGH B EIGHT



FIVE HUNDRED



TRAVERSE AND SEARCH, FIVE- TO SEVEN-ROUND BURSTS (M249) or SEVEN- TO NINE-ROUND



BURSTS (M60/M240B)



AT MY COMMAND



(3) The gunner acquires the proper sight picture and gives an UP to the assistant gunner.



(4) The assistant gunner relays the READY signal to the tower operator.



(5) The tower operator gives the command to FIRE.



(6) The gunner engages pasters B7 through B8, firing a 5- to 7-round bursts or 7- to 9-round bursts at each paster, using traverse and search technique.



h. Task 8—Tripod, Controlled-Burst Fire, Search and Traverse.



(1) The tower operator instructs the assistant gunner to prepare a 35-round belt (M249) or 45-round belt (M60/M240B).



(2) When the fire command is given, the gunner and assistant gunner repeat each element as it is given



FIRE MISSION



FRONT



PASTERS B FIVE THROUGH B SIX



FIVE HUNDRED



TRAVERSE AND SEARCH, FIVE- TO SEVEN-ROUND BURSTS (M249) or SEVEN- TO NINE-ROUND



BURSTS (M60/M240B)



AT MY COMMAND



(3) The gunner acquires the proper sight picture and gives an UP to the assistant gunner.



(4) The assistant gunner relays the READY signal to the tower operator.



(5) The tower operator gives the command to FIRE.



(6) The gunner engages pasters B5 through B6, firing a three round burst at each paster, using search and traverse technique.



(7) The gunner and assistant gunner moves downrange to observe and analyze his targets.



i. Task 9—Tripod, Qualification, Search and Traverse Fire. On completion of all firing, the firing line is cleared and the instructors or safeties move downrange and score the targets. The firer will not score his own target.



(1) The tower operator instructs the assistant gunner to prepare a 35-round belt (M249) or 45-round belt (M60/M240B).



(2) When the fire command is given, the gunner and assistant gunner repeat each element as it is given



FIRE MISSION



FRONT



PASTERS C FIVE THROUGH C SIX



FIVE HUNDRED



TRAVERSE AND SEARCH, FIVE- TO SEVEN-ROUND BURSTS (M249) or SEVEN- TO NINE-ROUND BURSTS (M60/M240B)



AT MY COMMAND



(3) The gunner acquires the proper sight picture and gives an UP to the assistant gunner.



(4) The assistant gunner relays the READY signal to the tower operator.



(5) The tower operator gives the command to FIRE.



(6) The gunner engages pasters B5 through B6, firing a 5- to 7-round bursts (M249) or 7- to 9-round bursts (M60/M240B) at each paster, using search and traverse technique. The gunner has 30 seconds to engage as many pasters as he can during the time allowed.



j. Task 10—Tripod, Qualification, Traverse and Search. On completion of all firing, the firing line is cleared and the instructors or safeties move downrange and score the targets. The firer will not score his own target.



(1) The tower operator instructs the gunner to prepare a 56-round belt (M249) or 72-round belt (M60/M240B).



(2) When the fire command is given, the gunner and assistant gunner repeat each element as it is given.



FIRE MISSION



FRONT



PASTERS C SEVEN THROUGH C EIGHT



HUNDRED



TRAVERSE AND SEARCH, FIVE- TO SEVEN-ROUND BURSTS (M249) or SEVEN- TO NINE-ROUND BURSTS (M60/M240B)



AT MY COMMAND



(3) The gunner acquires the proper sight picture and gives an UP to the assistant gunner.



(4) The assistant gunner relays the READY signal to the tower operator.



(5) The tower operator gives the command to FIRE.



(6) The gunner engages pasters C7 through C8, firing 5- to 7-round bursts (M249) or 7- to 9-round bursts (M60/M240B) at each paster, using traverse and search technique. The gunner has 45 seconds to engage as many pasters as he can during the time allowed.



(7) The tower operator gives the following command when the gunner and assistant gunner return from downrange. OUT OF ACTION.



(8) At the command OUT OF ACTION the machine gun crew conducts, taking the machine gun out of action (tripod mode).





WARNING





The M240B is carried loaded with the bolt locked to the rear in tactical situations where noise discipline is critical to the success of the mission. Trained gun crews are the only personnel authorized to load the M240B and only when command directs the crew to do so. During normal training exercises, the M240B is loaded and carried with the bolt in the forward position.





1-37. 10-METER FIRING, QUALIFICATION



The first phase of qualification consists of firing tasks 2 through 8 of Firing Table I for practice, and tasks 9 and 10 of Firing Table I for record. Before firing, all soldiers must be familiar with the tasks, the time allowed, the ammunition allowances, the procedures to follow in the event of a stoppage, and the penalties imposed.

a. Time and Ammunition. Each gunner completes zeroing before record firing. Individual fire commands are given for each task. Task 9 is fired in 30 seconds, and task 10 is fired in 45 seconds.



b. Stoppages. If a stoppage occurs, the gunner must apply immediate action. If the stoppage is reduced, he continues to fire the course.



(1) If a stoppage occurs that cannot be reduced by immediate action, the gunner raises his hand and awaits assistance.



(2) Once the stoppage is reduced, the gunner completes firing beginning with the next task.



(3) If a stoppage is caused by an error on the part of the gunner, additional time is not permitted. The gunner receives the score he earned before the stoppage occurred.



(4) If it is necessary to replace the machine gun, the gunner must zero the new weapon. The gunner can fire the exercise again.



(5) Gunners who cannot fire a task or cannot complete firing in the time allowed (because of malfunctions) can finish the exercise in an alibi run after all other gunners complete firing. They fire only those tasks they failed to engage because of the malfunction.



c. Penalties. Five points are deducted from the score of any gunner who fails to stop firing at the command or signal to cease fire. If a gunner fires at the wrong target or exercise, he loses the points for those rounds. A gunner whose target was fired upon by another gunner is permitted to refire the exercise.



Table 1-2: Firing Table I—Basic (10-meter) fire.





d. Scoring. When scoring the 10-meter target, the trainer scores all scoring pasters (C5 through C6 and C7 through C8). One point is given for each round impacting within the scoring space. The maximum point value is 7 points (M249) or 9 points (M60/M240B) for each paster. Rounds touching the line on the paster are considered a HIT. When firing C5 though C6, the gunner engages 5 scoring pasters with 35 rounds. (M249) or 45 rounds (M60/M240B) The maximum possible is 35 points (M249) or 45 points (M60/M240B). When firing pasters C7 through C8, the gunner engages 8 scoring pasters with 56 rounds (M249) or 72 rounds (M60/M240B). The maximum possible is 56 points (M249) or 72 points (M60/M240B). Gunners do not score their own targets when firing for qualification. During qualification firing, at least 63 points (M249) or 81 points (M60/M240B) must he achieved on Firing Table I. DA Form 85-R is used to record scores (Figure 1-23).



e. Position. Based on his METL, the commander selects either the bipod-supported prone or fighting position for table A only. For qualification the position will be either tripod-supported prone or tripod-supported fighting position table B for practice and table C for qualification.




1-38. TRANSITION FIRE



Transition firing provides the gunner the experience necessary to progress from 10-meter firing to field firing at various types of targets at longer ranges. The gunner experiences and learns the characteristics of fire, field zeroing, and range determination, and engaging targets in a timed scenario. He uses the adjusted aiming-point method of fire adjustment. Transition firing is conducted on a machine gun transition range or the MPRC. These exercises are fired with the bipod prone or fighting position. Transition firing is fired and scored for practice and qualification to provide feedback to the gunner. Firing Table II consists of eight tasks (Table 1-3).

a. Range Facilities. The transition range should consist of several firing lanes. Each lane should be 10 meters wide at the firing line and 100 meters wide at a range of 800 meters. Ideally, each lane has a fighting position with an adjacent prone firing position.



b. Targets (Card board: NSN 6920-00-795-1806 and plastic: 6920-00-071-4780). The E-type silhouette targets are used—single and double are needed for qualification. The double represents an enemy automatic weapon, which for the gunner is a priority target (Figure 1-22). The targets are at various ranges that a gunner might engage. All targets should be plainly seen from the firing positions. Electrical targets are desirable.



c. Stoppage. The same procedures used in Firing Table I qualification firing are used.



d. Penalties. The same procedures used in Firing Table I qualification firing are used.



e. Scoring. Ten points are given for each target hit, whether hit on the first or second burst. The total possible points are 110. The gunner must hit at least 7 (70 points) targets out of 11 exposures to qualify. DA Form 85-R is used to record scores Figure 1-23.



f. Position. Based on his METL, the commander selects either the bipod-supported prone or bipod-supported fighting position for qualification.





