USA(1)

UNCLASSIFIED ~ ~ 3 8 9 2 x CO- 0 W 9 6
Elements of Terminal Ballistics. Part One.
Introduction, Kill Mechanisms and Vulnerability.
Engineering Design Handbook
ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND ALEXANDRIA VA
NOV 1962
Approved for public release;Distribution unlimited.
W ~ I ~
There has been a classification
change to this do-nt. It is the
responsibility of the recipient to
prwtly reanark it to indicate the
change .
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
i tri i
As a condition for obtaining DTlC services, all information received from DTlC that
is not clearly marked for public release will be used only to bid or perform work
under a US. Government contract or grant or for purposes specifically authorized
by the US. Government agency that sponsored the access. Furthermore, the
information will not be published for profit or in any manner offered for sale.
Reproduction Qualitv Notice
ca We use state-of-the-art, high-speed document scanning and reproduction equipment. -
In addition, we employ stringent quality control techniques at each stage of the
scanning and reproduction process to ensure that our document reproduction is as
true to the original as current scanning and reproduction technology allows.
However, the following original document conditions may adversely affect
Computer Output Microfiche (COM) and/or print reproduction:
Pages smaller or larger than 8.5 inches x 11.0 inches.
Pages with background color or light colored printing.
Pages with smaller than 8 point type or poor printing.
Pages with continuous tone material or color photographs.
Very old material printed on poor quality or deteriorating paper.
If you are dissatisfied with the reproduction quality of any document that we
provide, particularly those not exhibiting any of the above conditions, please feel
free to contact our Directorate of User Services at (703) 767-906619068 or
DSN 427-906619068 for refund or replacement.
Do Not Return This Document To DTlC
UNCLASSIFIED
FROM
THIS PAGE IS UNCLASS:IFIED
HEADQUARTERS
UNITED STATES ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND
WASHINGTON 25. D. C.
30 November 1962
AMCP 706-160 (S), Elements of Terminal Ballistics, Part One,
Introduction, Kill Mechanisms, and Vulnerability (U), forming part
of the Army Materiel Command Engineering Design Handbook Series,
i s published for the information and of all concerned.
FRED P. CAMPBELL
Brigadier General, USA
Chief of Stdf
OFFICIAL:
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
The three handbooks devoted to Elements of
Terminel Ballistics are part of a group of hap&
books covering the engineering infonn?.iion
and quant~tatived ata needed in the desigt: and
construction of Army materiel. which (3s a
group) eonstitutea the Engineering Design
liandbwk Series.
The handbook on Elements of Terminal Balliitica
present infomation on the fundamental
principles pverning the behavior of amrnunition
in it9 find phase. Ammunition is produced
with a great variety of find purposes in mind.
and the designer must direct his endeavors
toward obtaining the desired effects to the
greateat pcissible degree within the limitations
which conaideration of weight, bulk, and safety
impoae. Any improvement in the effectivenecre
of amnunition will be refiected d i i l y in redoction
in Ule t h e and quantity required for
accomplishment of any miasion. and may be
aufRcicnt to make the difference between defeat
or victory.
Beuuae of the grest variety of purposes for
w h i i ammunition h dorigmid, and the wmdexity
of the thn,riu a d engilMrjiw prinfiplea
UIOeisted with each type, an3 which
difYer hetwm thue t y p a in great degree, i t
baa not baen p ~ ~ l i btloe p resent within p d -
cable limita all of the f&m of design or to
give illustrative duipnr ahawing the applicatiom
in existing rmmu~iitioa Wqme eclsac
the llc~eyitv of nuinbiabg muonable
security lavel haa been a contmllii f&r.
PARl'S, each of which colutituter'a dunre.
PART ONE (AMCP 706-160: coveri'intmductury
hfonnation, mceh.aislM for ?ecumplishing
the desired effects, the eh.racter of the
target as it influences the effect, and coUcCtionR
and analysis of data covering the mechiam of
effect. Chapter 1 provider a lhorl history of
terminal ballistics m d briefly outline current
promama. Chapter 2 dkcuria the p h y w
mechanisms by which d a t l t ~lnq y be inAided
upon targets; that is. i t dgeribcr the vcuioua
means of ubtaiiinp termid bdlbtic eeetr.
The emphasis is on the pheaomeaolm involwd.
without application of the mrchnniamS to S p
ciflc targets. Qualitative information b presented
in order to identify thoae -ten
pasociptcd with each zmxbnim which influence
its effcctivencar or dnmyle u p b b i l i .
To oRmt thaw recognized l i t a t i o m . both a
reference and a bibliography have been p r r
pnred M 4 part of uch major subdivision. The
rafemaca ineludar materid for supporting
statements made in the handbook text, and the
bibliography p m v i b for utc ided reading on
the aubject to lmpmve and rr plify the under- a h i am not sp& r&ted to ~utiealu
atmdmg of pshciplea invoh .J. -pe. A~pambYdiOlLh-to
Ctmptcr 4 p-ta dc~l cdt cchnicrl in- .
formation eollwmbg tlm ghy*eP1 P M o r
.
involved in vuiour kllt m d u a h h !
proe~areArrtdeacribedCrwrthctbrorrtlcal
point of view which forma tht buL f ~ ?
acaling hwa. Dkaurion of amling kn u
presented, foIlowed b a daaip* of the
exwrimcntal techniuuea uaed in rdlrrtinP d.t.
I . UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
creh of the f o U m blut, thennal and
nuelar radiation, fragmentation and pen+&ration,
and detonation phpia.
PART TWO (AMCP 706-161) is devoted to
the collectim and nnalyaia of data ccnceming
the t.rget towud which the mechanism of
eflect ia directed. Methods of collecting termi-
MI ballistic dnta are described that are
specifidly rrhted to thc incapacitation or dcfeat
of particular Wts. Aim discussed is the
synthesis of t h a t &ta u necessary for the
predictiun of kill probabilities. A g ~ ndtea l of
trlliatic data is presented. cich mmt of the
information included for the purpose of ahowing
how raw &ta from ballistic tcsb are organized
and pmenttd. Some of the data, such
M penetrrtion curves and component d a m p
drta. should prwc useful for @nerd reference
P u m .
Of the four chapten coastitu5ng PART
TWO, Chapter 5 is mncemed with the inupmitation
and mortality of penonnel due to projectilea,
blaat, theinrl and nxlcrr radiation,
and chcmid utd biological agents. Chapter 6
is concerned with the inenpacitation and defeat
of ground vehicla tu term of t a t puuneten
for pmjectila, umcr material, and penetntion
fonnulu, and in tcm of test and data genera-
:ion and d y s i a , W i t y evaluation methods,
and in the synthesb of kill proMility from
nudeu weaponr. Clupkr 7 d u b with ground
rtructunl targets of v8rioua in tern of
fuU-Klila e x p r i w a 4 model loading testa,
uulyna and tab to obtain map on^ data,
& of wutime bomb damge and of c a b
trophic raidtntr, and with the ryntheis of
prohbilitiea of ground target dunage. Chapter
8 L a dimmion of kill rmch.ah in tenas of
aircraft d.rmgc. a conaideration of damage b
prim aimmft wmpoamtr in both optntiopl.l
d teat cnvironnrmtr. methodr of teat and data
op\cratiCn, aad the ryathab of d a k
PART THREE (AMCP 706-162) dimuses
the tuy& of the future, h i l a and aatellitu,
and the application of the principles discuaxd
inPABTSONEand17KOtathe.#rclrof thcae
-Of-the three chaitem in PART TEE~Rh a ~ t9e dres cribes k a general manner
such kili mechanisms as nuclear effects,
particle beams, fragmentation, rendezvoils type
mechanism, and electronic countermeasures.
I t also briefly describes cerbin currently unfeasible
mechsnisrns. Chapter 10 provides a
qualitavve discussion oi the major sources of
vulnerab~lityo f missiles and of satellites. The
characteristics of both, and 3f their components,
are briefly described in terms of some of the
means by which they may be defeated. Chapter
11 discitss- rllethods for obtaining terminal
ballistic data orl missile and space targets, as
well JU the means of using data for quantitative
results.
The handbooks were prepared under thdirection
of the Engineering Handbook OfRce,
Duke University under contract to the United
States Anny. Thc material for the handbooks
w u prepared by Aircraft Armaments, Inc.,
with the teehrical assistance of the Ballistic
Rcscarch Laboratories. Reviews and valuable
contributions were made by personnel nf the
Frankford. Picatinny and Edgewood Arsenals
(now of the Munitions Command); the Engineer
Research and Development Laboratory
(now of the Mobility Command) ; and the Redstone
Arsenal of the Missile Command.
Comments and inquiricr on these handbooIra
rhould be addressed to Anny Research Office
(Durham), Box CM, Duke Station, Durham,
N. c.
Since preparation of the k x t of this handbook,
mponsibility for design and for all other
functions pertaining to Army materiel, induding
publication of this series of handbcoks. hrr
been assumed by the Anny Materiel Command.
Any indicated responsibility of the Ordnance
Corps in this regard should be understood u
the responsibility of the Army Matcrie: Command.
Infomution on resulting changes in handbook
designation, together with a current list
of handbooks, is contained on the inside bock
cover.
iii
PREFACE
Introduction, Kill Mcchanums, and Vulnerabilitg, forming PART
ONE of Elomento of Terminal Ballistics, contains Chapters 1 through 4.
Chapter 1 provides a brief history of terminf ballistics and a summary of
current area8 of interest in Terminal Ballistics.
Chnpter 2 describes the various kill mechanisms, that is, the m&-
isms for obtaining terminal ballistic effects. Chapter 3 oovers target
vulnerability for targeta consisting of personnel, ground vehicles, aircraft,
and surface and underground structures. Chaptcr 4 covers the euliection
and analysis of data concerning kill mechanisms.
A glonsary and an index are included as part of this handbook.
The other handbooks which, together with this volume, eomprho Elemenbof
Terminal Ballistics are:
ASICP 706-161 (S) PART TWO, Collectmn and Analysis of
Data Concerning Tarpets (U)
AJICP 706-162 (S-RD) PART THREE. Applicntion to Missile
and S p w Targety (U)
UNCLASSIFIED @-
TAlbE OF CBNTENtS
cnmm I
INTRODUCTION
SecHu I d r i d HlrCv d Terminal kUlrHcs
PRE NINETEENTH CENTITRY .............. 1-1
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY .............. 1-1
Geecral ...................................
1861-Amr Bndred with Vuious !ht&& . .
1862-18B4--Simt810ted Ship Tqrpds ...........
1 8 6 k n d ForLin~xtions ...................
1871Si1nuLted Ship T m wi th S m
Armor .....................................
lW2-Ship Turret Tub ....................
187eEarly Ule of a U v e E r p ~ v Ce h sl.-m - -
THE TWENTIETH CENTWY TIIROUGH
W O W WAR I1 .......................... l-a -
POST WORLD WAR I1 THBOUGII 1- ....... 1-1
- -
PERFORJIANCE OF EQUIPYEST IN A NUCLEAR
ENVIRONMENT ................... 1 4
DETONATION ...................... I: ....... 1- -3
HYPE2VEU)CITY IMPACT ... :. ............. 1-4
SHAPED CHARGES ......................... 1 4
GROUND SHOCK .......,.....,. i.. .......... 1-1
AlILBWST ................................. 1 4
WOUND BALLJSTICS ....................... 1 4
- UNCLASSIFIED. , TABLE OF CONTENTS (cant)
CHAPTER 2
Y I U MECHANISMS
Swfioa L h o g m n h
INTRODLICTION ............................
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATIOX ...............
TIK('OSTR0UED FRAGMENTS ............
W r i p l iur; ...............................
E ~ i p l t , . r. ..................... ......... ,.
CUXT1:OUED FRAGMENTS .................
Drwiption ................... .. ...........
Ad rantayes ................................
PREFORBIED FRAGMENTS .................
SECONDARY PRACMENTJ ................
CONTINUOVS RODS ........................
BYPERVELOCITY FRAG1IENT IMPACT .....
Description ................................
Faect of SIypervcbeity Impnct ............... Stages of Crater Fonnatio~.~. ................
koti.n I W . l Y ?*tiler
INTRODUCTIOS ...........................
BtiI.LETS .................................
FLECIIETTES ..............................
ARMOR-PIERCING (AP) PROJECTILES . . . a .
HIGH EXPLOSIVE PlrASI'IC (KEPI ROL'NDS
KNIVES. BAYONETS, AND araows .......
IKTRODUCTIOS ..................... . .....
PRILCIPLES OF OPERATION ................
JET PESETRATION ........................
I'ENETRATION FACTORS ...................
T m D e ~ i t y ,a nd Rate of Dcto~tiono f -10-
live Charge ..............................
Confinement of Charm! ......................
UNCLASSIFIED
Page
Shnpe, Diameter, and Len;.th of Ch.m &k of
Liner ................................... 2-10
Liner JI.teri.1 and Thickness of Liner ......... 2-10
Liner Shape ................................2 -11
Effects of Rotation Upon Jeta ............... 2-11
F'UP Action ................................ 2-14
Standoff Distance ........................... 214
DAMAGE MEC.HANISMS ................... 2-15
General ...................................2 -16
Perforation Damage ........................ 2-16
Vaporific ERectr ............................ 2 1 7
Suciar IV-llast
INTRORUCTION ............................2 -17
PEAK PRESSURE ........................... 2-18
DYNAMIC PRESSURE ....................... 2-18
WAVE PERTURBATIONS .................... 2-19
Cenenl ...................................z -19
Overprrssum Wave F o r m ................... 2 2 0
DyaPmic P m u r e Wave F o r m ............... 2 2 1
kcUw V 4 l w Ckrlrp 0wk.r
DESCRIPTION .............................. 2-22
COMMON EXPLOSIVE DEVICES ............. 2-z
k c-uva w
INTRODUCTION ............................ 223
PHYSICAL MECHANISMS ................... 2-29
I.ctk. V l U l r r
INTRODUCTION ............................ 22(
FIRE DAMAGE ...................:.. .......
Irc*~ V l I I - C L a a l u l 4 n h
INTRODUCXON ............................ m
CInenl ................................... 2-26
H b y of Cllemicrl Agent Uw ............... 226
TABLE OF CONTENTS (contl
WYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PBIMARY
CHEMICAL ACENTS ................ 2-26
Cencrvl ................................... 2-26
Nerw Agcnts .............................. '2h7
Blister Auents .............................. 2-27
Rmt C~mtrnlA uents .........................2- 27
h'onletl~al Agents .......................... 2-28
DISSEJIISATION SYSTEMS ................ 2-28
. Cen-ra1 ................................... 2-28
CB Systems and Munitiona .................. 2-28
VX Systems and Xunition; .................. 2-29
HI) Spsten~s: ~ndX unitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29
CS Systems and Munitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-FJ
EA 2277 Systems and Munitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29
AGENT EYI'ENIIITI'RE RATES AND AREA
COI'ERAGE ESTIMATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
TYPES OF BlOIBClrAL AGENTS ............ 2 4 4
Cltl~*%il .................................2.4 4
Burtvrin .................................... %%4
Rickettsiae ..............................2. 3 4
Virusur ...................................2 3 4
Fungi ..................................... 234 Protutor, .................................... 2 5 6
T, dm .................................... Z S S
AGENTS [WED AGAINST NON-HUMAN TAR
r;m ................................ . .. 24s
1)ISSEMINATlON SYSTEMS AND MUNITIONS 2 9 6
THE IXCENDIARIES ....................... 2 4 7
THE SCREENING SMOKES .................. 298
Cened ....................................2. 48
Wliife Phouphumu~ ......................... 298
UNCLASSIFIED ?.
UNCLASSIFIED -. #sw&!F
TMLE Oc CONTENTS (coat)
pcrgc
FS Mixturr ................................ 248 The Oii $ m o b ............................ 21)8
S e t h XL-1 RdatIm
I XTRODUC'TI 3N ............................ 2-33
PROUUCTS QF THE NUCLEAR EXPLOSION . . 2 3 3
EMISSlON OF THERlAL RADIATION ....... 2-39
DlSTRIBUTION AND ATTENUATION OF
THERMAL RADIATlON ................... 2 4 0
DAXACE EFFECTS ........................ 2 4 2
INTRODUCTION ............................ 2-43
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS ................. 2-45
PHYSICAL EFFECTS ....................... 2-44
SocH.. X I I C T u q d Illdsdhm
INTRODUCTION ............................ U 6
PYROTECHNIC DEVICES ................... 2-46
SI~CRCHWGHTS ............................ 2-45
ELECTRONIC DEVICES ..................... 2-48
-la JAMMING MbTHODS ............... U 7
&ntd ...................... . ........... 247
P&ve Jamming ...........................2 47
Active Junming ............................ 2-48
IMPLEMENTATION ......................... ZM)
General ....................................2 M)
Unifonn Burage Jbmmer ................... 262
Swept Barrage Jammer ..................... 2-62
Comparita Spot Jpmmer .................... 2-52
Swept Frequency Trraapoader ............... e62
N o h PuLe Repeater .......................
C01llWtC RCpb.tU ........................ 2 4 6
kctk. XVYd d Rr(.mrbr .d B I W y m
REFERENCES ..............................
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................
WHen Wenwrl
INTRODUCTION ............................
.INCAPACITATION CRITERIA ...............
FRAGMENTS, BULLETS, AND FLECHETTES.
BLAST ..................................... FIRE AND THERMAL RADIATION ..........
BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL AGENTS .....
NUCLEAR RADIATION .....................
I d r I~~ V d k h
INTRODUCTION ............................
ARMORED VEHICLES ...................... General ................................... . Arnvxd Fighung vchielo ..................
Anned infuotrr and Annored Artill= Vebida
WAXMOBED VEHICLFS ...................
k c h-11 S m c k
INTRODUCTION ............................
SURFACE STRUCTURES ....................
Alr Blut .................................. Ground Shock .............................. Fim ......................................
UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES ............. At Blost ..................................
Ground Shock ..............................
IN1'RODUCTION ............................ 8-14
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS ................... 8-14
Initial Studies of Aimaft Vulnerability ....... 3-14
Vulnerability Definitions .................... 5-16
Vulnerability Factors ....................... 3-15
Use of the Empirical Approach .............. 3-16
Damage Categories ......................... 3-16
Damage Asswsment ........................ 5-17
Categories of AaMeieted Data ................ 5-17
8-1 6. AIRCRAFT BY TYPE AND LOCATION ....... 3 4 8 3-16.1. General ................................... 8-18
W&2. Aircraft in Flight .......................... S-lS
5-165 . Parked Aircraft ............................ 3-25
8-17 . REFERENCES .............................. 3 4
CHAPTER 4
COUKtlON AND ANALYSIS OF DATA CONCLRNINO
KILL MCC((AWISMS
INTIIODUCTION ............................
seopeofthaSscti011 ........................
Compviron of Cbnventioarl and Nudear Explodro~
u .................................
CrweReference Infonnrtion .................
AIR BUBST .................................
InLroduction ..............................
hmiptim of tha BIut Waw ...............
ComPut.ti011 of Blut wave Pulrmctcrs .......
saling km ..............................
EBcb of Envhnment on B M Wave Parunatera
for Nudw Explodow ..............
~ t r t l o n o f N ~ B I u t D .a..1.. ......
.- --- UNCLASSIFIED 1 ........ .
UNCLASSIFIED - TMLE OF CONVENTS (contl i
4-9. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . , . 4166
4-9.1. Scope of 'the Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-166
4-9.2. ,Weription of Fragmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-166
4-9.3. Crass-Reference Informatipn . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 4-166
FRAGMENT MASS AND SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-166
Introduction . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . 4-166
You Distribution, N4tml Fragmentation . . . . 4-166
Msas Ditribution, Controlled Fragmentation . . 4-169
Spatial Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . -4-174
Techniques for Measurement md Reduction of
Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .. .. . . . . . 4-116
FRAGMENT VELOCITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-179
Introduction . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-179
Initial Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4179
\'el -;ty D a w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-186
MECh WMS OF PENETRATION AND PERFORATION
BY SINGLE FRAGMENTS AND
PROJECTILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-190
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-190
Thwy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . 4-191
Ruidual Velocity Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1RB
Exparimeat. Tdniqum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-200
HYPERVELOCITY FRAGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-202
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-202
Theory . .. . . . . . . .. .. . , .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 4-262
Exparineatrl TPehniquer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-208
k c h I V 4 . k . r M . . w s I
INTBODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-214 !
Scope of the Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-214
Cmu-Bderence Infomation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-214
EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-216
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-216
MeUurrrnQLto b ~toMUonV elocity .. . .. .. . . . 4-216
bfeuurrment of Dctonntion Pmaurc . . . . . . . . . 4-216
Meuummt of Detonation Tanperahre . . . . . . 4419 I
Fluh B d i g p h y of Shsped Charge Effect. . . . 4-219 1
T A M OF CONTENTS (cod)
INITIATION AND DETONATION ............4 4 0
Introduction .............................a. Thennnl Comidelatio~. .................... &&?o
Detonatim Theory ........................4.- 2Zl
YAVE SHAPING ...........................C 223 Introduction ...............................C -228 Shaping of the Wave Front .................. 4-229 Geometric Optia ........................... 4-223 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES .................4 -226 Introduction ............................... M!25 General Theories ...........................4 4 6
Thmry for Slightly Ionized Gaa ..............
Theory for Completely Ionized GPS ...........4 427
RAREFACTION WAVES ..................... 4448 -In troduction ............................... 4-228 Escape Speed, Complete and Incomplete &refaction
waves ...........................4.- m Centered Rarrfdon Wavea ................. 4-230
INTERACTION WITH THIN INERT MATERIALS
................................4-.2 80
Introdaction ...............................4 4 0 Experimenb ............................... +-ZM)
kctk v-ust ef Symbol* Wmu* a d nWI.(lbqbv
441. LIST OF SYXBOLS ..........................C Z12 'F REFEKENCES ..............................C 2&( a. BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................ CU2
GLOSSARY OF TZRMINAL BALLISTIC TERMS .............G l INDEX ...................................................1 -1
F W No. Titk W e Z i mtr ...................................... 2 4 22 (C) lqe&r& Configurrrtion (U) ................... %6 2-4 Shaped Charge Pmjcctlle, Schenutic Dkprrm .... e-8
UST OF ILLUSTRATIOD(S (cent)
Fluted Liner Configuration Pad Active Form (U
Typical Shnped Charge Anti-Vehicle AppliCAtiO~.
Penetration vs Stanc'.off ......................
Mururernent of Hole ProAle Di.meter (U) ......
Ultrm-High Sped Bylioprrph of Shaped charge
Dct~nation ................................. 2-8
shaped charge Body Designs ................... %lo
Penetration vs Standoff and Liner Thick- (U) . . 2-10
Penetration Obtained with Different Liner ,
Materids (U) ............................. 2-11
T Y D IL~in er Sham and Hole Profllrs (U) ..... 2-12 . 2-12
') 2-13 . 2-16 .. 2-15
2-16
Nan-Ideal Wave Fonus, Overpawsure (U) ....... 2.20
Non-Ideal Wave Forms, Dynamic P r e ~ u r e( U). .. 2-21
Emiuin of Thermal Itadition ................. 2-40
Passive Jnmming Metho&, Block Dhpmm (U) ... 2-48
Wide Band Active Rodrr Jamming Methob. Block
Diagram (U) .............................. '249
N m w Band Active Radu Jamiag method^,
Block Dhgrm (U) ......................... 2-61 Uniform Barrap P.mmst, Black D i (U) ... 265
Swept Burage Junmer. Block D i i (U ) ..... 2-68 Composite Spot Jammer, Block D i (U) ..... 26(
Swept Frequency Transponder, Block Diagram (U) Z65
N o h Puke Repeater, Block Diagram (U) ....... 366
CoDIpruib Reporter, Block Dkpnm (U) ......... 2-66
h m Around Gmind Zero at N.p.uLi, More and
A h r The Atomic Expldon ................. S-9
Shtiotu D i .FS 4C Airrnlt (U) .......... S-19
Onrpnunm M D h a c e , Euly 3- of &t
Wave ..................................... 4-2
Vuirtion of Overpwrure Wlth T h ........... 4-2
Variation of B b t Wave Wlth TlmZ It r Given
Point. a d Cormpolding Effect of Blut Wave
Purfnp Over a StrucUm .................... 4-8
Cornpubon of Vari~tionr of Overprarura and
Dynudc Pruum w Time ................... 4-4
ReRectbn of Air-Bunt Blut WPM at Euthh
SuriAce .................................... 4 4
Wion of Incident .ad Relloctcd Wwm, and Fornu- tlonofldrehstcm ........................... 4-7
PlotofxAg*nrttforDiiemtVmlwrofw ..... &I2
Fbure No.
4-8
4-9
4-10
4-1 1
4-12 (C)
4-13 (Cj
4 4 4 (C)
4-15 (C)
4-16 (C)
4-17 (9)
4-18
4-19 (C)
4-20 (C)
4-21 (C)
4.22 (C)
4 a (C )
4-24 (C)
4-26 (C)
44% ((C)
427 IC)
Title PWJ
TrmmWon of Prcrrum P u b in PointTim Field 4-18
C a m p d o n Speed vr Trammianion Speed ... ! .. 4-16 Movement of Shock Fxmt iil Undisturbed F1uit.i.. .. 4-16 Resistance vs Moch Number ................... 4-27
Time of Arsivd of Shock Front vs Slwt Range, for
a 1-KT Yield in a Homogeneous Sea Level
Atmosphere (U) ........................... 4 4 4
Peak Overpiollrure va Shnt Range, for r 1-KT
Yield in a Free Air Homogeneoar Sea Level Atmaphere
(U) ..............................4 -86
Duration of Poeitive' Proarum Phase VS Shnt
Range. for a I-KT Yield in a Free Air Homogeneous
Sea Level Atnuuphere (U) ........... 44%
Peak Dynamic Rvuure vr Slant Range, for a 1-XT
Yield tn a Free Air Homogeneous Sea Level
Atmwphere (U) ........................... 4-97
F-A Overpnuure vs Scaled Distance For 1-KT
(Total) Nuclear Yild and 1-KT of Pentolib, at 9u Level (U) ..............................4 49
NuelcPr Explosion B b t Effectivenest vs Peak
Overpremun (U) .......................... 441 miul Streaa-Stnin Curve for Soil ............ 4-43
CM& X)imea*onr (U) ....................... 4-46
Crater Radius VI Bunt Poritbn, In Dry Soil or Soft
Rock, sided tn I-KT (U) ................... 4-47
C n t e r Depth va Bunt Porition, in Dry SOU or Soft
Rock, &led to 1-KT (U) ................... 4 4
Apparent Crater Diameter w Yield, for V u i m
Devtbr and Heights of Bunt, in Dry Soil or Soft
Rock, for 0.1-KT to 100-KT Yield (U) ........ 4 4
.Appwnt Cnter Dknreter n Yield, for Vuiourr
Depths and Heights of Bunt. in Dry Soil ar Soft Rock, for 0.1-MT to 100-MT Yield (U) ....... 4-60
Apparent Cnter Depth va Yield. for Various Deph
.nd HeigJ~trof Bunt, in Dy&Uor Soltfor
0.:-KT b 100-KT Yield (U) ............. 4-61
Appucnt Crater Depth vr Yield, for Vuiaur Depth
and Heiphtr of Burnt, in Dry Soil or Soft Rock, . for 0.1-bST to 100-MT Yiald (U) ............ C62
ERcctr of Direct urd Air-Induced Ground
Bhoek (U) ................................ 4-63
Peak Alr-lnduced C m n d AecrlcnUon (Vertiarl
Component) va P& Overpraoure (U) ....... &MI
'UNCLASSIFIED
E m S urge W u va T i e . tor 1-KT Underground
%~t%kar t Various Depthit (u) ............... 4-57
Maximum Rase Surge Radius vs Yield, for Underground
Burn3 at Various Depth (U) .......... 4-hn
Crater Diameter va Yield, for Underwater Cmtering
for Varitus WaWr Depths with Snnd, Simd
id C~PV?01~. ,S oft Rock httum, for dl-KT to 1WKT Yield8 (U) ......................... 4 4 4
Crater Diameter v.. Yield, fnv Undenvater Cratering
for Variwas Water Deptnr rith Sand. SRnd
and Cm~e lo, r Soft Rock Bottom, for 0.1-MT to
100-MT Yields (U) ......................... Ccil
Crat.u Depth vs Yield. for L'nhwtter Cratering
for V~riour Water Depths ruth &nd, Sand and
3ravel or Soft Rmk R ~ ~ t tmsf,o r 0.1-KT
to 1WKT Yields (U) ......................
Crater Depth 8s Yield, for Underwater Cratering
for Vwio!a %ter Depths with Sand. Sand and
Cmvel. or Soft Rock Bottoms. for 0.1-hlT to IOU-MT 'iieldr (U) ........................
Crater Lip Height vs Yield, for Underwater Cratering
for Various Water Jkpthr r i t h Surrl, Sand
and Cnvel, or Saft Rock Bottoma, fzr 0.1-KT to 100-KT Yields (U). ........................
Crater Lip Height va Yield, for Undenvater Cratering
for Various Water Depths with Sand. Snnd
and Cravei, or Soft Rock Bottoms, for 0.1-?dT
to 100-MT Yields (U) ......................
Effect of Cutoff on the Shape of the Poaitive
P u b (U) .................................
Nonlinear Surface Relkctioa Effects (U) ........
Wave Front Ptor)up.tlon in Shallow Water (U) . .
Peak Wntar Overpressure vs Sknt b g e , for Dttp Uaderrvarer Bunts (U) .....................
bSaximurn Wave Height for 1-KT Undetwater
Bunts (U) ................................
Buc Burp Radiur vr Time, for 1-KT Underwater
Bunts at Vuioua Dcpthr (U) ...............
Maximum Bue Surge Radius va Yield, for Undcr-
~ . b Br u n t at Various Dcpthr (U) .......... 5-74
Compdaon of Variation of BlPrt Parmetem,
Spherical and Cylindrica C-l ............ 4-77
UNCLASSIFIED
Tith P W
Sectional View of M C t u g Laded h 67-
Smmthbore Gun, Vekrity Effect Pmgmm (U) . . 4-M Test Setup, Velocity Effect Proprun (U) ........ 4-81
&latiomhip Between Shock Velocities at C e d b and Surfnce of Spherical Wave (U) ........... 4-83
Rektionship Between Point of Detonation and Center
of Spherical Shock Wave IU) ............ 4-85
RRL Faceon Cage ...........................4 -86
I:RL hock-velocity Gage .....................4 -86 The St r d -Di a p h r a gm Gage .................. 4-86
Wiring Dingrnm, BRL Cage Calibration Circuit.. . 4A6
Field Setup. Fence Technique Computation ....... CSB
P r e Sessing Capsule, BRL Self-Recording '
.. .sure-Timecage ........................4.- 88
BRL Self-Recording Pmure-Time Cage, Conrtruc-
Lion ......................................4.- 89
BRL Saf-Recording Preaaure-Time Gage. Setup . . 4-89
ill ti st^. 4ion of Static Calibrvtion Curve fmm BRL
Seli .;eea~rling Pressure-Time Gage ........... 4-W
AtkDtic Rerurch Ai r -Bht Gage ...............4 -90
The Cantilever-&un Cage ..................... 442
En- Density Per Unit Wave Iength of Rsdia- tiona of Vori011s wave Lnpthr ............... 4-94
Wur and Apparent Temperature of Firchll n llm, for a 20-KT Air Bunt ................. 4-98 Plot of Generalized Thennrl Puke .............. 4-100
Time to Second R d h t Power Maximum (L)
.nd Time to Minimun~( t,,.). M W e a p ~Y~ i
0.1 KT to 100 KT (U) ...................... 4401
'l'imn to Seaad RodLnt Power Mudmum (L.)
a d Timc to Miiimum (b.)V,B Weapon Yirld, 0.1 MT to 100 MT (U) ......................4 -102
&dative Themd Yield w Bunt Altitude r ;) ... 4-103
Atmospheric Trurrmiuivity VII Shut we, for
Air d Surface Bunts at 100 to 7,000 yard8 (U) ClM
R.dirnt Exparure M S h t Range, Air and Surfrc
Bumb at 2. 1% .rrd 60-Xlle W i l i t i u , 1- Bunt (0.001 to 0.6 d/aq an) (U) ............ 4-106
Typiul Thrrrhold Detector Btrultr for krt Ncu- kO~ i nAi r... ............................. Clll
InitW Grmrrm Bdi.tiOn Doae va S h t &nge, 9ur-
'ace B u d md Surface Target, Relative Air '
r)Cnribp1 .0, for l-XT tu 20-MT Yield8 (U) .: . . 4-117
7 UNCLASSIFIED - LIST OF IUUSTRATIONS (coat)
Figure No.
4-69 (C)
4-70 (C)
4-71
4-72 (C)
4-76 (C)
4-TI
4-78
4-79
4 4 0
Titk
Xektivc Air enr rib. Interpolation Sheet (U) ...
Relative Air Denrity (Standard Atmosphere) (U
. 4-118
..)em
Ahnospheric Wat& Vapor Density vs Relative
Humidity for Various Air Temperaturea ...... 4-121
Initial Gnmm Radiation Dose vs Slnnt Range.
1-KT Underground Curst, Depth 17 Feet, for
Vnrloua Relative Air Densiiiea (U) ........... 4128
Neutron Radiation Dose vs Slant Range for Variou
Relative Air Densities, 1-KT Air or Surface
Bursts (Fission Weaporur) (U) .............. 4-124
Prompt Neutrorc Dose w Slant 'Range, Surface
Bunt. and Surface Tcget, Relative Air W i t y
1.1 (U) ...................................4 126
Neutron P .dirtion Dose vs Slant Range for VU&W
Relative Air Densities, Air or Surface Burst (Fusion Weapons) (U) .....................'- 126
Percentage of Total Dope of Initial Commr. Radii- tion vs Ttne After Lktonation (U) ............ 4-127
Attenuation of Initial Gamma Radiation ......... 4-130
Absorption CoeBleient of Lead for Camma Radia- tion .......................................4 412
&sorption Coefficient df Air for Gamma Rvdirtion 4-132
Build-Up Fador as a Function of Atomic 'Number
for Gamma Rayr in iritiil Nuclear Radiation
<iO Mev) ................................. 4-153
Build-Up Factor aa o Function of Atomic Number
for Gpmmp Bays in Residual Nuelear Radiation
(1.0 Mev) ................................. 4434
Deerwe of Dose Rat- From F U o n .Producb With Time ......................................4 -1ST
Accumuhted TOW Dosa of Redd*d Radiation from
Fission Products, from One Minute After the Explorion ..................................4 -W9
Neutron-Induced Gamma Activity vr Sknt R.nL.e
(0 to 1,400 Yarda) . at a Refemas Time of Om
Hour After B w f for a l-KT Yield (U) ...... 4-143
Decay Factom for Neutron-Induced Grmm Activity
(U) ................................: . . 4-114
Total Radiation Oose Reaeived in an A m Crmtuninoted
by Neutron-Induced C~mmw Activi&, Soil I (U) .... '; ............................4 -146
Altitude Abow Bunt Point of Top and Bottom of
Stabilized Nudear Cbud, ve Wupcm Yield (U) 4-147
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Genedizrd Iclcal Contourn for Bcridml Bdhtk 4-149
knddurlncr B v r t Do.se-kte Coatan Arar .t a
Refrrencc- 'I'irne of One Hour After B u d , Mcg.- ton Yields (L') ............................ 4-161
L.~~d-SurfacRe wnt Dw.R. t c Contour Downwind
Distmn. On-Hour Kefcma Tim, 16-Knot Scalina Wind. Jlcgaton Yields (U). .......... 4-1R
LandSurincr 3umt D~w-R. t eC ontour Cmwind
l h t a n ~ v , n - o u r F:efcrenpb T i 15-Knot Scnlin;. 7i;rrd, hleprct~m Yields (U) ............ 4-164
~~~~~~Suriat Bunt hncW Contour Ground-
:(, I ~ J CIIW Diamete~. OacHour Reference
'Pvmr. )frynton Y id& (t') ... !. .............. 4-11
I - S u r f : Rurst Downwind Dbphmmt of
Cruunc~-.. .-7 3 Circle for IS-Kaol k l h g Whd.
One-HI. : - FLefemncc. T i , SILptoa Ykl& (U) 4-166
Hrirhtd? Rurst Adjurtmunt F.Qr for D m Rate
'Contour Valuea (U) ......................... 4-167
Harbor Bunt DoscW Contoor Arru. burning
Shrllow Water (30 to M) Feet) Over &y Bot- tom, at OntHour Wrm~cT fw (U). ...... 4-169
TOW Radiition Dac Prdved Ln Caotuabbd A ~ r n(U ) ......................... ;. ...... 4-160
48-Hour Do# Sarias P.etor n Wapw Y i (U) 4-181
Atkntvtion of Residual Fioloa Rod& Bd&m 4-166
N u m k of Ihgma& N. With Mamm Gmster Th a nmGnmr v r S q ~Bml o fm( U) ...... 4-168
Numla of k b b , N, With Yr# Gmter
lhrnmCcaaunCuk,Raotofm(U) ........ 4-160
Pledlet-a Pmjcctilc Pack for Yodd W u i r d (U) . 4-171 '
N o t Ring Wuheul ........................ 4-172
N o t 4 Ring Fmgmmtatioa Chrrctattiai
CrosrScetion View (U) .................... 4-172
F r t o n U K d i a ~ t l a a o f R r g # l t ~ -
Auk (U) ................................. 4-176 wi ~~pma~nktt rlik~tio..n.. ...... 4-in
' Figure No.
4-110
4-111
1-112 (C)
4-113 !C)
4-114
4116
4-116 (C)
en7 (C)
4-118
4-'19
4-120
4-121 (S)
4-122 (S)
4-128 (S)
4-124 (C)
4-126 (C)
4-126
4-m
4-11
4-129
c i a o
4-181
4482
era
LIST OF IUUSTRATIONS (con+)
Titk pave
Multiple Bruk-Wire Screen .................... dl84
Typical Ruter Calibration and Firing Record .... 1184
Radiograph of Steel Cylinder Before Detonation
(U) ...................................... 4-185
Radiograph of .Stre1 Cylinder 26.19 Microwcon&
Alter Detonation (U) ....................... 4-136
Craph of CDv s Mach Number ..................4 -186
AV Relationship ..............................4 -187
Silmmary of CD vs Mach Number for Various Unstabilized
Fragments in Air (U) .............. 4-188
Wire Screen Method Setup for Velocity Decay Meaaunmenh,
Schematic Diagram ( U) ........... 4-139
F l h Target Method Setup for Velocity Decay
Meuurement, Schematic Diagraw ... :. ...... 4-190
Electro-Optic-lcoonhedron Cage, Schematic Dk- pru~l. ....................................4 -191
Gimbal System with Mounted Fragment ......... 4-192
Graph of WMV2/Ava vs t/\/& for 0 Degw (U) 4196
Graph of $4MVz/CAs/* va t/\/x for 30 Deproer
(U) .....................................4.- 196
Graph of WMVs/CA'la va t/\/A for 60 Dcpmr
(u) ..................................... 4-187
V,/V. va V. lor Selected Plate Thickn- (U) . . 4-200
V./V. and M,/M, w V. for S e l M Plate Thicknwsw
(U) ................................4 -201
Steel Pellet Penetration Into L d Targeb, a t
Variow Pellet Ve l d t i u .....................4 402
Hypcrveloeity Crater Fomtion Under Oblique
Impact, S k l PeUeb Into Led Tugeta ........ 4-2Oa
High Speed Camera Obrcrvatio~ of Projectile
Penetration Into T n a r p r m t Target ......... 44.04
Sketch of Cratw Rrnution Phewmenon ........ -6
T ~ i c CJm br Formed by Ma c r oPd c l e Impact.. 4-206
Quantltrtive W t n t i o n of Projectile Penetration
Into Lead TupsB. at Variou I m M Vdocitia 4-207
CommrLon of Okarntlona of MlcroPuticles at
10 km/m with Micm Dab at Lower Veloeitiea.
for Two Target bfatcrinlr; Diameter VI Velocity 4-208
Quantitative P m ~ ~ t r t i of nP rojectile Penetratim
Into Aluminum Twgeb, a t Varlou Impact
Vebdtlm ................................. C309
- - UNCLASSIFIED *

Tit&
Quantitative Prcrentrtion of Projectile Peneb.tioll
Into Copper Tar*, a t V u i w Impact Vebcitiea
...................................... 4-209
Typical Light-Gor Gun Operatioa, Sehermrtic D i
gram ..................................... 4-210
Repreaentntive Expendable Gun, Uaing External
Explosive ...............................4.-.2 11
BepresentPtive Expendable Gun, Udag Internal
Expldw ................................. 4-212
Reprsuntntive Explwive Charpc De&m for Hypervelocity Rojectile Testa ...............4 -212
Pin-Method T a t Apparatus, Schematic Dinprrvn . . 4416
Microwave Technique Teat Apparatu~, Schematic Diagram ..................................4 -216
Detonation Prarrure. Flow D 1 . m ~.. .......... 4-217
Joignau and ~hou;enin ~xpckrnentol Ament
for Determiniw Pressure-Time Data
Schematic Diegram ........................4 -217
h u v e r Experimental Arrangement for Detennin- iag Prtmrrs-Time hta, SchenutIc Di.yrrun ... 4-218
Transientt Prcrrure Pulse Setup, Schematic D b
gmm ..................................... 4-218
o l d ~ i ~ ~~ c~lir~tuprcec -nm~ ccordr with cmrresponding
~ u r r - T i mFrr otMer ............4 418
Rculure4"l'me Cerve for Buatol Detonation ..... 4-219 Geneml State of Expkuive Reution ............ -1
Rankine-Hugodot Curve ......................a Hu g d o t C u m P urllcl Churdcrirtia .......
Huguniot Curvsr, NonpurlL1 Chvrctuirtia ....
Cylindrical Wave Initktor, Schematic D - ... 4-224
Optic Anrlogy of .Ruped Detonation Wave ...... CZU ape^ Dabnation .............................C ZU Uuporbolie Wave Shaping .....................4 +??6
Simple Wave Uegion (111, C a m n g Two Reg
i o n,, ~( I and 111) of Conrtont 8t.k (-U.4.). l pLc. ...................................c sZS
1-1
Bud.Nool Waw Jut Eodiag in a Zone of Cawits- Uw (-U,>U ............................ 4 -m
Ruefrction Wave Endiug in a Zone (111) of CrvitJlon ).I>&-( ....................... C228
Csntemi &.refrclion Wave (-UI<L) .......... 4480 RoiUeof a " Id ShotAuanbly ...,, ......... 4-281
UNCLASSIFIED -
d
W
1
-&
- -
I
L. e J
- ---
"Ti
-
d
P
%
*
1 a
r
, '1
26
a1 (C)
Title P w ~
~ k b i t i o nita te Cornpami to for FOW Cutable Exploaivea (U) .................... 2 9 Wodd War I CUuaItiCI ........................2 -26
Standard Expenditure htes for Primary Toxic Chemical Agentr (U) .......................2 4 0
Wmnted Expenditure R a h and Dclivery R e
quirementa for 60 Per Cent Casualties on UnpmtedLd
Pemnnel, Using Nonlethal Agent EA 2277 (u) .................................2 -51
Area Coverage Data for Various CS ~ y Gdrena da
and Diipenen (U) ........................ 253 Vbibility and Atmospheric Chrity ...............2 -41
D a m p to + uf Structures Primarily Affected
by Blast-Wave Overpmsure During the Diffrac- tion PhuQ (U) .............................5 .10
Damage to of Structures Primarily Mected
by Dynamic Preuurea During the D-..p Phwe (U) ......................................5 .11
Dunage Criteria for Underproud Structurw (U) 8-14
ReLtive Vulnerability of Aircraft Componcntr (U) 8-18
Overpre~ure and D y d c Preuum b?btcd to
Blut Wind 'Jelocity in Air at Sea bvel ........ 4 4
B b t Yield (in Equivalent Poundr oi bO/6O Peab
lib) of a 1-KT Nuclear Yield, u a unction of Peak Owrprrrsun (U) ..................... 4 4 0
Comporition of Certain Service Type Exploclive~
(U) ..................................... ;C7
P d Prorun? and Pwltive Impulrs, b h t i v e to
Comporftion B, for Variour Service ?'yps Explc- rlvm (Equal-Volume U s ) (U) ............. 4-70
CJculaLd and Experimental Data for Moving
Chvpes (U) ............................... 4-84 Unita of Wave Length Measurement ............ 4-96
Typical Relative Air Dedtiea (R), P m ~ u w(P I,
urd Tunpcntunr ( t ) , at Variwr Altitudes (U) . 4-116 Sundud Atmorfieric Conditions ............... 4-119 Avenpe Atmaphere ..........................4- 1!2!2
ApproxInute Half-Value k y e r Thickmuem of
XateiroL for Initial Gormru BadlrtOon ........ 4-l29
Linoar Abrorption CoelRcirnL for Gunnu B y a . . 4-181
Empirial Macroampic Crorr Sc*iotu for Attmuation
of Fut Neutronr ....................... 4-186
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
Tabb No.
4-ls
4-14
k-16 (C)
' 4-16 (C)
4-17 (C)
4-18
.LIST OF TABUS tcontl
Relative h kta at Yarioua Tinv Mtar a
Nuclear Expi& 4 4 6
Chemical Camparition of Scleeted Soila
..........................
4-141
I
..........
Mjurtmant F a d o n for Contour'PurauQI fw
Varioua Scaling Win& (U) ..................4 -l6fJ
Contour Parameton for Dae B.b of 100 R/H (U) 4-162
Approximate Contour Paramebra for 48-Ar TOW
Doan of 500 R (U) .......................... 4-162
Approximate W-Value Lnyer Thicknmiea of Materials
for Shielding Against Gamma Bay8 from
Fkeion PIwiucb ...........................C lSS
DOM Trwmluion Facton (Interior Dac/Exterior .
Dau) (U) ................................4.- 168
Vduu t f "A" for Variuua Exploaiva IPdim (U) 4-168
Vdupr of "A" for Varioua C u t and PrcYcd l k p b
dm (U) ..................................4 -IW
Fragmentation Bcrulta of Internally Slotted W w
budr (U) .................................4 -173 I
Detonation Veldtiw of Selected Erplo*vm (U) . . 4-176
Comparison of Frapment Velocitiar fmm Open- and
-End 6" Cyliadfn ..................... 4-181 E f l d of Axial Cavitier om Fmgmnt VdodLlcr ... 4-181
~r h n t a t i o n ~ a e twl ith Cimhl~yatem. .... C-ISL
Penetration Data, Homopnmnu Phtu n St-
Pounder &ot (U) .......................... 4-194
Penetration Dat., Mild Sted Platu VI Sphorierl
B.uI (U) ...........................;. ..... 4-W
C r i t i d Vdur of PacLrJIon Puamk vl APQI.
Oi Owpuity (U) ........................... 4-lB6
V W of Comtutb.for Ep. 4-162 (U) .......... 4-lM BerLtivity oi SrvrrrJ Expbrivrr ................4 4m
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
CLaphr 1 (Ul
INTRODUCTION
I d . P U NINETEENTH CENTURY
It can be speculated that man has always had
a deep interat in incrensing the effective~esr
of the weaponr he employed in hia battle for
rurvival. It WM not until the time of Galileo
d Newton. however, that acientiAeprir~ciplea
were developed md applied to problem MW
&kd with weapons and pmjectilca. The
earlislt pmblem to receive attention waa that
of debmining the vuiation of range with f i e
of elmtion angle, for a given gun,
cbupc, and pmjectih. Thin m y be consided
ttd beginning of the general add o! balllrtiu
d,in putleular, of what k now dM "exterior
hllLtlaf'. Science in the eightrenth
ceaRuy WM owpied mainly d t h the develop
merit ot nuthenub, phyjca. .nd rnechanim.