Figure 1-22: Single and double E-type silhouette targets.





1-39. TRANSITION CONDUCT OF FIRE, BIPOD



The unit is organized in firing orders based on range constraints. Each firing order should consist of a gunner and an assistant gunner. The assistant gunner assists the gunner during prefire checks and zeroing. He also relays signals to the tower operator, checks the gunner’s position, and assists him during qualification in target detection and adjustments. The bipod-supported prone or fighting positions are used. The eight tasks are fired in the following manner.

a. Task 1—Field Zero, 500-Meter, Double E-Type Silhouette.



(1) The tower operator gives the command MACHINE GUN TO BE MOUNTED HERE (weapon squad leader’s pointing to the firing points on the transition line), FRONT (weapon squad leader’s pointing to the targets), ACTION.



(2) At the command ACTION the machine gun crew conducts, placing the machine gun into action (bipod mode).



(3) The gunner prepares the rear sight for field zeroing and checks the front sight blade. He sets the range to the zero target on the range scale. The preferred range is 500 meters.



(4) The gunner assumes a good position.



(5) The tower operator instructs the assistant gunner to prepare a 28-round belt (M249) or 36-round belt (M60/M240B).



(6) When the fire command is given, the gunner and assistant gunner repeat each element as it is given.



FIRE MISSION



FRONT



TARGETS: TROOPS IN THE OPEN



THREE HUNDRED



FIXED, FIVE- TO SEVEN-ROUND BURST (M249) or SEVEN- to NINE-ROUND BURST (M60/M240B)



AT MY COMMAND



(7) The gunner loads one 28-round belt of ammunition (M249) or 36-round belt of ammunition (M60/M240B), obtains the proper sight picture, and gives an UP to the assistant gunner.



(8) The assistant gunner relays the READY signal to the tower operator.



(9) The tower operator gives the command FIRE.



(10) The gunner fires a 5- to 7-round burst (M249) or 7- to 9-round burst (M60/M240B) at the target when ready.



(11) The gunner observes the beaten zone. If the rounds miss the target, he makes adjustments for windage and elevation.



(12) After adjustments have been made, the gunner repeats steps 8 through 9 with the remaining rounds until rounds are impacting on the target. He records his zero.



b. Task 2—400-Meter, Double E-Type Silhouette.



(1) The tower operator instructs the gunner to load one 154-round belt.



(2) When the fire command is given, the gunner and assistant gunner repeat each element as it is given. It is only given once for tasks 2 through 8.



FIRE MISSION



FRONT



TARGET: TROOPS IN THE OPEN



ONE HUNDRED TO EIGHT HUNDRED METERS



FIXED, FIVE- TO SEVEN-ROUND BURST (M249) or SEVEN- TO NINE-ROUND BURST (M60/M240B)



AT MY COMMAND



(3) The gunner gives an UP to the assistant gunner.



(4) The assistant gunner gives the READY signal to the tower operator.



(5) The tower operator gives the command FIRE.



(6) The gunner scans the sector.



(7) A 400-meter, double E-type target is exposed for 10 seconds.



(8) The gunner determines the range, places the proper setting on the rear sight, assumes the proper position, obtains the correct sight alignment and sight picture, and fires a 5- to 7-round burst (M249) or 7- to 9-round burst (M60/M240B).



(9) If the gunner fails to hit the target, he fires another 5- to 7-round burst (M249) or 7- to 9-round burst (M60/M240B) using the adjusted aiming point method of fire adjustment.



c. Task 3—500-Meter, Double E-Type Silhouette.



(1) The gunner and assistant gunner continues to scan the sector.



(2) A 500-meter, double E-type target is exposed for 10 seconds.



(3) The gunner determines the range, places the proper setting on the rear sight, assumes the proper position, obtains the correct sight alignment and sight picture, and fires a 5- to 7-round burst (M249) or 7- to 9-round burst (M60/M240B).



(4) If the gunner fails to hit the target, he fires another 5- to 7-round burst (M249) or 7- to 9-round burst (M60/M240B) using the adjusted aiming point method of fire adjustment.



d. Task 4—600-Meter, Single E-Type Silhouette.



(1) The gunner and assistant gunner continues to scan the sector.



(2) A 600-meter, single E-type target is exposed for 20 seconds.



(3) The gunner determines the range, places the proper setting on the rear sight, assumes the proper position, obtains the correct sight alignment and sight picture, and fires a 5- to 7-round burst (M249) or 7- to 9-round burst (M60/M240B).



(4) If the gunner fails to hit the target, he fires another 5- to 7-round burst (M249) or 7- to 9-round burst (M60/M240B) using the adjusted aiming point method of fire adjustment.



e. Task 5—800-Meter, Single E-Type Silhouette.



(1) The gunner and assistant gunner continues to scan the sector.



(2) A 800-meter, single E-type target is exposed for 30 seconds (total of six targets).



(3) The gunner determines the range, places the proper setting on the rear sight, assumes the proper position, obtains the correct sight alignment and sight picture, and fires a 5- to 7-round burst (M249) or 7- to 9-round burst (M60/M240B).



(4) If the gunner fails to hit the target, he fires another 5- to 7-round burst (M249) or 7- to 9-round burst (M60/M240B) using the adjusted aiming point method of fire adjustment.



f. Task 6—400-Meter, Single E-Type Silhouette; and 600-Meter, Double E-Type Silhouettes.



(1) The gunner and assistant gunner continue to scan the sector.



(2) A 400-meter single E-type target and a 600-meter double E-type target are exposed for 30 seconds.



(3) The gunner determines the range, places the proper setting on the rear sight, assumes the proper position, obtains the correct sight alignment and sight picture, and fires a 5- to 7-round burst (M249) or 7- to 9-round burst (M60/M240B) at each target.



Table 1-3: Firing Table II—Bipod transition fire.





(4) If the gunner fails to hit the target, he fires another 5- to 7-round burst (M249) or 7- to 9-round burst (M60/M240B) using the adjusted aiming point method of fire adjustment at each target.



g. Task 7—700-Meter and 800-Meter, Double E-Type Silhouettes.



(1) The gunner and assistant gunner continue to scan the sector.



(2) A 700-meter and a 800-meter double E-type targets are exposed for 45 seconds (total of four targets at 700 meters and six targets at 800 meters).



(3) The gunner determines the range, places the proper setting on the rear sight, assumes the proper position, obtains correct sight alignment and sight picture, and fires a 5- to 7-round burst (M249) or 7- to 9-round burst (M60/M240B) at each target.



(4) If the gunner fails to hit the target, he fires another 7-round burst using the adjusted aiming point method of fire adjustment at each target.



h. Task 8—400-Meter, Single E-Type Silhouette, and 500-Meter, 600-Meter, Double E-Type Silhouettes.



(1) The gunner and assistant gunner continue to scan the sector.



(2) The 400-meter single E-type silhouettes, and 500- and 600-meter double E-type silhouettes are exposed for 45 seconds (total of two targets at 400 meters, four targets at 500 meters, and six targets at 600 meters).