The fuMer applbtion of them rciencer to
urrpon problem waa made in 1829 by the
French engineer, J. V. Ponnlet (17881867).
Poncelet portulated n lor of rcrirtmce for the
r#nantion of pzojectilu into targetd and con-
; ducted erpetimenb to detormi~ev duea for the
twu pvMstcn involved Ponelet's reabtmce I Ln b itlu uwd today, w u aperlm~lu to
detexmine the panarolarn for new target w-
, brwl and vrojsctde ua~ratiolrr. Thc work
of P o d & would appear b marl; the beginniqg
*f w h t u now harm M "brmirvl bl- t!;!. ,- . . *
"'d raned (kld of bllLeier mu& be clad-
% ., :.( m appkd nb&r t h r ~pur e acie~cc
r.wcdpa :eb in moat applial ncicncro asan to
',n r . . - . p d !IltO rehtively short periodr of
tt..u --L .?rein a putlcuhr external atimulua
: ~ T S npid advums in the tkld. It ir per-
.~rpr U ~ O ~ ~ U I bUu~t .L Ne, th~ ta applid
ricwa d blliatla k ltimuktd by national
or t n b r a r t i o ~ ~d lt w t i o ~of war.
1-2 THt NINBWH CENTURY
1 1 1 . 6 . u n l
During the nineteenth century, BritLh military
engineen were much concemtd with the
design and con&uction of &pa and h d fc rtiflertions
b withstand penetration of rolid p r o
jwWw. The Cn t recorded i~Aacein which
a pmjectil waa fired from a rifled gun at
amor for land fortiRcntionr war in 1860, when
an 80-pounder Armstrong gun fired wmughtinn,
Rot-heclaed shot, and o 40-pounder fired
a t - i m n shot, at twu imn embraaunr 8 i n h
and 10 i n c h thick Itred ia muonry work at
Shoe5u,urynul (Ref. 1). Experimenb wirh projdUe
effect on annor occurmd rapidly d h
thir A d o n of the8e experimentr folloar.
135.1UI-r---r mdd wWL V u k r
Mahrld
M.k were conducted with mught-iron
Prmor backed with rigid mrtcrbb, such M
cast iron and granite, nnd backed with milient
nutcrielr, ueh u timber, cork, and rubber.
The m u l b indicated t b t the hard backing
inclawd tho raiSt.nec to peneh..tion but Id
to cracking And to failure of tubrtur
1-23.1u2-1- sup Taqdm
Ship hub were dmnlated, and trw were
conducted with a 10% inch gun firiDp 800-
pound cylindrical ahot at 1.W ft/rse There
appwtohvebwnaEDntmwnpatthi~~
M to wlmther fit-now or ogival-nose lhot ru
mom ettective against Pnnor. It ru m a o d
thrt the ogival rhpa would k debt& more
mduY by doped armor.
14.4.18M-lSd kr(lb.(kr
Muonrytarpatr14feetthlcltrrrrllralw
with 7-, a, o s , and 10-indl guM at
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
of 600 md 1,000 yard& Steel and c ~ b i r o n
ahot with hcmlpherical and dlipricll (ogivd)
headawmurad. T h e d P m r p w u d ~
foUom:
1. 88 hits did ruioh d.rmge.
2. M bta would Mve silenced return h.
a. es ~ tdtrrt mpi tho wrllr.
Other triab at thin t i br ought out the
excellent qpJllUea of chilled caat iron for shot.
This type of h o t b e w e known u Palliir
ahot, after Sir W. Pallhr who suggested the
iden. The trLt .Ira eatrbllrhd the auperiority
of the ogivrl head over the blunt head.
llLL 1811dhm!aM SNp Twqda with
**nw
Two rhip targeb were umulated. TIM fint
waa pmteded by a ringle plate built up to a
thichma of 14 inchr. The pccond target waa
pmkbd by .a &inch plate and a tbinch plate
mpuatui by 9 ineber of timber. The triala
~howedt he auperiority of the lprced armor. A
r r i m of tri& w u then condueeed to &tee
mine the optimum apldnp .ad filkr material.
It wrr amduded that a Mnch apace fllled with
cement w u aptimwn. AppuanQ the a d -
Mlor techniqw wu not wldely d becawe
no one Imo*r quite how to -ploy it in the conatruction
of fortitlutionr. An intorrrtinp obu.
rvation WPI mule during them tri.lr, however.
u qwkd directly from Ref. l.
were fired with &pound drrrged. The nrulta
reported (Ref. 8 ) rac tlut ". . . there nu
romc damage done W e the turret, but tha
goat, nbbit, and fowl emerged unhnrmaB
An item of died intereat during thin period
waa the w of a krOa quantity (Woo0
pun&) of upldvcr to remove roefn in the
Evst River in New York There WM apporently
nrueh apcuLtlon u to the dect the detonation
of thin quantity of apl4vcr might
have on atructunu in the surrounding area. I t
WN reportd that many people left their homer
fearing d b l e eollrpll Curiolity .pprenUy
o v e r c o ~f a~r , however, because an ertimrted
2M),000 people lied the river bank on the d.y
of the b k t . The cJurge waa ut ofl in S e p h
b~ 1876. rh. t tui~ll lilli~d ton8 of r~ek-
Eyewitnemea mporbd a mmblillp or rh.ldng
of the ground. the rising of a pn& 4
water to a height of 20 to 40 feet, followed by
an i-naa ID.U of unoke. There mr no re
port of damage to any of the d y atnr cturea.
1 4 1111 nnumnn CENTURY mrww
WORLD WAR U
UNCLASSIFIED dm$Rw'-
research eatahliahmeatr were organized. In the
United States, the Naval Ordnance kboatorV
wr, formally eatabliuh~di n 1929 and the Amy
W u t i c Research Laboratory WM fornully
atrhlhhed in 1937. (Both of these had been
functioning fcr a number of yeam prior to their
formal activatiop under their pment names.)
During World War I1 many new ordnance
itama were develcped and introduced (Ref. 2).
Some of theae iienu were the proximity fuze,
&aped charge .lmmunilbn, guided missile, airc
r d ; wket, Lme thrower, and atomic bomb.
Each of theae new devtlopmenb opelied ' v a t
new areaa for investigationr, in terminal balliatics.
14. WIT WORLD WAR II THROUGH 1964
The largest area of terminal bnllistic activity
since World War 11 haa been the atomic
.nd nuclear weapons efiecb p r o w . Thew
operations were managed by the Anned Forces
Special Wenpona Project (AFSWP), and were
participated in by all military renieer, iu well
lu by numeroua e d u d i n a l and isdustrid orpnizatinnr
The new damage mcchanirmr of
bt, und thennnl and nuclear rdiation have
received a great &owt of theorrtiul and experlmentol
attention.
Second only to the nuclear wupom off&
program haa been the aircraft vulnemblity
program. For example, the development of the
pided miaaile, capable of cvryinO V ~ U
kinds of warheads, led to a terminal Wlhtic
program concerned with the meuu of determining
aircraft and miwile vulnerability. Thh
program hnr almo k e n actively involved with
such ntudiea as the effects of explf-ive charge
delay fuzea, incendiaries, and high explwive
loading in yrojectilea.
The introduction of the shaped charge ha6
led to extenrive analysis and terting of the
shaped charge vemu Mnor plate In addition,
the explosive launchhg of fragments has revived
inbreat in the field of penetration hllisticr.
The launching of earth ulellite8 and the develoynent
of Ule ICBM have murod much interest
and speculation in the ptmibility of new
damage mechanism& The investigation of these
mechaniamn ia presently wmewhrt limited
becaw facilitlea for controlled experimentation
have not yet been perfected.
SecQion ! U u m t hegrams In Temiaal Bailistics
~ i r l l u lelv~e ry world power k currently rtive
in wine upect of the Add of terminal
b d l i a t h In the United S t a h ail of the military
renricea have d v e pmpnms, which
Wran together involve dozcnr of laborotoria,
IESUIV~ htitutionr, and indutrirl contracton.
No attcmpt will be made in the f o l l o w i ~
-ph b credit fDdivMlul p m p to~ ~
the proper investigating or spowring agency.
h t h e r , s sammry of current PIWM of ~tiYitY
(Ref. 8) will be pmnted which ia believed to
bc regmenbtive of PI the various interesls.
Becaw adqurt. liolding annot a h m be
provided for protection of vital atmponenb
from nuclear tadiation. a t t o ~ ~ p tarre being
nude to develop eclmponentr and syrtsmr w it4
greater ndiation wiatance. In addition, various
agenciea are engaged in efforta b provlde
procedures and &a whereby the capability of
c u n n t miiitary quipment to auivive nucleu
radiation may be predicted. I t 'r anticipsted
that t h a e pmgrama will lead ta the develop
ment of new design p r o d u r n and concepb to
improve the mdiation rabtrnce of quipment
Pmpnrm, in thim area arc concerned with
various uptr of the phyala of Lhe detonation
procesll. The initiation of high upl.miver by
prsrrurc wavem trwmitted rnm air g n l or
metal W e n u of particular inkrut. Other
program are comemed with the effecb of atenully
applied electric and magnetic fleldr
UNCLASSIFIED
upon detonation, and with tbe development of
explwiv~~lectrtirca ~ d u c e n .
Impact between madl frapmnb a d rtrua
turd Wtr h currently of interat for veldth
up to 60.000 it/=. Satellite and ICBM
vehicles make thia order of magnitude of
velocity technically feasible. Current activities
in thh field are directed toward .means for attrininp
such velocities in the laboratory. Velocities
of 20,t)OtI ft/ree. are presently attainable,
md e l l o h are baing expended in denloping a .
better uuderatanding of the pheXI0me~ exhibited
in thii hypervelodty range.
1-9. W E D CHARGES
Current interat in the duped charge Add L
cenkmd in &orb to improve the theory relating
design and p e r t o i n ~ ~ eofc this typa of
wupon. One probiun receiving attention, for
sample. h the deripn of linwa to eompe~ab
for the delebriour deeb produced by the r p h
of the projecth
1-16. MOUND SHOCK
Research in ground rhodr phanom In continuing,
utilizing Loth IrbartorJ, md 5eh-I teat
tcehniquea. Eftbrtc uc being nude to improve
both marsurcmant md raliag tedmhw, u
well PI to determine h dynrmic r-tnia
properties of various tMIIlliuin media.
1-11. AIR BUST
Extemive probanu am currently active in
order to determine the e h t ui b l ~ t on
structures. Shock tube f0dlit.k are being used ! to study diflraction lording md target d b
response. High-apeed trnck facilities are being
wd to realistia~iyr ~ n thue in~tera~ctio n o i /' .
blaat waves and the tmudc and mpeawn?.,/
flow fieIda of virfoib.
/'-
1-12 WOUND BUSTICS /-
The objective of thb coatinuhg'pro~ ir
to provide a knowledge of the wO\mnillg potential
of fragments, bulk& -'other danuge
mcehonim8. A puu~tiWiva b u i i for the Marument
of wounding potatid ia necmary for
the d- of daetiw rntipnronnel wgpo~.
UNCLASSIFIED
Chaptor 2 ESI
KILL MECHANISMS
..'
Section l (CLFnrgmerts
Fragmentation is the disruption of a metal
container by a high explosive filler, Its purpose
is to produce the optimum distribution of a
maximum number of h i d vclocity lethal f r w
men&. Due to the ure of the high explosiv*:
Alkr, fragmentation i3 always accompanied by
blast.
h e fragment acta as a kill mechanism by
impacting the target a t high velocity with its
maaa and forcing its way through the target
Mkria1.1 The kinetic energy of the fragment
at the time it striknr the tarfit is one measure
of itr lethality. However, what constitutes the
optimum fragment MI, velocity, and distribution
of fragments will vary according to the
torpet, be i t a human, tnrck, airpirne, building,
latallite, e t c
It ir generally desirable to have a shell or
bomb body break up into piece9 no larger than
are required to "kill" the particular tarper
Thk arrangement provides the maximum numb
r of effective f r o w n & by avoiding f w
ment .sizes that an lorger Uun necessary.
m m e n b are employed in projectilea in three
different ways, M uncontrolled fragments, wntrolled
fragments, and preformed fragments.
W h of thew three different types k diiured
in following paragraphs. Special attention is
rko given to the eK& of c h a w of velocity.
To unhmtand the r n e h n i i involved in a
fragmentation weapon, it k ncmawy to know
what happens to the fragment between the
time oi weapon detonation and the time of
frament srrival a t the torpet. Upon detonation
of the exphmive chrrge, the detonation
wave uurer the uplosive and itd case to swell
until the failure point is reached. The mi
then fails in shear and tension, and fragments
are ejected a t high velocity. The fragments
achieve an initial velocity and form a pattern
(or beam) dependent primarily upon the physical
shape of the casing. Aerodynamic drag
forces slow the fragmwih during their flight
-to the target, as do the retardation effects of
ahy target shielding penetrabd prior to impact
with the target. The area effectively covered
by the beam of fragments depends to a large
extent on the angle of fall of the projectile and
the range to the target.
The frappenb produce damage by penetration
of a target. Upon impact with a hard target,
such u stee! or concrete, the kinetic enerlly
of the fragment is h ~ f e I T e dto the target
material. If the energy tmnsfemd by the fragment
,is p e a t enough to atreas the target beyond
ita limit, penetration tpkU place. The
kinetic energy is transmitted to the target from
the fragment through the contact area, or
presented me4 of the fragment. For fragments
of equal maas and velocity, the one with
the leut presented area will penetrate more extensively.
due to the higher concentration of
energy transfer.
Upon impact with a wft target, such u, the
human body, !he fragment penetrates with
much leaa luss of energy and often puwr completely
through the body. The effectivanesa of
the fragment depends upon Lhe amount of
energy lost to the tupct during fragment
travel within the target. The &ape of the
fragment may be more rignificant in a Wlft
target than within a bard target, bemure the
ohape will influence the path of the fragment
and the rate of enerw transfer. BelntIve to a
given target, the penetrating power of a f n g -
ment h dependent, therefore, upon ita m m ,
UNCLASSIFIE
troll4 m t a r duarge will be infliekd
to a t P ~ ftor which the weapon ia
M i .
S. Fmgmenta with better .emdynamic
-tic8 cm be employed, rtrulti
p in higher impvct wbcitiea and
greater penetration.
W (.U) PREFORMED FRAGMENTS
The most complete cantrol of fragment size
and ahape ia achieved by the we of prefonnd,
or p-ut, fragments. Preformed fragments,
formed during weapon fabrication, exist in
their final dupe before detonation of :he ex-
Ploaive, wge, and they are mechanically held
in theij pmper'orienhtign around the charge.
IWl!'.. rrZnrmed f-mb ,are used in a
! P P ~ilriCgned warhead, breakage of f r y -
, ubn expubion and adhesion of frog-
: m+4 to ueh other may be eonriderad neglidbie,
md nurly 100 per cent fragmentation
co$trol .is achieved.
Typical ahapea uaed for preformed f m -
msnb are cubes, mda, spherea, and flechettea . /' (flnstabiliied &rtr or needla). They uure
damage by ppnetration, u is the case with all
fnsmank In the m e manner in whi& con-
. trolled fragmenh offer advantages over uneon-
' trolled fragmenh, preformed fragmenb m y
closely approd optimum fragmentation effecb
for a specified target, because nearly
fompleh,eQntrol of fragmeat mpas, shape, and
. velocity eur bs designed into the weapon.
. U. (U) SECOWDARY FRAGMENTS
Secondary fragmentation w u l b from bra&-
up of either controlled or uncontrolled frugmenh
upon imp&, or from the cmation of
framenb trom the target materid whm it b
impacted by p projectile. One important exunple
of ~ceon&ry fragmnhtion Ia the
spalling of umor plpta when it iu piermd by
armor-piercing dwt. The frrgmeatr or sp.IL
are broken off the back of the plrte and become
signidcmt ldll meehanhna within the umored
endoawe. Another a m p l e of rreeondu?, f r y -
mentation Ir the break-up of humm bone rkuG
tiire iiw the imyuct af a penetrating m i a d i ~
Tha bone splintern or frapuentr may wrae
mom overall danag~w ithin tbr humrn body
than did the origird miuile.
W. (CJ fONTlNUOUS RODS
Contfnuour mdn repmmt a r p e e i . l i atension
of frwpnenhtion tochniqua, in which
disavh rod fmgmenta are replaced by a bundle
of met4 rods. The rod bundle la amnged in
the form of a hollow cylindor with the rod
axes parallel to the cylinder rutis. Alternate
rod ends are welded bgether to form a wntinuour
expanding ring when (he rorlp arc
launched at high velocity by a central cylindrical,
or annular, high explosive char=. Aa the
bundle of mds exparids outward from the pint
of detonation it forms a continuous and expanding
hoop, which eventually breaks pp into
eereral pi- M the hoop circumference a p
pmochea and exceeds the total of the rod
lengths. The cutting ability of the rods is a
function of the rod hoop weight and i h veiocity.
A warhead of this type can produre severe
structural and component dunage against A
hrge Ilght-frame target. For thh rsuon, ita
eonrfdered w u winat aircraft Lrpcb (Ref.
2).
Obrerv~tionr of the &ecb of in- in
fr~pmcmt velocity have revealed three v r P 1
conditions 0s impact, chuaeteriicd by the k.
havior of tho fragment and tripct materid In
the low velocity condition, the fragment m
nuim in- md the cavity produd in the
tvpet be only #lightly larger in diameter
than the fragment.. A8 the striking velocity incrsrses.
the dynamic prcrrum eaeountered
exceed the atmngth of the fragment, which be
d m to breek up, initiating the trPluitioa foadition.
Tht muaea the penetmtion to inmom
aiowly with increasing velocity; in m e
cam it caw UI acW nductioa in the pene
tration with increeaing VCkKity. As the atriking
velocity increws further, the penetration
.p.in inenuc4 pmprtiod to r fractiod
power of h vdoeity (Urully betwean % and
!-+I. The amtar formed approrchm a hemi-
, UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED - spherical shspe, and the hypewelacity or fluidimpacL
condition bedno.
The term hyparvelocity, when ured in the
tenninrl b l l u t i u renae, t applied to the
crater-formation phenomenon, rather Uun to
a specih impact velocity. One cribrion for
the o m t of hypervelacity is that the cavity
ahape muat be approximately that of a hemirphere.
No ringle numerid value can be a?-
~ignedfo r the beginning of this velocity rmw,
M the velocity h r function of the rtrenii%
chamteristiea of both the target and the t r a p
ment materials. Hypervelocity fragmcnb and
crabring are d i din detail in C h 4, Rr.
4-19.
Z4.2. IUl k td H v p n e b d y lm)..t
The tranrition amdition of hypervelodty impact
i8 dearly dcmonstrbtd in the of a
steel pmjeetile i,mprcting on a thick l e d target.
The penetration increwr roughly ss the
Int power of the velocity up to about 0.6
km/mc. (1640 f t / r . ) , and then decreased MI
the invem h t power of velocity up k, about
0.8 lun/wc. (2600 ft/8ec.). P e n e t d i n of the
rtcrl projectile inb the l a d then increa8ea
again. pmp o r t i o~tlo the Ih power of velocity.
It is intoreating to nub that the penetration
docr not rbe b ib earlier maximum value until
Lhc impact velocity reachea Z km/lar (6560
ft/lce.). which II a fourfold incrrruc. The actual
uvl ty volum, mti11~to~ i1nc-) wUh
vebdty illcmw, but itr 8hbPe L churpiw to
bvooma more &y hrmisphrrtul. The velocity
boun&ria and deliled &wader of the
truuitiolul cond!tion ue not wrll defined. and
difter markedly with tr- and projectile matarl.
1. The brmitioarl wndition ha been MMCWwith
the p h t i c wave velocity for the
target material, but i t would wcm Uurt a mom
hport.nt factor would k the impad p-unrs
t terminal by the docity and tbrget demity
M well u the strength of the projectile.
In the true hlgerveiaclty im& condition,
it L ex- that the cn&r fonned in b m i -
lntbrlte target will k hemirphrriul, independent
of the ratio d pmjeetila and trrgd denaitte
Pnd, to r c o~i d e n b l eex tent, tndepndrnt
of t h c p m j e d e r h p e a f e p t I n U H ~ ~ o f
luge Iength/dtamebr ratios. Them feat we^
(C) Three &age# hbve been i&ntiRed in the
formatfon of the crater in the hypervelocity
condition, as a m~ukof experimental work in
*hich ffnsb X-ray photography h employed.
Initinlly, the mechanim appeur b be a hydnt
dy~urmic one in which both the toryet and the
projectile flow plutically during the primary
atsge, and the kinetic energy of the proJrtile
is tmnderred to the tupct. Tlh primrry
stage pnriab for only a d fraction of the
tot4 time of crater fornution. During the priwry
atage, the prcuurea ge.nerated are of the
order of millionr d abnoopherea, and the density
of the t.* and pmjectik behind the
hock fmnt mry be appreciably increased. For
example, d a~l a t i o nfro r the impact of iron on
iron a t 5.6 km/aec. indiite Uut the maximum
preaaure ia about 2 megabam, which corm
rpan& b a dmity ratio of about 1.4.
(C) A f w the pellet hm been rompktely
deformed and lost i b integrity, the energy L
truufemd to the tmmt in the form of a
plaatic defomutlon wave, The cavitation continua
for a period that &pen& on the amount
of energy tnuufemd.
(U) Finally, them is a plrrtic and u U i c
recovery stage which fdlow the i m m e d i
crater fonnatim. C M in eSO alumlnam
have been oberwd to raovcr &out 80 pu
a n t 4 volume.
. (U) The great bulk of erperlmentrl work
in hypervelocity impact h u bean devoted to the
rtwly of enter formation in avntiPlly semiinflnite
tar&, in an effort to develop an
understanding of the baaic phcaomom. However,
a d l a have MiutPd that. 12 the me
tntion in a rcmi-infinib is p, complete
penetration of a plate of thielmm up b 1.5 P
may be oWllaed with the ume projectile bnd
impact velocity. l a a marginal hypervelocity
penetration, howem, the projectile ur fragment
itreif dcer not urry thmu(lh, hut rp.Uing
and rome flow of tha tuget mrterW will b
produced and may k rlrmcient to owe dam:#@
to internal eomponenta.
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED -smf'-
24. (Ul I ~ W C T I O N
Solid projectiles, like fragments, act an kill
m&anLw by their penetration of a target.
The term "kinetic energy (KE) projectila" is
often used to refer to solid projectiles, because
t!!eir tenninal eff& are dependent upon the
kinetic enerlw of the projectile at the time it
drikea the target. Examples of solid projectile
types are: bulleb, armor-piercing shot, singie
(lechettea, knives, and m w s .
Unlike the fragment. the solid projectile is
mually fired singly (one projecti1e per round
fired), haa a sharp or relatively sharp tip, and
is hunched in a path directly a t the target. In
contrast to thh, the fragment is produced multiply
.a a result of an explosion, has no particular
penetrating surface, and reliance is plaeed
upon a number of fngmenb. distributed in
s.ec. to hit the tam& The solid projectile is
&o differentiated <';om the explo6ive- "shell."
whosc terminal balliitic effecb depend on blast
and fngmentrrion, rather th& the kinetic
maw of the projectile.
BulkB C l d 8 S ~ l l dpr njdikr fid
from d l U M w u p ~ w, u ally limited to
d i k r .M) and below. There are several Wpe8
of bullets. used for various purposes. the nervice
types being hll, annor-piercing, trrocr, incendiiry,
and armor-piercing in-%diary, Specid
purpow types are wcd for testing and prrctice,
but will not be comidered here. Bull&
have a metal core and r gilding mctrl jacket,
and wmt have a filler in the point or bane, nr
both. Fig. 2 1 illustrates some typical bullet
t y p c r . .
Bdl unmunition b elYective rgllnrt personnel
or light materiel. The bullet b urually
wmprwd of a core, e o m p d of an mtimonykd
alloy, and a gilding metal jacket. Caliber
.W ball unmunition bulleb, however, we a
core of wft mteel to provide ballistic properties
rimilrr to the armor piercing bullet (Ref. 6).
The kill mechanism of ball unmunition
ajpinst both hard and loft targeb L the same
rr that prwioualy dacribtd for f n p m h
That is, the penetration and amount of damage
is a function of the shape, weight, and striking
veloeitp of the bull& When uwd against light
target materials, ball ammunition may pruduce
secondary fngmenb that are effective against
personnel located behind the target,
Armor-piercing bulleb contain a hardened
steel core and a point, or b e , Aller of lead or
aluminum between the core and the jacket.
They are designed for use against armored aircraft
and lightly annored vehicles, concrete
shelters, and other bullet-misting targets.
Annor-piercing bulleb employ the same kill
mechanisms .a ball type ammunition, that is,
penetration into hard and a f t targeb and the
production of secondary fmgmenta. Armorpiercing
bulleta have greater penetrating power
than other types of standard ammunition due
to the presence of the hr Lend steel core. This
core mists defonnatir upon impact with the
target and thm m a & i a~ s maller impact
area, resulting in a longer duration of highly
mncmtrated forcen.
T m r bill& contain a chemical compooition
in the mar which is ignited by the propellant
charge and which burns in flight. The
forward half of the bullet contains a lead slug.
Tracer ammunition is primarily used for o b
scrvation of fire. Secondary purposes are for
incendiary effect and for signaling.
Incendiary bull& contain an incendiary
which is ignited upon impact, Armor-piercing
incendiary (API) bulleb are dwigned to
"flash" on impact md to then penetrate annor
plate. The main kill mechanism is the pene
tration of fuel cells and the ignition of the fuel
in the target. Destruction is accomplbhed by
the combined uw of kinttic*nergy impact md
fim.
Flechetta am fin-stabilized solid projectilea
with a length to diameter ratio much -tar
than that of a bullet. The general configuration
and nomenclature are shown in Fig. 2 2 . Fle-
UNCLASSIFIED
chettes. metimer called darta or needles. are
made in a variety of matertrIs, sizes, and
sham Fin forms vary widely with rnanufactudng
technique8 and application, and W
be straight, or canted to pruvfde spin in tli&
or on-center or offset to conform to
packing rrquirementr. b b po~int h p e s am
utilized ior improving termid LullMia effects
against specih targetu (Ref. 6).
Fkchette employment may be diviid into
two d o r categories: as uaed in antipelaonnel
warheads; and as used in dl ums ammunition,
in either scatter-pack fartriw or individud
projectile rounds. In a n t i p e m e l warheads,
the flechetta offer 8dvanW~d over
cuben and aimilrr frrpmcnts by their superior
aerodynamic characteristics and metrnting
power, Damage m achieved by penhtion and
perfontion. and is enhanced by the higher
long-range striking velodty of the fieehetrc.
Thir pern~ibm om frsg~nenbo f h r un it
maas to be ineorpontcd in a f-trtim
warhad, providing betbr area uwerage.
In small arms ammunition a p.dr of fie&*
m y be used in what is known as a satrcr or
salvo round, or a sin& flccheLtc cur k Employed
to provide a caMp of amall size and
light weight. The s&br rounds are fortaccn
M particularly d a p w to dl& ruya weapons,
such as shotguns or d i k r A5 hand
atnu. tn provide i n d pm bdlitlc~o f hit
The single fkehetb p d e a rrLtiwb fbt
trajectory projectile for long m.
higher vdoeitiea than the bullet for the rnmc
pun prearure a d will rebda its velocity for
lo~ge rr m . T he 4 l e r f wnW area of the
flechette eahpncm itr penetrating power and.
if ita rrmrinlnp velocity k su~cientfyh igh, it
wili tumble within a soft target and transfer
its energy to the wft target at a greater rate
thon a bullet For impacta at velacities below
that a t which tumbling oecura, the Rechette
wwnbr by cutting permanent slits that are
comparable in aize to the Irteral di rne~ionorf
the fins.
Flechettes appear to have good characteriatio
with respect to penetration of hard targets,
but additional atudiea are required for a
complete analyak. Additional studier are a h
required on the action of flechettcs within a f t
tarpek, and on the facton rffcctlng tumbling.
2-12. IUJ ARYOWIIRCING (API
PRoJECTILLt
Armor-piercing pmjectilos achieve their
tenni~lpl effect by forcing their way through
I the m t ma terial under the tram of kinetic
energy, JU do fragments, bullek and k h e t t e k
Armor piercing "shot," for example, u a d i d
pmjcctile without a bursting charge, for use
with cannon, and thuu diffen phyoicdly from
bullets, even though both m y be annorpiercing.
Aruor-piercing projectila are ddgned
I
specifidly to attack hrdeaed tupetr rueh .r
umored vellicb, and are r o m c l t k urcd
againat reinforced r h c t u m . Fx this muon
they arc duracterircd by high ucunry and
hi& velocity (n Rat trajectory d t i n g f m ~ n
short time of flight), becaw 02 the importaace
of achi0vir.g a Ant-round hit (Refa. 1 and 7).
Annor-piercing pmjectilcr ue I i in
more detnil in Ch 6, Par. 6-52.
2-13. IUI HIGH K?WSlVt PMWC WEPI
ROUNDS
High explorive p b t i c rounds achieve their
tenninal effect by spalling the interior surface
of annor plate. Thu typa of round im dircwaed
in detail in Ch. 6, Par. bd.4.b.
&I& (U! KNIVES, BAYONETS, AND ARROWS
Knivu, bayonets. and arrows w mmethm
wed in combat. They ue . u i U for uae
againat wrronnel. but m u i m~ ~ r o bsklill e
in handling in order to achieve r kill.
Kniva and arrows hwe baen ued in recant
ti- in order to attack a&rk md outportr
when silence hu bean M O Y U ~ ~ Y Bayoneta
have been uaed in had-tohand eomhat, but
remain a weapon of lut rrort. I t my ba
n v for a w ldier to laort to the bmyonet
in elom combat rhoold ha not have time to re.
lard h k rifle.
kctI011Il l (E)-SLrpod Charger
2-15. LU) lNTIOP!JCTlON that L a wnicd. hcmLphuiul, or ather rhrpr,
~h~ peflolmnnwo f the ,,,aped m*- on c ~ n e dx& .xpl=ive. A conrile
in no way resemble6 that of the kinetic tainer, fuze. and detorutlryl device ue included
energy projdle. Its effect u due entirely to (Fig. 29).
tho formation of a high velocity jet of gwea Sh.pad charm projcctilca intendod for lue
and flnely diviied metal. which becoma the 4dMt vahick.am dsrim*
penetntion medium. thi- material by the letten "H.E.A.T.," which shnd for
Ulrt con h penetrated ir c~entiaUyIn depend- "High-Explwive AntiW." Th .bbrwbtjop
eat of the pmjectiWs striking velocity. The h often reduced b "HUT," which hu ktr,
projectile urc remains at the outer i.p of the 'interpreted by '' that the projectil.
tPrpet b u m itr way through the =&or. This u not
b correct anamption ; the !etten am &ply an
A Aped charge mirile c o ~ i r t br aaidly of abbreviation whidr, by wlnddenee, rpellv out a
a hollow liner of inert matui.l, u d l y mrW, corrmy~n word - 2-7
UNCLASSIFIED
When the duped ehrpr mifsile a p w
or rtrikcr a rupat, the rPze (proximitr or cona)
de ~nrbrt h diuge from the rear. A
drtoIutii wave tn.& !OW& md tha metd
linQr ir Cobpacd. 8tadw at itr .Fcrr. The -1-
kprr of the :ha nna raultr in the ejection of
a long, narrow jet of meW putid- fmm the
l i r r , at v M t b fm 10,000 to 39.000 it/=
hir pnwu is illvlLrotcd in Fig. 2 4 by the
d m of ultn-high speed rdiomphr of an
uperimenbl shaped lined with a 4G- 1
I
dagm mteel cane, rrdiornrplled a t ruccaiive
t h s to depict the mrchaatm of cone cobpae.
The charge wad W/W Pentdite, having a b.lle
d h e l u of % inch. The time, noted in micmwondm
for each radiograph, denotea the time
after the detonation wave passed the apex of
the liner cone. There is a gndient in the velocities
of the elemenb of length ubng the jet.
The elements in front move futer than thore
in the rear, thus causing the jet to lengthen.
thereby reducing its average density with time.
The jet is followed by the major portion of the
now completely collapsed cone. The latter is
often referi8ed to as the "slug," or "carrot,"
because of ita peculiar shape.
The description of the principles of operation
of the shped charge, given above, is gonera1
in nature. Shaped charge design involves
numerous, variable parameters. It should be
recognized that considerable latitude exista in
the choice of there parmetere; but also that
many permutations of them could (and should)
result in the w e net deck
b l 7 . (U1 JET PENETRATION
When a jet strikes a target of annor plate or
mild stesl, prwaurw approximating 250,000
atmorpherea are produced at the point of contack
Thh pressure producea strcsaes far above
the yield strength of steel: consequently, the
target material flowr out of the path of the jzt
M would a fluid. There is ro much radial
momtnturn aamiated with the flow Uut the
d h t e r of the hole produced ir considerably ! larger than that of the jet. The Maw in
' diameter between the jet and the hole it
produces depends upon the strength characterbtim
of the target plate. Thur, a w r ho le
b made in mild steel @an in annor phb, and
the penetration depth in a very thick dab of
mild steel can be or much rr 30 par cent greater
than in homogeneour armor.
Aa the jet particlm uttk-, t,.~: am carrieti
, d h l b *.it\ I& wry& .%&rial. Thuk the let
I {s ~l .UiP fmm the front, bscoming~sho&r
urd rho*, until W y th e laat jet particle
r t d m the target and the primary penetration
procar stow. The actual penetration continua
fur a short time after cem~tiono f jet e n ,
because the kinetic energy impartad tn the
target mJcrkl by the jet mut k diuipntrd
The alight additional penatration ouwd by thk
afternw b called wtondPry pcDeLrrtioa Ib
e t u d e d e h upon tugct 8tnnpLh. md
accounts for the M~accr ohvved between
the l p t h o~f pawtrytion in mild &ela ud in
homogeneour armor, rWlough there ia probably
m e d iffere~~icne the primary penetration M
well.
While mm exception8 will be found to the
followu~ly rule, the depth of primary penetration,
P', depends mainly on several factors: the
length uf the jet, L: the density of the target
material, p, ; and the average density of rhe j t,
$9. It ham been found that P is proportional to
L \ / x d d n g
p'==vx (2-1)
The jet density, p,, b proportional b the density
of tha cone liner material, partidea of
which we dispersed throu~hout the primary
jet.
%la. (C) m m n o n CACTOU t w. i 1
248.1. tC1 Typm, 0.nOy .J I.). d
omtadh d Erpleliv. C-0
While the depth of penetration ir indicated
to be more clwly relatad to detonation pnrrum
than to the rate of detonutim, becaw of
interdependence of eKe& it nuy b mid that
the -teat effect will be produced by that explosive
having the highat rate or detonation.
Table 2-1 illutmtea the rektive dct of four
diffennt cutable explaivsr
Although the lrte of detonation ia of prime
importance in electing a highuphive Nler,
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
other propertiw of the explosive must be Wen
into codderation. Among tb .re are sensitivity
to initiation, pourability, at ~hermnls tability.
Coatincment is inherent in a m i l i h j pmjectile,
whether it be the relatively heavy canfinemat
found in tho ahell thickneu of the 106-mm
Bowitzer, or the thin-gage wall of the bazooka
mcket. Alao. the confinenrent effect is noted
whether the confinement is provided by an increased
wall Wcknarr or by a "belt" of explosive.
I k effect on shaped charge aclion is to
decrease lateral loas of pressure, and to inc
r e w the duration of application of pre~ure.
Thla rrrultr in a more eIRcient shaped4arge
collapse, and, therefore, increued hole volume
or depth in the target material. As a matter of
duign comp~miaeth e wall may be quite thin
in order to provide a lighter projectile, thus
obtaining a higher muzzle velocity, which
should incteaae the hit probability, liowever,
the thinner wall rcrulta in lea depth of target
penetration.
The IenpUI of the projectile body, a d hence
of the charge, b most frequently Umited by
.emdynamic perlonnance a d p r o j d b
weight r p e c i f i c a l i In genera the penetration
and the hole duma obtained hcmm
with !ncreaainp charge length, but laeh llmf
at about 2 or 2.5 charge dkmetm. (Charge
bn&himcuumdfrcmtheapexafth.lin6r
to the rear of the expldve cham.) I h h b g
ahaped cham dmipnr cuually hve one of the
ahpea ahown in Mg. !&& Although each cau
be nude to perform satktactorlly. type (A)
haa the advantages of iDaaucd amount of
highexplosive, which could d t in ineread
rofondary effecta of blut and fragmentation.
Trpcr (B) end (C) are neccuihted
by the requirrmanta for a lighter pmfeetile
weight, in order b incnr# velocity and
accuracy.
The rhaped charge effect is not dependent on
the p ~ e n c eof a liner, but becaw the pen*
trvtion of the jet ia proportional to the quare
root of its dewity, the material of the liner
urhancea the afiaet by incrouiDg the d e d t y
of the jet. Increased depth of penstration in
obtained as the liner k made thinner. but thin
linela require much *oear manufpeturing
bier- than the thicker ones. The net effect
of Ulew contradictoxy h r a b that the
panetration depth will uv to a maximum
u, the liner thicknew in deeroued (Fig.
2-8). a t whlch point the mnnufac!~iring irnprfectiuru
will become more important, and
hpw~t,h e lutoraoving partidm of the cone
bc form thetoil end of the jet. The rear end
of the rrrmltmt jet is, therefore, roWing
iubr th.n the fornard end. and the rotdond
wlocity should mhow a continuour deerenre
from the rear of tho jet to the forward tip.
, & tong u the jet L colltinuau, therefom it
nuy b coajdcred u being rubjded h u b
turcwrly to b d n multlng from the linear
velocity gradient. .nd to tonlon produd by
the &Mu) vclodb s d m t (%I. 8).
. It ir pouihk to rtudy in dcSPil the dctaiomtion
af the j& by the ure of MplcaxpoouR
iivh x-my phtaref of detonrtcd. alwped
dwges. The obcerved, detailed dectr of rotation
ue il11~trrb~byI thc radiopr;rphr ahown
in Fig. 2-9. Part (A) of the figure A0ws three
views. 60 &gross rput, of the n o d je t fmm
an unrotated, 106-mm,8 1~0tmh ppu liner of
good quality, Part (B) shows threa views of a
jet from a rimUu Iinw d i n g at 16 rpr.
Thue ahow the marked tendew towmi
elliptidty of the t M I v m ~ rorcuetfonof
jet, or well ss an urly incidence of jet b d -
u P.
Part (C) of the Rgun ihown. at 30 r m the
incidence of the "bltue~~tion"p henomenon.
(Bifurcation is the radial break-up of the Jet
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSI
into two diatirt jeb.) The two separate portiom
of thr bifurcated jet appear to lie in a
plnu. The same charge, detonated a t 45 rp*
prod- Wurerted parlionr which no longer
l . i n a plane but appear to lie along a heliul
~ U ~ I C G I3xperiment.l obmvationr indicate
that at r o h t i o ~ 1fr equenaes eonriderably in
excur of 60 rps, the proeeas of bifurcation
gives way to "polyfurutioa." (Polyfurcation
k the radial break-up of the jet into more than
two diatiict jeta.)
In order to counteract the rotational frequenciec
of the jet, it ia necerrory to impart to
each element of the liner, by aome maam,
a tangential component of volocity which u
eqilsl in magnitude but oppoaite in direction
to that ret up by the initial spin of the liner.
The ahpiest meana of accomplishing this is to
find a way of wing the energy of the explosive
to produce a counter-toque on the liner.
Attempts have been made to improve the
perfomanca of rph?-rtabili& shelb by wing
varioqa non-conid, UrkllyJymmetric tinen.
However, such attempts haw, not been pramiring
at high rater of rpin; therefore, h e major
emphuir h u ban on tha duign of fluted linen
not having ukl rymmetry.
The idea underlying the use of fluted linen
b that of spin campnution to destroy the
angular mnmentum of the Ilnar, to inhibit jet
rpwding. The fluted-liner method of rpin
compnmation ia baued on two phenomena. One,
mmehw called the "thick-thin" effect, ir the
obruvd depudenco upon the thickneu of the
llwr of the Impulse delivered to a liner ekra4nt
by the pwduct guea of detonation. Tho aecond,
aMad the "tnnrport" &eat, L the d e
pendence of the impube delivered to the liner
upon the angle at which the detonation
produel impinge on the Uner.
Application of Ulr thick-thin ell& to a fluted
tinu ir UluntraM in Flg. 2-10. The iapuh
per unit uu t dwan greater on the ofbet
urfm bouuw the tNckner normal to that
rurfmca ia greater. FurLhennom tho impulse
u directed along the wrfw n o d . When the
lmpulvr delivered at d l aurface elomcnta are
d v e d into rrdirrl and tangential components,
and d,th e total hngential component
hu a net muitant which ptuduces a torque, In
PiIRTIAL ICTKYl A-A
fipln 2-19 (CI. fluhd Urrr Cad- and
Acth Fwr iUJ
the direction &own, which can ba wed for rpin
eompearatioll.
Also &own in Fi. 2-10 b the dest of the
impulu delivered to the cacted wrfooa The
effect ir significant iu spin oxupemation bemra
a torque ia produced in the rtlmction
opposite to t k t produced by the thick-thin effect.
However. because the angle at which the
detonatimn wave strika the canbd rutZIfe u
ulually ku than that for the &set rurfwa.
the net torque produced b in the dilrctioa of
the torcer acting'on +h hrmt rurface.
A fluted liner u deaiplrd to eolnpmuate for
the angular momentum of a particular projectile,
thur, the caliber, charge diameter, and rpin
rate of the prujeclile am determining factmu
in Aectlng bub ehurctr,rirtk A fluted tirwr
spun at it8 dasigne&optimum frequency p r o
durn a jet lika Uut produced by m equivalent
mooth liner Arsd &tidy. When flmd rtrttally,
the fluted liner produw b jet like that
f m a robted rmooth liner.
Other mWda of spin mnpuurtion have
been tried, such rs rpiral detonation mid*
flutima the explwive imtead of the liner, and
the "built-in" compenution found in smooth,
UNCLASSIFIED
spun linen. Thue techniques have been found
to produce some degree of spin cornpenantion,
but only the fluted liner haa been found to hdd
much promine.
The elimination of spin degradation by
munr other than spineompenrution hw alm
been the subject of experimentoti~n One
method h u been to deaign a shell m that it will
be stnble w i l a very low spin, This type of
hell has increased drag, requires a special
weapon with los-twist rifling, and still needs
wme kind of spin compensation.
Tho concept hm been prnpolod of using peripheral
jet erpines on the shell to stop ita spin
before the target b reached. Compututiom of
the required torque offer little hope that this
methcd will prove prPCUcp1.
Booring-mounted charges thnt permit part
of the ahell to spin, for rtability, while the
charge i h l f spins only slowly, have been
proven prrdid. However, a meutu is required
to competuate for the low apin rate, ns is a
nu ma to uaure the uniformity of projectile
[pin rate.
Fin-atabilized rounda are commonly uaed an
a meuu to avoid spin depradntion. Even these
typa am often given a n u l l amount of spin in
order to improve their stability in flighk them
fore, spin compenaatlon b still required.
Any Leehniquc for reducing the rate of spin
of a given projectile provides only an interim
aolution. A$ won aa a fluted liner can be deigned
to compenute for Ulc frequency of spin
of a rturdnrd mud of the given caliber, it
p ~ v i d r rt he moat eouvenient and economical
aolution to rpin.degrnd.tion for thnt cvliber
(Ref. 9).
M8.1. (C) kur, A c t h
The UM of a ruitable fuze ia r major factor
in the eifeetive ure of duped c h a m that up
to be activated on impact. The contact fuze
) mwt function quickly enough to detonate the
charge b9fore the cone liner becorn deformed,
nnd before the projectile b deflected. Thb is
vitally important when ahnped &rpc pmjeetib
&.rho high obliquity armor, because the
1 speed of fuza nction will dect the relrtivo
j .mount of surfam annor area that is perforable
If th. prujectile Is f u d with an inertialtyp.
pc bue fuze, aa rhown h dan (A) and (B)
of Fig. 2-11, the inherent &lay d o n of the
fuzc plunger my allow the pmjcctila to ricochet
before detoustio~o~r plmit coUPpls of
the ballistic cap undmr forwud inrrtia md
cause an nppreciable deerem in the -doff
distance (Par. 218.8, below).
It is desirable to start inilktion a t the front
end, at the instant of impact, and to traxumit
the impulse to the rear end m that the debuting
h r g e may be Initlatad from the rear.
However, this muat tdce pploce much fmkr
than murs with the use of the inertia-type
bpse fuze. There are two prindpal m m u of
accomplbhing thb dsdrad mult. One uaer the
mcalled "spit-back" (fl~h-brck) fuze. In thL
fuze a amnll, ahaped.chuga explosive in the
nose of the projectile k initiated by n percuadon
primer and 6 m a jet backwuQ through
a pnsb~ge provided in the nuin charge, into a
base booater. Bcuw the vmIodty of auch a
small jet b very high, thiv f w provides an
extremely rap~d method of tnnunitting the
trigger actlon from the front to the mar. The
other type of noltidti.ted fuze u electrically
nctuated. In thu type, often referrad b u
the ''pointinitktiug bmktomting" (PIBD)
type, cwshfng of the nixe a& off an dcetriral
impulre which u carried by w i m to on .Icet
r i d detonabr at the rau d the pmjectile.
Z-l$.& (U) S h r l . l l D l s W
One of the moat importnut factom goyIlpLlp
depth of penetrntion by rlupd charms k tba
atandoff dirtDnce. StandoU dbbm u the d i i
tance between the hrr of tha liner mi the
surface of the tnrget, nt the inrbnt of axpWve
initition. Thia d i c e may be given in nbm
lutc tenna. such u i n c h w millimeten, or
m y be exprelsed ititemu of the b r g e d i i -
eter ( i ~ . ,1 % chnrge dLmcCcn, 2 chuge d i m -
eten) .
Proper projectile dm&a pmvW a rtrndott
dbtance that .Umr time for Uw fwa b fnotion
properly and t)u eon to adl.pw, forming
a jet of p-r density, thlv d u gth o mudmum
capnbllitie~ of the projectk View (C)
of Fig. 2-11 illurtrrta tha rhpd eshnique
M & in an nuti-which I.nd mina The
dbtana, from tha top of thc mino to thu bottom
of the vehicle hull ia the ahdoff distance pro- hyper-w' 4ty particles; and voporific effect.
v i d d The dependence of penetration depth The typ:, of damage prodweed hy the two
on rlndofl is illurtrrtod in Fig. 2.12. which mechm*ma are quite disUnct. Tho pcdoraUng
h o w l t y p i d crnkra produced in mild steel by jet produces holes in the ohYcture, and rko
static fhupes fired at vanour atolldoff dh- producer inb~llolta rget damage uy the jet .nd
h e c r taw! frngmenta. The vaporific Cnect p r ~ d u c a
2-19. IS1 DAMAGE YECHANISMS damage mainly by what appearrr to be internal
b b t . Which damage mechiam wiU be pri-
M9.l. IC) Qnml marily operative in a given core will depcnd
In gened, there are two primary damage on auch facton aa the shaped durpe size, cone
mechaniama which act to produce a shaped geometry and material, standoff dhhnce. and
charge kill: perforstion by a jet of high and target chamcteristics.