(3) The gunner determines the range, places the proper setting on the rear sight, assumes the proper position, obtains correct sight alignment and sight picture, and fires a 5- to 7-round burst (M249) or 7- to 9-round burst (M60/M240B) at each target.



(4) If the gunner fails to hit the target, he fires another 5- to 7-round burst (M249) or 7- to 9-round burst (M60/M240B) using the adjusted aiming point method of fire adjustment at each target.




1-40. TRANSITION FIRE, LIMITED VISIBILITY



Night or limited visibility firing requires the soldier to apply the fundamentals of gunner marksmanship while using nightsights. This training instills confidence in the machine gunner. Each soldier learns how to engage targets using nightsight. He learns to mount the sight, boresight the weapon at 10-meters, and zero the aided vision devices at 10-meters using a 10-meter (M16A2) zero target. Finally, he learns to detect and engage a series of undetermined targets at various ranges with the aided vision device. Night firing exercises can be conducted during daylight with the AN/PVS-4 when the daylight cover is used. These exercises are for instructional, practice and qualification purposes. The commander can use this training to assess his unit’s METL. Night firing is conducted on the same 10-meter range and transition range or a multipurpose machine gun range used for Firing Tables I and II. The tasks and conduct of fire in Firing Table III are the same as in Firing Table II. Therefore, a conduct of fire is not necessary.

a. Time and Ammunition. Table 4-4, Firing Table III outlines ammunition requirements.



b. Stoppage. The same procedures that are used in Firing Table II.



c. Penalties. No penalties are used.



d. Scoring. No points are given when the target is hit on the first or second hit, only a hit or miss. The gunner must hit 6 out of 11 targets in order to be a qualified gunner. The gunner must have qualified on both the 10-meter and transition in order to advance to this step.



e. Conditions. Table 1-3, Firing Table III is used for engaging targets out to 400 meters under ideal moonlight or during daylight conditions. If visibility is limited because of a lack of ambient light, commanders may use field-expedient means to identify targets.





NOTE



The commander may lower the ranges by 100 meters when the ambient conditions do not allow the gunners to engage targets at extended ranges.





f. Targets. Single E-type silhouette targets and double E-type silhouette targets are used.



g. Position. Based on his METL, the commander selects either the bipod-supported prone position or bipod-supported fighting position.



h. Conduct of Fire. Limited visibility is the same as Firing Table II. The only difference is time and distance of the targets to be engaged and firing the scanning, walking and IR discipline exercise.




1-41. AN/PVS-4 ZERO



CAUTION



When mounting the AN/PVS-4 to the mounting bracket, make sure the hole for the screw in the AN/PVS-4 is aligned and flush against the bracket screw. If not, it will strip the threads on the screw, and the AN/PVS-4 cannot be used with the M249 machine gun.





Table 1-4: Firing Table III—Transition fire, limited visibility.





1-42. QUALIFICATION STANDARDS



Qualification with the M249, M60/M240B machine gun consists of achieving the minimum standards for 10-meter day and transition day firing tables. One point is allowed for each round impacting within the scoring space (maximum of 7 points [M249] or 9 points [M60/M240B] for each space) for Firing Table I. For Firing Table II, 7 points (M249) or 9 points (M60/M240B) are allowed for each target hit whether the target is hit on the first or second burst. For Firing Table III, place an X in the hit column and place an O in the miss column. The maximum possible score for Firing Table I is 91 points (M249), 117 points (M60/M240B). A minimum of 63 points (M249), 81 points (M60/M240B) is required. The maximum score for Firing Table II is 110 points; at least 70 points must be scored on this table to qualify. The maximum possible score for Firing Table III is 11 hits. A minimum of 7 hits is required. The combined minimum total score is 133 (M249), 151 (M240B); the combined maximum total score is 201 points (M249), 227 points (M240B). The overall ratings are as follows:



M249

M60/M240b



EXPERT

182 to 201

206 to 227



GUNNER 1st CLASS

158 to 181

180 to 205



GUNNER 2nd CLASS

133 to 157

151 to 179



UNQUALIFIED

0 to 132

0 to 150





The trainer uses DA Form 85-R (Scorecard for M249, M60/M240B Machine Gun) for recording the gunner’s performance on the machine gun qualification range. The instructions for completing the scorecard are on its reverse side. For an example of a completed form, see Figure 1-23. A blank locally reproducible form is in the back of this manual. The instructions are on the back of the form explaining how to fill out the form.

The following is a summary of ammunition required:





NOTE



See DA Pam 350-38 for STRAC ammunition requirements.





Figure 1-23: Example of a completed DA Form 85-R





CHAPTER 2





Combat Techniques of Fire



Technique of fire is the method of delivering and controlling effective fire. The machine gunners must be trained in the standard methods of applying fire. This chapter discusses combat techniques of fire, application of fire on the battlefield, and advanced gunnery. Before the machine gun can be employed to its full potential, the soldier must know and be trained on characteristics of fire, classes of fire, types of targets, and application of fire.





SECTION I. CHARACTERISTICS OF FIRE



Each gunner must know the effects of rounds when fired. Factors influencing the path and strike of rounds are not limited to applying the fundamentals. They include the velocity of the round, gravity, terrain, atmospheric conditions, and the innate differences between each round.


2-1. TRAJECTORY



The trajectory is the path of the round in flight (Figure 2-l). The gunner must know the machine gun trajectory to effectively fire the weapon throughout its full range. The path of the round is almost flat at ranges up to 300 meters; then it begins to curve, and the curve becomes greater as the range increases.


2-2. MAXIMUM ORDINATE



Maximum ordinate is the highest point the trajectory reaches between the muzzle of the weapon and the base of the target. It always occurs about two-thirds of the distance from the weapon to the target. The maximum ordinate increases as the range increases (Figure 2-l).





Figure 2-1: Trajectory and maximum ordinate.





2-3. CONE OF FIRE



When several rounds are fired in a burst from any machine gun, each round takes a slightly different trajectory. The pattern these rounds form on the way to the target is called a cone of fire (Figure 2-2). This pattern is caused primarily by vibration of the machine gun and variations in ammunition and atmospheric conditions.


2-4. BEATEN ZONE



The beaten zone (Figure 2-2) is the elliptical pattern formed by the rounds striking the ground or the target. The size and shape of the beaten zone changes when the range to the target changes or when the machine gun is fired on different types of terrain. On uniformly sloping or level terrain, the beaten zone is long and narrow. As the range to the target increases, the beaten zone becomes shorter and wider. When fire is delivered on terrain sloping down and away from the machine gun, the beaten zone becomes longer. When fire is delivered on rising terrain, the beaten zone becomes shorter. The terrain has little effect on the width of the beaten zone.





Figure 2-2: Cone of fire and beaten zone.





2-5. DANGER SPACE



The danger space is the space between the machine gun and the target where the trajectory does not rise above 1.8 meters (the average height of a standing soldier). This space includes the area of the beaten zone. When the machine gun is fired on level or uniformly sloping terrain at a target less than 700 meters away, the trajectory does not rise above the average height of a standing soldier. When targets are engaged on level or uniformly sloping terrain at ranges greater than 700 meters, the trajectory rises above the average height of a standing soldier, therefore, not all the distance between the machine gun and the target is danger space.



SECTION II. CLASSES OF FIRE



Machine gun fire is classified with respect to the ground, the target, and the weapon.


2-6. RESPECT TO THE GROUND



Fire with respect to the GROUND (Figure 2-3) includes grazing and plunging fires.

a. Grazing Fire. Grazing fire occurs when the center of the cone of fire does not rise more than 1 meter above the ground. When firing on level or uniformly sloping terrain, the gunner can obtain a maximum of 600 meters of grazing fire.



b. Plunging Fire. Plunging fire occurs when the danger space is confined to the beaten zone. Plunging fire also occurs when firing at long ranges, from high ground to low ground, into abruptly rising ground, or across uneven terrain, resulting in a loss of grazing fire at any point along the trajectory.





Figure 2-3: Classes of fire with respect to the ground.