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
- STANDOFF DISTANCE (;n.l
f u r 2-12 hnefration vr Slani.Jf
2-193. (SI hr+omtian D.urlg*
(U) SIIRPLch~a rges which can prrduce perforation
h g c can a h ignite or detonate
fuel and explusives inaide the targel, lx it n
whicle, buiidiug, or aircraft. Aside from the
above effects. the perforation t y p dumaw
mechnnism b m e a important urninat aircraft
only when the sire and density of the frnwent
jet a n sufficient to produce an entloncc hole
diameter which is significant when compared
to the l i n e~rd imensions uf the target. Perforation
&nmge h the primary damaffe mechanism
of shaped chnryn Mule with stcel or
copper linm, and is an active (although not
necessarily the primary) damage m~xhanismo f
shaped charges with zinc or aluminum liners.
(U) Increasing the depth of peimtrntlon is
not nmusrily the same an increasing the effwtinneaa
of the shapedchwge agninut the
target. Aside from the internal dumuge done
to the target by the residual penetrrrtlon of the
jet, the spatial distribution, mars, and velocib
of rpall fragments all affect the lethality of
the ahaped charge. Those parliclea spelled
frcm the inner surface of the tarpet a n I p ~ l y
responsible for the damage inftickd by a perforating
jet.
(C) It h desirable to abbin some measure
of p~obabied amam aftcr perforation. Examination
of a body of test data nhowa that the
+&I number of spdl particlea observed t directly
proportional to the crusr-dectbnal area
of the hole, formed bv tho jet, nt the exit surface
of the target, Since the hole dinmeter b
proportionnl to the rnte of transfer of energy
from jet to taw it L implied that the total
number of rpoll particles fonnd is in proportion
to the rate of tramfer of energy as the
jet penetrated the &st element of t e w t material.
(Ref. 10).
(C) The above statement may be illustrated
by Fig. 2-13, which represents the perforation
obtained by the shaped &rlle. as shown, in a
stack of twelve, one-inch-thick, metal plates.
'the hole diameter becomes less as the hole
depth increases. 'It should be clear that this is
due to the decrease in residual enerny of the
jet as it penetrates. The area of the hole at
each increment of depth is in pruportio~t~o the
residual penetration available at that depth,
and dso in proportion b the tub1 number of
sprll ynrliclu p~uduced by a penetration of
that thickneu of armor.
(S) Keeping in mind the fat thnt the number
of spdl particles b proportional to the
area of the hole a t the back of the brget p r -
0
1
2
3
4
I
6
7
1
9
to
11
I2 In.
fomted, the relative lethality of a drorge ern
be varied by wing some of the cone sh~pea
iliuatmted in Fig. 24, which abows the hde
pmnlm obtained with the c o w
(8) The fint profile on the left (Fig. 2-8)
ir thd produced by the ordinary 42degree copper
cone; i t ia shown for purposes of compariwa
The aceond p d l e ahowa the effect of a
very simple dmh in geometrical configuration,
one useful in the design of warhends for
l a m weapons, where penetration can be sacrificed
in favor of increased lethality. The third
profile shows the effect of another simple geemetrical
modifiution (a copper trumpet). This
design not only yields m w h a t greater penetration
than a simple cone, a t short standoffs,
but olao rfforQ a hole of almost uniform diameter.
Thus, a t the cxpcnae of some kthni effect
against thinly armored targetd, increased effectivenem
hPo been achieved slt~instth icker unea.
A liner of similar geometry, but of lowdensity
metal (aluminum is illustrated), produce9 the
fourth hole profile, which would be uaeful under
the name arcumatanea aa the aecond. The
fifth hole profile is that produced by a 60-
degree cone of ld-antlmony. The greatart
depth of penetration is attained by thin type,
but with decroued lethality againat thin targetI
(Ref. 11).
(S) Further experimenb are now k i n p conducted
on methodo of enhancing the lethality
by propelling a follow-through projectile
through the jet hole. The projectile h intended
to have b high-explosive filler. Other experimenb
are being conducted with chunievL
which are focused into a iet, oriented on the
uk of the hole, at the appropriate time for
entering the hole without k i n g obstructed by
the dug.
249.3. ICI Voparik Elhch
The vaporific effect exhibih many of the
sene characteristics as the debnalion of a high
explosive charge inside an aircraft structure.
Separate aircraft subject4 to the two typu of
dm.@ (detonation of a high explwive charge,
and vaporlfic) show the m e ef fecb of internal
blast.
It is concluded that the prlmnry mechiun
that is active in the vaporific explosion is the
c a p t u ~of the kinetic energy from the impacting
pati~cla (Ref. 12). @nhnement is necessary.
The tighter and more rigid the structure
penetrated, the greater the multing damage
appeora to hc, The material beins nlIected is
*Iw of significance. The degree of vapric effect
rufTed by the foilowing metah L indiated
by. the order of t h i r listing, with the
first named metal being moat Pnected: mgneaium,
elclad aluminum. 24s aluminum, 75.9
aluminum, and 18-8 stPinlcrr steel The thicknolr
of the target mobrial t another determining
factor, beerune thicker makrials contribute
more Anel~-~videndu teripl (Rd.1 3).
2dO. WJ lNTRODUCTtOW
When a conventional or nuclear explosive
charge L detonated in air, it b .ecompm&d by
the m l a o~f a large ~ w l n otf e n e m in n
d l t l m~pwe nvironment. Most of the
nvterlala in the chupe are immedhtely converted
b pvcom form at high temperature
md begin b expand rapidly, compraring the
rumunding air and thw initiating b tho&
wave. Thu hirrhak (or blut) wave, pmpagatea
t h m h tlu rumunding atmorphera in a nunner
wmewht &Uu ta r round wave. Howew
hc shock wwe, unlike a round wsve,
tn .a at w#nonic velocity and mum a p
pladYbla incram in p r e ~ ~ nde,n sity, temperature.
and air partick v b i t y .
The bluL wuve thus formed t capable of
effecting wnrideble damage on mury bpEl
of target& The degree of dunage L dependent
upon the W size, distance from the s r p k
s b n b the he atmorpherk conditions,
altitude, and the ability of the trrget to mist
the lo& impad by the blut wave. The b h t
wuve h u ~ v e mclh aneterbticn which may be
related b damw: peak plruum, Inpuke, and
b m i c preuure (Ref. 14). Them are b r i e b
described in following puriprrpk md ua .adyzed
in detnil in Ch. 1, See. I.
UNCLASSIFIED - In general, the chuacterlstiu of the blut
wave from a nuclear expimion a n similar Lo
thoae from conventional explooionr. However.
there u* aevenl qunntitrriw dlRervnccz which
fleet the bleat wave propertier. Them differen-
UWL their eICectn are dire& in Ch. 4,
Scc. I.
The rhmk wave is bounded by an extremely
sharp front, called the shock front, which repre
aenb a diecontinuity in density, presrure, and
temperature of the medium through which it
p.uecl. Here. the presure rhea abruptly from
atmorphoric preuure to a peak preaaure, penerdly
fed to u peak overprruure, which
la measured in psi over the atmospheric prea-
Bum (Ref. 16).
When the mhock front peama a dvon point it
eru# an abrupt rite in overpr*uure, whlch k
fullowed by a gndurl decline to unbiint, a
further decline below ambient, and, Anally. a
return to normal atmorpharie plvd#urs. The
portion of the wave in which the owrprauure
k a b e ambient k tanned the pdtive overpnvulr
phw; the rrmirnmg portion, where
the pnuum L below ahuaqheric, k referred
to M the negative p m u n phua The dexeaae
in prouun below urrbknt L urually amdl when
compared with the increue during the positive
v h w .
(Ref. 3).
When m iacidcat air blut rtriLsr a mom
duma medium, much u the cuth'r Wrl;uw, the
+.vl k dlectcl. Under pmper fonditlonr, the
nlbchd raw! ovclltnkm tJle incident wave luld
~hrom~tofomariaqhrtrockfrontof
higher prarura than either orisid warn The
cmbinedfontLalkdtheM.rhrtsm,md
thm radon whera the two ohockr have mewed
& m f d to u th. &on of Much mlkctbn
I (Ref. 17). R e W w a nd b h cb mtehtia .ndLcuwdinCL4,RI.4-2.2.6.
I
When the rhock ftwt rtrilur the face of aa
object. wftectiun acpmn. k a result. the overpresrure
buildr up rapidly to at leaat twice (ad
generally awed ti-) that in tba incident
ohock front Tht mlleckd prerure. auoed by
arresting the moving a t puWa behind tbe
rhockfront, k nfvrcd b u fam-on werprarum.
The presrun at the ride of tke object.
where little or no rrdeetioa or dyllnrnie preuure
effect occum, k ~ e d caylled the rideon
overprurun. A w u r c of s W n overpresawe
plua dynamic prsuure ia refemd to a8
total prarsun
Under conditionw where the wave front hu
not completely sumtladad the object, a eonsiderable
prcuula differentw will crLt between
the front and rar. T h i ~pr eaaure differenti
will produce a Iatelrl (trmrl.tid) force.
tending to uure the object to move bodily in the
ume direction u t h blast wave. The tranala-
U o ~flor ce k known u diffrreUon loading, b e
cause i t operaten while the bkst wave k being
diflracted around the object. The extent and
nature of the motion will depend upon the
phyuicol dunctuhtia of the objat and on
the h e hu bry of tho overpmmw
When the b l ~wta ve hu complMely engulfed
the object, the prowre diffe+id no longer
exktu. However, the pmwrea applied M rtW
in exma of Ilonnrl, urd the d i R d o n lording
h replacod by an ltmudly dImtrd pmwura
tending to comprm or aurh th, object. For
an object with no opemga, thL aurhlnp action
wlll e w e only when the overpreenurn hu
decayed to ruo (Ed. 11;.
IftheobjectMdaaonriduoUanIrLrlp.tho
diUractiun londinr w i l l ouemte for a longer
btL IU) D Y W l t FusSuUI
F o r a ~ w r W y a l e y L i y p a . t h r d s
p r r s d ~ w ~ o n t h o ~
piwaure luvilb.A with th. .axplosh The
d y l u m l c ~ b a ~ o f t h e r i n d
(putkb) docity and the dad@ of the rfr
behind the lhock front. For v a y rtmnp lhociu
the peak dynamic prwure is grater than the
overprevura (Ref. 16).
Like the overprsrrure, p d dyrumic p r s l
rum decreua with in& dlrtance from
the explorion center. although a t a greater rate.
The duntion over which the dynamic windr
act in the dimtion of rho& rnotios, a t a given
location, in #lightly longer than the poaitive
p b of the overpressure. However, by the
t h e the overpressure haa decayed to zero, ttre
dynamic p m u n is usually insignificant.
Retlection phenomena c a w cerhin changes
in the dynamic preaaum, u they do with peak
overpre~urer. Under ruch condition the
cluuieal rhoek front dimppema and peak
valued of dynamic pmrure occur a t diRemnt
times for a given range. Both thermal md me.
ehanical (surface) effecb contribute to them
variations L Ref. 16).
During the entire period that the positive
p h w of an airblast wave ir w i n g , an object
is rubjected to dynamic p m u m loading (or
drag loading) caused by the r tm~igt ranrient
win& behind the hock front. Llke the dfffmtion
loding, the drag loads pmdueo a t m h -
t i 0 4 foree in the direction of rho& motion.
However, drag l d i n g U S U ~ I Y penhta fur a
relatively long period of time in cornparton
with diffraction loading. It h the effect of drag
loading which eomtitutea an important diLre
m between nudear and conventional detonatiom.
For equivalent peak overprersurea, the
duration of the drag phaae II much longer for
a nueltar explodon than for a conventional one.
Cotmapondlngly, the dynunic pmnum impuk
from a nuclear detonation b of much greater
n..witude. For eonventIonrl high explorive.
the durrtbn of the drag phve h usurlly
rhort t b t the d y l s~l i cp rcuura Impube mry
be co~l idemnl egligible.
In nuny cam, dunage to tuecb by conventional
exploriva t a funeliDn of both the pod-
Uve phue overprauum md ita duration
(known specilkally IN the ovtrpreare hpuks)
nther t h t a fuactloll of peak overpreaure
dm. OVETP~~IIZEa d d , ~ d c
v r m u n impuLe am d l r u w d in Ch 4, Par.
+22
When a n u c h wupon n bunt over a d
tvpct area, the condition and n r k m of tb
surface must be conrldered, rlnce under loma
cireumrtances, w e r e modificatioru of the Molt
wave may occur. Theae modihtiotu are due
to the phyrfcal characteristia of the rurfrea.
Fcr relatively low-waled heighta of bunt,
the earth's surface &orbs sufficient thermal
energy to reach a temperature of several thousrnd
degrees in a relatively ahart period of
time. If certain surface mnditionr exist, a hot
layer of air or other gar- will form with exploaive
rapidity above the earth'd r u d w . If
this thermal layer in sufficiently i n t e t ~ ,a
repante pressure wave forma and moves dead
of the incident and reflected blrat wavea. Thir
detached wave u known u the precumor.
The aurlacc Ehsracterlstica necatary for the
fonnntion and development of the pWumr am
not completely understood. However, prec
u m n have been obnerved over cord and
dwr t type wiL, f owt .~.euM, d mphdt,, and
are expectad over other surfacen such u A&-
cultural and urh? areas. It II no1 expected
that preeumn will occur over wabr, mow, ice,
or ground covered 4 t h a white am& layer.
The precunor producer monslurleJ wave
f o r m The rLe in preuum at rhwk amvrl in
not nearly M I ~ t . n h n c o I~N( i~n fnm slr. The
poaitive phue duration L -what u r In
the praronce of a p m u m r , .nd the i m p k s II
compondingly greater. It Ir believed that tha
inuaucd dynamic pnuures which rault frrrm
preeunor fonnrtion ore uwd by i n c m u ~ I
particle velocity and the addition of duat prrticlea
b the transient wlnda.
It hu bean found convenient to divide the
v~riartoru of non-Ideul wave form into flva
m j o r dsrriflutionh u illurtntal in Fig. 2-14
for overprarurc! and In Fig. 2-16 for dynamic
preuum. The illwtrated wave f o m , with
typer A through E h d h t i n g wavor encwnt
e d while psmgrwiiag outwad fmm g r o d ~
zero, a n dLfuucd In following a u h p u r g ~ ~ p h r
(Ref. 16).
UNCLASSIFIE
Thb type ia a raLtiveiy ideal wave form,
wlth a h r p rina b a peak value, followed by
a rapid expowatkl decay. Usuvlly the pdr
p r a u r e &I rather h i , a d the duration k
rather short, in comp.rkon with the other four
wave f u m .
TYN A
Thia wave fonn, with twu diatinct yeJc
vdum, becoma incrusingly non-ideal with increasing
range. U1urJly shock-type rter are
evident at the cloaer rangc~. However, .r the
dutaneo from ground zero iucrosreo, the reparation
of the two poPlrr u well PI the time
for the main W ineream. while the flrat
peak attPnuata more rapidly thra the recond
At xnidrange, the wave form b chPr.etuiEcd
br u hock-tm rirc b r ht, low p d , fob
lowed either by a platmu or s rlow decay, with
A longer rise to a higher, second peak preceding
a more rapid decay. &I the prwnd ronpa eontinua
tc increase, the Ant peak k m s r round
and the seeond peak atbnrutm more rapid&
than the i7nt. ThL wrw form is typical oi the
WIY r b m of davaloplacnt in the prccunor
cycle.
- TYPC B
- TYPC C
Thir b a wave fonn w h~ M.adI nUib
beeome poorly dehd with i- mnga
At the c b nn rul, the wave form #how r
ant, muabd nuximum followed by a
, slow d e w , then a Wu, adbr, awnd put.
1Sr tha dbtra# from gmmd zero inemu, the
ant peak rtknuatm m e rapidly Uun the
r e c o n d . r o t t u t t h e t w o ~ ~ 3 e r n n -
~ u r b l e i a m r p . i r u d s w h i l e t l u r h ~ b ,
ame lonpr. nu d peak diuppcur at
. t h e f u t h a r ~ ~ ~ , ~ t i n g i n a L w . m u d t t d ,
Iketoppcd waw form rtth a long i0itf.l rlu
andrratherllordscaynurked byaddmbh
turlulenw. Tht w w form k typlol of rtmop
proeunor a&+&
UNCLASSIFIED
NCLASSIFIED. I
~t the cloeer mngea, tie wave form shows a
comprmion-type riae to a rounded plateau.
folkred by a abw riae b a aacond, higher paJL
As the diahnce from gmund zero lncrarur, the
riDe tima decrease, ro that the front of the
wave form develop a step-like appearance. and
the the separation Ween the two p e h be.
comer leu. At the farther ranges, tho second
peak overtakes the first perk to fonn an almmt
c b i c r l fonn with a sharp rise to a more or
k i 8 level plateau, followed by an esaentially
regular decay. This wave form is typical of the
darn-up portion of the precursor cycle.
tU.2.S Typm E
Thii is a classical or ideal wave form with a
sharp riae to a peak value, followed by an exponential
decay. The duration is rather long in
comparison with the type-A wave fonn, and
the rate of decay is slower.
A tentative clnarificstion of the various &-
namk pressure wave fonm h a been made. I t
L not pouiMe to make a direct cormlation of
theae with the Ave ncneral typea of overpl~ti
sure wave form, due to the lack of experimental
data for dynamlc pmuure, particularly
in the clolo-In region. Nor Is it pwible to
draw a wave form heightof-bunt chut for
dynamic pmures, a t thia time, beuw of the
lack of experimental data.
t U j . 2 . Typm A
ThL L a mWve& i d d wave form, with a
lhup rise to A peak value followed by A very
mpld decay. The duration L u d l y rather
l o r t in cornpariaon wtth B e other four wave
f o m
This doublepeaked wave form hu a rhoclttype
initial rLe in mat cuea. The reeMd pwk
L larger a t the clarer rpopu, but bccrunw eomparable
in nufinitude with the f l n t u the dintan-
from p u n d zero incmws.
TYPE 0
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASS
This is s truultional double-peaked wvavc
form with 1 a w r initial rise time. Actual tword
h e have a very turbulent appwmra.
The rsond peak ia smaller than the fimt and
becomes somewhat indefinite with increasing
turbukncr hcmlm lau and the plrtUu.de
velopr a ah& riu with a ht top, or a dow
incrrrps b a uormd ahock rLo followed
by a UMOth decay. The initial dirtnrbPncr at
the fmnt of th wave form e v d ~ ddbir out
atthefuthernmsakVtrpaMooth.efcra
record with a alight roundii a f k r an initial
n n p . back-type rLe.
Soctior V W--Mbe Clearlag Dovius
dll. IC) DESCUPTION
(U) It is poaaible to detonate lend minea by
the blort ware from a nuclear or conventional
explosion. Thm cnpubillty of the blast wave to
detonate the mine ia uu~i lyst ated in brmr of
the overpressurn reguir& for detonation,
which is dependent upon :he mine type, burial
depth, mine swing, and soil chracteria~rs.
Only nuclear exploaiuna, however, have a auficiently
wide radius of lethal overpmrure to be
able to clear entire minefields.
(U) Although dm can be detonated by
exploaiona acting clirectly on either the main
srplorive or the more senaitiw primer, or
b t e r , the overprswrii required are ao high
that blaat action on r:ine preaaure plates b
alwaya tllc mntnlling effect. Buried miner are
inaenailive to the t h e d and nuclear radiation
.uuxkted with the explosion.
(C) In general, land minea are sensitive to
the r i e time of the blut wave; b, if the rise
t i k long, greater prcuunr are needed tu
actuate l given mine than if the rise times are
rho& rise timer arc chancte~btico f the
p-r zone. Therefore, in the cribria &err
for detonation, two aeta of data must b rpecifkd
for each mine type. de~endinp upon
dther or not the d n e 11; up& to be in
a pneumr zone. On the other hand, all expl*
kow having overprarwres of Ian than about
8 pai have fast rise times. Therefore, for minea
which requir~a ctuation prasurpl of l eu than
about 8 psi, the criteria are the aame for explcaiom
which produce a pneunar u for those
tho. do not. Thiv b ro tzue for mina with
f w r which am inre' ;Itive to r k tinlea (hf.
16).
(U) The cribria for &tonation do not
usually include any ampathetie actuation effecta
Sympathetic dctor;rtion of a mine in
uuaed by the t m d u i o n of 8 detonation
wave through the air tram the atploaion of
anotl~erm ine. Miner are uuully m that
the prorrura from the d e b d o n of olu mime
do not aympathutlally datouab adjoining
miner. However, if tbe a&ng of minea L
clorc enough, it L poui#a for the ambid
overpreuuma of a nucluu bluS and an actuated
mine to dl& 8ymp.Uutic debaatio01 of
an uljpcel?tIllilIethrt~~S~tIEb'.LbWyIt b
nuclear b h i . &pa in mine IblPk if adiiciently
large, hdt thb pnrerr Tbsrcfore, exh
i w durance by symprthetie rehutlon cannot
be depended upon.
It is tassfble for a ODEVQO#OrrPl* shetl
t o d e t o n a t a ~ m i n e i f ~ l b a l l h m 8 ~ t l y
large bunting mp.dtf, and if & db

&tween e x p l d i shell and mine is suljiciently
small. It u not, however, an economiol maria
of cleuing mine f l e b because of the excessive
uumber of sheh that would h required. Conventional
utillery ahella are of m e limited
value in attacking a mine field becauae they
can dnmcrpe some of the mines (buried and/or
unburied) by frspmcnts, displace and dunage
surface mines, and cut trip wim attached to
antipersonnel mines.
Conventional explosives have also been
adapted to linear type chargea, wherein the
explorive k placed within a long steel tube (the
bueplon torpedo) or a llexible cord. The
linqar charge is then purhed into thr! minefield,
or,,Sn the crra of the flexible cord, pu!led .mous
by a small rocket, and then detonated (Ref.
,la). The resulting blast will clear antipemnnei
mines within narrow limitr along the
length of the charge. Whether or not the charge
will be effective againat antitank mines depends
upon the amount of expba;ve per unit
of length, the mine type. mine emplacement
technique, and mil characteristick
Section VI (C34roumd Shock
246. INTRODUCTION
The production of ground shock by an expicrion
ia extremely complex, and, in =me respecta.
not completely understood. BooLcplly,
gmund shock may be produced by two separate
M c h a n h One mechanim k the sudden
expamion of the bubble of gas. from a rurface
or u n m u n d explolioa, which generaten a
p u b ,r oleillation in the ground. Thh ia
termed d i m t ground shock. Ib thh direct
shack propagates through the ground, it may
be moditled by reflectionr and refractiinr hum
underlying bedrock or hard strata, or radaction
from the &-ground interfa. The rceond
mechanism is the production of a ground shock
by tke air blprt wave fmm an explosion atriking
and mming parallel to bhe ground surface.
Thh is termed air-induced mund shock (Ref.
19). For a given burst geometry, except at extremely
short ranges, UIeae two fonrrr af
ground rhoclr srr rpnted in Hme. &f.um
the direct ground shock ia urunlly attenuated
wry rapldly, air4ndud ground a h k k more
Impor(pnf .I the awe of d.mnpe to underground
imt d h t i o ~e.x cept for extremely close
mngw and f n r deep underground bunts.
631. PHYSICAL MECHANISMS
The physical mechauii of major inbrert
in regard to d w prod uced by ground shock
are ground preerure (or strem). accehrotion
of roil particles, and displacement of soil particles.
Collection and analysis of data for thwe
mechanb h covered in detail in Ch 4, Par.
44.32.
Ground preaaure is eh.n@ into directional
components, which differ in magnitude. by tk
shear and cohesive strength of the miL Thar
directional p m r e compomenb are t P d
st- Under the dynamic looding from a
nuclear explosion, the direct gm~nd striae
most abruptly in the ground neamt the
explodon, wherev at greater dhtoncer, the
peak atreuea at any specifk point are reduced
and the rbe tima are increued. Afichduced
ground prawre (rtraa) h Ctoroly related to
direct ground streu. Jut below the r u r f ~ ,
?he air-induced l o c k stram, and durcrtionr,
are appmxinutely equal to the changing d r -
blut poritive prawre, and duration.
Vertical d e r a t i o n of roil prtida L
awned by both &pea of p u n d rhock. direct
and air-induced. The air-induced, accumng
Lkr, cwa a sudden incrsuo in the partide
acderation. Diaplamnent of dl prrLiclr bill
be both pemment and trannient. In addition
to the obviolu d i r p h e n t multinp fmm
entering, both typcr of displacement occur, to
a leuer d e n beneath the ground surfaa.
Diiplacum~~kt ~Tactdto a d d e d h e xtent
by the mil typed and molrture content.
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED - Soctioa VII [U )-Fire
W. INTRODUCTION
Fire usually hpliea combustion or burning
of a fuel. The term combustion implies a more
or lau rapld chemicP;I reaction between the fuel
mnd an oxidiir (uaually oxygen). This reaction
pmducea heat and light, theae being
emitted primarily from a zone called the h ~ e
(Ref. 20). For a burning fuel in solid or liquid
form, the vapors from the fuel support the
Anme.
The combustible constituents of conventional
fuels a n carbon, hydrogen, aulphut a d hydrocarbona.
Other ronstituenb are oxygen, nitropen,
moisture, and ash. (In incendiaries, other
wnrtituenb such aa magneaiurn and aluminum
may be uaed.) In burniw, the combuatihlea
combine with oxygen in the air and in the fuel
to form carbon dioxide (CO,), cartsn monoxide
(Cob, sulphur dioxide (SO,), and water
(K,O). The a h includes d l noneambustible
matter. The nitrogen in the air ia inert and
ir not burned. Cmelly, ignition occun when
the M y tcmpemture riaea ruffieiently for a
reif-propagating reaction to occur at aome de
vabSd temperature; that ia, when the heating
effect of the oxidation reaction ovacomea the
Iws of heat at lome point in the object, Thh
elevated tcnpentura ia referred to u the lgnition
tempemture.
The requirements for EDmbuatipn are:
1. The pmence of a fuel and oxidizer in
proper pmport!oru. SOAM fuek mry conbin
the oxygca
2. Expowre of fuel putlekr to the oxidizer
throupttout a period of time vulRcient for
thslr conhurtion.
9. Wtelulles of the comburtion tone at a
temperature dove the ignition temperakue
(Ref. 21).
For fuel in r MOW 4- aubjeeted to the
action of m ignition rource, the mull I d vd -
m a wund the rouree begha to bum, and if
the nrlxture k dpmol.ble, the reaction proeadr
b Ula nut Iqver, whicb begha to burn. EvenaUUy
the fluno propagat81 throughout the
mawus mixture. The hme surface a t any
inmtant 's raferrad to u tb Bsme front, aiid
the wnditiona which detamine the velocity ot
thehefrorrt.kodiatiDplLhabrefmm.a
explapion.
Dunage reaulting irorn Are includes dertructbd
of the utility or &mctural integrity cf
stlccturea and vehicles. detonation of explosives
or engine fuel, phyrical or paychologiePl
incapacitation of penonnel. d the disabling
of equipment wmponentr. Anything which is
hmmable is subject to dutmtiorr by burning.
In addition to the actual canriimption of matehl,
the ppmpi*tiea of structunl materiab are
adversely vRected by Ihs dwated tampenturea
encountered with A r c
Fire may be cannod by direct aoureer such M
Are bombs, napuh, white pborphoruq incendm
grenades, indiary bulleto. etc Fire
may a h be induced u a veoadrry effect of
fragments, p m j d l a r , or otber primuy kill
meeh.niuua when ~JMY act upon amponenl.
When the cwu of burning ir radiant
@new (produced by the tbrrmil rdLtion
from a neudear uplorfon), the effectr can be
catutrophic to u r h n a- tmmw mrsy fins
are started over a wide u&
Fire. w !lane, u UI for baplfit.tion
of personnel, dWem from n u d a r thvrml rodG
ation in r e w d wan FLnL, kerw it ia t t
exdwiwly ektmmgnetic radiation. it n n
paw around wmen to bum othaMire &&lded
pnoanel. Saeondly, it cm comme the a i l -
able wgen, aluinp dcllh by .uffoatioe
Thirdly. it may bring on a&ck from pardyzhg
fear. In addition, it mry Qrtroy thono t&iw
\food, clathing, and rhlbr) which are crrclltialtoUlcmrinhnrmceotUIr
O f t h C K ~
damage effects, the hmedttalg t a p o h t o m
are b u m and atMwtion. The particular
i WO.(U J urngw cnw
; LJO.1, k m l
The large scale we of ehemical apnta to
ittfluence battleAeld succeaa originated during
World War 1. In the earls atnger, many chemical
compounds were proposed, and wme of
them were actunlly emeloyed on the battlefield.
Since World War I, however, the requiremenls
of modern warfare, involving the problems of
large area coverage and large scale production
and rrupply, have reduced the number of militarily
p~ct'tcable chemical agents to a small
group. The nerve gsscs, outstanding because
of their high lethality, m y well represent the
most imporbnt group of chemical agents.
Artention has recently been focused on the
possible use of non-leth~li ncnpacitating agents
to influence military otnirs. Such agenb may
produce temporary blindness, mental or physical
iucapacitatiun, or anesthesia.
The chemical agents may best be seprated
or clamitled for tactical uae according b the
aeriournau of their effects, using a scale with
death re one limit and temporary incapcitatinn
u the other limit. The five primary agenb
discurscd in detail in Ch. 2. Par. 231 repment
varying effect* on this scale.
Chemical agent employment is the inbntional
use of various gaseous, liquid, and solid
agenta to achieve the occupation of territory
i and the disabling of encmy prwnnel. In at-
: taining there en& by any form of warfa~mi, t u
ddrable that a minimum of men and materiel
be expended, and that the least posaible damage
be inflicted upon objectr of probable value. In
thin regard, the chemical axenh are outatanding.
A cnemical attack, in wntrwt ta a convenkionrl
ballistic attack, begins only when the
agent is releared and 'hay continue for houra,
day* or even w&, depending upon the purticulu
agent and the prevailing weather eonditions.
Although chemical agenb are uwd primarily
for their effects on personnel, aome agenta will
, have a deleterious effect on e.peciRc materials,
Thi pwperty could be utilized effectively, for
I exangle, s g a i ~ttn rgeb such as eatelliten and
mluilea by the dastructlon of thermal bahm
system. through the h b n g of the rtr&lrl
&vib (Ch 9, Pu. 9-7.3.).
UQS. Hishy d Cbmkd Aged U u
The beginnings of the use of chemieJe in
wnrfare are kt in antiquity. The ear;;est
recorded attempt ti^ cvercome an enemy by the
u r of poisonous and suffocating guea occurred
in the year 428 B.C., during 5he wnrr between
the Spartau nnd Atheniann (431-404 B.C.).
At the siege of Clataea, woal mlurated with
pitch and sulphur :vaa Lurned under the walk
of the city. 'Fhk operation w u unsuccea.sfu1,
but five yearn !atere at tlie sieve of Selicm, a
similar uperatior, was comoletely wccerrrf~d.
The Nunh Americw Ltrlir? r,rwiueed a 'o.t!c
gar by burnhg poisot, iry wtu*ahl with Aoh
oil. Poilop gas is ~ O I V tIo~ h ave tee~r;* opo&+
for uw in tho C r k m W ar, a g ~ i ~ qthte Ru:
slans. ~ n din the Civil War, against the ConfederatPr,
but neither sugge#'~n w ~ =slie d
out (Ref. 22). Tear gwea fw horaruncnt pwpaws
were ured t y the Frcnch iu August of
1814. followed l o r t l y afterwnrd by Qrmm
and Britinh ure of ~ i n i l aarg ents.
employment of c.tcndenl wenta u n
weapon of mdenl wrrfarc d a b to the early
spring of 1915. This period bwight the Cermans
in World War I ~IJ the revliwtbn +hut
they had arrived at n deadlock which conventional
warfar. could ,tot resolve. Tlm situation
w u particularly grave h u a e sl~ppliea were
low and logintics had become a aerioua probkm.
Bccbrdingly, O.rmany mobilized her industrial
and ucicntific Went, and ou the afternoon d
April 22, 1916, t~nveiled a new weapon: the
toxic gag chlorine :Ref. 22).
By modern ~t andnrhc, hlorine ir an ineffective
agent, yet within a few hours after it was
fird relemed, it caused complete demonlizati011
among Allied troops. In the monthr tlrot
followed, both aides. taking odvuttnge of rhe
World War I rbtic-type warfaro, employed
toxic chemicnl qcentr. The Britkh. for aample,
mtaliabd with chlorine grr-' at Lm,
six morbths after ib brat use, and the French
UNCLASSIFIED
and Germam tried several other cascplty producing
gasm A major instance of Ulu occurred
in Deccmber of 1916. with the German
introduction of phosgene. a choking gas which
ewM penetrate the crude protective m~ e k tsh en
Ler existence.
In the following months, protective maeks
wew hpmved. To counteract this, the Gernun8
developed an agent which, even though
not highly poisonous, would cause nausea and
vomiting. The effect8 of this anent made the
troops remove their gas masks, which left
them subject to th.. more lethal agents accompanyinp
the vomiting agent In 1917, the Cermans
b:at employed a . chemical agent that
attacked all part\ of the body, thereby rendering
tbe une d gas masks less effective. Thia
agent ww muaturd, a poisonous, multiply effective
ytent which could penetrate a h & MY
ordinary type of clothing. It proved to be extremely
affective and waa used throughout the
remslader of the war.
In World War I, over 3,000 submtanees were
investigated for possible we in toxic warfnre,
but only 32 were nctirplly tested in combat, and
only 12 obtained noteworthy resulb. 64th sides
employed a totd of approximnkly 17,000
ehemicnl tmopn and cawed 1,297,000 casualties,
~ U oLn!y 91,000 of theae wete deaths. This
ia a&ut or&ird to onefourth the per cent
of dmth obtained with other weapons. (Gra
caaualticr arm compared with casualties by all
other mechaniurm in Table 25.) Appmxin~
ately 9,000,000 artillery rhelk filled with
mustard p were fired, producing 40,000
wualties, king w ~ r l ytlv e times ua afective
PI ahnpncl or hiah-explonive ahelk. One-third
of the United Statea wualtiea were c u d by
~PIIb, ut only 2 per cent of these w.re fald, an
compared with the 25 @r cent fatality of nongas
victim (Ref. 24).
The major participants in World War I1 carried
chemical ogenb with them, but did not use
them. However, a s W h g discovery wna made
a t the end of the war, when it waa found that
Germany had stocks of a new gas of the nerve
type, far more deadly than the standard g~ren
of the Allies. The German supplies of theae
organic phosphates were seized by both the
We.s&ern and Soviet forces. It must be nssumr 1,
then, that a chemical attack by the enemy using
agent8 of the types described in this chapter
is within the realm of possibility.
-1. (CI r ~ r s t Ca~ ARACTU~STICS01 :
THE ?RlMARY CHEMICAL AGENTS
In tho military use of chemical agents, there
are four, predominant, operational fPctora to be
conridered in determining the most appmpriate
agent end method of application for a given
tactical eituatiom. T h u are:
1, Availability of protection uguinat chemicrl
agenb, for enemy pemnnd.
2 The nature of physiePl protection available
to the enemy.
8. The urgency, with mpaCt to t h e , of
usual& production.
4. Degree of acceptability to m i d w l hazuJa
Them iu nu compleb proteetion a
apeeific weapona syayrtum, whether it be high
explosives, chemical s m t u , biological yaotr,
or nuclear weapons. Physical pmtection prut.
ly Increnses the highdxpldve munition ex.
penditnre r a h b produce a &en anlulty
I
TABU 2-2. WORLD WAR I CUUAMICT
hitb Non-Fabl Per Cent of Deaths
Cwu.dtica h t h r Injuries Among Caamaltiea
1,!2N,OOO 91,000 1306,COO 7.0
Suitable trmts for chemical weapom include
enemy tmup and artillery con~ntratiom.
nxemcs, logiatid ilutall.tiom, and any other
uesa where enemy personnel may be wncen-
Lrrted.
Bcauae chemical agents attack the body and
produce specific damage according to the
ruture of the particular agent employed, the
primary agents in this country's chemical
arsenal are deigned to range from the extremely
lethal to the mildly incapacitating. The
basic typea of agents, and their relative position
on Ulii effccta sale. are described in following
p a r a m b .
The nerve agents represent the most re
mt development in the use of offensive warfare
chemiub. Their two outstanding
cbaracteristia are that they cannot k detected
by s c ~ o r ym ans, and they at-k the body
thmugh the multiple mutes of ingestion, inhalation.
and absorption through the skin.
Their effects a n to attack the nerve ends which
control the muacles, thereby dirupting bodily
functions. The time required for incapacitation
P very ahort, usually only a few minutea after
a crsurlty dose is received; and death swiftly
follorrs.
The primary nerve agents are GB and VX
The fonmr is a non-persistent agent which is
most effective against unnmked personnel, k
uw of its high lethality through the inhalation
of very small mounb of agent I t can
Jso caw c8aualtia by its absorption through
the Jrin, bat the inap~citating and lethml
douprr required are quite high. VX is a perriatent
agent which m designed to attack pri- ' mvily through the permtaneous route. It is
crtrrmrly effective in awing usualtics amoq(r
maaked ganonncl. as only rmall mounts of
yant need to con- the skin. Ita long per-
&enq make8 it a wntinuira h d to p er-
8olmal brw* tnnla usll aodreLLnl
mrlcrid which bu been t m b m h t d Do-
Vdopmeat work L I*. pmgmM Lo o#.in . uprbillty of dtram atlag tblr agmt u .a
mmrol, which wi, g n d y knue the
eUcctlvmeu of a given munition. VX .ko
attu!k~ through Vie iahJltba mute, but ita
primary d u e u a &emid agent & ilr
shamcteriatic of per.stmwr &inn (Ref. 25).
The original blater awl.. r ~ t r o d u din to
modem warfare w: - m w M .Y ZICpr imary
mustard agent is distilled I rustard Itymbol
HD). Ir. vapor form this is v i t e dense. and it
can be initiaily detected by i b garlic or horseradish
odor. Thin agent qvickly aaetthetizar
the olfactory aensea, mrkilrg ~ubregtient sensory
detection difficult, if not impossible.
Aa a vapor. HD may be used primwily for
the attack of masked, dug-in (in bunkem) individuala
through skin absorption. For attack of
maaked personnel in the open or protected by
hasty field fortibtions, it sbould be wed primarily
aa a liquid. for skin absorption This
agent is primarily iwapacitating aad d y
m u l b in death. Its primary e f f d is to cause
deep b u m on the akin and in the lungs, nose,
t h m f md eyes. Casualties requirs considerable
medical care and nursing. and the severe
b u m are siow to heal.
Thii family of n0nldh.l incapacitating
agents find their main cmploymmt, in controlling
unruly crowds of persona, weh am in prima
camps, or in dispemin~rc fu(~awr ho are interfering
with tactical operations. The agents m y
k d i i i n a t e d in aerasol form. with vehicle
mounted or portable dispnxrs, or by h d
prtndcs.
The primary riot control ymt is CS, wkieh
is a white, cryatatline solid. It causes an extreme
burning sensation in the eyes and a
copious flow of team, mghing, ditficult breathing
and c h a t tightness, involunfarJr dming of
the eyes, stinging action on moist skin a m
sinas and nasal drip. and NOMaIn d vomitinp
on expoasre to extreme wocmntrations via h

L - ~ ~ U I I .l 'h ; I I ~ lRied individt~;iIw~t iwly &W
their will 11, dv :III\ thing but ~ S . I C n 4 nil:
t;o~erdly. d t e ~1 ~ ~ w rma i1n1 1k.r i n 1 1 1 ~1 ' 1 . 4
xir (13 to 20). :lit* f v t 4 :iir will ~.ctorr~! I I I W
I* I I O ? ~ I ~ .
241.3. ICI Nonlcthol Aqcets
Thw a m n b :~n? stlll 'IIII.;.? d~.iolqmo~t;
h*~c!tv. rhey scan tab PO.--V~S ~~t~.irh-rable
l*>te:~tia;li s inczy;wil:t~i~n~pg~ rits. '1'111.~a lTwt
human h i ~ i pb y prn.l~ici~.;~evgt .re 111em:rl an4
nrusntlar inct~ordian~im~, I I Jpe rlmpz even
tcmpornry iuralysis. Thcg M m moat appiicnb!
v aminst quasi-milit:~ry forees.'such ns
might be c ~ ~ r o u n t eind a n i~~lm~n t i opvoaliclv
action, and m y hnrc tncticd dgnificu~cc i l l
addition to their ,totentid for 1ll:lrJ populntion
control.
l'hi* primary incapacitating agent of this
type rurnntly under development is EA 2277.
This agent is pmlnbly k t d h i n a t e d in the
form of a fine dust or smoke by largccrlihcr,
medium-rnnge missiles. In addition to physical
incapacitation. mast of the caaualtiea from.this
agent r i l l experience psychic abkrrations.
such u mark& confus,iun. disorientation u to
time and spnce. various hallucinations and d e
lusions, and ktsa of memory for periods of at
least 24 to 48 hours. With huger daragea, the
onset of symptom will k more rapid, and the
effccb will be more pronounced and will lsbt
!&w.
I t is believed that if a small mount of EA
2277 is inhaled (.6 to 1.0 mg), 60 percent of
the personnel exposed will become incapacitated
within t h m hours. due to lack of muwulu
coordination and decreased visual acuity. Phyai
d i napacitrtion will probably wntinue$um
five b flftm: houn after the onnet of
rmpt-
2-32, ICI DISSIMINAPION SYSTEMS
-2.1. IC) &mom1
(U) In order to accomplish Ule objectives of
chemial munition systems (personnel control,
!ncapdtah. or deatmction), the agenta must
b dectively diaaeminated over the intended
targets. Vuiow delivery systema are available,
depending on the tactical situation. A
:on~etvltnt dd:iilnl I I I IWI I ~ : I ~ ~WoIf 1 1 : ~6)s~-
tcliis i~ givei in Ref. 25. (Thin refw~ncv
wtIInr- i q doubly valunblv, i i ~th at it :dso g i n ~ ~
mom dcI:,ilctl trcntmcnl the chnr:~r:l~!ristics
r d cl~rmica:l t~vnb- s~~n~r t i :~i~ni r(:*II.n 6, Scvtinn
Yl 141 110 p ~ vwpt t ~ l ~ l i d i . ~ ~ ~ . )
(C) TIP* rnain critclw~tc n-liit.Ii rlirt:ttrs the
q u i r ~ t li. :lc 111 d i ~ . r ? ~ ~ i ~ ~I~,:~anttiwo.tnr. .: or
tnonition i.. cvl~cth~i.lr~ rn g n t i.< tn I . ~ ~ N I I IW
ilr effect. t1110urh tlr. ~nh:~lati~:VrI~* pm.utan.
011s rullte. Agents disrieminatcd prh~~;rrily
i l l tlw form ,.I' aerosol or, in the c:~.,. of oln solid
;11:c11t. linc p:\rtirlr> of dust, p ~ ~ + u cteh eir
effrct. .ihroc~gh inldolnlinn. Aycnts in liquid
form .IIW d c & n d to athck through the p . 1 -
c~~tancollmn 11+
(C) Coavention;d artillay, nxket. :ad missi:
r systems and munitinns fiaw bcm modified
tu provide agest rlcliw:-y und dissemination
cnynhilitics. 111 this form, tl~cir use by field
t m p s is simplified, and the shells. warheads,
etc., are generally unreco&able an chemicalcarrying
or dispcming munitions, providing an
element of surpriae to their employment in a
tactical situntion.
2-32.2. iC1 O8 Systems d Mealtiow
' This agent is extremely effective against unmasked
personnel. Its primary delivery sya-
'kms are artillery weapons, rocketa, missilea,
and spray tanks. When GB fs wd in howitzer
and mortar shells, it is considered to be a
combination toxic-HE round, with the fmgmentation
effect about one-half that of a comparable
straight HE bhell.. The inability of prsonnel.
under fire from this type of munition, to d e
tennine by *enwry m e a ~th at the round
contaitr CB, makes this delivery system very
dlective again& personnel without prokrive
rmrkr.
This agent Is dso disseminated by exploaiw
bomblet munitiona which are carried in miasile
and rocket mrheada. These delivery system
provide a greater m n g and wider area-coverage
capability, ,with fewer individual weapons
batteries. The bombleb are deployed a t aomc
position in the air above the target by scp1mting
the warhead skin with primacord. The
rubmhiles, or bombleb, then am made to spin
abut r ulected as*. Tlris mna a fuse in each
bomblct, which dctonatea a rmall explorive
Jmga on impact with the mound. The explor
b n bunts the bumblct w i n g nnd causes the
liquid a p n t tb form n cloud of fine droplets.
The pwticuiar acrodyr~mic ch~rncteristics of
irupiminp object uuscs a phenomenon calld
the nlng~rur Effect. Thh yhunon~cnon causes
tlrc Iwniblctr to vlidc nt some smll angle, thus
allowing then, lo br cliupcrwfd over a lnrger
aim.
J1t~twoiogic:J cnnrlitions auch ILB wind
velwily uud direction, and temoernture and
t cml ~ ~ d u rgrw, dient. Iin\c sonlc affect on the
area covcr~p! by the agent; however, the rubject
wilf not Ir cotuido~whl ere. The interestrd
reader nuy wnault Ref. 26 tor more infurmation
on thir pa~ticulurw w t .
Specific manitionr which utilize GC M a
chemical amnt arc the 4.2-inch uheil, the 90..
106.. 11Fh8, I t & , 166-, and 17G-millimctcr rhelis,
and the E130R2. bomblet. Dclivery ryatemr are
howitzers, mortars. gun& and reeoillcaa rifles,
and the BULLPUP, SERGEANT. LITTLE
JOtIN, and improved HONEST JOHN rockcta.
Thia n y ~ n tc m ~ l uh,e disacmlnated by the
Acm 14-B aircraft spmy tank
242.3. IC1 VX Syrhnrr r d MnI)Ioo#
The fact that thir agent Ir a b r W t h r ~ ~ h
the rldn udter it extremely effrctlve a p i r u t
pemnncl In the open, even tho* they m y
be wrring pmMiw maah. Abo, it. high
penlatency creab a continuous hazard for
perronnel who may come In contact with contrminrted
t m r i n and mattriel.
At prcrcnt, thh went is capable of b c l n ~
d i wmi ~ t e dm ainly by artillery &elk rocket..
md land miner. Alrcraft apray tanka are .Ira
coluidered rtandrrd agent delivery ryrtetcnu.
There ir currently underway a conalderPble
amount of development work to obtain a bomb
kt munition to be urcled in mkile wuhendr.
tlu bonbiet to ba upabk of diuemlnating VX
&gent M an &emsol. This ryakm hu prerj
potential bewtue larger area coverage and high
lethslity c8n k obtained with a lower miulle
expenditurn rate.
Specific VX muaitioou cunntly avd!~l~lc
are the 165-nun --MU howitzer rhcll,
the &inch TI70 howitzer ah&. the 16&mm
rocket, and the M23(ES) ebcmical laad mino.
The Acro 14-B aircraft spray tank k ~ I W
nvailable for dilwmimtinp thir ripe* (Ref.
25).
242.4. LC) HD Systems end Yumltlmr
The princi~al we of thin agent L. to cnuso
delayed c~rualtrerb y circumventing the mask.
hlayed caaualticr will also be cruscd if the
pdective maak in not worn, by m c w of inhnlntion.
HD in liquid fonn m y be used to
contnminute terrain and materiel, an M to
cause wualtier amunp troops encobntc~ing
thew contaminated rurfacea. ( I t ia e p e i d l y
effective apinat dug-in pewanel in bunken
and in conjunction with harrier&)
This agent b dkulnlrukd by howitzer
shella, bomb, mortar#, urcr.ft r p r 4 W h .
and land mines. Sped& mullltionr and delivery
ayrtemcc for HD a n the 105 and 1%-
mm howitzer rhelL. the 4.2-iIIEh M2 a d M2Al
mortar rhell, the 116pound M70A1 8U bomb,
the ono-prllon ehemicd land mias .nd the
hero 14-B airclrlt r p y t.Pk.
W2). (UI C S S p h d Y w i W
~ U of Uthe n ature of the employment bl
this mn-lethal riot emtrd &gent, relatively
short r a n p disvmitutlng rwtenu and munftiom
are r e q u i d It la pouiblc h t the ycnt
may be twd drily at dome qu*tcn. b control
erowdr o: dbordarly or mlilhg pcmm;
hence, h n d gr8nnde~ and pu dupeljprr
the logicnl metbods 02 dimwmhdng Ule writ
Munitlona avaiLble are ths M7A1 @ X2SA2
hand m n r d u . Dbpninu yrLmr am the
portable MS unit, t&e hellcoptar- or vehicle
mounted bf6 (El6Rl). ud the akid.mounted
GED 6WM CFM M2 More detailed tnlonn~-
tion on them a y a h a nd mv n i t i o ~am given
In Ref. 2%
nu. tcr uzmspt-ulurr~kw
Thin agent la not yet fully dadopad an an
oparatlonal, non-kW, cbcmlul vd.pc!n, hence
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFI
W3. (I) AGENT EXPENDITURE RATES AND
AlEA COVERAGE ESTlMATU
(C) Talrlcu 2-3 and 2-4 prcrridu typical data
rtvrilclllc on ~tytuet xymiiturc rates of the primitry
tr~xicc l~wti~;atyl erib, a~t do I i ncnpwitutinu
nrrvnt &A :"I, rcsl)cwtivelp. Table 2-6
rharts thc PIWI wwr aw fur VU~ ~ IMI Pt.U . ~ ) n -
t n J rwmt tli*wmin~tions ydenu nnd munitium
(lbnf.2 5).
Thin rcdirln d i x w r u thc chnrnderistics of
biuk~giul nprntn in pwerul twnta. A II/S~UR.
rion ot the rHw(u 111t he rty:nts in pn~acnlrtlin
Ch. 5, P m . 5 4 1 and r~-?:I. IL*rnttw I I ~tlt v
wtum of the mirtcriul. some ~wrlapplny ut
data exirtn.
B i d o d d apnta muy Iw wl&d (u rehlsw
many utrrtcpir objcctlvu and certain tactical
objectives. Hnaever, thew rprntr a n primxr.
Ily ~t r a t e d cw eapon8 k nt hey prnvidv no
puick.;Jll effects and their optimum eflwtiw-
MU . ccruer frum the puuibllity of covering
very extu~ive large* awu (Ref. 29). The
yr*ner:d purpose of biological n8er.b fur tactical
r1111ri111.rntioinn to enw casualty eKe b in the
~wsny'r fr~rcea In the Acld, ut d l pwaible
rrmgca, for the purpw of weakening or d c
rtmylny their capability to carry out their
lunprange combnt miuiun. Blolo&d agent
weapon ryrtcnu urs rhprpckrized by the fol-
Iowlng (Ref. 3LI) :
1. Smcrll quantities uf ryent u a required.
Fur example, a rmvll bombkt may wn-
, lain r v e r d billion elledive doma. Two
or thrw ruch bomblcb can produce a
utlrfuetory f~r u r l t yle vel over an a m
of about one q u w c mile.
T U U W (SI. STAUDAID 8XCLNDMIRR RATUS FOR PRIMARY
TOXIC CHLMICAL AG8NW1' [U)
Men In O p n Men With Overhead C o w
k n t
AvaIil*ab le IUu AvJLbie NAov alu.b* Hukr AvJhMo
\
i - UNCLASSIFI
UNCLASSI , . -a -."'-- , . . . . . ;' .. .. . :*.. '.,'.. .>. " -
. - - - .. . . . 3 . I
Munition. with Upwind Target Edpo Large Area Delivery 1
Averngv Agent 1:antiom Dislrrsnl in Releaw nn Target Requirements
Content Tnrget Arcn Less Than 2 (1 rqmilc)
(30 Ib/heetnkr) Hectares "8
(50 Ib/lrc*tare)
$155 t y p nrcn mcket
(4 lb agent)
EJ? type awn rockct
(10 Ib'upnt) ..
3Iwhnnical smoke
gc~wratur
Jlnrr type turbine
pcnerator
(Wl Ib r p n t p r
hour)
30-lb rmokepot type
munition
(6 Ib npnt)
30 rounds
17 rounds
8 rounds
3 rounds
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
I? rounds
I
G muntls
1 gencrntor for
30 minu-
1 #enerator lor
6 rnixubr
i per 10 aircraft
Not feuible
Not feuiblo I
(25 rounds)
392 generntora lor 20
mlnutcr
104 peneratom for 15
- UNCLASSIFIED
513 typo I'oiat target only Set fcr~sible Nut fcnriblc
(19 lh agent)
Burniw type Point tarwt only -
( 9 ~ r u n u l pr e r Ib
writ)
2 krpe a mca n I*? covered at low cart.
AJ m erample, one bmbw alrcrdt
Right WI mver abut 1,000 rquare
milea, pmduclng n cmudty rate u high
an 70 per ant.
3. Bidogical atbckr are baldlaw. Thy
cannot be detccted by any rruo.-y
m a , nnr am warnin~ or detection
devicw ututacbry or availaWc for hid
use.
4. Blolo~icd agents in aenuol fonn will
penetrate furtitkationr and other rtruehlM.
6. The a p n b can k wlected tc provide
gradation of ell&, from mildly lnerpitrtlng
to highly lethal.
6. Bioludrl ellmtr am delayed. For rome
agcnta, the time b take effect may bo
one to thrr days; for othen. u much
.r three weeks nuy be r r p u i ~ ~ ~ ,
7. Empt for bidudcd umts diwmlnated
by in& vectors, p e ~ n n c ln lv
infected by b~.euthlng the wnt
8. For a few W n b , hmanimtion is avdlable.
ln rnm insta~~ceitr may bv pnaible
to overwhelm tkls immunity by
incnuinn the amount of agent uwd, but
thc loslsticnl r q u l m e n t for r given
s t r l h wlU be gmdy Inrruucl.
10. Ridtl&al smtn, unec nkuod, :~rar l-
Iir(cd by the ellrmtk eondltions. Sun-
I
UNCLASSIFIED
light a dm l~t ivheu nlidity yiz.;ctly nffwt
the survival time of curhin ngcruk
Thaw d~;~rncte&ticasp ply, in moat pmt, to
a t J u on h u w n l r i u j s A dkeussiou nf Iriologic31
apents aa lued .y;riut attirmrlv and
empa & lwsunted Inter L this acetion.
In addition to being classilied nccotdiny to
their letl~:~lityan, d I)y the fomr in which they
am diaeminated. bltlopicd nwnb un
grouped under varlour niicnmrgnnism tqpes. A
discuaaion uf Uwe typn of micmrgdsms is
presented in thin nectlon.
Biologicnl npnta cnu be delivered by various
wenpons ryrtems :md diuunlnnt~d ovcr the
target by variouu munitions. Some of these systern
and their eorreapunding munitic~s are
lutcd later in this wetion.
The complex nnture of the ?*Id of binlnuicrl
agenu and of their employment 9r w a p n s
nensribtcr the rather brief trentmmt dven
In thL public~tiun. The inkrested render
rhould eonrult Referencar 28 and 30.
2% red potv~ctialo f b i dwi d ag-111~l ia in
tllu future; if tlwy iur? fully erpluitd, they a 1 1
h u e ono of the m d potvllt and s-lwtiw
wrnpona rvail;tblv. Ilwuw thg. barn nut I*n
tested under :tctunl kId d i Ld~s r vc rson~
icl,t h ~diTC~ct u m Jlaicult Lo pu?itw p i -
tively \r.illt regan1 to such dlproderiatics 11s
Llwir rnsitiviVj to climatic cunditit~n.pI.r vol of
ccrsualt yr~~ductiopne, rsislcney, rntl el~i~lt~ndo.
1nxic:rl cawbilitim. Biolopiu' nr.cnt~b diaaemin&
d in kroaol f w n urnnot LK' tlctrcted 1~
scnaury mcmn. Ins@:t vcetnla cannot be wl i l x
identiW frtm normnl crtl~rupoclr, without
rrdequata wnplin)r nu11 Lbo~xhry teatinu.
These facton nukc a r l y detection e x t m c 4 ~
difficult. By the time i d inc ubation hns
been cnmplehd. wide dlPcminatiun of biolwi-
CAI wcnb could pMant un m t c r..dical problem
to the tar& eomar~~~iTtyh.e potentials or
bioLdcn1 u.cq~~nra m thua conriderably
greater than thwe rc~tdthgfr om tho naturnl
or occidentnl 8pMd of direue. On r amdl
rcnle, their use might mpreaent &ply A ap-
TADU )-C (Cl. ARSA COVlRAGl DATA WR VARIOUS CS TWR
6RCNADb AND DWERSSRS IU)
1 3
Fbhblm irritnnt ma
d&pmar
100 Ib of ngent- 16 DLdurp 600
Helicopter sped ~ h b n o c
60 m p h - 600 nrtm
Hellcopter helght
w feet
UNCLASSIFI
2-31. tb) WPES Or BIOLOGICAL AGENTS
EithgicJ n,?ms, wtm used n~ilitarily, a l l
h! (.':ISb:lirJ oh the 1mid of ~~enktcnceco. nt
.~~iuuhsil it)., rlr virulence. An n e n t chle iu
rtwst uufnvorable conditionti of c~nviro~inmnl
for I ~ n gpe rit& of tlmc ia d ; i . d IUI n vtnl,-
rial~wt agvnt. Mtut orgnnirma, however, arc
~~onyr~nistWcnln b , since thvy aro wnsilive
to rhnnyea in tnuprrc~turc fwd, moir:urc,
light, or air. A contnpiwr d i w m L one which
r i l l r p m d rapldly from to pemn,
either by direct or indirect contact. These are
the dimeases mpc~ndble lor evidemics of all
, t o m . Virulence. or pntenry, is a mennure at
the d k p d~u c l ~ab ility of a plrrtlcular
agent. The rcoultlng d c w e of i l l n ~ uv ariea
conridembly. not only with the .pent, but with
the mub of entry Into tho body. tho r i b of atbck,
and the drain of the particular organlrun,
The e n c t ot different rtnina of the umc organism
nuy ange from mild infection to fatal
Lllnesa.
A p n b may k b i o i d J l y ldentifkd u b e -
terir. rlchtt~lae,v lnuer, funui. and protoror,
Toxins pmduad by certain mlcroomnimu,
plant.. In& and a n h a h a n also mnnldered
u L biological grouplng for agent IdenUfIcation.
The b d pa ups of orguri8ms from which
biohglcal amnb may k lslected are dcrrlbed
brleIly in the fdlowing rubparwrapha (Ref.
23). Addltiotul detaib are found in Cb 5, Par.
6-23.S.
sllnl~ctl (spirillun~.) Thc-.v rru pri-sent ever.\.-
wh c r ~iu I I~ILUlsIi~n,p fou11t1i n sc~ilw, atvr, air,
; I I I ~:t nirnnl ;nu1 phut bndics, both IiVlug nntl
dcotl. S ~ I IlIuIir~lr ria arc clivcow pmduccw; the
pO\ccrful toxins prcdurtd b$ mrnc r1s11 utiliznl
a biul1~l;ir:3n gcnts.
Mrst bwtcri;~ cnu Lw pmvn wry emily in
s i n ~ p lb~~~ t l t~he;y do IUIL npPd 1iv111flt l s~ua
for tl~uir cullivntlon. Exampla of dhow*
c v u ~ tbly lsrct~~raiare typhoid fever, meuingitis,
t~~krculosinan, thrax, brucelltris, glandon.
tulanm~in, plague, bacillary dywntery. and
cho1er:i.
Rickcttsi~ie are ususlly mnwwhnt smnller in
size than the bacteria, but nre still vialble under
the ordinury micnrucnp. They Rrnw only within
living celln, which makcr production winewhat
eomplicatcd. T.ry are ptent direuv producers
in inan and are uhually t r a ~ m i t t e d
naturally by lice, ti&, and inm-ct bit**. Example#
of diaeaacm cauacd by rickettsiae am
m k y mountain rpottcd . typhua, Q fcvw.
md tnnch fever.
The viru8e8 are mlnub enough to be undetectable
under the ordinary micmrope, although
aome have been photographed with the
aid of the electron miemcope. Llke the rick-
&la% they wlll p ~ o won ly within the Uvlng
r-11; but It ir known that they cur rurvive tor
varlour periodr of time in the air. Thaa L
aome indecision exlrting u b v h c k thae
a p n t . an living organlrnu or romplex p r o
telm capable of repduction In livlnp wit.
Virulu cam a number of d i r u a In hum
~m.inu b, and plmtu. M u m u arJlpor.
psithcoalm (parrot fever), i~.IIuenza,f oot-andmouth
disure, fowl plague, Newcutla d l m u ,
Venmoelan equlne enaphalowelltk mbh,
tobacco rn& h t Afrlun swine fever, h q
cholen RIR VaIlcy fever, and rlnderpat are
exampla of dm Infectlonr.
Fungi include rucb plant. u Uw ~curta,
nmldr. mildew& and mmurhroomr. Thac o r g a -
i m r am dl known for their ability to uw
UNCLASSIFIE
rpuilage of food. :and labria. The fund am
phnb which urs flnenlly destitute of chlorc*
phyll. They rcpmduw prinurlly by mouu uf
mud rporer. Several plant dkenaes ore
rruaed by fund. Among these are patab
blight. cotton mot rut, cnrn nmut, nnd wheat
tysk Shnuld atbelu be ma& on fwd cropa,
certain of the ngenta u d might be in thL
clam.
Generally spcakinp, d i c e ~ ~ccnsu acd br fund
In humw are leas awere thnn thore produced
by other microorganisms. Thcy usually produce
miid, but often chronic disewa such aa
ringworm, athlete's foot, and San Jtuquin Valley
fever. However, a few fungi are capal~le
of producing wriouu diiecrsea, ruch re blautomycoda
( a &runic infection alfwting the skin,
l u n ~live r, bones, aplccn, and kidnep) in
humam
Probzou are r i n g k e l l d , animal-like forma
occurring In a great variety of ahapcn, and In
many u w r baving complicrted life cycles. They
mnge h rize from lI%,000 to 1/%0 of an inch.
The pmh0aN are muatly aquatic and r e p m
d u n by Mon. A few type8 are pnrmitic. EXamplea
of d i s c ~ ~ce sa u d by theae organisma
are mmoeblc dyaentey and malaria.
Thelr complicated Hfe cycles end repdue-
. tlon method uuae p d l e n u of mur I odurtion
a14 h?umiuloh which a t the pment time
limlt thq eppllcation of t h b clam M b i o l ~ g h l
Torim, which are ~ol rorup mduccd by eerb
i n rntcroorusnbnu, and by certain flrh, jelly
Ilrh, shell dah, and irwetr, muat be conaidered
u poarlble e s n h for blolodal wrpponr. They
mkht Lm wd in two wnya: either they could
be produced oukide Ute body aud Intrduced
Inb food and wuunda; or the ormnirma producing
tl~em could be d u w& In the
M of b o t u l h (a form uf food poboninrr),
for exunple, tlu bxln Lr produced oublde the
body md m eatcn. The toxin produced by the
botulLm orpnlun L the moat potent known b
be produced by nature. It l a hundreda of t i m a
mow puirunuua (hm phurwne, mustad uu, or
cyanide, rtd it lu rvcnl timm more *UiC thlll
raffleannke or cobra vt
J 4 . lU1 AGENTS USED AGAINST
WON-HUMAN T M G M
Foreign pathogenic oruanisnr eppoU M
agents moat hlely to be used as wmpnr In an
attack on animals or plank Unvrual o r ~ n n h n r
which can be employcd u biological veppoM
againat man arc fewer in number. and it L
probable that the common apccier will be
favored. However, all of the lower furma which
k:'I attack buth man and mi& have notent
i churacter!rticr for b i o l ~ i a la wn t ~ ,b ecause
th~:f have two pouible t r w t s , and a
larpe number of m n & r y human cvwn might
folluw an episootlc (epidemic among aninuls).
In tho list of r n W infect;oar where nun
may be involvd are auch dLI.CU RI hrucelloru.
anthrax, glanders, R d y Mountain rptted
fever, tularemia, aad plague. For w of
them, eradication or control within the animal
populution b the only etYective method ol p r e
venting human infedion. VeterlDUi.IY and
1mpec'~ra of meab .nd other a n i d food
products may be thc flnt to a e the initirl indlcahon
of anti-animal bbbgicd ageah
P a t h o g e ~o r peab rultrbk for bblogicd
agent rrtPek again& plurb d b r ' c i h r d
foreipr oriyin or &om codlad to limited Mur
In the country atbcked. TO be m a t d d w ,
biological w n t r d d n r t &ta rhollld be
eapabb of aeverely damaghg b p o r h t MPI.
under Ute conditiwu that there are no immediately
available control mamw. T h e amnh
muat alro be capable of pnltinp, .ocumul.tinp,
and apwading under pmrlling c b t i c
conditlona.
A number of d L u w .Id invLI me& thmm
regulrementa for vnybyncnt againat important
fleld c r o p .uch u ria. e m l ~w hat,
oak, cotton, potatom and em f A Lua
EIWG by the introdudloll of mved pahgeiu
and peat. mlght haw wriour dtritb4 tile
and mlgnt curiail the ability b top& fwd id
materiala of plant origin
In countdw rueh u China, rhers rim L Uu
ptimary food crop and tha luppb of it ir danyl
r 8 , ?he u r n f anticrop a ~ e n tcro uM wipeout
tlrv limited fwd oupply by attacking this plant.
'k i h u t rice, a great majority uf the civilian
,~ul:~tion wuuld suffer exircmc hnrdrhip
tllmugh lack of :he diet mninstay. Thii would
k certain to m t l y d-e the economy, and
tu result in famine. Lurinu the a w s e ot such
a famirrc, the ability to maintain military o p
erntio~w u-ould be drnaticnlly weakeced, if not
halkd altugether.
Indicntioru of animal infection, even thou&
the general sympturna arc not noticeable, might
be deviation8 in the n o d behavior of animals.
such u undur drursincrr or mtleaawsh Other
aymptumr ~ h i c hm i h t appear with slweific
diseases in a n i n u t include lameness, dimini
s l i d milk secretion. ulcers, marked and rapid
luw of weight, lowered rcpmduction capucity.
bloody diarrhw erurion or eruptions of the
muccrvr membr a~wsu f the mouth, aiacharges
from the eyes. h~murrhqw. and parrlg8ia.
Plant d i u w went. attack food, feed, fiber.
oil, medicinal. or industrial crop:, is a numbe~
of ways. They nuby attrck the c~nductinati arues
of plants and interfew with water movemert,
or they may invade the soft tklut's of
k a v a and tub. They may inhibit ytwth or
caur Ieaionr, nub. or galla on srrviPc prtr
of the plank
The aymptoms uhirh indicate that n crop h u
been attacked or i n f ~ t e dw ill vary with the
type of pert or the specific diamw. Sane of
t h a e .ymptonv include: w a t e r d injurim
to the foliage: shrivelmi and blighted hrnela;
injuries of the leaf aheatha ud atema; o r m p
coloreri blisters on atmu and lurvu; lumpa on
stem. kavea, bud. and w; mottled and
wrinkled leaves: yellowing of h v e a and blacke
n i w of the. veiw; and general wilting and
rotting.
2-37. (Cl DISSEMINATION SYSTmS AN0
YIINITIONS h i . U)
Biological agentr may be detivered by various
weapon s y s t e m These include mkrilo*
bomber aircraft. and spray tanks. The 3.4-inch
El94 sphere is a aubmhile munition used to
dlrwminate liquid a g e n k T h t munition might
b delivrrcd by the A/B, thc C, the Sergeant,
and the XMIO missiles. or by bomber aircraft.
The 4%-inch E1MRI and Z120R2 spherical
bnmbletr can be used to diaaeminate liquid
wcuk. Therc bomMetn might be delivered by
b m k r aircraft.
Flettner mtor-type munitions can be u d to
d i m i n a t e . both liquid and dry agent& The
Mnch version u rurd for dry filL I t mip)lt be
delivered by .niaaila such .r the A/B. B. C.
Sergeant and XM-50. The 7-inch Flettner mtor
t uscd f w diaaeminating liqui4 agectr. I t t
primarily delivered by burrbur .urcraft.
Tbme are under d e . .rt 8pray tonlu to
be uud for the d i i i a . . o n of liquid agent.
The Aero 14-B aircraft apray tank t cumntly
available for use with the MD. FSWt, ADS,
AD6. and AD7 Naval aircraft for d i m m h t h g
biological agent..
In addition to the chemiul w n b both lumping tgthcr of weapo&which w ma t one casualty and harassing, there am various other odd or unuruPl (Ref.
t+smm w e a r n u Them may be d a c d in inendiary and smoke wapou
. b u m into h u e on contact with water.
, S m o k e ~ . L a ~ w d s i a e c & t i r c s . u
8 screen for pemnml and cavalry movements
(Ref, 22). In more m e a t times, incandiaries
and rcreening rmokea were employed sufully
and extensively in both World War I1 and
the Korean conflict.
2-39. THE INCENDIARIES
Incendiary weapon& d i k e the chemical
agenl, are primarily cni~cerned with the destruction
of ~quipment and material, rather
tlan with the infliction of casualties. The incendiaria
haw also been used agaitut personnel
with corrsiderabl* ruccess, especially aminst
d tmop movemenb. However, a broad
survey indicates that incendiarien hare found
greateat application in the dertruction of industrial
inrtallationr, housing, fuel dump, ammunition
depota, etc.
Modern military ineendiariea nuy be grouped
mording b three typcr of material d: oil,
metal, and a combination of oil and metal. They
nuy also be grouped according to ignition
chalreterirtiu, u: the rpont.nn,urly hnmable
material& such M phosphow; and thore
agenb which require ignition, such an magnuium.
The oil incendiaries contributed mt c r iPl l~to
our succesm againat the Japanese in the PaciRc
duriaq World War 11. In 194% the Jamnew ' had entrenched themelvea in coecnubpdm lop
I bu&n and had completely halted our advance
I on Cudrlalul. Thue bunken were nearly
impregnable and ordinary highuploaive shells
had failed to dWodge the anmy. With relatively
little training and expericnee in the w
of the flune thrower, the M u i n s s u ~ f u l l y
sttacked and dutmyed bunker .ikr bunker
with this weapon
The Ruac throwing tcduiique WM so rucwuful
in the P.uAe. it. use w u extended b the
European Theatre of Operations. Hers it WM
mt m ~ ~ d uat lfir,st principally beum
of the Ilmitad rrnge of the available d.mc
throwers, but .Lo b u r r the b n d k r J r w u
iargely eomumed during itr purm to the tarpc';
These defectr were remedied to an extent
by the useof ~ v i e r o l l . M t h e p m b h ~ M
not compL&aly ro)wd until Yl thickener (N*
palm) w u developed. When m i d witb luoline,
this agent f o w a jolly rrh*h h o b thr
gasoline mechanidy. Bv it. use, the g d h
may br ejected from a hme thmwer md be
only sliphtly w m u d before It madm the
taryet. On arriving at the target the fuel a&-
ten in '%lob" which burn s u W n t l y slowly b
w u r e a maximum fncoPdLry effect. The oil
incendiaries wen not eonfined to hmc throwen,
but were used in incendim y bomb M well.
More than 760.000 N & l U bomb dUSkls W 6 n
dropped on Japan, done, during the Second
World War.
Another agent, tilling approximately the 8ame
role M MI (Napaim) thickener WM Ibf. This
substance, a derivative of a rynthetic rubber.
pmvidea a better burning amporition Uun MI.
In addition, newer, improved thkkenen r
now availabla
In mart cases, oil incendiaries are quippsd
with white phosphonu b i t e r a to inure ignition,
because the bumting charge mny or may
not serve this function Becausa the ignition of
white phorphorua L p m v d d by wstcr, a
d i u m igniter is wd h oil b c e w h m , . that
are to be dropped over water.
Metal incelldivic~in clude than codsting of
nupnmium in vuioum forms, .nd thme ampawd
of pwderad or gmnuLr duminum
mixed with powderad kolr o d k -ium
isumftmeWwfiich.wba~toib&nitiDn
tenperaturn of QgOC. bums vigorooJV in air.
In either solid or pow- form it is urad M nn
i n c e n d i i filling; in alloyed form it is used u
a casing for rmrll iPcsnduw bomh. Thenmite
and Thermatc are exmplr of dunrinum md
iroDoxLlcmirturerwhich~~ploymcntrp
i-Q wwparu.
The incendiary gramla prodllar ita dect
bytheburningofThematu ThslmrfaLasentidly
a mixture of approximtdy 79 per
cent powdend irolr midr (h.0,) and 27 par
cent powdered or gMUtr I I ~ ~ U I PTI.U
aludnum a higher .Illnfty fur oxygen thn
iron; t h d o r e , If a mlrrturr o! kDlr d d e and
aluminum powder u raiwd to the combustion
UNCLASSIFIED
- UNCLASSIFI
Under favorable mditionr, the Thurmrk
?action produa tetnperatum of b u t 4,W0
E Thu is high enough to turn the newly
f o n d msti~llic iron into a white-hot liquid,
which wtl u a heat merwir to prolong and
to rpread the heating or igniting action. An
ignition-type fuse with delay element & uued
with thls type of plunsde.
Incendiary mixturn of oil and metal p m
dum the m e ty pc of di rpned effect u that
obtained with oil ineendiarier These mixtures
are wdly in the fonn of r paste coml;ored of
m~gnerium drut. powdered iron oxide, and
cubon. with a sufRdcnt amount of Petroleum
dirtillate and mb'rlt tn fonn the pute. PT-1
incendiary & the major weapon of thia type
in we. The number of combustible elementa in
a bomb of thir type m u m ready ignition by
8W.dAd UMe a d b i l
UQ. MI WllDlNlNC SYQKCS
The functiom of the screening amok= are
b ohcure the anemy'r virion and to a n c d
friendly troop moVBllUnL .ad iuutrll.tioM.
Tho# moka am not eonridered to be toxlc in
the eoamrtratiolu which are normally urcd for
cmweaiment purporer. However, sxporunr
heavy MdrC eonantratioor for attended F
do&, prtieulnrly if n e u the rource of adon,
may cam illntll or wen duth. In con-
W apnces or c l d cmnpartmcntr, thr
Jcmdng mokea UP poieoaou~
Tdmioily, a unoke ir a dipdon of extmmdy
fine d i d or liquid putidea uolpendd
in the air. Such putlch reflect md .b.orb
light, a d result in typical moke clouds. White
phwphorus (aymbol-WP) and plutidred
whik plwphoru (PWP) cuc eromph of subsClwr
lucd to producr scm?ning smoke&
White phorphonu t ured both M an inamdiary
uul r ~ r m o k ean,d L cbvrekrircd
by plbring and npid burning (Ref. 81).
When hot make rLcs npidly, it pmdueca the
eRed h w n u villaring. In rUll air, the pillartug
of WP nullifsea ita tweening dect. WP
pillam bemuse it hu such a high heat of comburtion.
&clrwe WP la very brittle, the explosion
of the buntinp charge in the munitions
in which it is used cum it to be broken into
r i d 1 puticler. which bum very rapidly. Thla
may enhance its wefulnw u a incendiary,
but abo increrses the pillaring.
Dlrect physical contact with wlid phoaphonu
will result in painful, slow-healing bunu. The
m k e produced by the eombution of white
phopphonu will irritate the eyer, now, throat,
and lungs. Theoc sympbnrs are rarely pronounced,
however. White phnnphorua mokc is
corraaive toward me- It h a no ability to
poiron foobtuffr
WP is a r h d a r d smoke RUw for hand
grenadu rifle pnnadea, the 43-inch mortar
hell. rockets, and artillery rhelb.
HC d x t u r r uses heuckloroethme (CCI,.
CCI,) for the production of m k e . The phydologid
Hh'ecta of HC are mmewhat more drutic
thm white phorphorur, for Ulir rrooke haa
toxic drrrwterktico in high wneentroti-
Sulphur MoxidsehlormulLnle .dd eolution
(FS), ir .nother v e y effective &hue that
hPI bwn adopted u a undrr ant FS k
irritating to the wea, naq throat, d l u n p
u d l n a r l l y wd, but it k non.poiamow The
liquid agent b hlghly. forroaivt, apecidly ao
to the akin.
During World War 11, a new method of
rmoke generntlon w u dwcbpd, bued on
production of minub oil puticka by purely
phy1cal muru. The r l b wed uo rtrdght,
non-dditlve pefmleum db of blgh fluh-point,
Wlu to light lubricating oh, md m gab
e d y known uo fog oouk The chamid @gent
rymboh ur SCF-1 d SDF-2. Oil fog gaumtorr
burn pnrolinc or o w fu els, and thr
fog oil & vapolimd in tha hot &urt rr#r
. .:. . ...: , , "NCLAS
... ,
: '"I
k thc guu expmd into the lurroundjng air, lhrt petroleum dl rPrdcr L ~ n l c ,
the oil vrpol eooL &d'~ndeiuea lnto r whlb breathing or w o d h g in it for urbeodcd prioclr
u ~ k oer fog of high density, thur ohcuring wldm prsdueu uy iP effatr Stoes
the vkion. m k e s m petro'eum dL, they am uon-eor-
The oil unokes ace the leaat p~lsonopso f the rwive. In fact, my colldcarouon would have r
screening mkea. Although there ia evidence lubricating or protective dect on metal^.
h i a t e d with a nuclear expldon are a
number of characteristic phenomena, rome of
which are vilible, while othera are not directly
apparent. Cohin aspects of thew phenomena
will depend on the type of burat (air, wrface,
or rubaurfue) . In addition, mekoroiugical
conditions, such u temperatwe, humidity,
wind. precipitation, and atmospheric preurure,
may inhence m e of the observable effecta,
although the overall charncterlticr remain unchanged.
Thir rection ir concerned with therd
rndiation and the phenomena awwiaLecl
with i t The ball of fire, the meehiiam of
thermal radiation, attenuation, the effecb of
meteorological conditions and hielding, primuy
and Kcondam Brea, the phenomena of
flm storm, and the effect of the typs of bunt
will be diiuwd in requenw.
'Ih fudon or fluion of nuclear materid in
i m atomic wapon l a & to the liberation of a
; brae amount of energy in a very nmll period
of time within a limited quantity of matter.
An a rerult, the nuclear products. bomb casing,
weapon parb, and the rurrmnding air are
nLnl to extremely high tempcraturea, rp.
p&ing thwe in the center of the run.
The maximum temperature rttrined in A
nuclear expiorion is probably neveral million
degrees. Thu may be comprred with a m i -
mum of rppmxirmbly 9,0W0 F In r conventional
highaploaive bomh The great heat of
the ~ucleare xplosion i ~ b t l yco nverta the
materLL i!tta gueoua fonn. Since tkuc puer.
at the inrtsnt of explodon, are restricted to the
rrpion oeeopied by me original constituents of
the bomb, tremcndoue p r a ~ u r uu r produced
in the order of magnitude of several milliu::n of
pounds per-quam-inch
Within a few millionth of r rccond, these
intensely hat ~lnrcr appear in r roughly
rrpheriwl, hiuhly luminou mur Thu known
ru the fireball. Although the brigt~tned~e~-
creauea with time, after about: row-tenh of
a millirecond the Ilre&ll fmar a one megaton
(MT) bomh would appear to an observer 60
milw away to be thirty tima u brilliant sr the
sun d noon. In rcveral of the nuclear teab
conducted a t the Nevada Test S i k in d l of
which bomb of Isu than 100 kilotow (KT)
were employed. the glue st dawn h been
vialbie more than 400 mlhr awry. Aa r pdenl
rult, the luminority doea mt v y mtly with
the yield of the bomb. Thcnfore, the rudam
temperatures atbhd, upon whirh the brightnsar
depends, cannot be vcrp diltvart bplb
the d i t e ~ n f I~n rt he bt.l .~~wnof hcu uw
dcvred (Ref. 17).
Immedktaly .ihr L foraulioo, tho hP of
f l r e b e g h b p r o w r i n r i t c , ~ t h o r u r -
rounding area. Th (lrartb k accoatp.oid by
adeucwe!zum#rrSPm.od~reruuamd.
hence. in lumindty. At the umu the, thr fireball
riw, Ilk4 a hoWr balboa Mter h t
one minute, U l e ~ h r u m l e d t o r a e x t e n t
whemitkmbnger.i*bk I t h u t h m r i u n
r~prorimrtrly Cb mita fmm the point of
burat.
UNCLASSIFIED - I
with the absorption of thernul radiation hy
the air in front of the fireburl (Ch. 4, Par. 4-7.
62) cam the wrface temperature to undergo
a ccriow change. A l t h u h the temperature uf
the interior hllr ~tcadily, the temperature of
the surface at fimt decreases more rnpidly than
thh, then increases again, ~ dfin,all y, falb off
continuously. Thus, there are euentiPlly two
surface-temperature pulsea: the drat ia of very
ahort duratim; the wund lPsb for a much
longer period. Thk phenomenon k characterktic
of all nuclear explolllons, although the
duration of the pulres i n c r e w with an Inauve
in the e n e m yield of the explodon.
Corresponding to the two temperatun
pulsm, there are two pulses o l thermal radintion
from tfe finball (Ref. 17), or rhuwn in
Fig, 2-16, In the Ant pulr, the tempralures
are axtremel~h igh. which mdb in a hrlle
portion of th; rdirtion being in the ultraviolet
r~nec. Modentely large dosm of ultraviolet
ndktion u n urure painful bliiten. and even
mal l dooea can c a u ~re ddening of the &in.
However, the lint p u h of thermal radiation ir
not conalderad u significant akin-burn hazard
for reverd r e a ~ ~ nO~ne. n rmn k that only
h u t ona per cent of the total radiation appew
in the initid pulse becurc of i rhort
duration. In addition, the ultmvidet ws of
air pula are attenuated by the intennnina
air, d i n g the raw a t which the thermal
radiation could caurc d(lnifiernt dunrOs M
rho* that other radiaticn dstr are much
nron vriwa
TIM .sand p u b my lut for several MCon&
Thir miuion urrb a p p d m t e b 89
per cent of the MPI thenad radiation e n e w
from the bomb. Becaw the tcnrpnturor are
bwrr than In the ant pule, mort of the raw
lie LP tha rWble and infruwt I-m. I t b
thtr tio on w h i i k rupoprible for mcst
rkin-bunu of txporcd pcmoncl. and whl&
caurer the ipnitlon of n large number of recoaduv
Of the total en- yield of r nuciw air
bunt at low dtihdr, apprcdmably OM third
k d W in the form of thcrmrl rrdl.tbn.
Ilmm, f o f wI~-ldl otoa hid of the ~ylolkn,
#pprorrtnrhly 8.8 x 10'' d h af t i r c d
rnupy m Uk* an uaount ruH1cieat to
convett over a million pounda of water into
ltua
2-44. DISTRIBUTION AND ATIWUATION
OF THERMAL RADIATION
The exlent of injurier or the amount of damage
enused by thermal radiation depends upon
the total amount of enerrry received by a unit
area of skin, or expod. combustible material.
The thennal energy per-unit-area will decrease
with distance f i ~ ~ rthne ground zero (the point
on the surface directly above which the bomb
i a det0naM) for two reorow: The dirprrrnl
of the radiation over a conatanUy increaming
area an it movw away fmm the fireball; and
the utbuuntion of the radLtlon in ita puson
through the air.
Lf a unifonn dktribution of rodlation aad no
attenuatlon are urumed at a distance R fmm
ground zero, then the ume mount of energy
will fall UPOU each unit portion of the rudace
of a sphere of ndiur R Thrl total ~l r facwe s
of thk sphere k 4.R1, and the energy m i v e d
E
per unit arm la, therefore, -, where E L
4rR'
the total thermal energy yield of the cxplolioa
It h clear, then, that unda the urumed con&
tiom the energy received per unit area them
fore varier inverwly am the quro of tho
dbhCE fIWll h e eXplOd0h
In order to OWa more rrrlutic uhab
of the quantity of thennrl ndiation advlng
UNCLASSIFIED
at a particular unit area, however, the offeet
6f atmospheric attenuation mud be eonrlacred.
Attenuation ir due in part to abrorption by the
rnoleculea present in the air, and partly to the
&?atbring or diverdon of the ray8 from their
original path.
The absorption, or remuval, of t h e r d
energy rays by air molecules is moat effective
for the abort wavelength (ultraviolet) rays.
Oxygen mokuler and ozone ore quite sipniC
cant in achieving this effect. Althnualr thr
proportion of ozone present in the atmosphere
& normally quite d l , conriderable quantith
are released by the interaction of oxypn with
the gamma radiation from the nuclear expimion.
Becaw of thri absorption quality of
the mtrnmplwe, tho mount of ultraviolet
radiation docreases rapidly with the distance
from ground zero. At diatancea such that
thermnl radiation effectr are more siunibnt
t h n the effects of b b t ana wclear radiation,
tha proportion ul uitraviulet radiation present
has become quite mall.
Attenuation ra a reault of scattering (the
diversion of rayr from their original path) cccun
with radialion of all wave lengths. Scattering
can be caured by eolliron with molecules
pment In the atmaphere, or, mum important.
ly, by the rellection and dlllractlon of light rays
by palticlea of dust, smoke, or f o ~ .T hiu diverlion
from the original path reuultr in a diffwd,
rather than a direct, tranunluion of the
t h e d rAdlation.
The docrum of thornul radiation enrryy due
to ms#uirrp &pen& upon the wave bngth of
the radiation and upon the pmvailing atmoaphoric
conditio~. The diffurnt wave Iengthm,
ultrrvlclet. v&ibk. and i n f h d , will attenuate
a t dlRomt rrtu. For most p m W purpolar,
howevor, it ir rcwnably rrrtldactory, dthough
EllYdy Irr prrch, to u t i k wmurr attenuath
a- over dl the wave bngtb prewnt.
The rtab of the atmorphem u far u r u t -
bring ir cancernod will b reprerented by what
&known u the vidbility am Thir is defhd
u tho horizantrl dlrtaneo at which a large dark
obfect can k ran .p.inet the horizon rky In
dsyllght. A rouph comktlon betweon the vidbUty
mud the clarity of the mtmoophero ir
glwl h Table 2-6.
TABU U. rmYIUTV AND ATUOUHEUC
CUUIl (Ref. 171
p~ -
Execptlotully Jar h t h r m 8 0
Very clear J2--80
Moderately clear 6-12
Light hsre '2.6-6
Haze 1."
Dense hue or fog Lew than 12
The attenuation i. b e l i e d to in- eonrlnuourly
with i n c m h g distance. At any
given diatance the degm of rttenlution dcar
not vary wnaidenbly with the visibility, provided
the following conditionr m mot: the
visibility ranw ir betwoen two a d Afty milem
btmpheric condition ranging from light haze
to exceptionally clear); the distance is half the
visibility nnge or Isu; and the explarion dwa
not occur beneath a J w d hycr.
UNCLASSIFIED
riwr CMlMt be axnpeauted for by multiple
httering. Coarcguently, them is a definih decreme
in the radiant energy received at a ape&
f&d d&&nw from the expioriua.
Attenlon ahould Jro be drawn to the dirtrnw
limitation; the targot in queation ia at lean
than half the visibility mnge. At greater dirtrnces,
Iwa of radktlon to the atmphere
ennnot be neglcckd.. In this circumtanee, the
urumytion that the energy attenuation L indepaldent
uf the visibility leada to estimates of
thermal energy which are too high.
Should the explosion occur in moderately
clear air but beneath a layer of cloud or fog,
the urumption u .Iso invalid. &me of the
radiation whlch wouW normally proceed outward
into apace will be scatted back to earth,
rerulting in a greater amounl of energy re
wived than would nondly be expected.
-UNC LASSIFIED
A nuclear bomb detonated above a d e w
cloud, fog. or rmolre layer hu j u t the oppoaite
n~ult. An appmiable portion of the energy
, d l be reflecbd upward and must be regarded
u lost, u far u the ground target ir concerned.
In uldition. &mat all of the radiation pem
trating the doud will be scattered; very little
will reach the target by direct trrmcmisdon.
Thae two effects mult in a comidemble &
crane in the amount of radiation renchinp the
trrpct Chemlul am& act^ uetly like a
cloudorfop. Adurrermoke~reonbetweenthe
polnt of bunt and a dm target can reduce
thethermalrdi.tionrewiredolmuchu90
par ant.
U n h rrtkred, t h d rrdktbn trrvrk
in straight liner from lta wurw l i b ordinary
light Any d i d , opqw mrtoricl will loma an
an adequate &&Id &t dl- truumitted
nyr,pmvldcditiobatweenthetr~.odthe
WUm. TMlpanat rmSrws such u g l u I
&ad plrrtlor, however, allow the m g a of
the& energy with only dght .tbuuation.
nection with the problem of protection
thermal radiation.
Genem, two types of firen may mult from
a nuclear &tonution. These are 1uu11ly r e
ferred to M primary and aeeondary flrea. Priw
r y fires are those which are i p i h d by the
thermal radiation from Lhe bomb, and m n d -
ary RIW ue thore which indirectly result from
the eflecb of blamt.
When th~rmnl radhtion strikes an upored
surface, it k partially wbaorkrl and u immdi-
~ C l yco nverted into heat Slnce nenrly all the
radiation is delivervd in a few mnnds, there ia
not.~uIItcientti me for ondudve heat tmmifer
to take place. CMuopuently, excaptionally hiih
#urface tcmpratuwr m u l t Thwe high surface
kmperaturecr, dependent upon the color
and nature of the aubtnnce. and the amount of
thennnl radlation received, mry uune t h n~u -
terial b mwh. char, or bunt i n b l l(Ref~. ~
23).
Thermal radiation llra m u l b in injurh
to personnel by msrrar of painful rldn bum and
eye injurler. Again, the amount of radiation
received and, therefore, 'thc dirtonea from
mound rrq drtvmInr the oxtent of the dunrgk
U~uolly, a prcrS number af firen, both primary
and reconduy, accompany nuclear explodon.
Thia mimultura,~b urning dl& m y p roduca
the pheno~wnak now u fire rtona k a
rorult of the h u p m r uo~f h~ot dr and gawa
Ming from the burning area, air k wckd in on
d l ridu with prclt force, pmdpci 10. &rang
wind which blow bmrd the wnter of the tlrr
The cll& L aipihr to the draft in a chinmy,
except on a much larger rula At l i h h h ,
the win& produced m&ed vdocitia of 80 to
4Omllamhour. T h e ~ ~ t o n n w u a ~ w
frebr in limiting the spread of h, and uursd
m ahoat uniform burnout uu in which .Imort
rvrrythlng w u htroyed. It should k
notodtbtanmstormdotrwt.Ivrry..o
company r nudeu exphion. u~dit cwld oaur
4th flm rwulting from other
UNCLASSIFIED
In dditlon to the damage produd by the
primary and ycunduy ka, thsnnal ruliation
may bo an eRective W m d a n h in a quite
diRerent manner. When a attuctum rueh u a
bridge, building, or aircraft L e x p d to a rub
rhtW incram in temperature. a comapondtng
deerem in the rtrength c h a r a c t e ~ uof
the material8 aunporing the rtructum moult..
Thia dccreaae in rtructural strength cauav the
structure to become more vulnrrable to the
b b t mechmiam uroelnted with the detonation
a t a nuclear weapon. Should the inenrw in
trmpratum bo of aumcient magnitude, It ia
povible for collapse b occur without the addition
of m y loada other than those n o d y imposed
on the r t ~ d u r e .
The foregotw dkuadoo ban rdard h pn~-
ticukrbtharavl.ulirHaironr.arirkurt
Forothertypesofbnmbthrnrultrurthe
umc i n ~ b u t t b w d i l l e r h d c I n eF or
a a u r l m bunt on Lad or water, the .laount of
thennd radiation L l e u thn for .a air bunt.
Thin h due In part to a portloll of the t h e d
energy king UIrbed by the ewth and water,
and partly to additiunul aalkring uurd by
tha greater delvity of atmapheric p r t i c b a t
the earth'a rurface, In a u k u r l . ~bu rr& nearly
all the radiant emrgy m &orbed by the roil
or water. The the& decta am then wnwmed
in the vaporizing d the loll or water, u
the CPK m y be.
Section XI1 (CLNucleat RadMon
UI (U1 IWTIODUCTION
Nuclear radiation may be conveniently rcpantcd
into initial radiation and midud ndiation.
The initid ndirtion b deflned u that
produced within the Qnt minute after detonation
of a nuclear weapon. All of the midual
radiation, which a h a from aewral rourcea,
ia produced after the firat minute hm dapmi.
(Refer to CI 4, Par. 443.1
k i b n l , radiation ia primrlly depmd-
.ent upon the yield of the weapon and the type
urd height of b u n t Irr might be expect&, an
lnouu in energy yield a- an i n a w e in
tlte nuclear radiation emitted. Thia, however,
aw an enlargement of the AM over which
a given doae ia received. For a wupon air
bunt (flrrbull dom not buch the ground) asmntWlp
dl the harmful radiation ia produced
during the initial phaae ((rat minute after
drtolytion).
Such ir mt the cue for underwater, underground,
or surface b u n k In thc r-1c
a luge quantity of nuttar L pdsd Into the
a q d d o n and, ~owpuently,l a mnde r d l w -
Urn ThL matend, coupled with the radk
.diva bomb nriduea, m t r a dgniihnt
d u d Mi%ion prubim T$r d d a of
nuclvr rdwlan, both Lnitlrl and reddud, the
d rdLtionr prasnf the dhtulcea at
which they ur allrtlvo, and the unitr with
which they are ~luuumdu, c presented in Ch.
4. Par. 4-8.2. It b not m r y fo r t h i~di acuuh
that thcy be rrpcrtcd in dztail hem.
Ementially, all typu of n&r rdirtima
produce the ume end sllsb in, or on. vuiws
materiah The diffemnt @par of r a d W n nuy
produce variatloru in t& mrylnitude of the eff&
for equivalent e x p a m , but thia i relatively
unimportant when mmhhg only the
actual mwhanii of kill.
Ercarive expoam b n o d u diathu,
ruch M X-ry?i alpha and beta pPrtldrrC
g a i n m a r ~ ~ ~ . a n d n e u ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i n . j ~ l l y living organianu The hrmful decta of di
tionaeemtotiedlutotbeioa~.ndnrrit.-
tfon pmduced in the d b aompaing living
hum. krdofioot.tlpn.amneofthe
auutltwlllofLbrallrrhlrtrurru~tWto
nonnal functbnlpr, ur cbrtmg*l h ddition,
the produetr f d dwh w the d ld rtrrctbr
p r o c c u ~ ~ u a Aml onl gt~he
obromdmnquarerrofth.dbo,dionlsfnp
n d k t i o f u o n d b m : wdhcluomourmg,
rwelllnt of the ondew, oompM. da
~ e t f o n o f ~ ~ ~ a n , . r r ~ i n t b a v L s r i t g
of the ~ u n d u i d . u d f a P r r l ~ ~ f
t k d l n w m b r u r a L d d k k , t b - o f
d l didaim (mitab) k dab* by expoowe
b ndbtloa. Frrpuently, the ability of L*ce ll
b ~adal'goI rrlW L compiokly iuhibitul. The
d?ecL of nuclear rdirUon on llving orplntrm
b dependent not only on the toW dm received
but on the rate of delivery. The majority of
Ilving ccUl have the ability to mover at l e u t
partially if uome t i m ~t rllowed to elapae be
tween dovr The expectd initial ell&q on
living o r p . n b bra viribk in the phr~iolugicnl
4mptomr pmduced: wunlting, nuuen, dhrrhu,
lnhmmtion, fever, emaciation. atxi
death.