2-7. RESPECT TO TARGET



Fire with respect to the TARGET includes frontal, flanking, oblique, and enfilade fires.

a. Frontal Fire. Frontal fire is when the long axis of the beaten zone is at a right angle to the front of the target. An example is when firing at the front of a target (Figure 2-4).



b. Flanking Fire. Flanking fire is firing at the side of a target (Figure 2-4).





Figure 2-4: Frontal fire and flanking fire.





c. Oblique Fire. Oblique fire is when the long axis of the beaten zone is at an angle other than a right angle to the front of the target (Figure 2-5).



d. Enfilade Fire. Enfilade fire is when the long axis of the beaten zone coincides or nearly coincides with the long axis of the target. This type of fire is either frontal or flanking. It is the most desirable type of fire with respect to a target, because it makes maximum use of the beaten zone (Figure 2-5).





Figure 2-5: Oblique fire and enfilade fire.





2-8. RESPECT TO MACHINE GUN



Fire with respect to the machine gun (Figure 2-6) includes fixed, traversing, searching, and traversing and searching, and free-gun fires.

a. Fixed Fire. Fixed fire is fire delivered against a point target when the depth and width of the beaten zone covers the target. Fixed fire also means only one aiming point is necessary to provide coverage of the target.



b. Traversing Fire. Traversing fire is fire distributed in width by successive changes in direction. The gunner selects successive aiming points throughout the width of the target. These aiming points must be close enough to ensure adequate coverage but not so close as to waste ammunition.



c. Searching Fire. Searching fire is fire distributed in depth by successive changes in elevation. The gunner selects successive aiming points in depth. The changes made in each aiming point will depend on the range and slope of the ground.



d. Traversing and Searching Fire. Traversing and searching fire is fire distributed in width and depth by successive changes in direction and elevation. Combining traversing and searching provides good coverage of the target. Adjustments are made in the same manner as described for traversing and searching fire.



e. Free-Gun Fire. Free-gun fire is fire delivered against targets requiring rapid major changes in direction and elevation that cannot be applied with the T&E mechanism. To deliver this type of fire, the gunner removes the T&E mechanism from the traversing bar on the tripod, allowing the weapon to be moved freely in any direction.





Figure 2-6: Classes of fire with respect to the machine gun.





SECTION III. APPLICATION OF FIRE



Application of fire consists of the methods the gunner uses to cover a target area. Training these methods of applying fire can be accomplished only after the soldiers have learned how to recognize the different types of targets they may find in combat, how to distribute and concentrate their fire, and how to maintain the proper rate of fire. Normally, the gunner is exposed to two types of targets in the squad or platoon sector: enemy soldiers and supporting automatic weapons. These targets have priority and should be engaged immediately.


2-9. TYPES OF TARGETS



Targets presented to the gunner in combat are usually enemy troops in various formations, which require distribution and concentration of fire. Targets with width and depth must be thoroughly covered by fire.

a. Point Targets. Point targets require the use of a single aiming point. Examples of point targets are enemy soldiers, bunkers, weapons emplacements, and lightly armored vehicles. Fixed fire is delivered at point targets.



b. Area Targets. Area targets may have considerable width and depth and may require extensive traversing and searching fire. These include targets in which the exact location of the enemy is unknown. The following are varieties of area targets likely to be engaged.



(1) Linear Targets. Linear targets have sufficient width to require successive aiming points (traversing fire). The beaten zone effectively covers the depth of the target area (Figure 2-7). Traversing fire is delivered at linear targets.



(2) Deep Targets. Deep targets require successive aiming points (searching fire) (Figure 2-8). Searching fire is delivered at deep targets.



(3) Linear Targets with Depth. Linear targets with depth have sufficient width requiring successive aiming points in which the beaten zone does not cover the depth of the target area. A combined change in direction and elevation (traversing and searching) is necessary to effectively cover the target with fire (Figure 2-9). Traversing and searching fire are delivered at linear targets with depth.





Figure 2-7: Linear target.





Figure 2-8: Deep target.





Figure 2-9: Linear targets with depth.





2-10. DISTRIBUTION, CONCENTRATION, AND RATE OF FIRE



The size and nature of the target determine how the gunner applies his fire. He must manipulate the machine gun to move the beaten zone throughout the target area. The rate of fire must be controlled to adequately cover the target but not waste ammunition or destroy the barrel.

a. Distributed fire is delivered in width and depth such as at an enemy formation.



b. Concentrated fire is delivered at a point target such as an automatic weapon or an enemy fighting position.



c. The rates of fire that can be used with the machine gun are sustained, rapid, and cyclic. These rates enable leaders to control and sustain fire and prevent the destruction of barrels. More than anything else, the size of the target and ammunition supply dictate the selection of the rate of fire.



(1) Sustained Fire. Sustained fire for the M249 is 85 rounds per minute in bursts of 3 to 5 rounds. The M60 and M240B are 100 rounds per minute in bursts of 6 to 9 rounds. The gunner pauses 4 to 5 seconds between bursts. The barrel should be changed after firing at sustained rate for 10 minutes. This is the normal rate of fire for the gunner.



(2) Rapid Fire. Rapid fire for the M249, M60, and M240B gunner is 200 rounds per minute in bursts of (6 to 8 M249) 10 to 12 rounds. The gunner pauses 2 to 3 seconds between bursts. The barrel should be changed after firing at a rapid rate for 2 minutes. This procedure provides for an exceptionally high volume of fire, but for only a short period.



(3) Cyclic Fire. Cyclic fire uses the most ammunition that can be used in 1 minute. The cyclic rate of fire with the machine gun is achieved when the trigger is held to the rear and ammunition is fed into the weapon uninterrupted for one minute. Normal cyclic rate of fire for the M249 is 850 rounds, M60 is 550 rounds, and for the M240B it is 650 to 950 rounds. Always change the barrel after firing at cyclic rate for 1 minute. This procedure provides the highest volume of fire that the machine gun can fire, but this adversely affects the machine gun, and should only be fired in combat under emergency purposes only.




2-11. TARGET ENGAGEMENT



The gunner engages targets throughout his sector. He must know how to effectively engage all types of targets either by himself or in conjunction with another gunner.

a. Single Gunner.



(1) Point Target. When engaging a point target, the gunner uses fixed fire (Figure 2-10). If the target moves after the initial burst, the gunner adjusts fire onto the target by following its movement.





Figure 2-10: Engagement of point target.





(2) Area Target. When engaging an area target, the gunner fires in the center of mass, then traverses and searches to either flank (Figure 2-11). Upon reaching the flank, he reverses direction and traverses and searches in the opposite direction. A leader may indicate the width and depth of the target.



(3) Linear Target. When engaging a linear target, the gunner traverses the machine gun to distribute fire evenly onto the target. He must cover the entire width of a linear target. The initial point of aim is on themidpoint. The gunner then manipulates to cover the rest of the target. If a linear target is hard to identify, a leader may designate the target by using a reference point (Figure 2-12). When this method is used, the leader determines the center of mass of the target and announces the number of meters from the reference point that will cause the gunner to aim on the center of mass. The reference point may be within or adjacent to the target (Figure 2-13). However, the reference point should be on line with the target for the best effect. After the command to fire has been given, the leader maintains and controls the fire by subsequent fire commands.





Figure 2-11: Engagement of area target.





Figure 2-12: Engagement of hard-to-identify linear targets with a reference point outside the target area.





(4) Deep Target. When engaging a deep target, the gunner must use searching fire. If the range is announced, he initially aims on the midpoint of a deep target unless another portion of the target is more critical or presents a greater threat. The gunner then searches down to one aiming point in front of the near end and back up to one aiming point beyond the far end. If a deep target is hard to identify, use the reference points to designate the center of mass. The extent (depth) of the target is always given in meters.