In addition to the initial eUecb, the~u!n w
m e n 1 eunuqucnceu which L not becorn uvident
for romp rcm . f k r expolure. S m n l of
the more i m p ~ t m tre tarded effects are dip
cuwd in the fo!luwinr paragraphs.
Thr incidence of u b d reas to I .
e'nrtly i~t cwmdIn pencan whu were expond
tu ~wlntivelgL rge doses of radiation, but man-
@ to uun'ivc~ the initial effectr Along the
unme line. a study of mortality rates in J a p u
indiutof :m unrwrnour increase in the occurronce
of Icukmir among aurvivoru of the
buabinp a t Hituhima and N.prsiJI& The incidence
of kukcmia unonp tlww ruwivon wsr,
on the averqp, h u t onu in GOO, compared
with me in SO,W uaony tho unexpored poplation
of Japan (Ref. 17).
Them w u also a marked inclaw over uornu1
in the nwnber of utillblrthr and in the
deaUu of omly-born infant.. A utudy of the
rurviving children made or five ycrn later
rhowed .P, i d f t ~ r cy of mcnhl r+
tud8tiwL
Tbe genetic eK& of radiation am those of
a long-trm ehamter which produco no visible
injury in tha expo4 generatiom, but mry
hva rignltkmt c o n a qwn ~to~ fu ture mrr-
Llomr T h e && differ from mort rdlrtion
injurleu in that they appeu to ba cumul.tive
md, to A prvt extent, do not depend on the
d o u ~ b u t o n l y o n L h f O W ~
TIm humful decb of mut.tlm m y be quite
vuied, rroOinp from 5 decresm ia We expecturey
by A few month, to dsrth in tho anbrydcIbpr.
S ~ i t Y b u I o t h a ~ r r -
The~hga6Ucrnutattonurrmv
to br In dm& proporLloo to the Amount of
r a d i n t h &orbed by the puent~T. here seem
tu t# uo mount of mdhtion. however rund,
thrt does not pduce m e gene& b p c
Except for phobgmphic Nm, whkb L
clouded by neutron interadon with the puticlea
in the emulrioo, and for ekrtmnlc ap. 0 .%-
ment which u t i l h truuttom, nn pennmcnt
d a m to quipment mults from neutron
rdution. There iu evidenee th.t exporure to
A neutron flux in uesu of 10" neutronr per
uqrm centimeter permr~ylltlyJ hn the c h ~ r -
rb1i&8 of tnnubton. However, my e l a
tmnic eduipment exporcd to thb dux of neutrow
from a nuclear weapon debnation 'J
likcly to be dcrtrayed or rwrely damaged by
other upect~o f the expksiou. Dirolontion of
gIua does not occur for neutron fluxor ku than
about 10" nwtmnr per quus antlmeter, md
thui un be dbrryu'dd u a dgniAunt effect
(Ref. 10,.
UNCLASSF
1 u n l e w d from tho bomb u roft X-rryr in m
I oxtrrmely ~ h o r t tinu period. Those which
at~iko a A d a l u l r r depoalt their en^ 1 wlWn A thin rurfrrr layer. Although the toW
hddmt X-ray flux m y be wry Luw. the nukrirl
in t h k thin layer k m r s u r t m e l y hot,
vrpodr. ud blow8 OIL a t o high velocity. Thiu
blow& cuucw an fnlpuh that develop^ a
rhock wave in the nmainiw n~ntorial. Tho
rhock wuco t hw tmvelr t h r w h t l ~ cm aterlul
Inyer md in mnected from the oppooib aide,
which m l b in splling from tho renr rurface.
Thia eUect ir rlmllu to the effect of fragments,
Lo that damage is caueod by the kinelc enwry
of intend puticlu within the target. In &b
tion, expoad opUul d w i c r nd other fragile
component. are imnwJLt4 drh*
Olu other dnnLtion p- rbould be
mentioned u a pouibb WII mrlun(lm. A Lrlr
eIe&ical a i N L pmducd by the detonation
of A n r l m r weapon. Thk lipnrl c0-b of a
h r p trrruirnt wrv* with r s h n t frequency
in the neighborhood of 15 kilocycles. Field
strengths gwater then one volt per meter have
been detected a t dktsaces of $000 mile# from
the detonation of megaton-yldd weaponn. I t
can be expected that ckctrnnic eguilment
which nnpondr to npid. ahortduration, trnndenb
will be dutd l g the pkk-up vf thlr
phenomenon (Ref. 16).
Section Xlll (U 1-Tarqet IllumlnaHon
U P . INTRODUCTION
The pupmu of terminal effects fall inta two
bmul eateyorlsl: the actual defeat of a b x e t ;
and the production of an effect (signaling,
9umimting, rcrgmlng) that will aid in the
ultimate tlofat of the targut. Tiugct illumlnation,
tho& I8 a masns by w11ivl1 the protection
of darknau in declrwd uul the ri~rgnt ia
r m d d mom vulnedlc to the vdour kfll
mechaniuma (Ref. 82). Tho illumination may
bo provided by pymbc!mic devices (ahella, trip
Wes, etc.). ~ n h l l g h t ro, r ulcetronic .Ida.
&mo eommw pymkrhllic devica olrich
-vl& target illudrutlon ur illumi~rrting
shells. d m f t d n ~ p p d bombardment fhw,
und Imd-mine M y t l ~ (Rl ef . 86).
1Pd.lvting u h l u m eplontiilly parachute
Ram opedaUy h o u d in ahall utai~rp for
hunching from artillery wenpons (Ref. 83).
Alrerait bomhrdment lLrrr ure derigned to
jxovide lllumf~tion for night bombrdment
(Ref. 84). They, tw. ue ewenti.llp purchute
hma, but ya h o d In a bomb-lie crsing. In
both the shell d bomb flue, a Limo fuze mtr
OR on ejoctiffi chrr;rs which expela the PM.
cllub am. M p h w U I co~t ruc t edB ke a
4~ t*vpo of antipmonnel mine; or arm
rlmlkr to a hand grenade and fitted with A
mwothg bmkot for attechmat to t m ,
polw, etc. Both typ.n of M y flucn am w u l l y
wt ofP by trip r i l w or foot contuct (Refa 38
md 34). They t i n intended to give wl'nting of
enemy infiltntlon, Pad to rilhowtb tko Inflltl-rrtor6
so that they may be W at. The "boundinp"
type im proplM intu tlm air by a undl
ejection charge when the (Lrr in acLuntod. Thin
flare lr~u A panehutc to dehy It* W1. The
granule type lb ia rtrtionrry ruld &ply
IJW when rWkJ hy the trip'.win.
Searchlight, cnn trlru, pmvide target Ulumiaation.
The lama Wnch dlmcb.r mrchllpht
Ond the new -=inch lrnnJ p u r p o ~m archlight
u n provide direct illumilvtlan puticululy
in hilly trrnfn. A1tl-h theno Uphb ua
not armored, they ere W v d y invulaerr#.
to memx smallsrrm flro and hiphuplarire
attack kcvure of the extmmo dMculty in dmating
ram to the wow of the light (Ref.
86). km, hltldkld-Ill-OII elightr
isre moat f n q u r a t l ~w ed for indfrrct
illumination, either by dillwion of a dightly
elevated hem by ahmphuic gutiek, or by
refhetion from b w lylW cloudr In thb indlnct
mode, the 30-inch w e h l k h t ern pro*ldr
illuminntion aprrlvdnlont Q q& mmdlght a t
a range of 10,000 metus.
A new tank-1110untd xmm w t rr
p h c a the 1ll.inch fighting tight (oiriblc '(fit).
I t will ba uud In cwjunction with new infrrud-
viaiblr putcopu and binneuiorr. The
xenon marchlight 1. mounted on Lhe gun m a t -
kt and ir borenlgl~tedw ith the main armament.
ThL #uehlifit h.u w r d leiuen and A l t m
concentri: + o u t the ~ ~ w uxetnotn Ial~ry.
Them clrmrnk muto upon command ?rim controlr
within tho tank. The raulturt tlve modea
of o m t i o n M: visible light, compnct or
cpwad; infnrvd light, cuwpact 01. spread; or
blackout (the lamp oprntiw but coi~~pleteiy
obncwd). Thb aenrchlight ha8 100-millinn,
peak-bwn candlepowr. I k light bean pro
ducea a W n g or blinding e l k t ir the eye#
of the ernmy, which hunprn hL aim und
movemad, and temporarily destroy8 hir night
virion. The durling effect of the light aim can
prnrida concuImmt for movement of friendly
unitn. I
Elrctmnic mama tu provide night virion for
t.rprt acquisition and engagement ue a h
available. Them utilim mu-infrared, low-lightlevel
image irltenrifldun, and fnclnfrared.
Near-lnfmmd r y a h u nnyloy prrjectrd, invisible,
nut-infrared lighr, and n vfrwer which
comelt the rsflactod i n h r d ray8 to a vlaible
image, Law-light-luvel, insrpsintcnaitkation
quipmontr m t l y amplify tho n f k e t d Mhvrl
night illumination to the extent that a
d u l vtibk image i a obtirinrd. Far-lnfrpred
d w i w ~ t t l l k c ~t he f d d (o r hutcllmgy)
which ir witted by d l obiectr to a
depondmt upon thdr temperature and
rurhm c h ~ l t f c a ,T. h e body warmth of a
nun, .nJ L a heat tmm tha rndar wmput~
ment of r whirle or aircraft, have a dguifiunt
i n i r a ~ dni gnulura to a f a ~ ~ - i n fdredte ctor.
Nur-infrurd syatemr haw the advantagm of
very Ion(! range viewing nnd inatant.llcow
imaging. ,Howwar, Urn projectad, n ~ r - i d r h d
radiations may be detected by a pmpvrly
quipp~d memy. The bw-light-lmeb imago.
intuiilication nnrl far-infrared equipmenls are
pauive, but hava icsa Inutantanwu viaring
mn p r th1111c ompnnbk n u r c i n f r d dwie&
The oitly curre~rtly operational, h t m i c -
i m r h g , night-viaion cquipmrcntr are near-infmmd
devices. Thea vary from the hand held
Infrared Wqnmnifit tor the M-14 rlh to the
Night Viricu~ Kit for the M-60 tank. The latter
crrnrirb of two similar ~*rit!copea for the gunrler
and rommonder, each having ~ O I I Iv idble
and 1nfr;u-d viewing chimelr. an i o f n r d
:und huld binocular, nnd tho xenon tankmounted
reawhlight. AU of the viwers une a
smnll, rinrlerbge, imnreeonwrter tul~e.
The next-genwutisu, night-vision equll:a~cnt
for tankr will coarirt uf low-lfpht-level, imps
intennification vir~urd. Theaa vil*wera will we
t h , o r m om imam tuben fn leric~i,n order to
mlh bright- gain8 uf 1~.000 or mow
ti-. Thw will be Umed ad p c h p c s w
uticu!atd blwwpsl. u the uarticular appliation
wnmantn. Bcmokvbw, clod-dxruit,
bievirion-tyl#, ryrbnu will dm I s avnilabla
for ure in t h m tuatiuns requirinl image
tranrfw. Sprrlal I ' e a t ~mu ch an mlctive,
dualupability, panalvc-.hd-active vinwing
modu, wing either unbient night ilhuniua~iw
or projected ncdnfrad, or wing imrg. iutrgratiun
or stohwe for a brief time oxpwm,
m y k urrd to greatly incmm viewing
MIcn
243, INTRODUCTIOW The J i t y t o M o m w&ul jaami~gLu
tam. and paviva radar m i n g ayttma. In
event. an a pi& knowlcdy of prrdvdy
what i J that one wishea to jam ia repuilad.
The reeond factor is power. Whether deception.
the generation of fabe sig.~ab to simulate
d oner and ao mislead the opponent. or denial,
Lhe radiation of spurious signals to mark the
rignab needed by the opponent's system for
proper operation, is selected aa the desind
countermeMure, It &I nemsnry that the jamming
signal be domirunt.
Succerrlul opration of a radar requires the
detertion of the energy reflected from the dea
i d target. The power, S, received from a
target is found from the radar equation
wherc
:,=peak power tranrmitted by the radar
C,=on-axis gain of the radar antenna
. = ~ ~ t t e r i nc rgm d i o n o f thetarget
A=eflective aperture of the radar urknna
R=range fmm mdar to tupet.
A j w i n g transniitbr located in the tamt,
i f it Ir assumed t b t the toL1 p w e r will fail in
the radar yu band, will deliver to the radar r
power J, given hp
where Ppjunmer power
GI=jrmmcr &.
The ratio of junming power to signal power
J/S becomer a dgnifiunt parameter. and can
k m n t o b
Stow J/S v b u with rungo quared. It L app
~ n ttht , for J/S mter than uunlty, the
jMWr ~AgD.Inr aIdv&an- over the radar
with incm#ing rangeagF* or J/S leu than one,
the convcrw h true. We mry then take the
mnge fop. which the junminp-toJiphJ ratio k
unity u the maximum effectiw range of the &. Beyond thh mps, the funmar will
oflretively deny the UM d the radar. TbL partieuluvalueof
~ L o l t c n h r n d t h o U ~ -
~;rpcninrgm gw'' of the Junmm-.
GmnBwthat b e j.mmsrhutho.blUtlb
deliver a r&niflrntly prclter power b the
raQr receiver than that r.dved from tha Luc
s t , the paticular fonn Uut the jamming
Lv,wrr takes becomes of intemk
Thc followin(r pcragraphl of tRi chapter
disc- ndnr jamming methob and praent
very g-enerallwd examplea of p~cyntly conwived
jamming equipment.
2-64, RADAR JAMMING MWOOS
All forms of jvnming can b clured u either
actlve or prmive. Active jamming requim the
generation and tranmiasion d energy by the
jamming source. P d v e jamming taka advuntage
of the rrrdhted enrrgy of the radar
that fa to k jammed, in some mwum ub
culated to produw confurion.
Purivo method* d jam* mmy roarirt d
atmospheric eUecb, chan, droyl, anti-radar
cwtings, or teflecton (Fi. 2-17). Thr atmow
pharic effecb are aimply fortuibu meteorological
effect8 which m y u r l n to acrlud.
tugeta. B~IUUM them effactr an, at krf wly
happen to be opwaMva on tho nhr fmwncy,
and beerum they am not llldar oonW of thr
jammer, little C O Mwd~ b ~&en
thun.
ChaU h the m a t common .od d&ve mu
toria1 and rlll probably rtill be employed In Ule
coming decade. Ch.11 eonsirto h p l y of thin
meWlic s t r l p or matollad didretric dlmntr,
cuttoahngthroubrsroo.t.iaUwQJrd
rdu hnd. h e y am di4mmd in jlD,
either in a eontinuour llow or h b u n k Coolnuour
flow methods ur und b pwid. s
corridor nr l i d d (to provide rrrcn) W n d
which deployment of aircraft mqy b urrkd.
out unobwtval. Discrate bunts M
wad to mtumte r dofarm with Ww tamoh
Ikcoya will employ wnrw iorPa of rdid refiretor,
either corner d b c h h him-
Ionsu, or tlie Uke, .ad n w k mlf-po*usd,
towed, or dlrprued in a manner rimihr to de

UNCLASSIFI
rATMOS-PHERICl
Activo junming requlren the jreneration (or
arapllfic.tion) and, the trm.rmlsicn nf energy
8 by the jamming mum. Two broad ratraaries
nuy be used for wk-trrckhg confurion: I~ut
rim, weight, md dma diuuirnntugea nuke
them of qumtionat~lc vnnlne. Easentinlly the
unls tcrcticr as for cl~aLn uy be employd in
this m e .
Ur-abrurrlsnt mterinl:. In~wrx iutd r i lw
World \Vnr 11, nnd rlcvelopmcnt work with
them continues. Thch pindpls Is simplo; thr
targat objoct ia covered or rturtcd nit11 A mt
e h l that is t m ~ tom la~h ro r that dwr
not re-radiate sigai8eont cmra bnck to the
radar. All forms 02 radar-nbwrlmul matorid
&vebpad to dab lirwe aot bwn ranplrWy
a~tLi&ory for OM of two mnnnN: they m
affretiw only over 8 limited blueacg Mpe
( m n u r t Me&); or si#niRc.mt abnorl~tbn
crrr b obtained only with natinps wcvrnl
w.velangthr thick. Thre mnwi~lsrutiuoa iwve
limited their me on airrrnft, und the prenontly
rv&bk e o ~ t i n pliu ve little pFactiral uwe its r
countermeasure.
:an be ertabliahed. dapnding on thr frequency
hrd occupied by tha jun* a i m l . A wi&
lwLd mystem would be that ndkting e n e ~
over o Imndwidth mutar thu, thst of the
lodvr ~ d n gjm med A aurow band ryatem
would be me rodiytimg in P bandwidth qd to
or I a n than ti;. bmdwidth of the ndu b e k
jammed. The .UI?DW blULd I- have the
ulvMtPge of high power d a ~ i t y(m m.m m -
cycle) for 8 rclrtively small total output pnru.
The wide band ~yrbmr have the upability to
jam n wide nnp of trcquuria and w*uJ
d a m 1imult.nb0urly. Co~idembly mom
jnmmlap ia mquind .to dirrupt the
ndPr than in the c w of th. nurow band
jommu.
AnlmpuIwtru~oubt.lldinl:cwofA W. ~ . .
tonu requiring a wide haquenry band. The
impulse funrUon, rometima 44 tha Dim
or drltr function, k ur utremrly nu- p u b
fn the tinv domain, trnding to zero wldth ln
Uu limit Tblr tuactloa, when tnnrtormd b
tho fmquq b u l n by the Fourlor Intrprrl,
rill rhm fnpuoncy compomatr extondlap
irolll coro to InflnlW In the W t . WhUI r puke
having. mrc rldth in tlm b not rdlrrbk, It
nuy be appnvchad b tho oxteal: of having a
dgaiik.Iltly mkr bmdwic:h thur tho aerptrm
bondwidth of the ndrr to k jammed.
Widrbwlmpt~unm~mqywruLtda
nrrror brnd of nobe whom mitor :rpq.iciigy
b R I p 2 o v a ~ w i d e b o a d , o r i t ~ y c o ~ L t a i
r JIspk coatinuour waw whleh k rmpt in
irrlw~lcyI.n mwrrJ, tho dovrly rwqt ayntwlu
UNCLASSIFIED
a A & T-luiqvr
The l r u r o w band active jamrnem (Fig. 2-19)
m w prutar mphktiretior :L . ,pliutioa m d
in jamming reaultk Their tu makes available
to the junmer the tmhniquu 4 deaeptbn, or
contrutd with the eonfwion trctia generated
by the wide band ~ystcmr. Bauuse the irequency
band occupiad by the nurow band
jamomus !e no greater than tho acceptance
bandwidth of the radar. and M u r e deception
may bo the dwired rewlt of the j d w ,
fairly detaibd characteristics ef the r a d v must
be kwm to the jammer.
The trow bYrJ jamming methods m y cre
continuoua wave ~ignals, either modulated or
modulated, or continuoua random noise, with
the objective of uturating the radar ampliflm.
The uro of -teat wphirtkation in this field
lics in mth& of p u k modulation. Random
pulwa may ha wad with effecb d ~ i htor t hoae
of m adja-ent. friendly rdu; ur true, dceep
tive-modulation rnothorir m y be employed.
y.ln, at which time the jammer r e ~ tbhe
gato stuling cyclc By thk method, range Infoxmation
is &dd b the rdu. and weapon
attack eomputotionr unnot ba made.
(3) Angle TnL B m e k
Sovonrl modukth tochniquen are pmible
for thia purpose, One conaim simply of repeating
the interrogagon with a superim&
amplitude modulation at low freguendm,
thlu cauiug wiae in the radar m l e
tracking channels. This, in turn, will i m e
the avorage tracking error. and &bly cauw
antenna deBee'Jom nulflcient to mue lw of
the target signal. Other modulation ~10thod8,
Mxtivc againrt conical tracking radar& m y
coamirt of "invme gain" modulation. or phase
shift, to prevent the cracking mdrr from nulling
on the true target poaition. Under the
proper conditions, a phue ah% ztpater can
entirely pmvent a tracking rrdor from determining
a tricking error.
(4) Vd.day c.u %.dm
Tlrus repeatem, deafmed for amploymont
againat Doppler dm, operate romawht in
the manner of the range gab stden. 11 thL
caw. tho ramtad i. pmr-ivaly
shifted in frequency. no that the velocity gab
of the Doppler radar Is pulled off targot.
U h IMrLUllWIITlOW
246.1. cI..rJ
Amhnk.a~hprcdinpw.gnphr,
tbom am numerous, poulbh methods of rdu
jamming. However, Evdul i a m t b n of
tho p a y 4 for vuiolu -urn
Kuna b d h t a tht arbin approlchr .rd
n u ~ . I r m ~ . # M t l w t h o t h u r T k
dripna of ownturuuuv rpulplacllt a N
w J I a r p m o f t h * u ~ ~ ; a ( ~ ~ . ~ o f ~ ~ . ~ tiod aqulplluslt dl show th.t th majority
ofJamnwnurrpolWyhtrrpddtoapiWiuonthevnl.
lurbbu~cctrofth.&am. h
dditton, although ~oulltuauuurv t m
zctfve, ciuwiw Ueld, It k limltcd by cornpownt
arrll.wfty. F@r thu nuool* it b
P w w 4 t o u t . w l b ~ ~ j - = w
q u i p l m l t chamchistla. M on oomponemb
pnwntly arrikblc. and on ~~lllpoamtr
UNCLASSIFIED
tbrt am in the &veIopmaut etago but will be
available In the n w future. The rauimalr
that will p r o w k urd in the urly put of
the 1960-1910 decade are dteuuhd in the fdlowing
rub-parampha, and are illurtmaed by
~ c d i z e cdir cuits.
It k to be noted that the following M p
tiom and illurtntionr reprent highly canventionrlized
jammen, u indiertive of
trend8 md equipment cuprbiUtiek The act&
realization of the equipmentr ir a d ~ b l y
more complex undertaking than the diagmm
might indicate. Ig addition, the frequeaciu
and bandwidths indiorted m predicated on
opention betwean 600 and 1,000 mch. A
change of operating frepuencics will require
uwne rudjurtrnent of parameten. For example.
if the opont!-g froquench &re doubled,
either the number of Alten in the benkr m u t
b doubled, if the umr frequency mdution ir
b be o b b h d , or. if thr rpmc number of flltm
u wed, the frepuency re&olution beeouw omhrll
tb.t indicated. These fbcton &m tho
aornul engineering eompmmh tht muat be
made in may u t u t i o a but they rhould be kept
in mind.
2 a A s - m -
ThL unlt dU u- M output tub War
to tbJ ud in the uniform -bmmgm jammu,
An output power of 1,000 mtta will Ir 8vJL
rbk which, 4 t h a noin hodwidth d I =/I,
wUlyialdapo.nrdmdtyof30w/r Tb
nrrprldthrlllbuad.rthowntmlofthr
operator and will utend from zam b MK) me/&
The rwup rate may ba v.rled between thr
Umita of one rwmp per minute to 6,000 rweew
per mcoond Fig. 2-21 ir a block dioprrm of thir
unit. The voltage tuned oscillator will be a
backward nave tube, to provide an octave tuning
capability.
246.4 W hSpo t hmr
Thk unit wiU have the upability of either
rlngls rpot or multiple #pot jamming, at the
operator's demand. In addition, variouo auto
m a t i mod- will k available in either the
ride rpot or multiple mode. In operation, tho
rrcrived radar r i d will be pnmmd in a
Mterdetection bank asd, b w d on that urrlyah,
the appropriate Altar-gate8 will open to
jem the frequency band which watrined the
received & m L Look-through pmuiotu will
b6 p~vidCdt o d b w obse~at iono f the h n d
baing jrmmd permitting the dsimioa to continue,
or not continue, j.mmIng. & ri& rpot
opention, a acqurntiai mode will k mvdlb)e
u well u the autonutic ma&. A imultmwu~
cap&bIr y will providr lnvltlple rpat o p t l o l l
u w d u autonutic modr.
Thr quipnrnt wUI utilize f.000-watt dnol
unplldur. with a modulutia bmdwldth of
5 mc/r providing a powr M t y of 200 watts/
mc, in W l e rpot ODM~@ or 200
mt tdrnc~nduw hen opmted u a multiple
spot jammer. In e i t h u urz thr *rquaacy mtaa
wiU Ir automatic in 6 mdo Inaameut~.
F&. 2-ZL k a block diagram of thin unlt
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
FILTER GITE P7-l
YOOULATloN
+
SOURCE 8AW PASS
FILTER GATE -
AMPLIFIER --) rZ * (WISE)
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
mer. The pmbblc up.blllt~ wlll be from 1 to
10 &. Fig. 2-23 is a bloek diagram of the
unlL
t4SA N.Lw k lR~w r C n t r r
Thk unit will be ac~toautic in o-ffon.
The received dgnal will cause a return s i d
eonshtinp of a large noise pulae at the radar
frequency. The peak power output will k
6,000 wattr. with a noiw bandwidth of 60 mela.
The power density will then be 100 w/mc. The
unit will employ vuinble p u b width, with
delay on return, and will be capble of pond-
Ing to at h t te n radm. A block - of
thir unit ~JI included an Fig. 224.
2 4 7 . wpnih
Thb unit ia typial of device~
wd for range gab IblJinp, or, by
chnnp of modulation far angle trrck
breaking, etc. The unit rhom in Fk. 2-26 +
equipment which would be u d fo r &
stealing. As can be rean, it will rimply provide
a meam of delaying tho received nd.r ri&
for a varjnble period. In addition, the prodsion
for variable p i n u rhown. Thb would
pennit the eq~ipment to oprris u sn -la
track breaker, if invemc gain modulation were
used. The equipment will deliver a peak power
of 1.000 watb at the exact radar frequenqr. I t
wou:d be completely automatic in opedon.
FILTER
DrnICmR
- UNCLASSIFIED
4mgP UNCLASSIFIED
- t
=TAG€ WID0 OAm
TUuED POWER
OSCILLATOR
I-IL
AYPLIFiER
A
7
LOW LEVEL
TRAVELING + V"IULE 4 IWWmAm
WAVE TUBE DELAY , *YPLI."IU
- -- - - -- - UNCLASSIFIED
1. - Artillmy Amnuuition Swie~, Settior
2, Mnt for Tenmid EffectP, ORDP
20-244 Ordnance Corpr Pamphlet, May
1967, ( ConMenttrl) .
2 - Warheadr--Ccncml, ORDP 20-290,
Ordnance Corpa Pamphlet, July 1969,
(Canddential).
3. - Fourth Sppoaiwn on Hyper-Vebeitu
Impact, Vda I through 111, Report No.
APCGTR-6099. Air Proving Cmmd
Center. Eglin AFB, Florida, September
1960, (Uncbified) .
I . - Smilccrr on Hypcwclority Imvact,
BRL Report No. 1101, BR4 Abordwn
Proving Ground, Maryland, Febmry
1960, (Secret-RD).
5. - Small-Amu dmnrurcition, Ikpartment
of the Army Manual, TM9-1990,
September 1947, (Unddlledj.
6. B. A. Muldoon, T e r m i d Ballwtie. Study
of FL17 Fbhette, \VAL TR 763/899,
Wabrtara Anend, Watertown. Maassthud,
(Confidential), ASTIA No. AD-
1113 0117.
7. B. R Xi;li.n. Empi+iocrl A d + of the
Perfomtion of Rolled Cut H-otu
Afior bu Corvm(iacluy Skapui Kinclic
Erc+oll h f e a t i i u of Cdibm 37 nm
thrr 166 mm, BRL ManoMdum Beport
No. 1088, BRL, Aberdenn Roving Cmund.
Y.yknd, June 1967, (Confidential;,
AGTIA No. -143 653.
8. L. Zemv, J, Rcmn .ad I. Usbe-, A
SWWV of tb Ef f a c t ~o f Rotcrtim U r n
Jab from Smooth Lku:rr, TrPauetionr of
SImporivm on Shaped Chupes, BRL Re-
, prt No. 909, BRL, Umdcen Prodng
Ground; Margland, (ConAdentW), ASTIA
No. AD48 899.
9. E J. Eichclbewr, Splr C e i a c ,
Chptrr VIII. "Critical Review of sb.pad
Chgm Iaformirtios" BRL Report No.
w, BaL, - Provk thumt
lavyknd. (CmlldcntW), ASTIA No.
111.
10. J. b g u l and R. J. EMdbmgW, Prsdictioo
of Effwtiwaua of SiLopd Chwua
Warhead Dtwignr, BBL TachnW Note
No. 1296, BJ& Aberdeem Pmving Grouad,
Maryland, January 1960, (CrmBdenW)
11. R. J. Eichelbarger, "%cent Proprrv in
Sbaped Charge Derim Paper No. 1, Drlivered
at the 9th Tripartite AXP Research
Confennee," Canada, April 1969.
(Secret), ASTlA No. AD316 792
12. R. Sewell, et 4 Erpln~ionr in
I m t and ActCo Atmo#phwe8, The Ordnance
G o r p Slupad ReuPrch Report
No. 2-56, BRL, Aberdeen h v h g
Crnund, Ilborylmd. April 1968, (Confidentinl).
13. F. TMet, The Mruhrta, of V-k
Damage to Airmoft Structuw. NAVORD
Report 3490, U. S. Naval Ordnmm Test
Station, China LpkZ California, June
1965, (Confidential).
14. & A. Bethe. et .I, Bhrt W w r , &a Alum@
Scientific LPbonbry, W-2000, A-t
1947, ( U n c h i W ) .
16. - Elnnatr of Annam.sni Engineering,
Pa* 1, 2, and 3, Opdnum Enpihccrlng
Design Handbook ORDPZO.106, 107, and
108, U. S. Amy OlThuce Corpr, Auglwt
1960. (Urnkrri).
16. - Capabilitisr of Atomic Waagolu, hparlment
of thr illrmy Mat&, TX 25-
200. 1967, (c0olldentl.l).
17. 9. Ghmtam, Tk,E ff#ta of Nuclar Weap
ow, United S t a b Atomic EM?& Commisrlon,
June 1961, (UIIJusiflad).
18. - hd Y h . Department of thm
Anny Manual, T1I s1940. May. Xss6,
(u-1.
34. - A*tiUcry Ammunitior, Ikpartment
of the A m y Bland, TM 9-1901, Septembdl
1950, (UnCldlbd).
86. -C tonadur d P y M t 6 d ~ ~D8a,p vtc
mcnt of thc Anny Manual, FIdZW70, OCtnbar
119, (U~~cLuificd).
St). - The Field Ariillcty SumhEi&t Bdtcry.
dparhnent of the Army Uunuol,
FM6-115. Aupud 19h6, (Un~lusiRed).
2-47. BII)LlOGlA?HY
1. G. Birkhok at rl, ex do*^ Wlth Uned
Cavities," Journal of Apl)lilid Physics, Vol.
19, NO. 6, PI, 503-684 JUnC 1848
2. E. 11. Puyh, B J. Eichellwrger and N.
Ratokcr, "Theory of M IZonndion by
Chorgw With Lincd Conid Cavitim."
J o r d of Applied Phydq Val. 29, No. 6,
pp. SS!US6, Mmy 19U
3. R J. Eichelberger and E. M. Pu~h", Experimoatrl
VaiBortion 1 1 tkc W r y of
Jet Formation by Chuycr With Lined
CI7aiE.L CIvlticq" Journal of Applid
Ph,%icr, VoL 25, Na 5, pp. 681-542, ldoy
19bZ.
4. B. J. Eilbezger, "Be-Eu~mirution of
tha Nomteady Thear~o f Jct FOrrmJiOu by
Ltned Cavity Journal of Applied
Pbydca, Val. Z6, No. 4, pp 598-402, April
1966.
5, B J. El-, "Expeciadai Tat of
the T h u y of padtmtion by M c
J a w J& of A W d PhyriCr, VOL 27,
No. I, pp. J ~ W T19 56.
6. - C&iml &oisur of Shpvc cw91
Inforadion, BBL Report No. 906, Bl(t,
Aberdeen Roving G~wndM, aryland, y.Y
lsti4, (CoIIMatLI). ASTXA Na A D 4
811.
7. - TSc CO* S A W C M I
l t a c s d Rqmrt, fonnmrl~ pubbhed p d -
odlcrllV by BRL Abordeen Pmhu
Omund, Mmyknd, rwnuwd by th Otd-
Mzm Colgr ShFd ChuOI h r c h d
Dwdopmant 8traina .nd C k w d h t b
Colmnittw, ( C O W - mod numkn).
.
--
UNCLASSIFIED
R J. Simon. A F k h RodiogrophiS Shdy of
Spa& Annor, BRL Xemotrndum Report
No. 009, BBL, A k r d a n Proving Ground,
Il~ybd, July 191, (ConMcnW,
ASTIA No. AD-76 128.
9. G. BirlrhoR, Mothamatid Jet Theory of
Lined Hollow Ckarger, BRL R e p d N a
370, BRL Aberdeen Pmvinp Cmund,
Maryland, Juw 1943. (ConAdentinl).
10. M. W. Ayton, J. R. Gibron, C. B. GUrtowakf
and B. Bkboe, "Shaped Ch.rm,
An A~lnotated Bibliogmphy," Library of
Con-, Teehnld Infomtfon Divbion,
May 1965.
11. - Collection and A-crnat of
Shoped Charge Dab, Final Reporf Vob.
I, 11, and 111, Arthur D. Little, Inc, 1969.
12 J. M. RagPn, R. J. Eiehelberger, G. E.
Hauver md A. Ilbcnundino, A Critiqus on
the Deagn of the TU Warhead, BRL
Memorandum Report No. 1212, BRL
Aberdrn Proving Ground, Maryland.
JUM 1969.
1s. J. M mlr and B. J. ElJlelberger, J'redietior
of Effrctivme88 of Shaped Charge
W u A d Derigw, BRL Tr/chn&ai Note
1296, M& Aberdcen Proving Ground.
Maryland, January 1960, (Confidentid).
14. - Protection AgniuE Shaped Clbrgu,
NDRC Report No. AJ81, F i r d &port,
C a n q i e Inatitub of 'khaoiopy, undu
OSRD Contract DEhr-960, (Confideti-
M).
IL F, e m,~ e t odf s h a ~C ~ T U U
W14polu, Find Report, Ordnanm Corm
Con- Po, DA-8gOBl4RD-607, Cam
~ g i Iod t u b of TrJrnob~yA, pdl 1980.
16. N. Bataker urd R. J. Elchdkrger, Rofated
CLrgu, Cunegle I d t u b of TachpiObw,
Fourth Bimonthly &Fort, Ordusma
CoPpr Contract N a DA-JB-061-
OW-122, CIT-ORD-S24, Juar lSR2,
I?. J. Simon and T. Spin Cmpnuotb*
of Shaped C h a m Linrn Af(uyf00-
twd 6~ RoUw E t d hat-u, BBL
~ o r a n d u m &port Na 1181, BRL.
Abmb n M a p G mnd, Miu~Ln4Q t
d r lS68 .
l8. R 1, E l c h d w , J. S i i rad R MPmio,
Skprd Ckrgl Prrfomace in U.
New Tank Meir Afiucurt Corsapt, BBL
Mepronndum PIport N a 1186, BRL, - PtoIap Crrmnd. UuUM,
Fabnury 196B. ((C0nMcnti.l).
19. J. Simon, R. DiPernio and R J. Eielkrpcr,
( C l u l i f d Title), BRL M a n o m -
durn Report No. 1231, BRL, Aberdwn
Pmving Ground, MuyIyna. September
1969.
20. R DiPeaio and J. Simon, Xu Empideal
Approock to the De* of Spin Compcnr
a t b Shaped C k g e L b , BIU Memp
randum ReporL No. 1251, BBL, Aberdeen
Proving Ground, MmyLad. Febnrory
1960.
21. - Fundcrma3d, 01 Skpcd Charge#,
Camegie I d t u b of Trdurolow, CITOR-,
Contract DMgOBl-OBD.lZZ,
April 30, 1956,
a. - F U M ot ~shpc~d CI br5~8.
Came& Inntitub of Tuhobgy, CITO
R M . Contract DA-Sg0814B&l!Z!,
Febnurg Zg, l a
29. - Fundwndd of SLoswd Clbrgu,
Camepla Inrtltub of TochuoIogy, Sbhu
Report No. 1, Con&& D&%-0614BCP
394, Jmuuy ai.106C
26. - T m!O S b u l LktrddiISty, Udv
d t y of M i c h i w Emimdw Burch
Iartitub TB-1% ~Uriudbwl). ASTU
Nor -16 781 and 16 767.
28. - sador R.Fetiu. B l w ,
ASTU ~lri-hta,mc mq (SICCBET),
ASTIA No. AXUS 990.
. - .. - UNCLASSIFIED
opr;~phy, ASTIA Refcrcnce Center ARC
1168, Sup. 2, (SECRET), ASTIA KO. AD-
111 674.
39. - Proceedings of tke Annual RADAR
Suworium. University of Michiaan. Will&
kun Lak. annuaily since 19~6,('S ECRET).
40. - Svmpwium. Nezt D e d s in Count
m o r u r c r , Johns Hopkina Uniwmity,
Radiation L&., Tech. Report AF-62, Febnury
1959, (SECRET). ASTIA No. AD-
' 000 370.
41. - Electronic Warfare Syntm Study,
Motomk, In%, (SECi$ET), ASTIA No.
AM04 674.
42. - Study a d Dcvclopnrnt of Deception
Cour3ennsuutw for Tracking Radar#,
RCA West Cosrt Elec Products Dept. 6D-
4819, (SECRET). ASTiA NO. AD404
206.
43. - Ploc&oa: Arlre Comprehn
Synporiunc, R.d.r hb., Borne Air Development
Ccnter, June 1967, RADC-TlL5&
G, (SECRJCT) . ASTlA Na AD448 551.
44. - Tmwtionr of Ann& Electronic
Warfare Symporium. Univcrrity of Michigan
Reamh Irutitute, annually rlaee
1956, (SZCRET) .
lii, - Defmue Agiut ELeetronio Jamming,
Dept. of the Anny Xmurl. FW 11-
161. June 1966. (Undurflled) .
46. L P. Bmpb .ad G. J. B. Flahar, 7b
che1*a Wwfure Swvka: or#amaa#
for Wav, Omca of Ulc chid of Mllttvy
History, lkprxtment of the Army, W d -
ingtm. D. c.. 1969. (UneLullld).
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED -
Chapter 3 0)
TARGET VULNERABIUTT
Section I [ U 1 - ~ e m o r d
Peraunnel are vulnarable to numemw kill
mechnnims, the moet important of which am
fragments, buiiets, flechettas, b h t , toxic and
biulogicvl agents, and thermal and nuclear
rudiation, Although penwnnel are vulnerable
tu earl1 of the kill mechanism in dihrent
w~yst.h e end effect is to render the individual
incapable of performing hir intended function.
Frapmentr. bullets, and Aeehettes are considered
M a mingle c h of kill mechanism bec
a w all cauae their m u l b by penetration
and/or @doration. the^ pmjectiles can pew
bate into the major body cavities and limb to
c a w damgm to the critical tiwurs much aa the
he&, lungs, and brain, utc., thus caudng IW
of fine and conram muacular coordination of the
extremitier Their effects range from Immediatr
death, to incapacitation through I w of the
u r of one or more limbs, to niinor woundn
which produce liltle Immedinte effoct, but
whlch can become lncapocitrtinp if no medical
tnrtmat u rvuihble.
U INCAPACITATION CRllLRU
Aa &bed by current lethality criteria the
h p l l d t a t l o a of r wldier refen to hk inubility
Q carry out hlr w i d duticz A roldter's
oomht duUu we vrrim wd d.pmd upon the
t.dlcrl situath u well u his miltaw mienmt.
Fow military tactkal d t u a t h have
b m & o m for detlnlng incapscitation. Thue
rlhutlonm ur aaanult, &frw. mewo. and
rueply, The ability to m, ,hew, think, and
aol~nrunluta !r conridend u a fudamenhl
d t y in d l of L a dtuat lo~l;o u of them
.bllttla k wumd to be ilr.preit.tiap.
lniurtry d d i r n in uuult dtuaUO111 ur
~ t o ~ u i r o t h e w o f t h e i r u a ~ a n d
I-. The ability to run and to ue both prms k
ddnble, and the ability to move about and C
use ab l e ~otne um Is rurewry. A wldier
cannot cflectively partikipate in an nsevult if
he cannot move b u t and if he cannot uw
handopemtsd wenporn. Thu, incapacitation is
deAnd for the m u l t situation.
In r & f a utuntion a roldier'r need to
move b coluidered minimal aa long aa he can
operate hand wmponr Hu ability to relocate
himself, although deairabke, u not necessary to
the paric~r~rureofr rme valuiibla dutiu.
The third dtuation condderud in tho; of
troop held in Lmeme cloee to the combat zone,
and ready to be committed b the u s ~ u l ot r
defena T h g are coluidered tc be more vulnerable
to hmpacitaUnn than active mmbrt
troop, baruls t h y probubly would not be
committed to action wen if the wounds r e
ceivd wera & t i d y minor.
The fLul dtltuy dkutiw ir that of supply,
which includu vuhirlr d r i m ammunition
handlen, awl r vuirty of other permonawl, padbly
far fmm e0mb.L Tbrw - would b
horpit.lirdupoathebroflurofanumor
kg, or fo3 even krr mrr caw and am
conridered to ba vary vulnerabk to incapacitation.
The time ihcbr awd iu the inapadtrtion
crlWahtbahngthoftimafmmtherwndi
n g t o t h e ~ o i l t E I o f m 3 = P u k r ~
ordination muW& to mdm a man kvciIactlw
inperforppLUbbmimii T o h t r a t e t h m
wedforabai.ebr,auuiduarddivina
ddeaw p a h a i t k not - tht
ha move about. Ha L hit in th. leg by a fngnrrnt
which grwtmtm into tho murk .ad
wvuraprrlphalutuy. A l t h w q h h a w
br finrltd in hL.billtybmar, b k n o t canddmdkrrlwdtrtd
~ , K h e h u w
UNCLASSIFIED
d c n l attention the loan of blood will, in tlme,
prevent him from functioning effectively, and
he mort then be considered a casualty.
Ry~h010giculf a ~ ~ wt ~ill mh . a ~&An ita dfect
on incapacitntion and may even void the
entire organic approach. Among these facton
are the fear of the unknown, M e.-perianced by
"gmmn" boopa, the dect of enemy propaganda,
appnhe~ionc a u 4 by personal problenu,
and e x d o e lore of mental capabilities
or of emotional rtdility due .to prolonged rxpoaum
to phyrica~ danger or to an abnormally
hot, cold, or wet battk&ld environment. Owing
to a lack of mwurement rtsndorda, t h w facton
are not d k u d in th& a t i o n .
Curmnt lethality criteria relate the &ech
of woundr to the functioning of the extremit
i u ; t h d o n . the analyuea of a roldier'a abii.
ity to carry out hL misoion ue based prlmarlly
on the une of the extremities. However, dimt
wounb of rome vital organ, rueh M an eye or
the baut could be Immediately incapacitating
for d l mllltuy ~ i t u a t i o ~ .
I
Tha n*unbiUty of prraonnel to fragment$,
bulleta. and fkchettcu (Ref& 1 and 2) hu be I
dimwad, tbu far, only ln relative term; that
In, a ddler in given oitwtion u either more
or lur vulnmmbb than another wldiw in a
dMhant dtuation. To b u r r penonnel vulnerablUty
quratitatively, requima a mom conurt.
exprrubn of what vulnerability k The
upvlioa mw w d u the conditional .lb
ability, given a hit, that th. tugot jl ilWDJtrtd
Thlr probability L b u d on the mu,
, area, rhape, a d rtriklng *.lodty of the pmjctile,
bocaun Lhw hetom mvvn tho dopth, ! a&4,ud~dBafth~Oud. Thanfartom
ur 0Vdy.w ior &ur tactid dtiutiolv
4 .tpd Uaw from rounding to inuP.eibtion,
u dmcrhd uUer. The u # h W
proedum and the urlyt&l mcwu of q w -
titrtl* dotmnnlnlllg Uu eoadltiolul p r o w -
ity of lnupdt.tioa by frumentr la &en in
- 6 .
M w g h DIWo r ~nQderw u, much
utmorfoxhoh,huadahribhlk*acron
I the wtuU p M U t y of king hit. i t hu m
bearing on the conditional probnblllty, which
aaaumw a hit. However, any combat clothing
(in.. bod/ armor, helmet) nduces the rtriking
velocity of the pmjctik, and hence influencea
the depth of penetration and the c o n d i W
probability that the target is Incapaciuted.
The vulnerability of pemnnel to bloat b dopndent
primplily upon the magnitude and
duration of the peak overpmaure and the
tnnsient winda (dynamic preaaure) which acwmpflny
an explorion. B h t effech may be
conveniently separated into three p h m , duienatd
primary, mcondary. and tertiary (Refr.
s .nd 4).
The Injuriu osroclotcd with primary blast
effects are directly related to the pcpk overp
r e ~ u r ea t the ahock front. The arrival of the
rhock front ir accompanied by a eudden inerenu
in p n u m which may pmduce eonriderable
to the hunun body by muhi,
Qmrp to the c e n h l nvvour rystam, h a r t
fJ1w dlm to direct dlrturbance of the h a r t ,
auffoeatlon by lung hrmorrhyo, dun-
UNCLASSIFIED
rarulf u can cmdhg lajuria from heavy
muru of muonry and other buildhg nut
. r k l s
I The ~wof amor and protective equipment
14~a. p urpose againat wondary b h t edecb
by reducing the velocity of the miasilea, thus
lowering the probability of damage.
Tvtinry b h t effecb are defined aa dunago
which ir a conwuence of phydcol displacement
of the target by the shock wave and the
knrient winds. Damage from displacement
can be of two general types. One type involvea
tho separation of , a limb or other appendage
from the body. The other type rerulb from a
total d i r p b e n t of the body, with the injury
uaually occumng during the deculerative phaas
of the trmalation. Them injurina am comparable
to thoae resulting from automobile and
ahraft 'dents. The extent d the dunage
d m & sn tho portiona of rhe body r u b
jated t~ mcrlorative and decekrative h d a ,
the magnitude of the I& and the ability of
the body to withrtand them I& In the caaa
of nucleu cuplodona, the hroPrcb of violent
impact are of eod&rable importance, becaure
of the great range and long luntlon of the
b h t windo.
M&cdIanrour effrcb of blast can involve expmum
to ground ahoek, dwt, b m p n r t u n
phenomena. contact r l t h hot dust and debria,
d eonfLOrPtlon h u t from blut-produced
dnr
Tb. durn of damage Zlm ganund shofk
con#mr injuriu frum dirplnecmnt. .nd im-
. pret with huvy objects, u noted above. A
runlctmtlp high concanintion of d n t , under
e n c i ~ rmb n c r rh,u l proved fatal rimply
through drpoaib In. and obr t~c t iono f. the
d l .fr rryl ui tha lunpl. Thr dang*~d ep n&
ugw tima of exw. we and thr conctnkUon of
.izcJ d ~mtol w. Th.nnrl injuria
iwlw bwnr fmm thermal ~ d * t b n
end other murcu (Pu.S b).