(5) Linear Target With Depth. When engaging a linear target with depth, the gunner uses traversing and searching fire. He begins engagement at the midpoint of the target unless another portion of the target is more critical or presents a greater threat. He traverses and searches to the near flank, then back to the far flank. When engaging hard-to-identify linear targets with depth, he designates the flanks and midpoint with rifle fire. The reference-point method is not used because at least two reference points are required to show the angle of the target.





Figure 2-13: Engagement of hard-to-identify targets with a reference point within the target area.





b. Pair of Gunners.



(1) Area Targets. When using a pair of machine guns to engage area targets, the gunner on the right fires on the right half, and the gunner on the left fires on the left half. The point of initial aim and adjustment for both gunners is on the midpoint. After adjusting fire on the center of mass, both gunners distribute fire by applying direction and elevation changes that give the most effective coverage of the target area. The right gunner traverses to the right, applies the necessary amount of search, and fires a burst. He traverses and searches up and down until the right flank of the area target has been reached. The left gunner traverses and searches to the left flank in the same way. Both gunners then reverse the direction of manipulation and return to the center of mass, firing a burst after each combined direction and elevation change (Figure 2-14).





Figure 2-14: Engagement of area targets with a pair of gunners.





(2) Linear Targets. When using a pair of machine guns to engage a linear target, the target is divided at midpoint with the gunner on the right of the target firing on the right half, and the gunner on the left of the target firing on the left half (Figure 2-15).





Figure 2-15: Engagement of linear targets with a pair of gunners.





(a) Both gunners aim on the midpoint initially. After adjusting on the midpoint, the gunner on the right traverses right, firing a burst after each change in direction until the rounds reach one aiming point beyond the right flank (this ensures complete target coverage). The gunner on the left traverses to the left flank in the same way the gunner on the right did. Both gunners then reverse their directions and return to the midpoint. The gunner must select aiming points for each burst rather than “spray” the target area.



(b) If one part of the target is a greater threat, fire can be concentrated on the greater threat by dividing the target unevenly. This special division of the target is done with fire commands. To preclude confusion, the gunners initially aim on the midpoint regardless of the special division to be made.



(3) Deep Targets. When using a pair of machine guns to engage a deep target, the initial point of aim is also on the midpoint for both gunners. Normally, the gunner on the right has the near half and the gunner on the left has the far half. Since enfilade fire is being used, they do not adjust on the midpoint of the target, because the long beaten zone compensates for any range errors. After the initial burst, the gunner on the right searches down to one aiming point in front of the near end of the target, and the gunner on the left searches up to one aiming point beyond the far end. Both gunners then reverse their direction of search and return to the midpoint (Figure 2-16).





Figure 2-16: Engagement of deep targets with a pair of gunners.





(4) Linear Target With Depth. When using a pair of machine guns to engage a linear target with depth, the initial point of aim and the extent of manipulation for both gunners is the same as those prescribed for linear targets (Figure 2-17).





Figure 2-17: Engagement of linear target with depth with a pair of gunners.





2-12. TARGET ENGAGEMENT DURING LIMITED VISIBILITY



Gunners have problems detecting and identifying targets during limited visibility. The leader’s ability to control the fires of his weapons is also reduced, therefore, he may instruct the gunners to fire without command when targets present themselves.

a. Gunners should engage targets only when they can identify the targets, unless ordered to do otherwise. For example, if one gunner detects a target and engages it, the other gunner observes the area fired upon and adds his fire only if he can identify the target or if ordered to fire.



b. Tracer ammunition helps a gunner engage targets during limited visibility and should be used, if possible. If firing unaided, gunners must be trained to fire low at first and adjust upward. This overcomes the tendency to fire high.



c. When two or more gunners are engaging linear targets, linear targets with depth, or deep targets, they do not engage these targets as they would when visibility is good. With limited visibility, the center and flanks of these targets may not be clearly defined; therefore, each gunner observes his tracers and covers what he believes to be the entire target.




2-13. OVERHEAD FIRE



Fire delivered over the heads of friendly soldiers is called overhead fire. It is used during training ONLY AFTER SOLDIER SAFETY IS CHECKED AND VERIFIED. The terrain and visibility dictate when overhead fire can be delivered safely. Overhead fire is delivered with any machine gun mounted on a tripod because the machine guns provide greater stability and accuracy, and because vertical mil angles can be measured by using the elevating mechanism.



DANGER





Overhead fire cannot be safely delivered on a target at greater than 850 meters from the machine gun, and it is not delivered over level or uniformly sloping terrain. It can cause death or injury.





a. Ideally, overhead fire is delivered when there is a depression in the terrain between the machine gun position and the target. The depression should place the gunner’s line of aim well above the heads of friendly soldiers.



b. The squad leader normally controls overhead fire. He lifts or shifts the fire when the friendly soldiers reach an imaginary line, parallel to the target, where further fire would cause casualties to friendly soldiers. This imaginary line is called the “safety limit.” The leader of the friendly soldiers may direct lifting of fire by prearranged signals transmitted by radio, wire, or visual means. The safety limit can be determined by observing the fire or by using the gunner’s rule (Figure 2-18).



(1) To determine the safety limit by observation, the leader uses binoculars to see how close the fire is to advancing friendly soldiers.



(2) A safety limit can be selected by using the gunner’s rule before the weapon is fired. The accuracy and safety of this method depends on the machine gun being zeroed and the range to the target being known.





Figure 2-18: Overhead fire safety limit.





The gunner’s rule is used only when the target is between 350 and 850 meters from the machine gun. The gunner’s rule consists of the following procedure.



(a) Determine the range to the target and set the range on the rear sight.



(b) Aim the machine gun to hit the target.



(c) Set the rear sight to 1,000 meters.



(d) Depress the muzzle 10 mils by using the elevating handwheel (one click equals 1 mil).



(e) Look through the rear sight and note the point where the new line of aim strikes the ground. (An imaginary line drawn through this point and parallel to the target is the safety limit.)



(f) Reset the range to the target on the rear sight, aim on the target, and prepare to fire.



(g) Cease or shift fire when soldiers reach the safety limit.



c. The following safety measures MUST be applied when delivering overhead fire.



(1) Firmly emplace the tripod mount.



(2) Use field-expedient depression stops to prevent the muzzle from accidentally being lowered below the safety limit.



(3) Do not deliver overhead fire through trees.



(4) Inform commanders of friendly soldiers when fire is to be delivered over their heads.



(5) Ensure that all members of the crew are aware of the safety limit.



(6) Do not deliver overhead fire if the range from the machine gun to the target is less than 350 meters or more than 850 meters.



(7) Do not use a barrel that is badly worn.



(8) During training exercises, do not aim any machine gun where their trajectories will cross at a point directly over the heads of friendly soldiers.




2-14. DEFILADE POSITIONS



A machine gun is in defilade when the weapon and its crew are completely behind terrain that masks them from the enemy (usually on the reverse slope of a hill). Fire, from a defilade position, is controlled by an observer (the leader or a member of the crew who can see the target) that is in a position near the machine gun. (Figure 2-19.)

a. The machine gun must fire up and over the hill. Its fire must be observed and adjusted by a crewmember that can observe the target from a position on a flank or to the rear of the weapon (on higher ground). A defilade position allows little opportunity to engage new targets. The tripod mount is used when firing from defilade, because the gunner can measure vertical angles with it. This makes changes in elevation for adjusting fire easier, and if data is determined during daylight, the crew can fire from the same position after dark. A machine gun is in partial defilade when it is positioned just back of the crest of a hill, so that the crest provides some protection from enemy direct-fire and the machine guns are still able to engage its target by direct-lay techniques.





Figure 2-19: Defilade positions.





(1) Advantages.



• The crew has cover and concealment from enemy direct-fire weapons.



• The crew has some freedom of movement near the position.



• Control and supply are easier.



• The smoke and flash of the machine gun are hidden from the enemy.



(2) Disadvantages.



• Rapidly moving ground targets are hard to engage, because adjustment of fire must be made by using an observer.



• Targets close to the mask usually cannot be engaged.