Wh.0 codbring dunam rrrulting fmm
bbt, It la mt t b NIO, nor ia it prretical, to
coneidor the lsjvrlu on the hair of only one
of th. tbrw phaau Injuriu fmm uplodom.
nlrkV axpbeiotu in particular, am aund by
r a u n b ~ t i o n d . U t h e b L u t ~ m r c b r -
lllrpy. An (LM& of enmbinnd blut injury
n u ~ ~ q u o t d ~ f m m t l m r r p o r t o n t h r
Taur City arplorioll (Bd 5).
"A mm, age thktydm, M )uat eamr fmm
loading one of the .hip md nu standing on
the pier facing the ship When the arpbaion
occurred, he w u blown into the sky m high
that he could ow over a wuahouae ud than he
w u blown laterally into tlu water. He did not
lose con~ciourneu and w u able to mwim k
Iand. The injurier auataind w u r pdoratlon
of both eardrums, n v m rePlp lacerations,
were laceratiom of left upper um with extensive
infection, left uLnu (forema) padyria,
and laceration of the right ba" All thm
domrge p h w s were involved in rhk accident.
The perforation of the urdrumr multei from
the primary b b t eKwta, md a rombi~t iono f
secondary and tert*ry effbctr uuwd the IWCationa
and punlpia.
The vulnerability of pammnd to fL* and
thermal radktlon probably an b d d W
beat in bm of their u dunv d
Auh bums, mspetrurly. Tlu two typm d
burma ran uaually b diat;yukbd by tbe rhr-
.ctstirtlc-prod& w t u n . tbr h r h bum u
cumpard with o v d h ing by hmr h.
Uruolly &ah b u ,m..v a U d t d to rrmrll
MU of the body not c o v d by .hirldlng, 8rudr
u clothillp. FLUJI. bum, an Uu other hand,
will cover l@rm.n u of t& body, bcruw tba
clothing will u t h on fL..
The mverity of h r h bunv rill mnga from
mild uyth- ( d d d n g ) to M u g d tb
ouknnort bvr of the a k 4 with tb. wvrPity
being d o h i n d by Uw UIUP.I energy
mcdvd and tho nb *t vhleh tb k
d e l i v d . With h r b bum thrr k m w
eumulatlon of Ouid u m k t5r &u, u thau L
with h m o bunu Lulllttn tb.OIpLhof
puutntionLcoDlldwrblyluthathtud
t d with injuriar uuvl by dinct har.
'd-
Whrn dm or th& ndirtlon uu the
m u & of bomb the inupreitating efYecta of
bU?L 8U6hhd 4 1 1 k Ufld
muw of the madiul facilities wil! be either
damwed or deatmyed. As a result, n~edicaal ttention
will not be available.
34. llOLO61CAL AND CWOUICAL AGENTS
Biolopical and chemical warfare agents ore
dWned primarily aa anti-personnel agents.
BiolopicaI unrfare .k the dlitLy uae of living
onmima, or their toxic pmducta, to enure
duth, dhbility (either tempomy or permancat),
or d.nmm to man, hia animab. or his
crops. Chemical warfare I8 the military use of
'bxic gases, Iiqub, or rolida to pmduce wudtie8
(Reh 6 and 7).
Bioloaial warfare agenb nre anlectod to
pmdrm m y ru ultr, from brief but crippiing
dhaw to widapnd aerious illners muking
, ia many dm* depending on t h drtr def
ml. Chemical warfare agenta euus i m p c i -
i tation by choking, blood poisoning, htruction
of the nervoua sydern, rhock, vomiting, rnd
vuioua other &ect 1.
Due to the aeriouma of the dectn, and
became theme wnb are daimed primully
fur we aprIrut ~ n n c l it. i s 8uft\clent to may
that pernomiel ue vulnerable, and that the
ellecta depend upon the putlcukr agent, the
concentration, and the duration of expoawe.
Aw Pndlrcipllard p m u ~p. rllcularly without
pmtrctive .gear rwh u MJU, would k
uplci.lly v u h b l e to euualtiea and to pmic.
witb complete demmliitlon muking u a
ucoadvy &ect.
Yort elbeta of nuclear rdi.Uon on llvlnp
I o r g d a m depend not only on the total dme
abmorbd, but dm an the mte of .brmp+!!
mdtheruioaaadaxhntofthbodyrrrpad
Howavor, r few mdiation ph- rurh u
metic @a& wpnrentb dcpnd oIlly upon
the totrl d- lsaived and are independent of
the rate of dlvery. In other wonlr, the drruam
eolud to the reproductive celb by rdlrtioa
is cumulative. In the majority of inrtoncer
the rate 4 drllvary h the important factor;
that is, biological sffect of a given total dose of
radiation demm.d aa tbe rab of uporwe
decnirsca. For instance, if the whole bqy were
exporad. 800 roentgens in a aingle doae would
have a high pmbnbility of king fatal, but it
would rot caw death or hm; any notieuble
clinical effacts if aupplied evenly o m r period
of 26 to SO yeam
Different portiona of the bod:. ahow different
ranaitivitiea to 2adf.tion, although t h m are
undoubtedly v u l s t i o ~o f degree among individuda
In pnml, the moat radlo-wdtive
parb include the lymphoid tiuue. bone murow,
rpleen, o rmu of ~ u e t i o n ,d
outrointeatiaol tnct. Of in$mnediab mitivity
M the din. lungi, kidney, uul Uvu;
h e n u mu& rod full- mum bonw UI the
k t aenritlve. l'hoae pnrta that a n the m t
rdlowneitive are not obie to replace the dmaged
rlL,wtherabofrep).crm~1t14lorlow
thac the i u n d o d ability ia impairad.
Although 8 lups d m (460 mntpw or
ma*) will genenlly be faW if adminktad
w e the whole body. the urw doae mceivd i!n
a amall 8- m y mult In conddedh L?-
to th.t but o v d l h d t h oi f h bdividlul
nuy not be eerlwrly S R d . One of
the wrruu for thin difference L that ahao the
u p o w * k r y ~ t h e ~ l U & r u
cm conMbute b the ppuovezy of the d u d
usr Tho ahcb of cow will, tbmfom, 10..
duma the mount of aposula. d t b u the
number of inup.dt.tfona.
UNCLASSIFIE
MU cletcrmine the fun&?n or battldeld mle
of tbe vehicle. For example, a c a r g o y i n p
dl&, wheeled or tracked, armored or UDmimed,
hu logistic support M its role.
In general. ground vehiclea are vulnerable in
varying degrees to shell fragmenb Md armorpierdng
pmjectllm, blaat, h, t h d and
nuclear radiation, shaped charges, electronic
jamming of communications equipment, and to
my of these or other kill mechan&ms which
m d e c t the crew. Vulnerability to fngmentr
and projectiles d e p d s on the type, amount,
and obliquity of the armor (if any), and on the
MIO, shape. and striking velocity of the impacting
projectile or fragment.
In m y vehicle vulnerability oreesvnont the
crew murt be considered as a factor. The crew
of a mft (anannored) vehicle, unlike an aircraft
or armored vehicle crew, are not n o d l y
conriderrd to be a vulnerable part o< the vehicle.
because replacements should k avdloble
from the dher pnr& of the vehicle convoy. On
the other hmd, L might be poeaible to immobilize
an armored vehicle simply by inuprcitating
the c m .
Nuelear weapon effactr i~xlude: init&tioa of
h a a d datruction of protective eosthgs by
thermal radiation; enuhillp of utemd q u i p
ment, and overturning by b h t ; and rdiatiun
damage to organic compoundr, optid1 eierr.:~dd
.Ild dectronic componmtr. Vulnemblliy &
usually nlvtd to weapon yield, &tonee from
d e W o n . tppe of bunt, and environmental
.nd terrain condltiolu.
34.1. h a d
Armored vehiclea can be divided into two
bnsic gmupl: thoae meant ta pnrticipnte in the
~ ~ s e uphl ats es of oRaatve combat, the armored
ttghting vehicle (AFV) ; and &are Intanded to
participate in offarive cnmbet, but not ordinarily
in the assault. of which type the
m o r a l infantry vehicle (AIV) and the
armored self-pmpelled d l l u g piece (AAV)
am examples. h u l t , in this context of off
u i v e combat, in the fiarl mtep in the attack
duriw which the objective is physically overrun
and t a b
The relative mount of armor protection of
the A N , as wmpMd to the AIV and armored
artillery vehicle (MV). b dktinguiahinp
feature becauae the NV t the only vehicle
speeiticaIly ded& b defeat umor-piercing
pmjectilu arid rhpd ~~
The AIV mpmmtr a e l m of umomd.
tracked w h i c h which is adaptable to 8 wide
variety of uwa on the b.etle6eid A few ar
m p h us annored pwwmd cprriers, mortar
d e n , ambuhnuq ud commrsd port vahiclu.
Kncrswd mobility and limited probetion
to the infantq are pmvidd by the
u r n 4 pemml artiez d AIV, md to
utiUery wr~po~~mdcrewaintheandthe
AAV (Ref& 9 and 10).
The AFV is typilbd by the tank. which ~mnbfnu
the favmbk uuult chrretsrirtia of
great ikepower, mbilitJI mhock .etlon, .tul
annur grotaction. In the wrnul eombst rituat
i o l l d s r t r u c t b a o f t b a A F V i l ~ ~ u L s d ,
mme of b ~ t . t f i r cdru nuia luorlly
being sumcient.
Aarrefuswhd*cectaindamgeutegoricr
hove been ovtrbllrhd for the AFV.UMw
dutuga will ecnw ooidplrta or putid inmobilln
t f o n o f t h e v r b U F ' ~ a u r a r a r m -
pletrcrr putklkudtbmS~ofthevehide
to lh its main u m ~ e nmt d machine PIN.
CLASSIFIED
YK" duarpa rill mum tho wbkle to b
datroyrd (Bd. 12). mleu Iev& of dnwge,
crmr~demd to ba hdr of funetionrl Impair.
mnt, are described fully in Ch. 6.
he Yubembillty of an AFV ir urllllly
thought of in term of its reaiatanca to p d o m
thr by ai-mor-piercing projectiles, shell fraymatts,
and ahaped charprr, and by ita
rtructunl mkturea to b h t from nuchar
drtonatlm or HE projectiles. In actuality, the
vehicle or i b internal eamponenb may be
damaged to Mme d mby mechanism which
will not ordinarily destroy or cripple the va
hid..
For example, bullet apluh from rmrll umr
pmjeclilu may enter W, exgowd openings
and chmnces. (Bullet mluh in dotined u the
dirponion of flnely divided or melted metal
which k produced upon tha impact of r projo
tlb on umor pbte or other hud objcetr). The
rplub pu(lclu Pave bwn known to antu
opmiapl .ad d e tw o or t h rig htrprk
tunu bafom lo8ing owugh onmy to be nub
IotbJ. The air prillu of onxino eomputmmb
ur normdly rurrptiblr to the puu9c, of
Wub, beuuu they ua d m to d o w the
:n'urna of e~llIcknt air to -1 the &ne.
Tha durma MUDd a gun rhiald ir atlU
n m t k loca.tlo whom bpluh may e n k .
When the AFV h attacked with projoetiler
of vulour diben. it k pouibb for movable
conpoamb to bcome redgad, bumd. or do.
f d in m ch a nuanor that tMr wfulnw
la hprlrd Thie la tannod immobilhth of
the psrt k u eoatwt*d with immobition of
the complob wh;cle) Movable wmpomk includd
mch Itmu u hatch c o r n gun r h b b
~ t 4 n k ~ , ~ t h e ~ ~ t u b . .
High wiva blut (or nuclear blut)
~ m r y b r i n c u r m d i n A F V ~ r t r u ~
htrs, ~ . U~Yh th blut dkt k condnd.
The impacting wave front will cuw thr
anmrpkw to.mIlke rllutblemrmbnarm
that It *tea h.clc ud forth lib a drumhead.
Thlr uolr plmmmon map Jlo be i n d u d by
th of ~ p i u r dp lr O~j d l ~T he
nrultiw hid- rnd low-treqwnc~r ribnllom d
the rtrrPetPn impow r rho& which k a ruddm
c- in the motion of the rydem that
UNCLASSIFIED
hides are more likely to veer into mine Wds,
whem many vehicles will a t leaat becoma "M"
damaged. Molly of those tonh not immabilized
by miner will be nude so by f i t b h t d e c t
irom HE ahells againat the vehicle ~uspenaion
rystun. Once the vehicle is a atationpry target.
it ia more likely to be hit by direct-llre antitank
weapons, where an "F'" or "K" kill can be
more easily accomplished. In addition, the
stowed ammunition and fuel in the vehicle provide
a source of destructive energy which can
be igdted, thereby damaging the vehicle.
34.3. Armend Infantry and A m r o d Artillery
V.Wea
The AIV and the AAV we provided with
limited armor protection, consistent with their
weight Umltations and tactical roles. Such
umor in resistant (at rome given range) to
rmall rms Ate of caliber .SO or leu, high exploaive
shell fragments, and blad (up to a cert.
in size aheU pa rpecified for the vehicle). The
AIV and AAV am generally vulnerable to any
anti-tank weapon. This includes such devices
u amdl caliber anti-tank weapon8 which fire
AP projctiiu (U. S. 9. B. 14.5 mm. for example),
the smallest shaped charaw c u m t l y
u d by infantry troop. and almat any antivahick
land mine.
The function of thew vehiclw doea not requim
that they aeek anti-tank mponr; rather,
they attempt to avoid them. For eumple, M
umorsd utllhy vehicle d w not nonnrlly
raeountar emny gun poritions; themfom, it#
umar L M upon providing proWon only
-t rhell fragment8 and rome HE b h t
frma counter-httery Are. Nor i the m r e d
infantry vehicle intended to w u l t hoatlle gun
podtiom. Th. umored infantry advance u far
M &ble in their permnuel udem, dic
mounting when forced to by anemy &r or when
maling the ilorl uuult upon the objective.
The vehicular wc.ponr of the pmonrrcrl arrim.
either mountehr dhmMlntaa, may then
be used to support the attack from appropriate
positionn (Refs. 9 and 10). The AlV thua provideu
rupport but avoida direct fire upon itself,
b u r e it irr protected only by thin annor.
3-10. UNARMORED VWlCLU
The category of unarmored vehicles includes
two h i c types: t h a trannporttype vehicles
(trueka, tractom, jeep, ek.) which hnve logistical
support of combat forcea aa their primary
mission; and unnrmored wheeled or tracked vc
hiclea serving pr weapona Evriern Unvmored
vehicles are ofbu referred to aa "roft" vehiclea.
An unarmored vehicle k not only vulnerable
to all the kill mechanisms which can be ured
against annored vehicles, but rko u vulnerable
to most anti-penonnel w(ypopu ( d e c r i i b e c
ball anlmunition, anti-pommel mines, many
aheU fragments which annot perforate light
armor, HE blmt, e k j . A quantitative ~ u u m
of minimum-hnage w l n e d i t y for much a
vehicle t to conaider it a cuualty L' a part
neceaaary for itr operation is d m a g d to a degree
whlch c a u w the vehicle to atop within a
apeciAed time limit. Although most of the prr
uenied a w of rucb a tuget, at urnm g h n
aapect, may be perforated by projectile8 or
fragments without their &rik& a component
required for opmtion, romr of the components
essential to operation (electrical. fuel, l u b l i a e
ing, and cooling syQm) are eapcd.lly vulnerable
to impacting objecb Th- componcntr
a= considered to be the parfa mat Hkdy to
fail u~lclara ttack.
! INCLASSIFIED t
,. The cllecb of uch of the pouible damage
machurtrm are produd by difIerent meuu.
Therefore, pay study d t e d with a puticular
claw of structure mwt be cond& with
reapat to a particular damage mechanism.
When a tnr(tat is exposed to a weapon which
pmducea aeveral damage mechanisms. much ps
those produced by a nuclear weapon. the passible
syltergistic effects are ignored because the
problem becomes too complicated. Only the
mechanism most effective against the particular
target is employed in the vulnerability anaiysis.
Although structures are vulnerable to the
great majority of kill mechanism, only air
blast, ground shock, and fire wil! be cowidered
in the discusaion of vulnerability which follows.
These phenomena are coxwidered ur the most
probable meehanirm which will completely destroy
or aeverely damage t h d ctructure. Both
surface and subsurface structures will be cona
i d e d in the diacurrion.
With mpect to air blast, t h l~oa ding, in
magnitude and dumtion, a d the deflection and
ahticity of the tar@ element are the prime
variabla alkting the degree of damp. The
targat rim and ecnngorition influence tht loading
transmitted to the structure, by making it
primarily either more suaceptible i o diffraction
loading or b the drag forcea produd by the
dynamic preasurrr. Surface atruduuns are
usually moat vulnerable to air b U .
Ground shock L primarily etFective a g a i ~ t
rtructuw I d unde rground. The intensity
of the hock wave. the type of soil f o d ~ n ,
.nd the flexibility of the s t r u d m are moar significant
in determining the demx of damage.
Structural h aa re d y a rec ondnry mul t
of uwe other damage mech.niam.(For nuclear
weapon& primary thermal radiation mqy p m
duce the flrm.) Nevertheles, in mnny caaea,
the flre will spread auflciently to caw severe
damage well outside ,the lethal radius of the
primary effect. The vulnerability of a sfructure
to flre ia largely dependent upon the cornbwtibilify
of the building and its content&
Detailed information oansming the MInerability
of mund rtnrcturea to the above
mentioned damage mdchrniama L presented in
the tollowing pgea. Additional infomution on
target wpom may be found in Ch. 7. Par.
7-17. Data A t e d b tug& v u l n e f l & ~ n -
alyaia and computation of damage probabilitier
k found in Ch. 7, Par. 7 4 .
a (U) Cerurd
The loading on an object exposed to air b u
is a combination of the forcu exerted by the
overpressure and the dynamic p w u r e of the
incident blaat wave. The loading at any point
on a surface of a structure can be described M
the sum of the dynamic prespure, multiplied by
a local drag aoeficient, and tile overpmuro
after any initial reflwtiou hnvo cleved the
structure. Since the loading chDnpeo rapidly
during the time the blaat wavr ia relleetinp
from the front surfaced and diffractii around
the structure, loading generally compriaea two
diatinct phanea. They are: Ionding during the
initial diffraction p h w (Ch. 2, k IV); and
loading after the diffraction is complete, w
drag loading (M. 16).
Air blruh originate from two rourecl, nrrncly
conventinno1 high-axphive we%poau and nuclear
ve:lpona The ioadinp that result from
the two murceg differ due to the diffcrencc in
overprarrular and duration of the porltiw
phaae of the blaat wava Air blaab from mnventional
high-exploriva have n l r t iwl ~h r t
poaitive ph.ser; therefore, the multing iodinga
are more importaat during the didlrctim
phua. The conaidenbly longer podtivc phaam
of the blaat wavm of nudear sxplor io~n~uk e
the reaultlng l d i n g a rlpnifiant during both
the diffraction and drag pham. Figure a1
ahowa the effeeh of the nuclear bomb explorion
at Nagasaki.
b. (C) fmdfn# DIuhg the rn$?dmPkw
(U) A large c l d rtmcture with wr!b that
remain in* thmughwt moat of the lord d ~ &
tion ia prtmuily a&itive &rinp tha diRmctiun
phase, rime most of thr tranalatbnal lod
k applied during thh period. As the blvt wave
strikes thia type of Ihucture., it L rrllectad,
Crenting overpnrrures m t e r than thme hi-
UNCLASSIFIED
Flpw* 3-1. Arw Around (irwnd Zero af
Narmki, Iklom and Afhr r h . Atomic E~plorlon
dent thereon. Subsequently, the reflected over
prwurc decays to that of the b l a~wt nve. As
the bkrt wave p r o m , it diffracb around
the structure, eveutually exerting overprrssuw
on a11 d d a . M o m the btut wave d e a th e
mar f w , overprrsclures on the fmnt exert
trannbtional force in the direction of blast
wave propagation. After the b b t wave reachea
tlw m u face, the overpreaoum on the rear
tcnd to counter the overpmsum on the fmnt.
For rmrllor strueturn, the b h t wave reache8
the rear face rpom quickly, ro that ths prcrrure
diRerentii gbts for a shorter tima Thus, the
net tamalationml losdlnp raulting from o w -
prcllum during the diffraction phase depends
prlmPrily on &-udun! dhensiors. For rome
structures when wall f d u r e taka plam euly
in the M y ~ B o np hue, only the atructurJt
fr8ma may ramni;r, and eJIenciolly no
I n d h truudtted to the rtructunl frame
during the rcmrinhr of the dllFrrrcti0I.l
proma. A longer dwatton blut wave does not
materially change the aypnitude ol the net
t r ~ l a t i o n d loading during the diffraction
phaae, or the resulting damage. In other words,
the structure is primarily aenaitive to the peak
blast wave overpressure. Table 3-1 lista thoae
types of structuw which are generally d a t e d
primarily by blaat wave overpressure during
the diffraction phase (Ref. 16).
c. (C) Loading During h Drag P h
(U) During the diffraction phase, and until
the blast wave haa passed. dynamic pressures
are also exerted on structures. Dynamic pressure
loading is commonly referred to os drag
loading. In the case of a large. closed structure
the drag phase loading is mull relative to the
overpressure loading during the diffraction
phase. For mvller structures, the drag phase
mumes greater relative imporbnee. For small
area components such M the frame of a stmc-
Lure after removal of siding, the translatio~l
had applied as a result of the drag phase is
much m a t e r than the net translationaI loading
from overpreaaurea during the diffraction
phase. For frame buildings with siding removed
during the diffraction phaw, the drag
phase is the predominant foctor in producing
further damage. Likewire. for bridges the net
load during the difTraction p h is applied for
an extremely short time, but the drag phaae
continues until the entire blut wave pawed the
structure. Bee~uaet he drag phua duration ia
cloaely relrtcd to the duration of the blart wave
overpressure, rather than to the overall dimensions
of the structure, dunage ia dependent not
rnly on peak dynamic p m r e but also on the
duration of the poritive phase of the b h t
wave. Thus, h p e to thin type of atructure
ia dependent on weupon yield M well aa peak
target loading.
(U) Table S-a lhtr those typel of atmctum
which ate sensitive primuily during +h drrp
phaae. Some elemclll of a structure may b
damaged more by Ming during the diffraction
p h a , other elements of same stnm
tum may be damaged mom by the drag phua
The dimensions and orientation of a rtructun
together with the n u m k and ucr, of the openlngm
and the rapidity with which wall and mof
1 JNCLASSI
- d m
D.uwrdsurun
Yu.. UN. ulrt
Multi8by trinfomd con- Wall8 ILI*rrd arv8re WdL enrkd. building
err* building with rein- S w e dirtortion, ioeibi- rlightly d*brtd, fa.
f a d eonerct* wa:lr, ent m l k p ol fint llom t-yr damaged.
blur m8irt8nt duigned, eclumnh door8 blown In o r
no xi- thm &tory. Ju~ldSo.l ru 8P.lling
of mncmh
CI. Lilding, xith eon-
& wall* omdl window
Yultiatory wall-baaring Benring walk cdkpu, re- E x t e r i o r wnll8 W l j Window8 a n d Qon
building, briak apartnuat rultlng in -1 m l k p u -M, inbriar pa- blown in. Inbrbr
huuu type, up to thm of ttructun. # u bully cmckd or ~ i t l o l cun rLek
rMr u k * ~da m.
IlultMory wrll-bearing Buring.rll# c d l a w , rr h t d o r walb f r i n g b i u t Wisdown a n d doon
hlldly, monum*ntal ~ l t i n g b d l l a p . of M l y eneked, lntarbr b l o u n In. I n M o r
tip. *. .truetun ruppartal by pu(itbru bully mokd, pMtbnu cnoird
hrJL.bhbrt'- d t b o u g b b N d f u m d
l n g wall. may be of building dunyr m y
lhwdd @nough by in- ba nducd.
For each mpraentaiive 8trnctunl type lkhd
C l t I J . t U i I . c c 1 1 ~ l R . b . l 7 ~ ~ 8 ~ . 1 1 ~ i) n T * ~ 1 ) - 1 ~ 8 3 , ~ l r l ~ r l r -
~~ chamkridiar chknnining re ti= &re limbr ewugh that rtructura of a
uitimb Itrrnplh* given type am fonridercd to mpond to ap- tiod oi vibntion, ductility, dimcnrlonr, .nd pmxkaaktbhe d- under Urn- - DWiW in- & dility of s -* lalacgondi *nr, bpib . -- tun to abwrb enem, and in- it. mLb d- - fO WIu,.,,. Brittle &,,&,m. ,"& u *- * i b of u~~ for tpps .
d than horizontal loads. Consequently, they reflection region, dunage fmm the s ~ m tpe ak
are mom d t a a t t o a load imposed on the top loading is likely to be l m ~th n dunope to a
of a rtructure thn to an egwl load hpcMd aimilnr 8trudure in the B b h rrflectimn &on
rprinat a side. Thus, in the early regular- (Ch. 4, k I).
TABLE ~2 (a. DAMAGE to TYPES OF STRUCTURES rRikl*nw U K ~ D BY
DYNAMIC PRESSURES DURING THE DRAG PHASE (U)
Light r h l ha indwrrL1.~ S e w n dfatorrian of t r a m Some dirtortion of frame; Windows and doon
bulldlng, ain8Ie story,. (owhalf mlumn height m n u , if any, not o m blow in. Lirht aidwith
UP to 6-0s c n n i defllaion). able until repain ride. ing ripped off.
capacity. Light.wigh!,
low-ntnngLh walls fad
qukkiy.
Hesvy &I lnarn indur-
1 building, single
#tory, with SO-ton cnne
capacity. Light-uligbf
Iow4rmgth walk fail
quickly.
Multlrta y atad fnnw odln
t y p buildinc, (LM Mry.
L i r h t - w e i g h t , low-
&an#Q d l l fail qulcklY.
MulUItory ninforad eonm*
zram ome4 typ
building. Ilw I t o ~L. i ghtwdght,
lor-ahmath w d b
fail quickly.
Highmy and Aircud tbridp#,
rp.na of 1W int
. t o r n f e e t
Floating bridges, U. 8.
Amy hndard M 4 and
Y4, nudon or*.t.Uon.
h r t h eowmd Urht nln-
I w r d o o n c l r ( . ~
rlul S-fmt pfmimm oo*.
ar (2 to 8 lnrh prrlr
rlth b.au m C f d
aarm).
Sevem distortion of trams Some distortion of Windows and doom
(one-half column helpht m n r , if any, ,wt oper. blown in, tight liddellcction).
able until r e p a ~ nm ade. iu* rip@ or.
Setm !ram dlatnrtion. F m r distorted modnc Wiadawo and doon
Inclpimt mlhplc of ably. I n t e r i o r m i - blown in. Light lidlower
door mlummu. Uona blown d o n . i.t ripped On, In&
r i a r p e r t l t i o n m
e m k d
Wrn f n w dhtorLkn, Fnma dihrtad nuder- Wlndowa ud doom
Inrlplrat d h p n of ably, I n t e r i o r ~.rLi- bkrn in. Ught #Idlower
Iloor mlurmu. tiona blown down, Soma iv r l p p d On. htasp.
1Ung of eancmtr. r i e r partitions
avlud
Total f.iltm OK I a t m l 9oma fallun of Lknl &&ty ol brldga .b
bndng. collapnr of bazing luch that bri* ,- Slight dl,
b*. capacity i # Nduad tdbnd-Mdn
about 60 per m~k mmwon~th
Ail anehoragw torn loor. 1Y.n~b ridle rhea h d a , Sam bridle h a b
eonnectiona h e e n b r i b & h d m .fuC , k,b ridga o.priQ
tmdways or Wk and maU, m m mmctmu
k t r tdrtd and tom b ( m n trwdr*yl or
-P.lnd
how, m y k t r mtnk balk ud ihb torn
bPu.
In the case of earth-~~vereludr face struehuar,
the earth mounding reduca the nktlon
factor and impraw ths aerodynamic
shape of the structure. This resulta in a large
reduction in both horizontal and vertical trans-
Intional forces. It is estimated that the peak
force applied to the structural elements is reduced
by a factor of at least 2 by the addition
of earth cover. The structure is somewhat
stiffened against large deflections by the buttressing
action of the mil, when the building
ir sufficiently flexible.
Air blmt L a h the determining foctor iu
the damage to surfaee structures resulting
from relatively shallow underground bunts.
However, the distnnces from weapon bunt to
target, for a given degree of dam-, a.* e reduced
from those for a aurface burst.
a B r L 01 C&uiJEall.m
A major foctor to consider in -ing
structural dnmage ia the effect of the damage
on continued operations within the structure.
If rugged equipment is mounted on a foundation
at m u n d level, major distortion or even
colapse of a structure may not preclude operation
of the equipment. Conversely, if the
equipment is tied in with the rtructural frame,
dirbrtion of the structure rmy prevent or retiourly
affect operability. No satisfacWry genem1
method hrs been developed for relating
damage of rtrueture8 to the damage to operat
i o d equipment eonWnad in tha rtructurek
This relationabip may be esbbiiehed for part
i i l a r cuae~o f intereat on an individual brais.
In general. mre structunl damage appmaching
coilape enWb a reduction in operating
erpability.
Due to the diUerencea between conventional
and nuelear bomb, their damage clsruifidona
w different. Since the effectr of conventional
bomb are ururlly Iod on a large structure, or
u ~ l n dth e point of burat, then are two dam- - bificationa: "atructural"; and "super-
Lclal." The damage hcriptiom of these two
elPlLIKL are umilar to the kst two clasaea for
nudwr explodom, u indicated below. Iu the
case where the structure L mull, the at^^-
turd claanifiution for conventional bobomba may
extend into the flnt claw lkted Mow.
There are three damage clRsDifications for
nuclear explosions, described in following subpangrapha.
A more detailed description of the
application of these ciarpifi~tiona to specific
targets isgiven in Tables 9-1 and 3-2 (Ref. i6).
(1) Scvue Damyle
That degree of etructural damage which
precludes further use of a structure for the
purpose for which it is intended, without ewentially
complete reconstruction. Requires extensivc
repair effort before being us~blef or any
purpose.
(2) Woderme Damage
That degree of structural dvmage to prindpal
load carrying membera (trusses, columns.
hems, and load carrying walls) that precludes
effective we of a structure fur the purpose fur
which it is intended. until major repain are
In&.
(3) Wl D-we
That degree of damage which m u l b in
broken windows, flight damage to rooting and
siding, blowing down of light interior partitiom,
and alight cracking of curtain wrllr in
buildings. and M d d b e d in TPbkr 3-1 a d
3-2 for other structum.
Ground ahoek h u to be .w intenae in order
to mure mriour damage to foundrtiom of cim
face rtructorrr that the damaga p r ~f.o r them
structuru & contlned elowly to the cmbr M.
of a r u r b or underground bunt. Since the
air b b t a t these ranges will be moat davaeltfng,
the ground hock damage L neglected.
The vulnerability of a structum to !Ira L
dependent upon many facton. h e of thane
factor6 &re: tka combwtlbliity of the building
and ~tcro ntentr; the &dance and adequacy of
fimtop hrtitioaa, etc; the weather condltiom;
e t c
UNCLASSIFIED
Fim caused by highsxpldve and nuclear
bombs am for the most part, except possibly in
the cane of high-mepton yield nuclear weapons,
due to secondary blast eff~ectsT. he majority
of such Am are caused bv the breaking
open or upsetting of tanka, druma, pipes, ovens
or furnaces containing hot or highly inflammable
materials, or by electrical short circuits.
In the case of the nuclear bomb, damage also
may result from thermal radiation. Primary
thermal radiatior. is seldom n factor in damage
to structures. However, since exterior and interior
surfaces of many structures are covered
with protective coatings ( p i n t ) , theqe covetinga
may be scorched a t muderate levels of
thermal radiation from the flrabn!l. All stroctuns,
whether principlly of steel and concnte
construction, or of wood, contain some combustible
material, and it is likely that some
kind of kindling fuels rill & present. Therefore,
the possibility must always be considered
that flre may be initiated in kindling fuels and
spread to other componenb.
Certain c h e s of surface structures, such as
badly weathered or rotted wooden buildings.
buildinga with thatched roofs, houses with
Incqued paper windows, etc., mny be ignited
by direct thermal diation, with resultant selfswtaining
fves (Ref. 15).
3-13. ( C ) UNDERGROUND STRUCWRBS
Air b l u t is the controlling factor for &mp
to lightweight soil.eovered structum and rhallow-
burid underground structuwr. The mil
covet providu surface structure3 with substPnt
i 1 protection against air blast and also with
m a protection against missiles.
Light-weight shallow-burid underground
structum are these eawtwcted dwp -ugh
for the top of the soit cover to be flush with the
original grade. However, they ue not rufflcintly
deep for the ratio of span to depthofburial
to be large enough for m v benefit to k
due to ground hock tehtion a t the intorface
between the so11 and t& top of the otnrctum
Soilcovead rtructuma u e t h m that have a
mound of soil over the portion of the structure
that in above normal ground level. 'l'he soil
rno~md reducu the blast w~?ectiov factor and
improves the aerodynamic r b p r of the structurc.
This resulk in s conrjdede reductior.
in the applied ?-~l~alotionfdo rces. An additional
benefit of the mil cover the stiffening
of the structure, or the additional inertia, that
the soil pruvides by its buttressing action.
The lateral presrures exerted on vertid
facea of a buried structure have been found to
be about 1G per cent of the prrrcrurer on the !
roof in dry, d t y mil. This lateral prwure is
likely to tK mmewhut higher in pneral, and
may approach 100 per cent in u porous, moisture
snturated roil The p~~ exertad on
the bottom of a burid structum in which the
I
bottom dab is a strurtural unit integral with
the wails may be M low as 73 per cent of the
roof pressure, but may range up to 100 per cent
of that PNWJN.
I
The damage that might be ruffend by a
shallow buried rtructure will depend on a nunbor
of variaMcr. including the ~ c t u r r rcl h m
actehticl, the d u n of the roil, the depth of
burial, and the downward prcsatm (i.a, the
overpreuure) of the air blrs: vc;.e
1-6-),. .
3-133. Cmwl UwL
An underground ahxtura CUI be designed to
be practically immune to air b h t , but such
structum era be damaged or dwtmyed by
cratering or by mound akock dua to neusurface,
true-rurface, or an underground burst.
The mechanism of dunage to underground
rtructurw from ground .hock and crabring is
dependent upon uvr?:d mom or 1- unreiatcd
variablm, awh u tha rho, h p e , fluibility,
orientrtion of the rtrueLutP arlth mpt to the
explwion, .ad the cluract8ktla of the soil or
Ilmct of the plutic zone (roughly 244
timu the ark ndiur).
5. The zone in which transient ewth mov*
m a t occun without mururabk p?mnent
detonnatlon.
The shock parameter mainly ~ p o ~ i bflore
danmge hns not bee11 ddned either thearstid
y or empiricdly. However, there is conaiderable
evidence that the delp.ear of &nuge can
b related, without serious error, to the crater
radiur Some examples of this type of relationh
i p ue given In Tabla 3-3 (Ref. 16).
For PurpollLI of entimating &h shock d m -
age from curface or aubrurfrce burnta. underm
u d r t r u c t u ~ar e divided into various cotegorim
u follows:
1. Relatively d l , highly nriatant tugPb
in roil. Thim type. which indudca minforced
conwale forti+k&onr, can pmbably
be damaged only by r c h t i o n and
displacement of the structure in it8 mtlfety.
2 Moderate dze, modurkly redrtsst tugab.
Thru tu~& ur dunaged by .oil
pnrrure M weli u a d e n t i i n and
W y dirpkccmsnt
8. Law, mlatively fiuible target.. Thena
include buried pi- and tmnkn, which are
likely b k damaged in ngionn when
lprps mil a t m h &at.
4 Orientation aeluitive tugetr. Tar~elr
such PI gun ~placemenbm y b e r u m p
tible to damage from d l pe rmanent
diaplpcrmenta or tilting.
6. Roek tunnelr. Damage tr, ouch tupab
fmm an abmd aplo~sion ia c a u d by
tbr tuuiia reflation of the shock wave
from the mckJir iatcrince, except when
tbe cram breokr thmugh into the tunnel.
I u g e r tuMJI .IY more w i l y damaged
than smaller o m . However, no cornlationbetwecnbmspburdtunneldzaor
dupe ia known.
6. hrga underground Inrt.ll.tiona. Such
h b h t b C~W l w&h' h t 4 d l J
rericr of rnuller ~tructureo.
I I16 IU) lHtRODUCT(OW the drimrive and oUenrive upacts of thr mm
: M t v u b b i l i t y aoocunr p l u m m n L I t i r t h a ~ d v l n o f t h r
i kcQn which determine the Wbr of an n b pnruriw IpilltUJ - to ineorOonb ue Wi.dpk ! c n f t b rlthrhd comht damam. In gorticu- -lty in ,,- chrign -, ,,,tbln the tr, it iadlutm t b msuu for l=provlar the UmiWio,,, of tbr ocmrll - nQ-tr ehmcw for survivd of .IraLt in b~ttlru ul,
by w m , wb -pcsv nhl& ahor tb bIL It) U I l C COWIIDU*TIONS
Ity recetved little coordbted study. The reeulta
of thb neglect loon became evident when
battle experienca w u prinsd, but it u w then
found that any major duign change? nwddcd to
reduce the vulnerability of aircraft wen not
euily intmdurci into the production line, and
were wnnequently late appcPrinp in service
aircraft. Cowiderable loses were undoubtedly
suffered due the late introduction of such
~ p u .
Shwtly after World War 11. a &inp promm
(Ibf. 20) w u initiated a t the W i t i c Res
~ v c hL aboratories (BRL),A bardeen RPvinp
Ground, Mawland, in order to detennine the
vulaerability of aircraft end their componmts
to variour aucraft weapon& Thia etTort, hacd
in part on work by the New Mexico Inrtitute of
Minim and Tcchnolopy, under cmtract LO the
Rurssu of Ordnance, w u crupplemented by a
P F ~ ~ ~rPepJoIrt (Ref. 21) relstinp to the two
comphentnry u p e t a of the aoulled "Optimum
Caliber Roprun!' The objects of this
program wen: h t . to detarmine the pmbabll-
Ity that a afngle round of existing ammunition
atrikhg an airplane would cause a certain level
of W g e ; and, second, to nu* the overall
daetivenssr of complete armament Installatiom,
with the object of indie~tinpth e Ulawer
to the whole problem of what armament slmuld
be carried by aircraft to meet variuua tactical
aitutionr. The repoh of thit work rep-&
' t b b e g i b of e co~u!derable mount of
litemtun available on the aubject of aircraft
vulnerability and, in putieulu, the aubjcet of
&waft "terminal vulnwability."
3-152 ( C ) Vrlurablllfy D.(Lrlffws
(U) The word "vulnenbiIity," u it a p w n
in the literature, h u two cowmoll uaama.
VuLnnbIlity ia the o d or "attrition
mnae" ir the rluceptibillly of m itam to dama@
e,w hich includea the d ~ t i D oNf av oiding
king hlt. VrlnrmblUty in the rwMetzd or
"terminal aenae," la the aurccptibility of an
Itam to damnge, uauming that it hu been hit
by OM or aevenl &mwlng w t a . Thdora,
tha prohbility of obtrlalng a klll on an aira
i t tuget 11 found equal to the probability
of obtaining a hlt tlmb the probnbllity that
the hit nrulta in a kill (Ref. 22). Thin
r h p t e r u w i h oaly the lath factor, or the
~~IbI.lMlttic Ivu lnembUty of ddZ.
(C) The chams of aurvivd of an drcrolt In
brttle h influenced by many facDrq includfng
its flight performance and maneuverability. IL
defensive armament and denrive equipment,
and the rkill and morale of ita crew. The term
aircraft vulnerability, however, is restricted
in meaning. It ie commonly used to nfer to the
extent to which m aircraft is likely to auffer
certain rpeciW categories of damage, when
the weapon uaed to attack it either strika the
eirmft or bumb in mme desired zor.0 around
it.
The major facton whichinduence the chance
of aurvival of an vinraft are In moat Inntanom
the inherent ufety (or invulnerability) of the
aidrame and componenl. which together make
up the h i e & M t . md the efficiency of any
protective dwim with which it m*y be fitted.
Evidence on these facton can w d l y be
obtrined by experiment. When UIL evidence
ir relatod to an attack of a apecitkd nature aad
from a a p d f i d dirstbn. it fonnr the usual
basin of dnrnit vulnerability uroumenb.
h e vulnerability of wmpomatr ruch u the
power p h t r cur b urcud rapurtdy in a
dmllu mmner. and ua be irrludwi in an overall
aammeut Cun murt k ucrcirrd in
mnklng the 04lru urnrnh h o v e r , be
c a w the fndivldurl damgw det MY b
quite dlffemnt fmm tba overall rllecta. For
example, in the CAM of a ainplarubd aircraft,
100 per cent prohbility of lethal injury to the
pilot will give a rlmllu probability for the lou
of the ayatem; whmu. Qnupc which la 100
per cent kthd to olu + of a four-mglne
aircraft may not k WlrJ to the eatire aircraft.
Thee individual ermpollcntr u e urudly mtarred
to u rtnply and multiply oulmnbl&
which tenm am dkeru#l io Ch 6, Pu. 8-22
It Ir d u l a t t!b poht to d e f u ~tw~o term
which are u#d in ebs dktion md an&&
of alrcnft tuget v u h d d l l t y (Ch. 8, Pu.
832). PrerentpdAm:theareaufthrpro/r~
tion of the conApuruUon of a given wmponent
UNCLASSI
upon 8 p h pe rpendicular to the Une of flight
of the attackbe projectile or warhead.
VulPvible A m : the product of the pwanbd
uu and the wnditiod prubability of a kill
for a raudom hit on the pmented area (It h
aaaumed that d l projectiles apprwh the
presented area on prvilel paths.)
3-1 k4. IC) U r of %e Empirid Appmocb
A syr :lais of the vulnerability chracteristies
of aircraft t a m t a is baaed mainly on
empirical relationship for the vulnerability of
the major uircrgt components. A large put
of these data are obtained from firings agaiwt
~ l r a o f t conducted a t the various proving
grounds. Thcse include Arings of selected
weighta of bare and cnued charges about, in
contact with. and within aircraft structures,
Wed fuel tanks, and both miprout i~rga nd jet
epfnes: &.a the flring wainat a11 major aircraft
c~mp~uenbtya variow projectiles. Damage
caused in field M n p against aircraft b
usarocd by q u . l i f i military or civilian p r -
manel (sometimes in conjunction with the
aunuflcturar), who prepare a detail d d p
tion of the dunage in addition to numericnl
rrtimater for the various damage categories.
Tbia empirical approach is subject to strong
economic and humane reatrictiona and lirnitatim;
rs a reablt, the %st aircraft ia usually
oa the pround with n~ personnel abeard. (The
et7& of altitude and wdodynunic nnd
ilurti.l force8 on the airframe am usually
antlnutcd.) R r i w trial8 may k made against
8- atntetunl mombun, &t enpin=
running un&r uuiaing conditiona, or d n s t
unopler whiih we rubjsct to realistic conditi0M
of temparturs and p r e u u n In-flight
vul~#~)Wityin wtigatioru are naturally dimcult
b at&% but am uullctima wnttP1. An
example is the investigation of the probability
of uurinp rlrcra in the fuel ry8tem8, a t altituda
which denund condition8 uf air temperatun,
air density. and high-speed air flow nat u d l y
npraducod simultaneourly on the pround. An
additid limitation on thL empirical rppromb
ia that the v m p b sizes obtained M
u a d y dl, mtritions on the 8ampie dze
beiag apecially r t r i n m t for the more r m n t
dn7aft
The tcst aircraft m y t hen be considered u
edloctions of componontm, rather than u
entities in t h d v a . Sincm the " M t of
the future" that are under rtudy PIC corn&
of structures, he1 celln, or engines physically
similar to corresponding cornponenta in the tort
aircraft, the intonuation abtained errl be opplied
d i t l y in soma canes, with due correction
for changes in onee and physical a m p *
menh.
In order to classify damage effects, s e v e d
kill or damage categoria o n in common use,
aa follows:
The a i d t disintegmtea immediately
after king hit (in addition,
denotes complete defeat d ita st-
-).
The airerafi falls out of cuntrol immediately,
without my rmaarrble
doubt (uawlly apcclficd an f/2 minute.
or Ira).
The aircraft Calla out of control
withIn 6 minuter.
The aircraft will fail to raturn to it8
h a Thb in commonly taken u being
1 hour away for a jet, or 2 Lun
away for a phton-type eugine aircraft.
The aircraft docr mt eompietr It8
InIMion a f t u k i n g hit
The .irclrit could complete Ita mlar
b n after Wng hit, but i8 dunrprd
to the extent of not beillp able ta
go on the next rhedulad mkrion
(urually denokr a bad a r h on land-
W) .
'It b impohnt lo note thLt in dcu to a a ~ ~ 8
B o r C ~ i t i a l l l ~ y y r l r b ~ t h e m L -
don on which the drurit .f-ac FNqumtly
In the literatun, the K d KK
categorlea are grouped u a u b t c p o r h under
the Adamage -mat. In additbn, nfu-
~ i r m m c ? i n u r m d r t o m i L d r m r p r
~~.taporwy,h ich is "detehbte by rodP.- k i l t
ties!* For the most part, d a aw~u unully
uwrad in the If, A, md C atmde~.
3-15.6. ICI Dmmaq. ArmIumnt
In teats on airuait vulnerability, a basic
method of detennining the d e w of damage b
by ~ ~ ~ a u n e An ftt.e r a k t aircraft is damwed.
anwmm are asked to estimate the
pmhhility that the &ma@ produced would
incapacitate the aircraft to a specified degree
(damage otegory) asauming a certain mission.
crew reaction, etc. Thus, an assessment of O,0,
0, O may be given for A. B, C, and E categories,
respectively, meaniilp thrt the damage would
nut c a w a crash within 2 hours, would not
interfere with the mission, and would not cam '
a crash on innding. An mesamen; of 0, 100.
0, 0 means that the asesors believe that the
&ma* would cause a crash within 2 h~ura,
8lthuugh not withill 6 minutes. For enample,
auch an msemnent may be made for d 8 M
causing oil loss to the engine of a ringk pistonengine
aircraft. To enable the uresson to
exurns their uncertainty PI to the outcome nf
&ge, intermediate numbera between 0 and
100 are used. Thus. a 20A ewsunent means
that the amaaor is inclined to believe that the
damage would not result in a crash within 6
minutes, although he is not aure of thib.
Wherever porsible, independent euusmenb d
the mne dam~gem obtained from two or more
puruon. Detailed descriptions of the conduct
of the Aeld trials and of the (~ueument procedure
are provided in the many BPL wpo*
dealing with odyres of firing data. (A and B
suesunen& made for W p to the engine of
a multi-engined aircraft, rpfer to the ability of
that engine to deliver power, rather than to a
A foment of iut.8-t on the h e m e n t procedum
ha8 been made by Arthur Stein, f o r
merly of BRL (Ref. 90).