• Final protective line is hard to understand.



b. The essential elements in the engagement of a target from a defilade position are mask clearance, direction, and adjustment of fire. If possible, a minimum mask clearance (minimum elevation) is determined for the entire sector of fire, however, a mask clearance for each target may be necessary (due to the slope of the mask). The elevation readings obtained using the methods below give the minimum elevation for the sector or target(s). The minimum elevation should be recorded on a range card.



(1) If the mask is 300 meters or less from the machine gun position, the gunner places a 300-meter range setting on the rear sight, aims on the top of the mask and adds 3 mils (clicks) of elevation with the elevating handwheel.



(2) If the mask is over 300 meters from the machine gun position, the gunner places the range setting to the mask on the rear sight, aims on the top of the mask, and adds 3 mils (clicks) of elevation.



c. The observer places himself to the rear of the machine gun on the gun-to-target line and in a position where he can see the machine gun and the target. He aligns the machine gun for general direction by directing the gunner to shift the machine gun until it is aligned on the target. A prominent terrain feature or landmark visible to the gunner through his sights is selected as an aiming point. This aiming point should be at a greater range than the target and at a higher elevation. When laying the machine gun on the aiming point, the range setting on the rear sight must correspond to the range to the target. (Figure 2-20.)





Figure 2-20: Observer adjusting fire.





(1) If the aiming point is on the gun-to-target line, the gun is laid on the aiming point and is thereby aligned for direction.



(2) If the aiming point is not on the gun-to-target line, the horizontal distance in mils is determined using the best means available (usually binoculars) and announced to the gunner. This measured distance is then set with the traversing handwheel.



d. The observer measures the vertical distance from the aiming point to the base of the target using the best means available and directs the gunner to depress the muzzle of the machine gun the number of mils measured. The machine gun should now be laid to hit the target.





SECTION IV. PREDETERMINED FIRES



Predetermined fires organize the battlefield for the gunners. They allow the leader and gunner to select potential targets or target areas that will most likely be engaged or that have tactical significance. This includes dismounted enemy avenues of approach, likely positions for automatic weapons, and probable enemy assault positions. The gunners do this by using sectors of fire, final protective lines, or a principal direction of fire and selected target areas. This preparation maximizes the effectiveness of the machine gun during good as well as limited visibility. It enhances fire control by reducing the time required to identify targets, determine range, and manipulate the weapon onto the target. Abbreviated fire commands and previously recorded data enable the gunner to aim or adjust fire on the target quickly and accurately. Selected targets should be fired on in daylight whenever practical to confirm data. The range card identifies the targets and provides a record of firing data.


2-15. TERMINOLOGY



Several terms are associated with predetermined fire that every gunner needs to know.

a. Sector of Fire. A sector of fire is an area to be covered by fire that is assigned to an individual, a weapon, or a unit. Gunners are normally assigned a primary and a secondary sector of fire.



b. Final Protective Fire. An FPF is an immediately available prearranged barrier of fire to stop enemy movement across defensive lines or areas.



c. Final Protective Line. An FPL is a predetermined line along which grazing fire is placed to stop an enemy assault. If an FPL is assigned, the machine gun is sighted along it except when other targets are being engaged. An FPL becomes the machine gun’s part of the unit’s final protective fires. An FPL is fixed in direction and elevation; however, a small shift for search must be employed to prevent the enemy from crawling under the FPL and to compensate for irregularities in the terrain or the sinking of the tripod legs into soft soil during firing. Fire must be delivered during all conditions of visibility.



d. Principal Direction of Fire. A PDF is a direction of fire assigned priority to cover an area that has good fields of fire or has a likely dismounted avenue of approach. It also provides mutual support to an adjacent unit. Machine guns are sighted using the PDF if an FPL has not been assigned. If a PDF is assigned and other targets are not being engaged, machine guns remain on the PDF. A PDF has the following characteristics.



(1) It is used only if an FPL is not assigned; it then becomes the machine gun’s part of the unit’s final protective fires.



(2) When the target has width, direction is determined by aiming on one edge of the target area and noting the amount of traverse necessary to cover the entire target.



(3) The gunner is responsible for the entire wedge-shaped area from the muzzle of the weapon to the target, but elevation may be fixed for a priority portion of the target.



e. Grazing Fire. A good FPL covers the maximum area with grazing fire. Grazing fire can be obtained over various types of terrain out to a maximum of 600 meters. To obtain the maximum extent of grazing fire over level or uniformly sloping terrain, the gunner sets the rear sight at 600 meters. He then selects a point on the ground that he estimates to be 600 meters from the machine gun, and he aims, fires, and adjusts on that point. To prevent enemy soldiers from crawling under grazing fire, he searches (downward) by lowering the muzzle of the weapon. To do this, the gunner separates his elbows.



f. Dead Space. The extent of grazing fire and the extent of dead space may be determined in two ways. In the preferred method, the machine gun is adjusted for elevation and direction. A member of the squad then walks along the FPL while the gunner aims through the sights. In places where the soldier’s waist (midsection) falls below the gunner’s point of aim, dead space exists. Arm-and-hand signals must be used to control the soldier who is walking and to obtain an accurate account of the dead space and its location. Another method is to observe the flight of tracer ammunition from a position behind and to the flank of the weapon.



g. Fire Control. Predetermined targets, including the FPL or PDF, are engaged on order or by SOP. The signal for calling for these fires is normally stated in the defense order. Control these predetermined targets by using arm-and-hand signals, voice commands, or pyrotechnic devices. Gunners fire the FPL or PDF at the sustained rate of fire unless the situation calls for a higher rate. When engaging other predetermined targets, the sustained rate of fire is also used unless a different rate is ordered.



h. Primary Sector of Fire. The primary sector of fire is the area to be covered by an individual or unit.



i. Secondary Sector of Fire. The secondary sector of fire is the same area covered by the same individual or unit after it has moved to a different location.




2-16. RANGE CARD



The standard range card (DA Form 5517-R) provides a record of firing data and aids defensive fire planning. (See FM 7-8 for a reproducible copy of this form.) Its use enhances fire control and rapid engagement of predetermined targets. It is also used in estimating ranges to other targets within the sector of fire. Each gunner makes two copies—one for his position and one for the squad leader. The squad leader uses his copy to prepare his sector sketch. The range card is prepared immediately upon occupation and is constantly revised. Each range card contains the following:

• Weapon symbol (Figure 2-21).



• Sector of fire.



• PDF or FPL.



• Range, azimuth, and number label to predetermined targets.



• Dead space.



• Distance and azimuth from a known point or eight-digit grid coordinate (reference point).



• Magnetic north arrow.



• Data section.





Figure 2-21: M249/M60 and M240B machine gun symbol.





a. Procedures. The machine gun is placed in the tripod-supported mode in the position it will be fired. The machine gun symbol is sketched on the range card pointing toward the most dangerous target in the sector. (1) If using the FPL, the gunner aims the machine gun along the FPL. This procedure will also be either the left or right limit of the sector of fire. To set the limit, he slides the T&E mechanism all the way to the left or right end of the traversing bar. Then, he moves the tripod until the barrel lines up on the FPL. The sector of fire with the FPL along one limit is now prepared. The FPL is always labeled target number 1.



(2) To determine the range for all targets in the sector, the gunner ensures each circle, except the first one, represents 100 meters. Since the lowest setting on the M249 and M60 is 300 meters and the M240B is 200 meters, the first circle represents 200 or 300 meters. He indicates this on the range card in the data section just below the circles. On the top half of the range card, the gunner draws the left or right limits from the weapon position to the maximum effective range of the machine gun.



(3) If the FPL is assigned, the machine gun symbol is drawn along that line (left or right limit) (Figure 2-22). The extent of grazing fire is determined. A shaded blade is sketched on the inside of the FPL to represent the extent of the grazing fire. If there is dead space along the FPL, it is shown by breaks in the shaded area. The ranges to the near and far edges of the dead space are recorded above the FPL, and the extent of the grazing fire is recorded along the FPL. The magnetic azimuth of the FPL is determined and recorded below the shaded blade representing the FPL. The elevation reading and other data are recorded in the data section.