*"It will be noted tbt the numbers wed to
c e ~ t y o f t h e ~ r u b ~ J u r t h a d r m -
age would d t in r LUI or n o t If the
individual wcsrnrcat ir WA, for eumple, th4
uscumcntbinermrby20prr&orBOper
cent, since the drnvpc wwld rekuliy b v e
produced a kill or no kill within 5 minutes. If
assessments are not bLud. however, the expected
value of many such usameata on
various parts of the plane would be the mmd
d u e and in the 'long run' one would arrive a t
a correct value for the vulnerability of the
plane. The panmebra of the error diwtribution
can be ertimnted if one haa a lorpe number of
cases in which the s ~ m cdm age haa bee11 arsessed
independently by different pureaaora
Such information would .Lo ytdd i n f o d o n
PI to the wessibility of various aircraft omponents."
It must be strongly emphasized that aswasmalt
represents the bplic mauum of aircraft
terminal vulnerability.
1-16.7. (CI Cotmqnkr d h l o MD oh
3417.1. (Cl Ydor d Dmry
/&JWh! the M ~ O Wcak &OI of dfUllUW M
&scribed aa pmhbilitlcr often written as perran-
Strictly rpeaking, however, thb ir not
comxt, rince the particulu damage suffered by
the rirvPn will g~nelrllye ither cause a crash
a it will not in the stated interval of time.
~uumirga set of standard condi t io~u nder
which the aircraft i m operating. The numerid
~ucumentt,h erefore, chiefly rcprermts the un-
, There are numemu moder of which
' 'eun effect aircraft kills. Some of thme are giw
in the following I t t :
1. The d e t o d m of the aircraft bomb load.
2. The killing of a rumdcnt number of edsent
i 1 crew memben
3. The ignition of a Lethal firr
4. The killlug of a d k i e ~w~mtb cr d engines.
6. Lthald.mrptotha-
6. Lethal d.IIYpe to the armament s.-a
&I 6.7.2. (c) r y e f -mgm hctvr
The word lethal, u ual in the &OW paragraph,
impliem tlut only a spedfiod awry of
kill rcrulb. aad doa not Imply w h ddc Om
of d pmr p e~~~e r i1t ty r.h ould r ~ko; n oted that
the determination of w&t constituted a LUI, in
r given rituation, can oitcn muire the we of
rimplifying auumptiom for a fcuibh mdph
prmdura For enmple, lltcd W w ur? some
of the factors to be eolvidued in r wid C
damage rituation:
1. Aircraft podtion sbng tha lli& pmAIe
a t t h e t i m e ~ o e c u r s .
UNCLASSIFIED r "- . .At
1-l1.71. IU) Sigrllcd A h n l ) Corpuwh
In btcnnlnlng rirann wlnembillty, the drcnfL
may be defined by the rum of the following
eomponenb. whkh in turn laelude sub
mmponanta:
1. Aidrune.
r Structure (Fig. 33).
b. Controk (Aidit).
e Fudryrtoa
s. ,.porvpLnt.
4. Persolml (only crew w up for &
*on).
6. Armhrm.rmat ly.tan.
rCUIIl.
bBornk
c FYn wntroL
d. Bomb nightt,
c Bukr.
e. ~tec~lrncn(tuire s, firm, etc.1.
3. Fngwnt.tion/bhst waponr (mntr0Ued
fragmentation burnt combined with r high
LIR7.S. (Cl IWwllvo Vd..(rUU)r of
Comparh
Although no such listing CUI k corm& in dl
am.T abln S-4 a f l o r d s a ~k la ofttie
terminal vulnerability of the various ampo~
lenta to the mnl (~y)~~uclsu)
apnb (Refa. ZS and 2-41.
UNCLASSIFIED .-
STABILIZER ELWATOR WNO r u p
WWG MSIC STRUCTURAL SWCTUUL STIILKIW*L
S T R ~ R A SLT ATKIIU I
+ STRUCTWAL
WlNG FLAP MEA sTATKmS
STRUCTURAL STATKW
Juru of ahwaft falling into them two rategorho
according to their minion or function.
A coralluy prowing ia in tarnu of thr Axedwin&
the mtary-wing (helicopkr). thc ww
SlUL (Mta kcuff d landing), mi nw
VML (vertical take off and Imding) typw of
.ircrrit.
a-aba.1. 01 COmm AIrccrH
(U) Combat M t am genrrrlly ekurd
u bomber, fighter, or a t U c drrrott, d&-
or with d (2- to Jjnchr &fled rocketa;
tho at- baing rlmort whdly from the roar
or OR by amad wlu. The pmjwtilm have
u r d y brcn impact-fwd explosive or exproriwlneondiuy
typcr
(S) An a i d t i~ likely to suffer were
structuml . l e if hit by a 51nall rockat; and
with either canncn or w h t there will be a
high probability of damage to fuel wetams and
pwer plant, with a corresponding chance of
delayed kill.
(S) With the 2- to 8-inch rocket, the struct
u d and mechanical h u g e (intrrnd blast)
from a hi1 ia likely to be M great that the posdble
dditionol d c c t s due to fin need aarce1y
be conridawl. Incendiary d a t a from tne
amall, gun-fired shell could be very severe, and
would depend hrgely on the type of fuel ryrtem
d
(S) Both surface-twir aud air-to-air guideJ
miaaila are now avdlabla in addition to the
conwationrl flphter wupona just mentioned. If
the guided &ilc warheada are of the large,
blul type, structunl d.111.pe un mult. For
the frumenting typr w u h a u k then wlU be rr
largo lacrurr in the v u l n d i l i t y of the pilota
of the bomber, high probability of leakage
from fuel tanka, danuse of radar equipment,
and ponibly a high fire risk, due to the highvelocity
fragmentation given by the warhrad.
(S) The main eombnt hazuda to the fishtar
haw been the attack fmm ahud by bomber
n h Ara, md the attrek from the larr by
elwny flghten, Miuilea in either case have
km upkrivo 8heh from aircraft cannon, or
rrnrll mckeb. Hits op.lut Idgh perforrrrmce
jet hphtrn am Wrely to caw were ~tructunl
&go, engine failurn, or pilot injury. Even
ruperhill damage a t the tima of hit ern m u l t
in a kthal rituation, auhspwntly, dw to a
high-g l l l l ~ ~suecrh M LEBS (Low Altitude
Bombing Syrkm). Owing to the npid chmm
in altitude by the flghter during wmbnt, them
may be difAeulty in mJaWniap an inert st-
-hem (puqing) above the fuel in the
t.nk and unlcu mw math& am ampbyad
t h m a l l r ~ ocr f url t.ok a p ~ o r i o~d~
drr The introduction of guided rniuile warh
a d r with h l v t .nd f q l u a l l t t o n now
produce the pouibility of structural damage to
thellghtarbyatvrvlbksffn.dditlonbinaeslinp
pibt vulwnbiUty and thr riak of An
due to high v d d t y fmgmmtr.
(St Tha mrln ri& to attack Jrurit has
kra fmm ground or ship wenporn (rmrinly
conventiod. gum and rocketa) impact
fuzed axphive projgetilea of up to about 3
inche~, and from umall arms fire with either
armor-piercing or incendiary bullets. The damage
affectr will be generally similar to tholle d c
eeribed for the fighter aircraft, but the emphnais
will k mainly on attach from the fmnt
hemisphere. Wartime evidence has Indicated
the importnnce, to aircraft engaged *n groundattack
mi s d o ~ o, f aelf-aealing protection for
fuel tanka and armor protection for pilob and
items such M oil coo'era. The value of such
yuipmrtl~t is, however, a rebjcct of great debate.
Smell aurfacetodr miaai!e wcspona p m
aently in devdopment will create an additional
threat to attack aircraft a t low altitudes.
(6) It ir pwible durinp the time of war to
obtain a fair indication of the vulnerability
charcretwiatier of military aircraft, and the f m
quaacy and eUecta of M m n t typs of combat
Qmam by making detailed inveatigationa of
air caaualtiea in uction. From this evidence, i t
is poauib!e to determine the nuin c a m of
enmy and friendly brw in air w u f m . and
the relative vulnerability of the variow put.
of a h a ircraft.
(S) Evidence of tha c a w r of air& burr
in World War I1 w u gsthered by the BritLh
OprnLioarl Reaeuch Sections attached to the
Royal Air Force .ad the United Stater A m y
Air Forn (Ref. 28). For example, it was found
that the Bomber Commurd'r loma in night
opentiolu during the latter put of the war
were uuaed appmxiautely M folhwa:
1. 75 per a n t by flghbr attack.
4 20 par cent by antiaimrrtt gunfire.
8. 6 p u ant by reidants, including ~vigationrl
mom, coiliaio~~fau, d shortage, ant
i n t f.ilun. etc.
O f t h r e b o m k r ~ d wto rnany.eUoa.by
far the greateat number either m u l t d fmm
fha or ru8ered nm m a awondury dl&t
(9) h the beet evidena avaihbb, it t
&lusted that the aignitkantlt vulncrrble
p u b of the bomber are:
1. Enpinsa (piaton type)--by m e c h m d
dmage and Ara.
2, Fuel myatemc-ly fire, intelrml &don,
or 1- of %la.
8. Flight control ryltenu and rurf.MI--py
mrehaniul c'mage from multlple h t a
cnurinl[ bwk-up and l w of coutml.
4. Hydraulic and electrical services-mainly
by &k
6. Bomba and pyrotechnic rtores-by exploaion
or Are.
6. Pilob-by Incapacitation (an infrequent
came of 10gr).
(S) For the ringle-enyined fighter types, the
order of vulnerability due speciikally to lkht
anti-aircraft tlre from the prund wcu u t i -
mtd to be:
1. Enginb-by mechanical &mpe and h.
2. Pilot-by injury or death.
3. Fuel ayrtem-by loar of fuel or flre.
Although Are is not stated an the major rid
b a u u the damage would generally raum 10s.
whether combined with Are or not, a rubstant
h l proportion of the torsem WM undoubtedly
a c ~ ~ ~ p a ubiye Adre . In air-teair engrgemontn,
the dnghngined fighter WM believed to be
mmt fmqumtly destmyed by the cumul.tive
effecb of multiple hih on the r t ~ c t t i r ea nd
nuin l7ight control aurfacu
(S) Information from air operations in the
Koryll war hu been amdl M regads evidence
on of loum In combat. Thii appaarr to
b due to the rmd penxnhge of actual I W
uuwd by enemy action, and to the ovwwhelming
emphasis on ground-~ttrek mrtiw
by the air f o m r of the United N~tionII. Howwar,
there lr row evidence, obtained by the
Unitd Strtgl Air Force, from which the following
hclr rppur to emergo. Bolred on comht
houn d duty, .nd for the M I U ~ tyl# of
@&tack &ion, t b ringkcndned jet
d d t receiver only about 60 par cent am
many hitr from a n t f 4 r e r J t pmjrtilu (Mbb
or rmrll #hells) u the dngknginod piston
.Irrrrit. TIIL ditlerawe in the number of
hlt. .ppam to be mhbd to the different
t.ctlm employed d~ui agth e dive and pullout.
For uumpb, the jet drcrrit at- at a much
hlghu r p d and thur apendr far lesl time
than the pieton ivcnit st dtitudw rubjected
to accurate g u n k When hit, the piaton a h
errit b W per cant mom U d y to be loat than
t h e j e t a h a f t . Alarge#oporthdthevdnetrbility
of the piaton rkortt can k attributed
to the wlaerability ol ita ewba oil
cwlen. Thme ohcerWi01y dmt. only to the
particular conditions md prrticulu t y p ~of
attacking projectilea (now polllibly ovtdatd)
which were encountered by the United Nations'
force8 in Korea.
(S) The actual vulnerability of any potantially
vulnerable prt of on airerrit depend to
a great extent on itr aru of presentation. For
example, a mediumrange, fouranpined bomber
with g r w weight of about 120.000 pounda
may have an average presented uep of 1,600
aquare feet. The overage - of mme of the
potentially vulnerabh componenb might be
approxinutely aa followr:
1. Structure (including fwi tmkr)-l.200
aquare feet (80%).
2. Fuel with t a n k at % capacityaqum
feet (29%).
S. Prrrwre Cabin-430 aquafa feet (9%).
4. Power pIant(--gO WUM feet (8%).
6. Mot-? aquare it& (%%I.
It will b noen that the ~tructumia by fsr the
largest of the potantidly *u;wmbk item,
while the fwl tanks, p n s ~ l mcr bts, mad power
plantt alw pnrent relotidy Wga u ~F.or
the long range bomber d the nea~fu ture, the
fwlmuy haw a c o l u i d a n b e I u p a m t d
uer than the vdur jwt qmtd
(C) Aircraft in flight are relatively vulnerable
to the blast md Ulermrl dech of nuebv
detonations. Sinee &raft am dulgnd within
m w lim ita for flight md hdhg lode, the
structure can withshd ody MPO additional
lordr imposed by wapom dwtr Blut overpre~
urso, n rtrlldng m .kurtt uui.er. may
caw dishiig of $uunb .ad bPcWiap of
atiffenem md rtrhgem On thr dda struck
by the Wt wave the prrurvr la hmud,
above the incident intrndty. by relhth, uu3
a d i 8 d v e f o m of rhorl dturtia~ b Enmkd.
&I the wingm, ewmnnaw, d fuuLp.
.ro completely enveiopwi by k b hr fwt&
dirhhg and buckling of mkb and rtruchur
mry nrult fmm the muhing Cfcect of the diffenatid
pmlJon betwoen tho outside an3 laaide
of the urenft eomponentr. Additional
dmugingiodsanJlodrralopedbytheputick
vabdty womp.nying the b b t wave. Tho
particle velocity multa in drag lordinp in the
dmction of the wave pmgrmation (auwlly
termed "gust loading" with referenn to drcraft).
The duration of the mat lording is
m y ti ma that of the i.Xmctlve loading, and
it dewbps bending, shear, and torsion streeaw
in the airfoil and fuselage structures. These
are uruvlly the major strenim on an aircr.rft in
nrrht.
(C) The weapon t h e d metgy which is
short4 by aircraft cornpornto an .Ira produce
dunr.ging decb. Very thin skim are
npYy heated to damping temperatulas by
expo~uret u the short-period t h d fl ux, becauw
the energy is -bed by thm vldn so
much mon rapidly than it ua be diuipted by
eonduction and convective d i n g . J3xposed
fabric, rubber, and dmilar matmiah with low
ignition and chuTiag tunperaturea. u e vulnerable
item which may .ko initiate cubnaive
fh damage a t avon very low lwds of radiant
srgarun. In recant y u n . duignem of military
aimnit have rrduced a i m f t vulnerability to
t h d &acts by coating thh.rkinnd materiPb
with bw rbrorptivity p*lrte, by eliminating
ignitable materialn from wp o ~ dru rfaces,
and by subrtitIAion of thicker rldnr for
wy thin rkiak With the14 pmtactivo maasunr
.nd dub modilicationr, aircraft ern k
aisly €lxpmd at ndknt exPonor0 lev& wvd
timer those which formerly cud acriow - L1W (Ul Naiwrbd A M
Non&t a i r e d indude the fdlowinp
typr: cnrgo, tramport, utility, and obuv.tiOn
mdmmnn.l.unru. The1PtbrtwotYPIlur
ofbnmnvertedcombatjrcntt, ThaedrcraCt
am ehondrrioad by their function, iYo. urd
apd, .od by the type of their wmtruction.
which i r mventionrl, World-War-I1 brps of
d d g n T h t L & ~ ~ w f u ~ o ~ u d
N1 antiher wingo with a ltnued aluminum
akin, The m l l d o n ot termid balllatic wlnvnMitr
data for thb typo ot ahwaft hu
dvedlitclerpeei.lirrdrttantl0ninthcpp.t.
However, becaw moot of the tsltiap on C0Iplb.t
~ t b r r b s r n w i t h t v p c t r ~ ~
type of w~t ruct iont,h ere is in fact conrida-
.No infonuation availble for who may
be interested,
MU.3. (C) Rotary Wlrl a d 0H.r I l d
(U) It ia neamary to dLtlnpuhh rotarywing
(helicopter) aircraft from conwntiod
Axed-wing aircraft, and also the new STOL and
VTOL veh~clea The vulnerability of rotuywing
aircraft is similar in many reapectn to the
fixed-wing ail.eraft, bot the following item may
not be similar and require individual attention:
1. hlntive locution of fuel, and ponncl.
2. Complex control system.
S. Rotor drive ryetern and gear boxu.
4. Main a d hi1 rotor bklea.
6. Unconventional airframe (slender CPil
wne. etc.) .
(C) Firing tssts have been wnduchd at the
Wright Air Development Canter (WAN)
a g a i ~rto tor bl*, wing d b e r .S O and adiber
0 projectiles. The b k war n dred on ro
M to obtain dmage to tha structural or r p u
podiun of the blade and then whirl-tosted to
determine the &ecb of damage. The drmrOs
awed by h o e projectiles wan found not to k
~terious. Thb a m wi th Korean canbat rr
suits, which rhow that d l cal iber holm in
portiom of the blrdm ue not wriouh However,
a perforation by r larger projectile, ruoh
rr r 37-mm AP or HE projectile, wuld caw
the loas of r bkdq whieh w d d be laolrt mriour
(C) The pmblom of the vulnerrbllity of low
flying aircraft in the forward a m ha recenUy
bwn given hi&er priority by tho Amy, doe to
new tretiu md o ~ l y r t o mdev eloped by the
Army. new recon-m h a m d .L&
being developed by the S i C ~ r pm, d
STOL and YTOL vehicle# k i n e rtudied for air
tnnrport by the T ~ ~ ~ p o r WCiooron B#UM
of the mkrile t h a t at medium and high at&,
momt Amy air M a env*ion low QinO
a i d t In the region below 600 feet, light
uau (4Omm AA, ml PllLUer d b e r ) will ba
a thnrt to ihaa aircraft in f o d ua u. In
the new future, UMU surface b d r mapom
UNCLASSIFIED
now in devllopmcllr mry be included. Vulnerability
tfating for theme special-punme dMft
hu bcen initiated.
MU (C) ? d a d Alrrmft
(U) Considerable interest hnr been ahown in
the vulnerability of parkad aircraft in the
vicinity of r nuclear air b i d Nuclear weapon
t e a l have included parka aircraft placed a t
various locotiom and orientationr with respect
to the burnt point.
(C) The diffraction phosc looding and the
drag p h r e loading have varying relative importam
in produang damage to parked aircnft.
In general, the diffraction p b b of
primuy importance in the zones of light and
moderate damage. In the zone d scvem damage,
the drag phase urumea mre importance.
Orientation of the aircraft with reapect to the
point of burnt affects vuliienbi!ity conriclerably.
Wlth the none of U c airerstt direded toward
the bunt, higher weapon-affecta inpul can be
abuorbcci without damage than for any other
orientrtioa The longer duration of the positive
p h u of the b h t from a large yield weapon
may moult in some incrrore in damage over that
axpded fmm MIU yielda .t the name overpressure
led. Thh incnue b Ukely to be
rigniflecmt a t input leveh producing revere
damage, but k not likely to be important at the
leveb of moderate md Ught E d -
mentm have &own k t mwbab provide only
alight rhicldiug &nrf bLut o v e r p ~ p aqw l
under unna conditiotu nlbrbd p r r u u ~
within the metmmt u e higher than m~
reaponding incident presauz1.. Revetments do
provide significant rhielding from damage due
to flying debria born by tha blut .vava
(C) A i d t properly prrpved with reflective
paint, and with all vuluerable materiala
ahhldod from direct thorrml rdlation, will not
be damaged by thermal lnpvtr a t dLtPnocr
where damage from blast inpub h not m m .
Aircraft not M, preporcd ~nmy autain m r i w
&mope a t very low themul IeveL. or a rclult of
ignition of item ruch u ZabriEcovered control
sur fow, rubber and fabric d,cur biom, and
headreat coven. Aircraft p i n k d with dark
pdnt are especially vulnerable tD t h e d radiation
damage, beenme the d.rk painted aurf.ccs
abaorb thm-to-four ti- the thermal energy
that ia abaoM by p o l i i duminum rurfacea
or aurfaces probctd with ralbctivo paint.
Temporary emergency ahidding rueh M that
provided by treea, bulldim rmbraharnb, or
dinilar W e n may b d d for tkmd
protection of unprepmd but any nt
thesemayirsrcw#theblNt~byd*
to the flying debria or by multiple reSactloll of
incident overprennure.
ice, TID-6664. (Unekr*Aed).
4. 5. Gkubne, The Effsdr of Nuclcsr Weup
om, United S t a h Atrmic C m -
miuion, June 1957, (UneLdbcd).
6. V. Bioeksr an3 T. G. Bkker, The Tcnr
City D i w t e h A Sunmy of 8000 C u d -
%," Air Force - VoL Lxxvnl:
pp. 766-771.1948, (Unehwfllcd).
& - ABC WMW &/rrr, B w oi
Nwal Pemmnd. N w R.Lrdw Gun6
NAVPERS 10099,1960, (Unel.uilld).
7. -. Ihcotch fr CBR, OD.
Sdcllee and Astromutia, U. S. Houu of
EbpmnWvar, 86th Coagroor, H o w Re-
P3;t NQ 816, hup~rt10 . 1959, ( U n W -
MI.
8. - Onlaawe hf M u d , Volume I ,
VulnemMity, OPM 60-120, May 1959,
(Unclurillod) .
9. - Tank Phtoo%r and Tank Company,
Department of the Army Field Manual,
FM1792, March 1960. (Unc1an:i'ied).
10. - Tank Bat:alion, Dce.artment of the
Amy Field Manual, FMl 43, September
1949, (UncWfled) .
11. E. J. Bryant, R. C. Wise and S. Wise,
Vulnerubility of Tanka t o ConvcnLionaL
and Nuclrar Wenpow, BRL Technical
Note No. 1057. BRL, Alwnleen Proving
Ground, Ma~ryl;nid. October 1956, (Secret)
.
12. F. I. Hill, Information fov Tank Damage
Auearorr, BRL Technical Ncte No. 236.
B R 4 Abenleen Proving Ground, Maw-
Imd, Junc 1960. (Unclmifid).
19, - The Vulnerability of Armored Veh
i c k to Ballistic Attack, Annor Branch.
Armu an0 Ammunition Division, D and
PS, Aberdeen Proving Ground. Maryland,
21 March, 1950, (Confidential).
14. E. J. Bryant, et al, "Response of Drag-
Type Equipment Targets in t.he Precumr
Zone" (U), Operation Teapot, A u w t
1966, (Secret-RD) .
16. - Capnbilitier of Atomic Weaponr, Department
of the Army Technical Manual.
TX 23300,1967. (Confidential).
16. - Weayonr Sekctim for Air Target*,
Physical Vulnerability Divuion, Department
of the Air Force. WTM 11. (Confldmtinl)
.
17. N. B. Bmka and N. Y. Newmark, The
Ruponre of Simpk Stmeturea to Dvuamic
&ad8, Univerrib of Illinok Stmctunl
Rewveh &ria No. 61, 1963, ( U n c l a d
fled).
18. C. W. hmpaon and J. J. Mazrroa, B k t
lartnunentation, Ballistic Resew& Iaborrrtorias,
Aberiieen Roving Ground, hgut
1957. (Un-4ed).
19. J. J. Mmmwo, Targat Reapowe Inrtrw
-ion, BRL, Aberdeen Pro*
Ground, Maryland, August 1967, (Unelwified)
.
20. A. Stein. -Optimum Caliber Pm~rcrna, BRL
Mwonndum Report No. 437, BRL, Aberdwn
i+oving Cround, MaryI~u~dJ. ~ l y
1946, (Ccofidential) .
21. H. K Weiss and A. Stein. Airplane VuE
nmabilily ond Overall A.~mamant Effeetiveness,
BRL Memorandum Report No.
462. BRL Aberdeen Proving Ground,
Maryland, biay 1947, (Cmfldential).
22. A. Stein a d H. KOBttiPIC, Mdh0d8 for Obtaining
the Teminol Ballistic V u l ~ m b i b
it71 of Aircraft to Impacting Projectiku,
witn Applicutions to Generic Jet Fighter,
Generic Jet Bomber, F-47 Puton Fighter,
and BJO Puton Bomber, BRL Report No.
768, BRL, Aberdeen Proving Ground,
firyland, June 1961, (Sew&).
23. A. I. Kent and W. E. Parriott, T&e ?'emtinal
Yulnmbility of Aircraft to Nmn
u c b Rouxdr: A Quau'tative Review of
Current Klrotukdge, Rand Corporation,
RM-1406, January 1956, (Secret).
24. & K. Web, The V J M l i t y of Aircraft
to Wacporrr, BRL Technical Note No. 726.
BRL, Aberdeen Proving Cmnd, Maryh
d , September 1952, (Ccmfidential).
25. -Jane's AU tho tvorki's Aircraft 1969-
1960, McGraw-Hill, (Unchifled) .
26. - Vulnewbility of Manned A i m f t to
Guided Mkeihr, P*itieh Joint &rvicea
Textbook of Guided \Yeaporn, Put 19,
Augut 1956, (SecreLDircmet).
1. C. M. Guydor and S. Stein, N d u c l e a r
Warhead Daim Guidc for FABMDS,
Tech Memo No. DW 529, Wt-head and
Specid Projects Lm~~rabryP,i catinny
Arrenal, Dover, New Jemey. Mar& 1961,
(-1.
C~LLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
CONCERNING KILL MECHANISMS
Tinla &on covun the eolMon and a d y -
r b of Cta involving b l u t wave u a kill
mrch.nbm. Sepwate porrgraphr dbcuar both
quurtltRtlvely and qrulitatively the various
prmmeten d a t e d with air, rurface. and
8 u b u d . w bhsl fmm ainventiolul high ex-
9 l d w (chemtcal oxplorived and nuclear axp
l d 0 ~ . Ill Pddiu0~1 WSJl~Ph. M d b
c u d the effects of mechanical fnctora on
blrst, d methods of b l u t lwtnunenbtin.
In mnerrl. the bulk of the material will apply
to b b t raven pmdW by either conwntlml
or n u e h explodom In certain ucplr, howwar,
the d k w i o n will cmphui the pPrticulu
fmturw of the blrrt wave produmd by
nuclur I*PIOPIOIIl.
f m m - m u d zero u higher for nudear thrn fw
conventional explmhs; but at dlrtomeen
the revem Ir tnr The m u d PMkr enem
yield of a nuclear erplolj~1m1 akea a q u a l l t a t i~
difference in the &&a. For Imt.ne2 the
duration of th bkrt prc?duced by an atomic
bomb ir longex than the- chm&erbtlc vibration
periodr of nroot r h u c t u ~w~h ich CUI b
d t~t r o y d .T herefom, the crltaion for utimating
the d.rmso to atructum by nuclear bomb
L u~lul lgt he peak ovepmuum s r the perL
drag purure, rather than the impuiae, which
b the c~mm~nwl y d c ritwh for HE bomb.
4-2 ( S l AIR BURST
rill extend is dependent on the energy yield of
the weapon and the height of burnt. In condduIng
the dutructive elfeet of a b h t wave,
L b important to study, In nome &dl. the
varioua phenomurr amxiated with the pmaga
of the wave through the atmosphere.
CLt (U) D e s d p h d H b B k r t Wave
CL21. Overpnssm
The expanaim of tlw intensely hot puw at
high preaeure cauaa a b b t wave to form and
move outward a t high velocity. The preaclurea
In thk wave are highest a t the moving front
and fall olt towr+: *.he interior redon of the
explodon. In t very early stages of the b b t
mve movement, the pnssure vr .n with
distance from the point of detonatiuir ia romewhat
M illurtrated in Fig. 4-1.
As the b b t wave travels in the air a w q
fmm i b mrca, tho ovorprewure a t the front
rludily decrep~cr,a nd the pmaaure bc ad the
fmnt f.lk off in a regular manner. After r
ahort time, the plawure behlnd the fmnt d m
below the surrounding atmoepheric preuum
ud the negative phnse of the bbt'wave b
formed, The variation of overpreaaure k ehown
in Fig. 4-2 for rix r u d v e h t a n t r of time,
Lnd1cate:l by the numbers t,, t,, tr, etc.
Durinp the negative everpreaaure (rarefa
tfon, or ruetlon) phuc, a psrtU vacuum ie
produced and the air Ir rueked in butend of
being pushed away. This means that during
the poritive (compreuion) phaae, the win&
flow away from the explolion; but In the m a -
tive phaae, the direction ir reverwd and the
win& flow toward the explosion. However, the
peak vsluea of the negative overprasrurn am
uaudly small compared to the overpreaaum
genemted during the pdtive phuc At the
end of the neaativn phw, the p m u r e hu
essentially returned to ambient conditloua
(Rcf. 1).
Fig. 4 4 fllurtlrtrr how ovrrprruun vuicr
with time at a given point. The eorrapondlng
general effecb to be expected on a light rtructun.
a tree, and a amall animal are indicated.
For a short interval after detonation them b no
incmase in prrsrrure kcowe the blaat front
(ah& fmnt) haa not yet reached the target.
When the l o c k front arrive& the pmuure
ruddealy inmama to a Large maximum (the
pak overpressurn), and a strong wind commaaca
to blow away Irom the explosion. The
+.boity of the wind decraun rapidly with
time; theref-, it ir p l l d y r e f e d to u
8 Lruvicat wind. Fokwing the urivd of the
rho& front, the pruw falh npbd1.Y. .od
rhortly rehum to Ulr unbirot condition. At
thlr poht, althougb the owrpeuum Ir ccm,
the wlnd atill cantinuem in the ume direction
for a rhwt the. The interval from the arrival
of the h c k f r a t to the mturn to m b i d
pnuurr h ro~ahly W-hdf d tc om
mwad tor a 26kiloton (KT) explosion, md
tm b four maw& for a l-ma&m (MT) axpl&
It Ir during tblr puiod that mart of
ths datructiw d o n of tha rlr bumt ir aguislwd

Although the destructive cfleb oi the bkrt
wave M often mlotd to vduea of the p d t
o v m r p ~ u xt~h,e d y d c p m u m mry br of
cqudimport.nec AaafunetionoiUurInd
(&&) velocity a d of the damity of the
air behind tha .hock tnu*. dyauni~a u u m
ir expremed by the equation
the peak overprerrure, d e m a e s with dirtu~ce
from m u n d zero, although at r diiweut nta
For a great variety of building type& the
da~ofbkstdunagedependsWyonthe
dhg f o m ~ ~ ~ lwitth e*hed str ong transient
win& amcrnpanying the pmage of the b h t
wave. The drrq force is influenced by certain
ch.nc+ariatica of the structure, such M the
shape and size, but Ir generally dependent upon
the peak value of the dynamic preauure and its
dwtion at a given location, (Ch. 2 See. IV).
At r given location, the dynomk p m u r e
v h wi th time in a manner similar to the
of O V E l Q ~ U ~bu,t the of dl3
erauc behind the nhock front is diRmmt. Both
overprwure and dynamic presuum increase
sharply when the shock front raachea the dven
location. then they decrease. Fig. 4-4 indicutea
qualitatively how the two preuurcs vary in t l r
ccurrc of the Ant neconds following the arrival
of the shock front. The curveu indiutc that
the overpmaum and the dynamic prrsrure return
to ambient (0) COnditi0~ a t tho name . Actually, due to the inertia of the air,
the wlnd velocity (and. therefom, the dynvmic
p r u u r e ) will drop to zero a t a romewhat later
time, k t the difference is uaually r~otr igniAcant
for purpoceo of estimating damage. l'nble
4-1 &a mme indlatlon of the eorrerponding
vrluea of peak overpretuursu, and peak dynamic
pruaunr, u nhbd to the d m u m blert
wind W t l m In olr at nna level.
T U U 44. OVWRWUU AN0 DYNAMIC
rmsuac REUID TO BLAST WIND
VCLOClTV IN AIR AT SEA LUU
Peak Over- Peak Dynunic MPximurn
Pressurn Prsrrun Wind Velocity
(Psi) (prl) (mph)
72 80 1,170
60 40 940
SO 16 670
20 8 470
10 2 290
6 0.7 160
2 0.1 ' 70
CZU. AWIWI n~
A. previously stated. there i~ a finite time
inbrvd required for the b h t wave to mow
out flvw the axplodon canter to mypprtrculnr
location. This tlme interval is dependent upon
the yield of the explosion and the dintonee Involved.
Initially, the velocity of the shock front
ie quite high, m n y t i e s the speed of round,
but M the b l u t wave moves outward its velocity
dectvmm M the shock front weakens.
FlnJI), at long raga, the blplt wave
mentially a round wave and ttr vekity a p
pmachu ambient wund vehity.
4-224. Duroth
The duration of the b b t wave a t a puticu.
lar lwtion h depenh upon the energy of the
eplorion and tna dirtance from .ground xra
The d u m b of the podtive o v c l p m u n p h a ~
L shortest at c l w nagm, incmdng an the
blrut r a w progrrurr outw.rb &CUIM the
truYiurt wind vdcity khlud the rho& fmnt
d w to zero, and then revarm Lbelf at a
tima watmvhst after the end of the poritiw
o v ~ p h u r , t h a d y n r r n i c ~ m r y
endure bwr Uun the overpnuun However,
thaeelamenbofthed)nunicprauularucw,
low they are not lipniAunt Therefore, the
d d i v e dudion of tha dynamic prwrum
llur L anuidual u belag euent1.U~t he ume
u the mitive p h w of the ovuprawvr
Om~mrurrdOy-mk~rauorm
DUIUIP Q bmts k frequently dependent
on duration o l the loading u well u the peak
- - - UNCLASSIFIED
prearure. Parrunetern related b the duration
a n the impuhu represented in Fig. 4-4. where
the overpnuure positive phana impulse is the
a m under the positive portion of the overprearure
time curve, and the dynamic pressure
impulse is the m a under the positive portion
of the dgnuaic prewre time curve.
The overpressure positive phase imeulse is
reprerented by the equation
in which: t = O is the time of arrival of the
shock front: t=te is the end of the positive
phuc; and JPIt) is the overpressure as a hnction
of * h e .
The positive phaae pressure-time curve showing
the deay of overpreuure at a fixed poirb
in space will vary, depending on the peak overpressure
and duration for a giren yield at that
point. Where overprerrures a n lea tlmn 25
mi, the variation of overpressure with time
may be expressed by the fdhwing semi+mpirica1
relntion :
-111.
AP(t)=AP(l--)e
t*
(4.4
where: V ( t ) u the overpwuure at any time
t; AP L the peak overprouure; and t' ia the
positive phase duration.
In a almllnr manner. the dynamic pressure
impuhe is represented by the aren under tbe
dynunic pmuurt-time cuwe, and m y be rep
rerenkd by the integral
when: I, ir the dynunie pnmure impuke;
q(t) the dynamic preuun M a function of
time; and t.* the duntion of the dynnmic p m
rum positive p h u c & with overpnuure. the
rate of decry varia with pa& pravure and
duration. When dynamic p m u m .re l e ~
than 12 pui, the variation of dynamic yrrvure
with time may be mpMented by the approxlmate
equation
when: q(t) is the dylrunic preura a t time t ;
q is the peak dyaunic prrrvum at the shock
fmnt; and t. is the overpravure paritive phase
daration (Ref. 21).
44.2.). R.kct1rr
When the incident b h t wave from an exp
l ~ i o nin air strikes a more dense medium ~ u c h
M the earth's surface, either land or water, it M
reflected. The ionnation of the reflected hock
wave in these c i r c u a u h m ia reprerented in
Fig. 4-5 (A). This figure rho- several rt.pe8
in the outward motion d the aphcriul b i d
originating from an air bunt bomb. In the Ant
stape (I,), the rhock fmnt brr not rarehed the
ground; the second stage (b) b romewbat later
in time; acd in the third atage (tJ, which h
atill later, a reflected wave, indiubd by the
dotted line, hu been pmducad
When such reflection occurs. an individual or
object precisely at the rurfnca will experience
a single ahock, beuuae the reflected wave L
formed inrtmtaneoluly. Co~ncquentlyt, he value
of the overpmrure thur experienced at the rub
faca ir genenlly conridered to be i re-
1. rted prrsrurcr. In the rapion n u r ground
wm, this td.l reflected overprsuure will be
more than twiw the d u e of the peak overp
m u r e of the incident blvt mve. The suet
value of the refl.ct.d yruurr will depend on
the rtrength of the incident wave md the angle
a t which it rtrikea the d a c e . The variation in
werpreosure with time, m obrervcd at a point
utually on the surface nd la f a r from ground
zero, auch M point A in Fig. (b(A), will be u
depicted in Fig. Q b ( B ) . The point A may be
conaidered ar lying within the mgion of regular
reflection: i.e., whe r~t he incident (I) and reflected
(R) warn do not merge &ow the aurface.
At any lwatlon romewlut @bowth e auriace,
hut still within the region of repulu mtldion,
two meparate rho& wilvil: ba f a t . The find lJIoek
ir due to the incident Mut wave, and the wo
onti, which z r r h z short h e l;tii, tj the rpdcetcd
wave. Fig. &(C) depicb the variation
of overpreuuw aperleneed at a locotion abovr:
CLASSIFIED
the ruriace. In determining the effceta of air
hlur on structures in the regular reflection re
don, allowance must be made for the magnitude
and .Ira the dkectlonr of motion of both
tka incident and reflected wave* After paanage
of the redecbd wave, the transient win& near
the rurface becoma essentially horizontal.
In the arly rtagoa of propagation, when the
shock front i not far from grolrnd zero. it is
rawonable to wume that both the incident
and reflected wavea tnrval with velocities that
are approximately equal. The reflected wave.
however, always travels through air that haa
been heated and eompmsed by the p~ssppeo f
the incident wave. As a result, the reflected
shock wave moves faster than the incident
wave and eventually overtakes it. The two
waves then fure to produce a single rhock
wave. This pmeas of wave interaction b refenad
to aa Mach or hmgu&r refkction, and
the region in which the two warn have merged
ir cdkd the Mach mion. The fusion of the
incident and nfkted blort wavar is indicated
r h u r ~ d ~ r iln~ Fyig , 4-6, which illustrates a
p o r t h d the blolt wave profile clone to the
suriaco. Fig. 4 4 A ) reprwentr a point close
to ground zero. In Fig. 4-6(B), a later rtage,
farther firom ground zem, the steoper front of
the n f l e c t d wave ahowa that it is traveling
faator than the incident wave At the atage
illu8tnted uy Fig. 44(C), the mflected shock
near the m d hu overtaken and fuaed with
the ineidrnt shock to form a ingle hock front,
wlkd the MAC^ stem. The point at which the
incident rhoc4 reflected ah&, and Msrh
f m b mmt is referred to M the trlple point.
Aa tho reflected wave mntinllcr to owthe
incident wave, the triple point - u d
the height of the a h rt am i n e m rn
shown in Fig. &(A). Any obj& loc&d
either a t or above tha g& within the Mach
region, will experir.,m a single shock whore
behavior will follow that of rhoclr fronb in
mnerd (the overpressure a t a particular l o w
tion will decrease with tinu, and the positive
phate will be followed by a suctlon phase). At
paints in the air above the triple point, a spa.
rate shock will be idt from the iacident (I)
and reflected (R) waved, alW an rhown in Fig.
4-w)-
Two aspects of the reflection pmeaw ue Important
with regard to the dutruetive action
of the air blaat. Fimt, only a ringle rhock ia
experienced in the region below the tiple point
(in the Mach region). SIM#ld, a i m the Woeh
stem ia nearly vertid, the hempnn*g b b t
wave is tmve!inp in r horironW direction at
the surface, and the t r a n d a t win& are w l y
parallel to the ground. L the k h rlp ioa.
thedore, the b h t forces ue applied in a
nearly horizontal fashion againat above-ground
rtructurea and other objects, ro that v a r t i d
surface8 am loaded moro,inknsrly than horG
zontai surfaces.
The distance from gmund am at whiih
Mach fusion commeacea k depaubt upon the
yield of the weapon and the height of b w t
above the mund. Thk d i r t am d- with
a d d n p he ight of bunt. Comvemely, if the
air bunt occum a t a rufkimtly high rltitude,
only regular mflactlon taka place uul no Mach
#tun will be fad (W1.).
The problem of n&etbn u tmnted mom
fully in thr pubhtlom numbered IS through
17 btd la the Bibkgmphy for thb Jupbr.
The following paragraphs rummu*s some
pullnont aapwts of blut wave theory and cdcultion.
Much of the uulysk which haa been
developed in the l~terature iy applicable to
either nuclur or high explolive blast. As
previoudy indicated, however, there are certain
physical differenem which Meet the validity
oS the rolutioar.
Compared with an ordinary high explwive
blut, the energy density of a nuclear explosion
ir much greater and the corresponding tunpenhrrm
developed are much higher, by a factor
elme to 10': An HE expbrion generates
tm~ e r a t umne or 5,000 C deglw; a nuclear
axpl~ion m u l b in initial temperatures new
60 million degree C. The tremendous differance
in energy d d t y h laverd coMepwncev
pertinent to the cdcultionrl nupects of the
problem M w W u tho phyrid lupech
The nuclear expluaion u n be coluidered m9re
d y a p out m w e of energy, and miutionu
fnr the ruulting b h t wave ue hwd on thia
concept. In an HE cuplodon the auumption o!
a finite cize e n e x . rource is more appropriate.
h w a :t Ww compuotively longer for the
energy to be tnarfemd to h e surrounding
rtr. Acconiingly, immediately fdlowing the HE
blut the hock wave pnuum !a actually ku
than that pmdicbd fmm a point m u m mlution,
For thh reuon, much of the mom recent
Uturtum h u been k t r d toward Mta murco
mlutlaol.
Worn dLfusdn# wme of the varioun a p
pnuchw to the probluna of blmt wave wmputrtlona,
the basic hydmdynrmic quations
4 be summarized for reference. This diiuadon
ia not c o n c o d with quation derivation
M ouch. Only sufficient mdynii h given to prod&
a auibble backnnund. The bric equations
of h w y n u n i c r are qually valid for either
a gu a r liquid The awciated qurtiotu of
rtrk am howuver, different in each w e . The
followiw diocuvion ir hwd InrgeJy on Ibir
2 thmuph 6.
The m e 4 problem of fluid flow is to ck
d b r what h happmlng to u e h region of the
fluid as r result of certain outside inflwnear.
hqurntly, the moat rignificant parameten
M the fluid velocity u ~ dth e fluid pmawe,
derribed aa functions of porition and time.
Fluid ckrcriptiona in hydrody~micaa re bucd
on tho concept of a continuum. Roughly speaking,
thiu corresponds to imagining an ubitrarily
large number of particles distributed
throughout the space of intamt, such that
arch fluid property v d u in a continuour manner
from particle to particla In order to adoquately
describe physical phenomeao. howrvrr,
it will b nec-y to permit wrtnln pointr,
Urn, or surfacer tu exkt upon which the fluid
propertiea behave in a diwontinuous nunner.
The great dlfIiculty of the rubject is that, in
t e r m of ripid body mechnnicr, a system of an
intinlte number of degreea of freedom h u to
k dealt with. Stated differently, h a a co nt
i n u o ~va riation in properties of the fiuid h
pootulted, each property will be a function oi
both paltion and tima C-pundinply, tho
basic e q u a t i o ~of hydrodynamiw are putiui,
rather than ordinary, differantid quatioar.
To make more exp!icit the above atotamrnts,
a brid discursion of the two methods for b
ncribmg fluid motion will be given. The Ant
nicthod, called the Lagranpian ducriptlon, consl&
rs what happena to w h individual Buid
puticle In the wunc of timr The other
method, called the Eukalan ducription, conrlden
what Is happening a t each point in ~prcr
m a functlon of time. In the latter method, for
example, the pmrsure at a polnt meam the
preaaum umciated with the puticle h t hap
pcna to k pnaing through th8t point at that
iiutanL No attempt in me& to follow the individual
puticb.
Conrider nnt tb rporuLntnn dercrlptlon.
Since the motion of each individual partide h
to b followed, it will be n m r y b ~ h t i f y
each psrtlcle. Thb m y be done by netting up a
atordinate syatcln at a flxed inatant of time,
u y t = 0, and by v r i p i n g to each parYcle a
mt of n u m h which may k tab u itr m
ordinab in apace. Again for example, when
limited lo unedimensio~ml otion, the identifying
tag emociated with each p~rticlei~ merely
itr podtion on the le of motion a t t = 0. Aa
time proceeds, e ~ c hp vticle moves, and its
podtion will be a function of time. If z v its
loution a t time t, then z = r ( t ) for each pa*-
clc k t the term a be the initial position of a
particle; then a will be Qfferent for each particle,
and the entire "Aeld" (that is, all particlea
a t lhe aame time) may be described by the
single expror~ion
t=r(cr, t )
where, for each particle, a is a Rxed number,
and t ia the time. Correapondlngly, the velocity
of each ptticle k given by
where the partid derivative aymbol is usad to
emplwize thut a single wrticle is being considered.
For brevity, it is conventid in hydrodynamic
literaturn .to write
80 that
s=u(a, t) ( 4 4
In the Euler repmentrtion, consider a region
of apace which may be arbitrarily nelected.
Again using ole-dimnsional motion IU m example,
thd location 01 thin repiol~L i denoted by
A p i t i o e , r, relative to the eocn!inrze a y a h
Thur, t k an independent vorkble, .ad locater
a point in apnce, not a p u t i c ~p ~d c k
Through t i - 1 . ~- , howem, yortklea PCLK.,
and ear'\ purt'cle has c e h i n propertier associated
r\h 5 : :.i, irutPt L of pansing thmugh
the point t 2 -- oror ertiea are velocity, a o
celeration, . .r q m, a d i t y , etc. Accordingly,
for exrunpb. '1 . .cfJcity at (not of) any point
in a p m b, . , .awl 4 time; for with time,
dillereur gsr(Lclm are p a ~ i n gth e paint. Let
the vuit.Me wbick d&bea all the po!nts in
space be r, and let t bc the time. Then. the
velocity at the point, at that time may be
writtan
U'U(Z, t ) . (4-7)
At a given r m h t of time the prticular particle
w i n g through the point hss this same
velocity, by ddnition. H e m
and if p has baen ddennin the mition with
time of each prticle may b%e te rmined by intepnting
Eq. 4-8. The solution will involve r
constant of integration, which may be determined
by the location of the particle a t time t
=O. Accordingly, the wlution will be exp
r d in t e r n of a, the hpnngian coontinab,
written after solution aa,
+=f (a, t )
when f will now be a known fundional f o m
This integmtiou then forma the connection between
the Eulerian und Lugrangian twhniqw.
It should not be inferred that the phyaical description
just given Is easily carried out. In
fact, very few solutions w e known even in thc
onedimensional m e .
Refemna to Eq. 4-7, an importpat diitinction
ia made. If each particle that puwr the
point z her the atme characteristics in t e r n of
UP& preauure, elc, am every other particle that
purr~rth rough the point x, thrn u, given by Ea.
4-7 doe^ not change with time.
In this Ease u = U(Z) and the flow ia a i d to
be steady. It should be noted that the Row, following
each particle. m y differ from wint to
point, and atill be within thb debition of
ah&. Thir rimpk fact illuatrbhr the utility
of the Eukr description. If, on the other haad,
porticle propertier are different for each rueceding
particle that pabeer throu* z, then y
at r, ia abo a function of time, writtca
u=u(z, t).
In thi caw, the flow "fleld" fr mid to bs sac
atead&
On the baa* of the simple intmti~ctiong, iven
in the preceding paragraph, mm of the h i e
quatiom of one-dirnanaionnl Ao\v will h! summuLnl.
Onee amtin, this dhcusqinn * explanatow
in nntwe, and k not eoncerud with *ustion
derivation as s11c1i.