(4) If an FPL is not assigned, the gunner locks the T&E mechanism on 0 on the traversing bar scale and shifts the tripod until the muzzle points to the PDF. The machine gun symbol is sketched in the center of the left and right limits pointing in the direction of the PDF (Figure 2-23).



(5) The opposite primary sector limit is drawn. If a target is along this line, the target information is added to the data section. If the opposite side of the traversing bar cannot be used to mark the opposite side of the primary sector, a direction reading must be recorded in the sketch section.



(6) Next, the left and right limits of the secondary sector are drawn using a broken line. The area between the primary and secondary sector is labeled dead space.



(7) An arrow is drawn in the magnetic north block (upper right-hand corner) pointing in the direction of magnetic north.





Figure 2-22: Final protective line.





Figure 2-23: Principal direction of fire.





(8) The position is oriented with a prominent terrain feature (recognizable on a map) by obtaining a magnetic azimuth to or from the terrain feature to the position. A line is drawn between these two points. Arrow barbs are drawn along this line pointing in the direction the magnetic azimuth was taken. The magnetic azimuth is recorded in mils or degrees below the line. If a prominent terrain feature is not available, identify the position by using an eight-digit grid coordinate. The grid coordinate is recorded below the position on the range card.



(9) The gunner’s number, unit designation (SQD, PLT, CO), and date are recorded in the upper left-hand corner. For security, do not use a unit designation higher than a company.



(10) Targets within the sector are identified. A symbol is drawn to represent the target in the appropriate place within the sector of fire. Targets in the primary sector are shown by numbers and enclosed in circles. An FPL, when assigned, is always labeled target Number 1. Other targets are assigned subsequent numbers in order of tactical importance.



(a) Wide targets in the primary sector are usually engaged in the center; however, the initial burst can be positioned anywhere the leader designates. The gunner measures the target width and records it in the data section; for example, TW-20 (target width is 20 mils). The gunner lays on the point on the target where the initial burst will be placed, and traverses to one edge of the target, while counting the clicks. He records the number of clicks he traverses and the direction he moves the muzzle; for example, TW-20/R7 (target width, 20 mils; right 7 clicks). After the initial burst, the gunner traverses 7 clicks to the right edge of the target and back to the left 20 clicks to cover the target area. To lay on the left edge of the target, the gunner records TW-20/R20.



(b) When field expedients are used with the machine gun to engage targets, they are sketched above the drawing of the target. Predetermined targets in the secondary sector are sketched on the range card and ranges to these targets are recorded below the targets but not in the data section. Field expedients should be used for targets in the secondary sector.



b. Field Expedients. When laying the machine gun for predetermined targets, the gunner can use field expedients as a means of engaging targets when other sources are not available. These methods are not as effective as the traversing bar and T&E mechanism method.



(1) Base Stake Technique. A base stake is used to define sector limits and may provide the lay for the FPL or predetermined targets along a primary or secondary sector limit. This technique is effective in all visibility conditions. The gunner uses the following steps:



(a) Defines the sector limits by laying the gun for direction along one sector limit and by emplacing a stake along the outer edge of the folded bipod legs. Rotates the legs slightly on the receiver, so that the gunner takes up the “play”. Uses the same procedure for placing a stake along the opposite sector limit.



(b) Lays the machine gun along the FPL by moving the muzzle of the machine gun to a sector limit. Adjusts for elevation by driving a stake into the ground, so that the top of the stake is under the gas cylinder extension, allowing a few mils of depression to cover irregularities in the terrain.



(c) Lays the machine gun to engage other targets within a sector limit, in a primary sector by using the procedure described previously, except keeps the elevation fixed.



(2) Notched-Stake or Tree-Crotch Technique. The gunner uses the notched-stake or tree-crotch technique (Figure 2-24) with the bipod mount to engage predetermined targets within a sector or to define sector limits. This technique is effective during all conditions of visibility, and it requires little additional material. The gunner uses the following steps:



(a) Drives either a notched stake or tree crotch into the ground where selected targets are anticipated. Places the stock of the machine gun in the nest of the stake or crotch and adjusts the weapon to hit the selected targets and to define his sector limits.





NOTE



If notched stakes and crotches are not available, tent poles can be used. It requires four poles for the left and right limits and additional poles for target areas. The gunner drives two poles in the ground in the shape of an X and then places the stock within that X as described with stakes and crotches.





(b) Digs shallow, curved trenches or grooves for the bipod feet. (These trenches allow for rotation of the bipod feet as the gunner moves the stock from one crotch or stake to another.)



(3) Horizontal Log or Board Technique. This technique is used with the bipod or tripod mount to mark sector limits and engage wide targets. This technique is good for all visibility conditions. It is best suited for flat, level terrain. The gunner uses the following steps:



(a) Using a bipod-mounted machine gun, places a log or board beneath the stock of the weapon, so that the stock can slide across it freely. Digs shallow, curved trenches or grooves for the bipod feet to allow rotation of the feet as he moves the stock along the log or board. (The gunner may mark the sector limits by notching or placing stops on the log or board. The gunner uses the bipod firing position and grip.)





Figure 2-24: Notched-stake or tree-crotch technique.





(b) Using a tripod-mounted machine gun, places a log or board beneath the barrel, positioning it so that the barrel, when resting on the log or board is at the proper elevation to obtain grazing fire. Marks the sector limits, when appropriate, as described for the bipod in the preceding paragraph. (This technique is used only if a T&E mechanism is not available.)





SECTION V. FIRE CONTROL



Fire control includes all actions of the leader and soldiers in planning, preparing, and applying fire on a target. The leader selects and designates targets. He also designates the midpoint and flanks or ends of a target, unless they are obvious to the gunner. The gunner fires at the instant desired. He then adjusts fire, regulates the rate of fire, shifts from one target to another, and ceases fire. When firing, the gunner should continue to fire until the target is neutralized or until signaled to do otherwise by the leader.


2-17. METHODS OF FIRE CONTROL



The noise and confusion of battle may limit the use of some of these methods; therefore, the leader must select a method or combination of methods that will accomplish the mission.

a. Oral. This can be an effective method of control, but sometimes the leader may be too far away from the gunner, or the noise of the battle may make it impossible for him to hear. The primary means of the oral fire control method is the issuance of a fire command.



b. Arm-and-Hand Signals. This is an effective method when the gunner can see the leader. All gunners must know the standard arm-and-hand signals. The leader gets the gunner’s attention and then points to the target. When the gunner returns the READY signal, the leader commands FIRE.



c. Prearranged Signals. These are either visual or sound signals such as casualty-producing devices, pyrotechnics, whistle blasts, or tracers. These signals should be included in SOPs. If the leader wants to shift fire at a certain time, he gives a prearranged signal such as smoke or pyrotechnics. Upon seeing the signal, the gunner shifts his fire to a prearranged point.



d. Personal Contact. In many situations, the leader must issue orders directly to individual soldiers and is used more than any other method by small-unit leaders. The leader must use maximum cover and concealment to keep from disclosing the position or himself.



e. Range Cards. When using this method of fire control, the leader must ensure all range cards are current and accurate. Once this is accomplished, the leader may designate certain targets for certain weapons with the use of limiting stakes or with fire commands. He should also designate no-fire zones or restricted fire areas to others. The key factor, in this method of fire control, is that gunners must be well-disciplined and pay attention to detail.



f. Standing Operating Procedures. SOPs are actions to be executed without command that are developed during the training of the squads. Their use eliminates many commands and simplifies the leader’s fire control. SOPs for certain actions and commands can be developed to make gunners more effective. Some examples follow:



(1) Observation. The gunners continuously observe their sectors.



(2) Fire. Gunners open fire without command on appropriate targets that appear within their sectors.



(3) Check. While firing, the gunners periodically check with the leader for instructions.



(4) Return Fire. The gunners return enemy fire without order, concentrating on enemy automatic weapons.



(5) Shift Fire. Gunners shift their fires without command when more dangerous targets appear.



(6) Rate of Fire. When gunners engage a target, they initially fire at the rate necessary to gain and maintain fire superiority.



(7) Mutual Support. When two or more gunners are engaging the same target and one stops firing, the other increases the rate of fire and covers the entire target. When only one gunner is required to engage a target and the leader has alerted two or more, the gunner not firing aims on the target and follows the movements of the target. This is so that he can fire instantly should the other machine gun malfunction or cease fire before the target has been eliminated.




2-18. FIRE COMMANDS



A fire command is given to deliver effective fire on a target quickly and without confusion. When the leader decides to engage a target that is not obvious to the squad, he must provide them with the information they need to effectively engage the target. He must alert the soldiers; give a target direction, description, and range; name the method of fire; and give the command to fire. There are initial fire commands and subsequent fire commands.

a. Initial Fire Commands. Initial fire commands are given to adjust onto the target, change the rate of fire after a fire mission is in progress, interrupt fire, or terminate the alert.



b. Elements. Fire commands for all direct-fire weapons follow a pattern that includes similar elements. There are six elements in the fire command for the machine gun: alert, direction, description, range, method of fire, and command to open fire. The gunners repeat each element of fire command as it is given.



(1) Alert. This element prepares the gunners for further instructions. The leader may alert both gunners in the squad and may have only one fire, depending upon the situation. To alert and have both gunners fire, the leader announces, “fire mission.” If he desires to alert both gunners but have only one fire, he announces, “gun number one, fire mission.” In all cases, upon receiving the alert, the gunners load their machine guns and place them on FIRE.



(2) Direction. This element indicates the general direction to the target and may be given in one or a combination of the following methods.



(a) Orally. The leader orally gives the direction to the target in relation to the position of the gunner (for example, FRONT, LEFT FRONT, RIGHT FRONT).



(b) Pointing. The leader designates a small or obscure target by pointing with his finger or aiming with a weapon. When he points with his finger, a soldier standing behind him should be able to look over his shoulder and sight along his arm and index finger to locate the target. When aiming his weapon at a target, a soldier looking through the sights should be able to see the target.



(c) Tracer Ammunition. Tracer ammunition is a quick and sure method of designating a target that is not clearly visible. When using this method, the leader should first give the general direction to direct the gunner’s attention to the target area. To prevent the loss of surprise when using tracer ammunition, the leader does not fire until he has given all elements of the fire command except the command to fire. The leader may fire his individual weapon. The firing of the tracer(s) then becomes the last element of the fire command, and it is the signal to open fire.





NOTE



Soldiers must be aware that with the night vision device, temporary blindness “white out” may occur when firing tracer ammunition at night or when exposed to other external light sources. Lens covers may reduce this effect.





EXAMPLE



FIRE MISSION



FRONT



FIVE HUNDRED



WATCH MY TRACER(S)





(d) Reference Points. Another way to designate obscure targets is to use easy-to-recognize reference points. All leaders and gunners must know terrain features and the terminology used to describe them (FM 21-26). When using a reference point, the word “reference” precedes its description. This is done to avoid confusion. The general direction to the reference point should be given.





EXAMPLE



FIRE MISSION



FRONT



REFERENCE: BUNKER, CENTER MASS



TARGET: TROOPS EXTENDING SHORT ONE HUNDRED, OVER ONE HUNDRED FOUR HUNDRED



FIRE





(Sometimes the reference point may be outside the target area.)



EXAMPLE



FIRE MISSION



FRONT



REFERENCE: BUNKER, RIGHT FOUR FINGERS, CENTER MASS



TARGET: TROOPS EXTENDING SHORT ONE HUNDRED, OVER ONE HUNDRED



THREE HUNDRED



SEARCH



AT MY COMMAND



FIRE





(Sometimes a target must be designated by using successive reference points.)



EXAMPLE



GUN NUMBER ONE, FIRE MISSION



RIGHT FRONT



REFERENCE: RED-ROOFED HOUSE, LEFT TO HAYSTACK, LEFT TO BARN





(Finger measurements can be used to direct the gunner’s attention to the right or left of reference points.)



EXAMPLE



FIRE MISSION



LEFT FRONT



REFERENCE: CROSSROADS, RIGHT FOUR FINGERS





(3) Description. The target description creates a picture of the target in the minds of the gunners. To properly apply their fire, the soldiers must know the type of target they are to engage. The leader should describe it briefly. If the target is obvious, no description is necessary.

(4) Range. The leader always announces the estimated range to the target. The range is given, so the gunner knows how far to look for the target and what range setting to put on the rear sight. Range is announced in meters; however, since the meter is the standard unit of range measurement, the word “meters” is not used. With machine gun’s, the range is determined and announced to the nearest hundred or thousand (in other words, THREE HUNDRED, or ONE THOUSAND).





EXAMPLE



FIRE MISSION



FRONT



REFERENCE: KNOCKED-OUT TANK, LEFT TWO FINGERS



TARGET: TROOPS



THREE HUNDRED





(5) Method of Fire. This element includes manipulation and rate of fire. Manipulation prescribes the class of fire with respect to the weapon. It is announced as FIXED, TRAVERSE, SEARCH, or TRAVERSE AND SEARCH. Rate controls the volume of fire (sustained, rapid, and cyclic). Normally, the gunner uses the sustained rate of fire. The rate of fire is omitted from the fire command. The method of fire for the machine gun is usually 3to 5-round bursts (M249) and 6- to 9-round bursts (M60/M240B).



EXAMPLE



FIRE MISSION



FRONT



REFERENCE: KNOCKED-OUT TANK, LEFT TWO FINGERS



TARGET: TROOPS



THREE HUNDRED



TRAVERSE





(6) Command to Open Fire. When fire is to be withheld so that surprise fire can be delivered on a target or to ensure that both gunners open fire at the same time, the leader may preface the command to commence firing with AT MY COMMAND or AT MY SIGNAL. When the gunners are ready to engage the target, they report READY to the leader. The leader then gives the command FIRE at the specific time desired.



EXAMPLE



FIRE MISSION



FRONT



TROOPS



FOUR HUNDRED



AT MY COMMAND or AT MY SIGNAL (The leader pauses until the gunners are ready and fire is desired.)



FIRE (The gunners fire on prearranged signal.)





If immediate fire is required, the command FIRE is given without pause and the gunners fire as soon as they are ready.

c. Subsequent Fire Commands. These fire commands are used to make adjustments in direction and elevation, to change rates of fire after a fire mission is in progress, to interrupt fires, or to terminate the alert. If the gunner fails to properly engage a target, the leader must promptly correct him by announcing or signaling the desired changes. When these changes are given, the gunner makes the corrections and resumes firing without further command.



(1) Adjustments in direction and elevation with the machine gun are always given in meters; one finger is used to indicate 1 meter and so on. Adjustment for direction is given first. For example: RIGHT ONE ZERO METERS or LEFT FIVE METERS. Adjustment for elevation is given next. For example: ADD FIVE METERS or DROP ONE FIVE METERS. These changes may be given orally or with arm-and-hand signals.



(2) Changes in the rate of fire are given orally or by arm-and-hand signals.



(3) To interrupt firing, the leader announces “cease fire,” or he signals to cease fire. The gunners remain on the alert. They resume firing when given the command FIRE.



(4) To terminate the alert, the leader announces “cease fire, end of mission.”



d. Doubtful Elements and Corrections. When the gunner is in doubt about any element of the fire command, he replies “say again range, target.” The leader then announces “the command was,” repeats the element in question, and continues with the fire command.



(1) When the leader makes an error in the initial fire command, he corrects it by announcing “correction,” and then gives the corrected element.