CLASSIFIED
Conaider fim$ the wnrerv~tiono f m ~ n .U uing
the Euler Qrription, a region in rp.ce k
rebcM through which the particlea are puring.
The rote at which nuaa lenvea the region.
minua the rate.& which it entera, I..IU~ cqud
the nb at which it deerrorca within the region.
If p k the mua denaity, & the length of the
region of croar d n A, d u is the entering
aped, then pAu k the r n a ~pe r unit of time
enbring the region, .nd pA& ia the mur within
th region. Using r u b r i p t a to denote l m -
tion,
w?lich, upon puring to the limit, gives the continuity
cputiun tor orwdimenaionrl Ilow.
(ThiJ Pwmea that A ia 8 d n t . )
where p=p(z, t ) UUI u=u(z, t j m the denaltg
. n d v W t y o f t h a p u f i n r l u ~ t h . t h ~
p m t~o b e p d a g through the region W
A t 2, at th t.
She- fmrcs nre n o g M beenow with
meh terms the practical problem of solving tha
Mut quations, awn in one dimeasion, L much
too dwdt; bhg .wn tm d&Ectdt for dution
MI LJBh rpwd colll p.o-bFn. tht uaumptkn:
of frieLbnlv Ibr W not 1mvrbid.
khAdmih ~ a m w l l l b . ~
~ t h c r r u c ~ o f t h e t l o w i n r h i r b
thcVtE9li~DI.YI8~Tyipnpmt.ntput~
repiom uc the lcck n v a tbrt rhow up,
ma t h ~ t I e r lu~ , dhntinuitks in the flow.
The dimntinuitior wrre u bouadariu .crou
whieh the fluid pmpertla ~vldcrpo& up, step
c h g e a . It b bean found tIut if tho flow
field ia ssrumed to be waywhere continuour,
frictionless, and .dirbaUr, except at the tiiacontinuitiea,
A reruoapble appndrmotion b the
red, p W d ~~~ EM be .chiad. In feet,
in the rerue of a wl fluid them ur no dkcaatinu!
tiea.
Fortunately, howover, the -tea of change of
fluid properti- are w gmst Uut ahock WAW
m y be treat4 n fluid dlmntinaitia. ThL
yennits the neglect of vLeority .ad hart conduction
ehswhm. Even with th* ainplihation,
however, r h i g h t f o r r u d d u t i o ~u a
very difllcult, and it ia ouly with *he aid of np
proximation that aolutio~uh w e I#m obtotned
for the o n e d h e d o n r l . ~lwrtudyb, lut pi&-
l u n
The thennodynunie d o n s required up
r s y t h a f l n t n a d umd o f N ~ ' a L ~If.
E mr-b tho intend ansrlg por unit EWE
rf fluid, which includa tbaarl ud chaniul,
md H mui repmenb the kiactic eaupl of a
particlrdmwm,thenthcAoctIrw rtPhtht
therorkdOMCQUIJIthe~intotrlenargy
(neglecting! hut truufw u rtatfd above).
Thuq for A pMLUa of dmdatu Adz, moving
vlth the aped ur and hving dcrvity p, rnd
prersum P, there u thc u.prrsrion
which & the work clov 011 tlrc p i Its
b a r n in emmy ia
'lpon w i n g to the Unit, thin giwa
which, by making UM of the continuity c q u -
tion, may be written,
d
where - h the totJ derivative, iollowing the
dt
puticle. Sin-e each partlcle is passing through
a piven location at each inatant of time, i b
propurtiea, p for a m p l e , m y be written
p ' p ( 5 t ) . (4-12)
d
Thn, ;ii of p meam the total rate of change
of p withime and pwitlor. Hence, wing the
chain rule oi ulculua, appliod to Eq. 4-12
6
but - * M, dt &peed, ana hence the Lagrunwhen
tbe same expreuion may be applied to
any one of the fluid propertlea; hut is, for v e
loelty itrelf,
dt au
I..tr of clunp, marWlog of a gut, --, caumd
at au
by changing u at a aiven point, and of u -. as.
a& by ch~nginglo cltloa a t a g I v a time.
If we m u m them are no dbripnting procm
wiNn the fluid, txcapt at the d h t i n u -
itiu, then the thcnnodynrmic condition of constrnt
entropy may Im applied to any &MI
free of boundaries. Thia leuin to the mud d l -
ahnth rrlrtiun thnt permits prwaure to be expravrad
as a singlcvdued fcnctlon af dendty
dona Nota, however, that vcrorr d h n t i n ~ .
ftlu two different elementr of nuid m y haw
undergone different dirripntive p r p o mCeon~- .
muentir, .di.htic law nuy be different
for the two putielu. .
la order b iutrod~d the rubject of hock
waves in a nvrurcr moat appropriob to the
p m n t Ilireuuion, it will be wnvenient to dnt
dkew waved of MJ1 amplitude.
For reference, the continuity and momentum ~-~~ ~ ~ - -
uquationa for onedimeruionhl flow are repeated:
and
h u e t t t there exlrp an everywhew uniform
and rtntionary fluid of (initial) demity
p.. At ir now dorired ta determine how the fluid
rf;acb when a mall prwure dbturhnce h
created. Thh h the u r u l scourtic problem. It
L lwtructive to aee what urumptiona must be
mnde to w i v e at the concept of a rwnd wave.
If the indlcoted diRerollli.tlon u carried out
in El. 4-8, the result h
If it k u r u d that u, the partick velodty, ir
us3 that the daruity chnnge a t a point
b lmd PI. lwult 01 a #mall premure puhe,
1. mry be neglected. Further, rince P is p n r u
to be a function of p only,
since( \ evaluated for an dfwotlc ch~nge
d. .
au
hmiu - k &cf rceoad order and wlll be ae
and
%U au
(ht i p b 3- - and the tern SF-2 2 is a wand
older quantity. Neglecting this tern results in
the pair of linear, pmiial, differential equatiole
with constant cwlticienta,
itrc 1 ap-
,.-t- --o (1-17)
ar C,,: Et
which may be combined into a single equation.
Differentiating the drat with mwt to t, and
the wxnd with rwpect to s, and making uw
of the fret that
for continuous functions and derlvativer, \Vc
combine the pair of equaticm to give tha .cow
tic rave equation
A solution of thin equation m u i m the rubrtitutim
of some function that will reduce both
ddcr to on identity, An nrg be wen by direct
rubdtuticn, ruch a function b
where the argument of the function b the
quantity t-r/C., and f b m arbitrary tunation,
T& uurt fonn of .f will depend on'the
bundory conditions: however. without considering
that upect conriderabls Information
w be obbined. In worda, Eq. 4-20 &tea that
oud for dl vvuluer of z and t ~vl~ic1h11 akew a
constant, the yrevoure P is also a co~~shanetd
equal to the same value, because a function oi
a coratant is n cunstant. Let w be given a set
of convtant valuea, such as IOU, to,, w,, etc.;
tlien,
z=C.t+C.w, (CZl!
where lo, is one of the valuaa of the oerleu w.,
w,, etc If x ia plottod against t for diferent
values of IP, the rrerlrlt is a net of atraignt linu.
all Iuving Uu! avme dope, ui shown in Fly. 4-7.
Alllo note that b l u e of P=f (rod, each
line k a h u line of conntant preuure. The
f m n of Eq. 4 3 1 ahowe that C. iv a rpcd factor,
becaure (~pecd) X (time) dhturea.
Consider then, the point a on line w,. Let the
pressure on this line (werywhera on the line)
have the vulue P,. Thir occun a t x = r , at time
tat., an show.. As other poinh are c o d r e d
in the (2, t ) flow field, it in reen Urvt at p i n t
b, where z=xh and L-t,, the p m u n is rtill
P, That ir, the ume preuure hs been hu-
CLASSIFIED
mitted from point a to point b. Since the speed
of LraMmlssion k
a-h-;".
k t .
wing Krl. 441, the
C.(to-t.) =c* rpeed of transmimion=
(tl-t.1
rhowb~g tlut C. is the speed of transmission
of the preasure pulse, Since the lines given by
z=C.t+(l.tt*, are stmight lines, it can be seen
that C,, calied the speed of sound, is the =me
everywhere in the flow tield. It is also aeen thnt
by holding x conatant and vnrying the time, the
prcsJure at a point, changes with time. The
preuure pulse may then be envlrioned as being
tranrmitted aa shown in Fig. 4-8, where the
pulae is moving to the right with the speed Cr
Thnt is, energy is ~xchnnged between particlea
tu transmit the pmure; however, the movement
of cuch particle need only be amall. This
is well illustrated by the familiar expmplo of an
ever-widening diaturbunce cmatrd on the surface
of a atill pool of water.
To e x d u e the motion of erch particle, consider
Ep. 4-18. Then, with P= f (t-r/C.),
whore P ( t - r / L ) L the derivative of f wlth
regard to ita argument (t-z/C,). In order to
d&naine the variation In u at a point, we i n k
grab t h b equation with nrpect b t. holding r
dud Thlr pivu
whew the inttlal vrlur 2 u and-P m taken an
raro and P., rerpcclively.
To effect the integration of Ec 432 wlth
mpect to tlme, .I above, write
t-r/C*=z
then
and
since at/az-1. a d the reault followc.
From Eq. 4-24 it ir men that r L undl, ampared
with the speed of tranamiiion, for d l
va:-iations in P. To examine aom numerid
vduea recall that the round sped C, ir giwn by
Using tiu adiabatic equations of atah for air
and water give C.=1,100 it/* for air urd
C=5,000 ft/ue. for water. at mu rt*abrd
conditbna. Siuw th dedt-Ior of tbe two media
are m different, Ep. 1-24 doan thrt the psrtieie
velocity i. much bi a wrtu. If p ~ 2 . 0X
1W dugalcu ft for air. snd h-20 duga/cu it
for water, the umr pmawa d i i e n n o of (for
aumple) one lmdrukh of an rtmaphem=ZO
Ib/aq if pmduar p d c k vclodtig induced by
the pamgw of tb pmnum wva, quai to,
Up to thh point, the dLenrrion hr dolt with
onedimendoad llor r spociAcd uL.
T1#refom, the rnvr vtoducd brw ban p h e
wavsr. ond th. qurtllnu p ~ t apdply o nly
to Uut uw. [Obrrnn Uut P=t(t+:/C.) L
also a s o l u t h b the p m v h a ~ ~ ~ t l oThnl,.
m m p o n b , plyrlially, to a wavm traveling in
the revere direction.] Of even (p~rrterin terest
k the awe of spherical waw. Fortunately, if
i t is wumd that the spherical waves are
qm-n~t?icnl and depend only on radiru and
time, the equations still tlcpcnd on only one
apace varioolc. Let this vnriablr be r , and by
rusuning similar to that alrerdy employed, s
set of equtionu may be d~rived t h t express
the continuity and msmcntum relatillna If
these equatil~nso re linearized ill the m e w ay
na the plane wave caw, the fo!lowing nre obtnin~
v:l
nnd
-1 .?P i a i'u a - - ( I ) ( 4 4 )
C.' at rJ Zr Zr
whicb, when nmbined, xire,
1 . CP
r~ ar c.= at*
(4-27)
ar
. where u now m c th~e r~adia l speed, ur- at'
for a given partide. It may be verified by differentiation
that a solution of Eq, 4-27 ir
Wlng exactly the rpmc m m c n t u before. it
ia wen that C. ia the speed of the rpherical
wave, but that now the amplitude dacruror
with n d i u becake of the factor ( I l r ) . This
ia abviou8ly c u d , physically, by the greater
am over which the advancing diatnrbanm h
spread. Integrating Eq. 4-26 wlth regard to t,
and wing the functional expression jwt found
for P givea
where t' L r variable of inteprrtioa. Although
aho u function of all previous prersureii that
reached the point prkr to timest. Thn 13
shown by thc pplwncc of the inte.mL Thai is.
the velocity u. calkd the after flow, will exist
even after the local premure dilrence lm
fallen to nro. Further, u will equal zero only
when P falls blow P.. ?hk illurtratca one rignificnnt
effect of P. sphcriwl source. It also
servea to show why the blast problem lea& to
mthematical difficultia. for a complctc 1w111ntion
of preuuror nnd flow a t yoi!~ts lrhil~d
(after the wave Isxu mwed) the wnve f l w t ia
clearly anly possible by considering Ule properties
of the aource whplch generate the wave.
Further, any source will be offwted by the fluid
surrounding it, and it ia men Umt P coupling
ex* between the cause ard eZect. In the b b t
computations to be mnaidcred later, this coupling
will be wen tu complicate, and determine,
the boundary conditions.
In the blart pmblem, only weak sourro produce
acnoatic waves In the c a w of intereat.
nnd in relation to an explosion, the pmaure
difforeneea created by the yawage of a wave
front are too m a t to conskier the linearid
equations just discussed. In fact, the nonlinear
character of the flow field, together with wnsidemtiona
of vivcosity and heat ttlmrfer, load
to the formation of shock wavea. To .we, from
a phy8iciil viewpoint, how this happens, consider
the following argument.
In the linearized treatment, the rcund sperd
C ( z , t ) wor repla& by a coartaat value. C.,
evaluated at the equiiibrium state. In other
worda, the trammlion ,peed wor mumed to
be indewdent of the pressure and the state
of motion of the fluid. Thee ~uumptiona lead
to the conclusion tnut the C=C. waa a constunt
in a fixed coordinate ayltern. On the other
k n d , if C ia permitted to vary and is measured
with respect to a set of coodinaten moving
with the fluid at the point in quertioa. mrtbn
become more aomplex. Sirrce P=P ( p ) in an
adiabatic r e k t i o d p . P is e& to incrauc
inbpntioa euvloL be perfo6ed explicitly, b
in the plane case. it L awn that the velocity at an inmssing rate with fi n* * :L
-P in hn uid u, at b i t i o n z, ir not only a fun;- ' positive and incremes with i n c r c u i o~w mprution
of i..9 preaaurc difierence at that time, but rion. Accordingly, the round epeed incnue s
- > ---
UNCLASSIFIED
with increasing comyrcssion. The meat signiflcam
of thii effect is ehow in the following
dlscuuion, based on Ref. 4.
Conaider subsequent spatial pusitio,m of the
%me wave, as shown in Fig. 4-9. Campreasion
trsveiing to the right. as in positlon (1) will
have the aped C.. relative to the fluid, at point
a. The absolute speed of compression at point
a Is, therefore, tt.,+C.. where u. is the particle
speed. Point b represents the pressure wove
with speed of trnnsmission w+C,. Since mint
b is a point of higher compression than point a,
ti, and C, are both higher than at point a.
Hence, as measured in absolute ctm~rlinntest,h e
pressure puke is being transmitted faster than
at point a. Correrpondingl.~. the sequence of
evenb is shown in (2) and (3), where the crest
of the wave has overtaken the valley. Here
there is an exceedingly sharp wave front.
wrou which quantities vary in an almost discontinuous
fashion. The steepnem of this wave
front genenta lugt gradients. from which it
could be expected that heat conduction and
vhauity would enter the picture. Because it *
known that they do, to a significant extent, the
elementary analysis just considered is nut aatirfactory
for a complete evaluation of shock
waves. However, i t does point out the rignificant
fnct that strong compression waves lead
to shock waves. Conwnely, the arament a b
h w a that rarefaction waves cannot produce
.hock wave$. Thia iupect of thc dircusaion is
concluded by the o h n n t l m that spherid
waves, even though strollply fnlthkd will
eventually apprmch sound waves becaw. the
energy denrity from a finite soume L spread
out over an ever expmding sphere.
C
44.3.5. Vorlers Ap- fo H. # I d
M e w f w kw Air Brrrts
a &wd
The discussion of phyoid upecta in the preceding
paragraph Pnd the nonlinear character
of the basic equations indicate t h d shock MVBI
wil: develop. Further, it is c k u that after the
shock fmnt 11as started to develop, the heat
conduction effect and vLseosity rnl~st become
important because of the high padients existing
in pressure, tempmature, &.. at: the wave
front. It would seem that an obvious solution
would be to include the viscosity a d conduction
effects in the basic equations from the
beginnin& and to then wlve the multinp prtial
differentimi equations. The resulting solutions
would automtiully oceount for the shock
fronts and all uipecb of the Row. Unfortunately,
such an approach is far beyond the
present applications of nonlinear dilferential
equations. Even from a pu& numerid viewpoint,
the highest speed amputen would be
uselesa in a problem of tht penedity. Of n e
w i t y , then, a p p r d ~ t i o ~ucu made in o b
taining solutions to the blast problem. S i n e
the various methods am a p p m M q t h y
a n not unique, and diffemnaa in principal as
well ui in computatio~d tabiquea would be ,
emtpefted.
I t haa d r d y been indicated that none of
the authoritative woh Ln the fidd h a attempted
to rolve the - ppmbkm Insteod,
theshorlr mvam&umr.thcmtid
d h n t i n u i t b , rhLh urw u f~re
boundaries between rrpioar of urumed di-
-tic flow fields. Tbc tcnn fm
meam that these dLrantiauitia are not known
irt advnllcc. Iwl must bc ~:rtcrn~incf.ati the mhk
tion proceds. Indnul, this one fact accounts
for sonre of the major dirtiraltiea e~~rou~ilered
in ymblrma of this typo, Lwtb from ;L co~sputational
ant1 ~,wreticalv ie\~~oint.
I t shoeln be pnintcd nut l~ercth at von Neuma~~
ns'csh eme of tictitious viscoalty is a depnrture
from all fornrer techuiques. \\\'hilt this
technique dws not twit shocks :IS a ~mthematicd
discontinuity, neither does it ntte~npt
to solve the p v e r n i n ~cl iffercntinl equations in
al! their generality. This fictitious viscosity
method wi:l be discussed in follo\ving su11-
paragraphs. Since shock waves, treated as
mtl~ematicrld iscontinuities, play such an important
role in blast calculations, it is worthwhile
to dcscrik the conditions under which
they exist. The physical buqis for their fonnation
has alreajy been discussed. The nnnlyticnl
conditions existing at a shock front will
nov be examined. In order to discuss shock
arves from an analytical viewpoint, it is necessary
to detelop the Rankine-Hupniot equations.
Thesc are treated in many places (Ref.
3, for example) and will he repeated here only
to the extent necessary to observe the physical
implications behind tlrem.
Consider, for illustration of the analytical
conditions existing kt a shock front, the clw
of a plane wave advandng into a reaon at rest.
The side of the discontinuity facing the undisturbed
tbw is called the front of the shock
wave. As this front passes. the particles of
fluid have their properties changed. Hence,
viewed from an absolute coordinate system. a
condition of norsteady flow exists. If it is
assumed that the front advances at a uniform
speed, U, with respect to fixed axes, then an
observer traveling with the front would ob-
Shak Frm
Figure 4-1 0. Morement of
Shock Front in Undisiurbed Fluid
The conservatian of mass is e x p~we dby the
fact that the mass entering the front must
lcnve the front. Therefore, for a unit area.
p (U-10 zP. U. (4-29)
Newton's law may be expressed in the fotm:
change of momentum equals impuls~ In time
dt, the mass crossing the boundary is
p (U-n) d t
and the momentnm carried into the disturbed
region in time dt is the product of the mass
transported and the absolute speed of transport
(because Newton's law is tnle with resped to
absolute coordinates). The momentum trans
ported out is, therefore,
p W-uludt
and in a similar manner, the momentum t r a m
ported into the bouedary is
p. U(o)dt-0
because the absolute speed before the shock is
zem. The impulse in time dt is
[P-P.1dt
and equating the two expressions gives
p (U-u) u-P-P,
but from the continuity equation, Eq. 4-29, this
serve a condition if steady state. Let the sub- may be written
script "o" refer to properties of the fluid in the p Uu=P-PI. (450) undisturbed s k k and let properties without a To establish the energy equation, we .erequire
'ukseript Rfer to the condition mge that the work done on an elem& it passes ,of the front. In Fig. 4-10, u represents the through the boundary is equal to the total
Ppo trhZeic plens psseteudc , andr espect to coordinat?' change in energy. The vrork, in t iae dt, is p the denaity. E Is the 1 -
ternal energy per unit masa The nhock-front is Prcdt
shorn noving to the right into the undisturbed noting that the work of P. is zew. The W
fluid. at speed U with respect to fixed coordi- in en- in time dt is '
natea pUdtt(E-E.).rf i 1,
wbidi, by rlimi~~qtioonf I& md U by usc of Eqs.
4-49 and 1-31), may be written
I+[.% 1-29. M D . and 4-31 show that a solution
&its ia the flow fleld fur which the vilriai~les
a n not zero. ' h t id, the basic laws of physics
how that n discontinuous flcw is possible. It
is thene equations that are needed as boundary
uonditioiia l o relnte the Ilow on onc side of a
direontinuitp to the now on tlie other, when
rolvinp the differential equations of fluid motioii.
Salving the first two explicitly for u and
U giver,
Thus, the rhwk and particle rpoch may be
determined in tenna of the stuted variables.
Tbk ia v r b t was mvant by the term free
boundnries. Tho speed, and hcnce paition. of
the boundaries tire determined only after the
Row variables are determined in the solution
of the differential equutiona. S ~ c hm lutiunn
fmquently require trial-mdarmr techniques
which am. at W t , very Lime conmuminu.
If it Ir rsr~uned tlut adiolistlc ( h i t dilfere.nt
diohrtlc) wnditiona exlst oil either side of the
rhock wave, the energy krms may be exp
m l d ad
E=:- 1 -P
7-1 P
ud
1 P-.
Y l h
w h 7 ia the ratio of apeefilc huts. With
thme turn d t i o n r and tht. Rankine-Hupniot
equnLloau. (m. 4-29, 4-30, and 1-83, many
uneful nhtio~ may be developed. This ia
rl~owii, for exxnple, in Re?. 6. Some explicit
espmn(~ionst,a ken from Ref. 6, are
whew the equntiona give. respertively: the
density rcrtio armss the shock 41-92) ; tlie
;\Inch I: imber of the advancing front. referred
to tlie speed of ~oundin the undirturbed fluid
(44%1) ; 4he ratio of the particle veloclty to the
sl~ocke peed (4-341, and the ratio of the epeed
of sound behind the shock front to the apeed
of sound in the undisturbed fluid (4-351. In
these.equationa, the tennn not previously defined
are:
a.=speed of wurrd in the undisturbed flow.
Under the present adiabatic souuaptioim,
a. may be e x p r d as
.=(I;)"=.
ratio of the prrrrure after the shock to the
pms u n ahead of the rhocli. (J=P /P,
y = ~ a t i oof specific hats, taken equal to 7/5
for these expFeuionr It h a wetl-known
fact that y=7/6=1.1 is an adequate repre-
.entation for ur, pmvided the temperatures
are not too hib
It in obswVed that thsw imporbt flow panmetera
have dl bem axpreued in ten= of the
pmmure wtio r m s l the hock W ~ V L
Returning now to r dlser~ssion of pmible
typm of solutions for the blut problem. we
hail c o ~ i d e rfl mt the mint mure* stmnp
bbrt rolution of von Nmuktnn, u d~~ in
Ref. 7.
b. I. awn N c r u u ' r s.luuol of the P d J
socue., Smu# Birr c.u
Some of the fundameutd work pelformed on
b k t wavu during World W u iI is represented
by Ref. 7, which b radily rcauihle. The
fiint topic of tile nport ia the c w under can

sidenrtion, inlroduced umut effectively by
quoting, in pact. w n Neumuur's own worh.
"The conventiotul picture of n Llast wave is
this: In a homoycneous atmosphere a certair~
spl~er-e around the origin is suddenly repheed
by limogeneow gas of much higher pressure.
The hiah presaure ar*eu wiil immediately begin
to espi\nd sgainlrt the surrountlinp low pressure
rtmosyhere and send a priLmure wave into it.
As the high pressure area cxpnids, its density
decreaea and with it the presaure; hence the
effects it causes in the surrounding atmosphere
weaken. As the pressure nave expands spherically
through the atmosphere it L diluted over
spherical shells of ever-increusing radii, and
hence its Intunsity (the density of energy, and
with it the over-preuure) deerensas continuously
also. This pmwure Wave is known (both
theoretically and experimentally) to consist a t
all times of a diacontinuour sliock wave a t the
front. and to weaken grudually as one goes
backwad from that front.
"'Id%wdption& of th e blast wave caused
by an explosion ia somewhat schematic, aince
the high prewure arm caused by m explosion
ir not produced instantaneously. nor is ib inkrior
Iromogeneous, nor is it in general exactly
rpherical. Nevertheless. it aeemr to repwsent a
reasonable appraximution of reality.
"&themtically, however, this approximate
description offers very great difficulties. To
determine the details of the history of the
blut; that is, of its decay, the following t h i n p
must be computed: (1) the trajectory of the
hock wave: t h t ia, of the front of the blvst
wave; and (2) the continuous flow of air behind
the 8hoek (ahead of the #hock the air is unprturbed
and a t rest). This requires the solutiun
of r partial differential equation bounded by
the unknown trajectory (1). Along this tnjnctory
the thaory of shock imposes more
boundary conditionm than are appmpriate for a
drfferenthl equation ot' the type (2), and this
overdetennination pmdum a linkage between
(1) and (2) which shouki permit one to determine
the trajectory of (?) a d to solve (2).
To this extent the prohem is u sor.ulled Ym
bun&ry" partial differential equation problem.
Howmr, the situntion ia further wmp
i i i u t i by the fact that st svch point (21 tire
I d cn tropy is determined by the entropy
chtrup the corresponding ysr underwent when
it crossed the ah& (1) ; that is, by the drock
strength at a certain point of (1). The ktter .
dcpencb on the &ape of the trajectory ( I ) , and
the entropy in question intluencea the coefliciunts
nf the differential equntion (2). Hence
I .e differential equation (2) itself depends on
the shape of the unknown trajectory (1). This
dependence canad be neulected as Inn& as the
entropy chnnge caused by the shock ia im.
portant; thut is, ns long as the shock is strong
(in d r a sl~ock con be considered "strong" if
the shock pressure exceeds 3 atm). Mathematically
rach problems are aItoget.her inacwsible
to our prwnt analytical teclrniquea. For
this reason the general problem of the deny of
b h t has k n treated only by uppruximte
analytical metirode., or numericaily, or by e m -
binations of the.
"For very violent explosions a further simplificarion
supgosb itself, which changes the
mathematical situation very radically. For
such an explosion it may be justified to treat
the original, central, hi& pressure area as a
point. Clenrly, the blast cuminy from a point,
or rather from a nqrliliQMe volume, can have
apprectrble effects in the outside atmosphere
only if the originnl pressure is very high One
will expect thrrt, aa the original high prouure
where d r i n k to a point, the original premure
will have to rile to infinity. It k easy to aee,
indeed. huw these twu are connected. One will
want the energy of the original high prauure
nrea to have a Axhi value E, nnd PI the
original volume containing B. shrink to zero,
the presaure in it will have b rise to infinity. it
ia clear that of all known phenomena nuclear
explosions come noarest to realizing thcse
conditions."
The investigation presented in Ref. 7 conm
i n th~e d ecay of a b U w ave due to a point
explosion of energy E. waa largely taken from
the following sources: 0.1. Taylor, Proc. Royal
Soe, British Report RfXl:, June 21, 1941;
and John von Neulnann, NDRC, Div. B, Report
AM-9, June 80,1941. Iniportant simplibcatio~
(in puticulr, the ure of the vufPblr of Eq.
2.44) are due to G. Y. Kynch, British Ibport
BX-62, YS-69, Sept. 18, 1943. The m u l t
by J. H. van Vleck, NDEC,
Div. B. Rewrt ALL1 1, Sept. 15, 1942 Com~cre
also the later work of C. 1. Taylor, Proc. Rbyal
Soc (London), A201. 159 (19GO).
One of h e most significant aapectu of the
solution given by von Neumann is the use of
dimensional similarity to reduce the complexity
of the yroblem. Since he deals with a point.
source and considers very high pressures, the
initial air pressure before burst, P, is neglected.
These nssumpt~onsp ermit ir grouping of
variables which leads to u set of ordinary,
rather than pnrtinl equations. The report concludes
with a set of formulae whirh may he
used to compute the shnck lrnd flow parameters.
c H. Bebb'r Snlurlon /w SmaU (7- I )
A method discussed by H. Eetho, in Ref. 7,
is more general than von Neumann's solution.
It is basd un the fact that the term (7- 1)
may be considered small in nurny applications.
Here, agnin. the best description of the method
is agorded by the author's introductory remnrka:
"The solution given in von Neumann Poict
Source Caae is only vfid for an exact point
wurce explosinn, for constant 7, for constnnt
undisturbed density of the medium, and for
very high shock preaures. It b very desirable
to find a method which permits the treatment
of romevhat more general shock wave problems
and thereby cnmes closer to describing a
real rnock wave. The clue to such a method is
found in the very peculiar nature of the point
wurce solution of Taylor and von Neumnn. I t
. h charaderiatic for thai rcilution that the
dgwity is extremely low in the inner regions
u ~ ida h igh only in the immediate neighborhood
of the .shock front. Similarly, the prewure is
dmost exactly constant inside a radius of about
0.8 of the radiue of the shock wave.
"It ia particularly the Brat of t!~eae inch that
k relevant for coratructinp a more general
method. The physical situation is that the material
behind the shock moves outward with a
high velocity. Therefore, the material stream
away from the center of tho shock wave and
mats a high vacuum near the center. The
h n c e of any appreciable mount of material,
together with the moderete size of the accelerations,
immediateiy :-ads to the cundusion that
the prescure mwt be very nearly constant in
the region of low dcnr!ty. I t is interesting to
note that the pressure in t h ? redm is by no
menu zero, but is aknort one-half of the pressure
a t the shock front
"The concentration of material near the
shock fmnt and tf.e corresponding evacuation
of tire region nenr the center is most pronounced
for vi~luea of the specific hear ratio 7
clooe to I. It is well-known that the density a t
the shock increwr by a factor
-P-. _-Y + ~
PI 7-1
(4-56)
This becomes infinite au y approacher unity.
Therefore, for y nenr 1 the rwumption that all
material is conwntruted twir the shock front
becomes more and more valid. The density near
the center can be shown to behave pr ( 7 - l ) P ,
where r in the radiuu.
"The idea of the method proposed here ir to
muke repeated use of the f a t that the mate*ial
is concentrated near the hock front. As a wnsequence
of this fact, the velocity o i nearly all
the material will be the m e sr the velocity of
the mnterial directly M i n d the front. Me--
over, if ir new 1, the materiPl velocity k ! h d
the front is very nauly qul to the rhwk
velocity itaelf; the two quantities diffc 9nly by
a factor 2,'(r+ 1). Tta accelerntion of almost
all the material h then qwl to the d e r a -
tion of the shock wave; knowing the acdera-
*,tion one can cdc~l a t eth e ptwaure dbtribution
i n t e r n oi' tha mPbrW coordinate; i.r, the
nmount of air inride r &en radius. The u l -
culatiol~ again is facillt.tcd by the fact thnt
nearly all the moterial is at the rho& front and
therefore has the rrmc position in apace
(Eulerian c o o r d i~t a.)
"The procedure followed ir then simply thb:
we mrt from the uaumption th.t a:) material
is concentrated at the rhoclr frank We obbin
the p m u m diabibution Fmm the relation
between presrure .md demity duw .n adiabatic,
we can obtain the danoity of oach matcrid
element if we know iia p m u m rt the
present time u well iia when it wan ant hit
by the sho& By integration of the densitr we
cnn then find a more Mlntc value for the
position of each m w element. This procus
could be rvpcated if required; i t would then
lead to a power aeries in ;Mwven of 7- 1.
"The method leads directly tu a relation between
the shock occelerntio~~th, e shoch pressure,
and the internal pressure near the center
of the shoci wave. In order to obtain :L differe:
dal equatiun for the position of the h c k as
a function td +;me, we have to use two adtiitional
facts. One is the Hugoniot relilt~un
between shwk pressure and shock velocity. The
other is energy conservation in some form. In
some apolicutions such aa that to the pbint
suurce solutio~it~se lf, we may use the cunservntion
of the total energy u hiclr reqr1irt.s that the
shock pressure decreme inversely ~u the c u b
uf the shock radius (similarity law). On the
other hnnd. i i there is a central isother~nal
sphere nci similnrity law holds, but we may
wnsider the adiabatic expansion of the isothermal
sphere and thus determine the decrease of
the central pressure ns a function of the radius
of the isothennrl sphere. ,If we wish to apply
tho method to the c:-w uf variable y without
isothermal sphere. we may %gain use the a n -
servation of total energy, but in this case the
pressure will 11ot be simply pi.oportiona1 to
1 fY3, whcrc Y is the dock radius.
"An has already bee11 indicated, the applications
of the method are very numerous. The
Neun~ann. if in von Neumann's mlution 7 is
allowed tu approach 1.
k H. B&e'r, K. FysW !Wdon lor S d
Blur Prcunue
Ref. 7 is also the source of this theory. The
purpose of the a~~alysiws w to provide an
asymptotic solution that reduces to ordinary
~coustict heory in the limit, as the radius of
the blast sphere becomes litre. Another reason
given fur the technique is that it may be used
to indicate a suit. ble stopping point in a purely
numerical computation. This p i n t is reached
when solution by machine l~nsp rogressed sufficiently
to make numerical techniques wasteful
of machine time; because from this point.
a~ymptuticn. ppropriate fc~rmulasa re adequate.
For further infrlvnlion, Ref. 7 should be consulted.
e. Tbe Mefkod ol Kirlrroood awl Brinklq
Developed hy the authors during Wnrld War
11, this method differs in principle from those
mentioned rhve. because the authors are
specifally interested in the hast frum high eexplosives
rather than nuclear explosions. It is
uppliccble to either air or water. The method
is numnuarized in Ref. 6. and the original paper
is listed herein as Ref. 8. The repart is one in e
long aeries un the fume general subject by the
w r e authurs. Refs. 6 and 8 earh give addicaw
of uot very hi& .-' k pressures can alw tionil references.
be included; in this ca.. rile density behind tho r :'::$he Kirkwood-Rrinkley theory her become
rhock wave do& not hnve the limiting value of sr~mewhat of a stnntiard for high explosive
Eg. 4 3 6 but depends itself nn the shock pres- ~vork. and alttrough experimental dirercpa~~cies
sure. This does not preVent the npplicatinn.uf have been reported. it still remains one of the
our method as long as the density increase a t best available menns of approximating the
the shock is still very large so that nust of the ,physicirl wcurrence of bl.wt.
mnterinl is still near the shock front. The thewr is b a d upon nonviscous theory
"The only limitations of the method are its 0-ltslde shock fronts, and uses the equations
moderak aceurncy and the possible cmplica- . of motion and the equation nf continuity in
tions of the numerial rqrk The accuracy spherical cmrdinates. -When these two q u a -
awms satisfactory up to y about 1.4. For the tion3 are evaluated a t the shock front. they
point a dilw. comparison the represent two relntions for the unknwn radial
exact solution i3 possiMe." velocity u and pressure P. and thcir derivatives.
The Rankine-1Iugoni11t equation provides
The mont Wect of H' Bethe's one more relationship, making three equatioru
solution is the fact that, &!h0& ihirod for available. ( i t should be obrarvd that the other
~0nditi0tlS Mar it holds howmably well RankineEugnniot quatiow do net the
for the case of y==1.4. the sta.:daid air value. needed infom~ation, for they introduce addi-
The author shnw thi~t it agrees with von tional state variables.)
In developing the equations, the initial and
boundary conditions are chonen to correspond
to adiabatic explosion at constnnt volume.
While Ulese do not coincide exactly with real
crpldws, the inaccuracies introduced decmme
with b h t radius.
The fourth required relationship between the
derivatives is achieved approximately by requiring
that certain similarity conditions be
aatisled. The authors point out in their basic
report, Ref. 8, that it is futile to seek ;I fourth
relation between the portid derivatives that
docs not involve a aolution of the basic equations.
They go on to show, however, that an
vppmximntr relationship can be achieved on
physical pruunds. The exact form of the relationship
in dincursed in dekil in Ref. 3; phyuically,
it mounts to choosing a functional form
for the shape of the shock wave decay, nnd
then determining unknown constants so that
the basic equations are satisfied aa nearly aa
w i b l e . As the authom point out, such a
procedure is similar to the Rnyleigh method, in
which an assumed solution is chosen, subject to
the determination of constants.
The report co~~cludewa ith a discussion of
specific procedures fcr computing nhock wave
pammekra. I t &.ould a h be remarked that
thia theory is particularly suitable for extending
rnenrured data out to greater blast rndii.
This uae, In fact, has become one of the major
applications of the theory.
1. T h F i d & h Y k & y Mathod 01
J . -wNn a d R . Rickmyw
In Ref. 9 von Nemann and Richtmyer lntroduce
a significantly uew concept for the calculation
of flow fields bounded by, and containing,
ahoek waves. A direct quotation from
the introduction ot this b.-~ii: paper is appxpdate
"Irr Lhe inveatigaiion of phmnmena arising
in the flow of a axnprulible fluid, it is f m
qwntly desirable to mlve the equations of fluid
motion by rtvpwi~cn ume5cal p r o d u r n , but
the work: i. usually merely erwplicated by the
pmmce of ahwka. (10) The rho& manifwt
thenuelva mthesiiiiically m sudaais cn
which density. fluid velocity, temperature,
entropy and .&e like have dimntinuities; and
clwrly the parliP1 differential equations governing
the motion wquire boundary conditions
connecting the v a l u of thcae quantitiw on
the two sidea of each mch surface. The nu?asaary
boun&ry conditions are, of MU^, s u p
pliei by the Rankine-Hugoniot equations, but
their application ia complicated because the
s l~mks urfaces are in mution relative to the
network of points in space-time used for the
numerical work, and the differential equations
and buundary conditions are nonlinear. FIT
thermore, the motion of the surfaces is not
known in advance but is governed by the differontirll
equations and boundary condiliom
themselves. In consequence, the treatment of
shocks ~ q u i r e vle ngthy computations (usually
by trial and error) a t each step, in time, of the
calculation
"We describe here a method for automatic
treatment of shocks which avoids the necessity
for application of any such boundary conditiona
The approximations in it can be rendered
nr accurate aa one wishes, by suitable choice of
interval sizes and other purameters wr:urring
in the method. It treats all shocb, correctly
and sutomatidly, whenever and wherever
they may arise.
"The method utilizea the well-known effect
on shocka of dissipative mechanisms. such aa
vi~oa i tya nd heat conduction. (brd Boyleigh
(11) and C. I. Taylor (12) showed, on the
basis of general thennodynamid considerations,
that didpation h ncceuPrily pruent in
shock wave& b t e r , FL Becker (18) gave a d c
tailed diseursiun of the effrtr of heat cunduction
and YtCO*tY. Recently, L H. Thotw
(14) h u inveafigatcd these effcetr further in
t e r n d the kinetic theory of pascr.) When
viscorrity ir taken into account, for example,
the rho& are men to be uneared out, w that
the arathematlerl &&!en of direontinuity am
r e p M by thin Lym in which preuum,
density, tempmature, ctc, V.PY rapidly but
eontinuourly. Our idea N to introduce (arti.
ficiaI) dhipative terrm into the quatiow m
PI to give the hodu a thickncu m p a r a b b to
(but preferably somewhat larger than) Ulc
spacing of the point. of the network. Then
the differential equatianr (more accurately, thr
eorresmding difference equal .u) m y k
w d for the entire calculation, just iu though
thaw wuc no shoclu at all. In the numerical
n u l t r obtained, the rhockr are immdmkly
evident u neardiwontinuitiorr that move
through the fluid with very nearly the correct
speed and acrw which pressure, temperature,
etc, have very nearly the correct jumps."
It should be noted that os useful as thin concept
is, it depends explicitly upon the numerical
integration uf the differential quagonu.
The ability to a r r y out the numerical solutions
has wulted from the great improvements in
cornputem since World War 11. Present day
nuchinen are not only much faster, but are
mom reliable.
It rhwld be noted, too, that the pres811t
method is much more @nerd than the other
methods. Where h e older metnods Proume the
outward progrers of the shock wave, they neglect
the possibility (in moat cases) nf the formation
of other, fullowing ahodtr. In the
present method, theae additivnrl ahocb are
automatically accounted for.
8. H. Bra&'# AppUollrba of Un FkIhlwr
v&dq M d d
H. h d a (Ref. 15) Ur c l l ths flCtiti0~8v bcoaity
method of Ref. 9 to c ~ n ythm * very
complete mlutions for the point mum methd.
The author points out that solutionr of tho
bkrt wave probhm are available for point
r o u m h n g wave, and point rwrce-weak
wave. Thsre are dbcuuPd ill Bci. 7.
It will be recalled that mathematical difiul-
Uu lead to the need for aimplifmtio~in the
early work. In prticulur, the Jlock problem
of free boundaries p~wn t e dn n extremely difficult
eomputatlonrl problem. With the dic
dorum of Ref. 9. coniplete new a n w w m
opened for rtudg and uulyair A detailed
tnrSnunt of the point wurce cue ir g k n in
Ref. IS.. The paver outlina tine approach and
dbcuaw the numerid iutegration rchaM
4.A very dgnifkant orpet of the paper u
the presentation of a rather hrge number of
n~~ results, The pnrntation is glven
primarily in terms of nondimenrionrl quantitia
from which detail dculationa m y k
made. Following are wme of the madb pmmntuJ
in the report, atthv in thr form of
awu, uplicit .puptioar, or both.
a 1. Putielr velocity at the rhock front n
radiu parameter.
2. 0hrprruure at the rbofk fmnt va rrdiw
parameter.
8. Dynamic preasure at the (hock fmt vr
radius parameter.
4. Pressure within the Aow &Id rs a function
of time and dhtpnca, in b m of a
time parameter and a radius parameter.
G. Partlcle velocity ps r function of position
and time.
6. Density as a function of mition and
time.
7. Positive and negative p h w duration.
That ik the timea during which the werpressure
is positive or segativo.
8. Positive impulse.
0. Nagative impube.
In these presentationr2 nondimetuional unib
for t h e and distance are normally used, w
thatthecu~esmaybcuredformany~of
intereat.
From both a theoretical and practical miputatiod
viewpoint, thu paper ia highly
recommended as a working tool for blast computatiota
The paper wncbdu by examining
the c o s ~of a f ini tdm mum, md rfxnarlm on
the h e c diflerencea in the mathmatical
modeL reprerented by the point Pad Bnihke
wurm.
a H. 6 4 % Applicdom of th L.-
v-, Y& la. F h b s l u Clurg.
oj H&h Erpl.Jo.
H. Brode'r work on rol~tioru of the point
MUW method (Ref. 16) were utmdd to include
the eraa of a finik4ze sphm of high
explosive ur the initiating enera roum (Ref.
16). The hydmlyarmic quatioau were rolved
n~mrically. using the artificial vlccalty amcepk
Rclulta are prrrenkd graphically h
nort cucr The author sLo wink out thr
significant fact that d i n g lam are Iesn .p
propriato in a b b t computation b a d on a
finibrize high explosive ch..qp. Thir ir trw
kclrucc the boundary conditions dapend on the
rrmu of the HE, .nd the efflotr. it ha8 bwn
found, extend out to low pmaura I-. The
author presents aa a working rule that usual
d i n g methods (Srhs) will be adequate only
when the radius of the primary rho& sphere
iu equal to or greater than that neecsswy to enclose
a muu of alr qwl to tan times the initial
rrura of HE.
4-23.b. Seallap and Oamoge Pownetm
whrre AP L the pwnive OVCrpraaum, urd D;
hu been deRsed It ia rlso of i n t e d to define
the iuteprrl of the M c pm u r e . I t b
given by
D.
I .* ~ ~ ~ D ; v r ulmpiuciae . (-1
The parameters of interest in blast computation&
direuaaed in previoua parauraphs (nee
dao Ch. 2. Sec. 1V) are listed and summarized
at thk point The parameters of greatest intvert
a n those which relate directly to damage.
It h u been found thvt tlwse include perk
pnuuru, positive duration, nepntive duration,
poritive impuhe, negatibe imyulae, peak negative
preurure, and dynamic pressure. The peak
prurure is most obviuus. I t correnponds to the
value of the prarsun given by the paaswe of
the main shock wave. The cther quantities are
Mned in the following way.
Consider a specified point in apace. At this
point, the preurure will vary with time aftor
the w i n g of the initial shock wave. The time
during which the premure is poritive relative
to initiul preaaure is called the duration
of the positive phiiae, and is denoted by
D; (Static preaaurr minus ambient static
pressure Ls defined aa e x m pressure.) A simi-
Lu definition is @en for the tlme during which
the exme prcrsure is negative. Thia time is
d l e d the duration of the neparive p b , and
it k &noM by 0-,, Loometitl~t he t enry duration
of the poaltive (or negative) phue for
purticle velocity. a n uaed. They am fIequently
denoted by O'. and D;, and are the timer during
which the pruticle velocity a t a given point
is dther positive or negative.
The dynamic pmaaure (per unit mpu is impUd)
is defined u 1/2r us, where p is demity
.nd u b the particlo veldty. It should be noted
that theae a both functlotu of t h e and posittoa
The impulse quantitk are important in estimating
damage; they are deflned by the relahru,
The negative impuhe u defined by
Brodt, in Ref. 15,st.b that the negative impuhe
can be approxinuted to an accuracy of
within 5 per cent by
where (Q.) k acptive ex- p r e u ~ xu a
function of the.
I t should be emphtlzd that all of these
quuntities ate functions of both pcaition and
time (except, bP maximum and n~inimuw).
Nonrully. tkey are wrl*uSed at a Ilxed p i n t
in apace u a function of tim. The numerical
valuu so determined will be d i l r e n t at diierent
pointr of sp.0~.
The hock wave urd Row tMd puuneterr
may be calculated for my particular urc by
wing the formulu and curva of Refa 7. 16,
and 16, for example. In particular, the graphical
prcwntatiotu given in the kttsr two referenctu
are quite ccmpldc. In u n i y the curved
and fonnulu, hovow, attention should be
given to the s W nallr of applicability of the
data.
Guidering the d w t y . tlnw, urd upmru
of conducting utplorlve bB, It k highly WP
able to have aarlyUal techniqwr for p m d k
ing Had eflcetr. In pmi o u ~ u r p n ~uhnrna
of tho vadour tcfhuiqum were outlined. Aa
altanative approach which hu proven my
aucccsllul u the dcvciopmeni of ruling hn.
There law dml#cd on l imi r i t ~c~ nmidentiolu
to provlde formuLu by which blut effccb can
be predicted for 8 giwn ret of wnditionr if the
blrst uffact~ for aome other aet of eonditlonr
are b w a The great utility of ruek formSr
Ir obviour.
In the^ prragnpha the fur~damentadi i n g
lam of Ref. 17 wiU be deduced and briefly dbc
W . Although tke ruulb are tho w e , the
method of derivation presented herein differs
from that given in the reference. A relatively
complete derivation ia presented, because a discurrion
suficiently elementary to ratisfy the
aims cf the text does not appear to be available
i t the literature..
The deduction of the scaling iawva will be
based on dimensional conride~~ationsT. hat is,
the equation which determines the f ~ n d i o ~ l
relationship between the blast parameters must
be dimensionally homouenws. An equation is
=id to be dimensionally homogenwus if the
form of the equation does not depend on the
units of meaaulwment. T h w Wing a simple
emmple from Ref. 18, the quation for the
period of a pendulum,
~ = 2 r ~ I 7 ;
u true no matter what unita ore wed to me*
ure time and length. Time may be m e u u d
in &vr, aeconda, yean, &., and length may
be mcraured In feet, Inchw, centimeters, e k
However, U 0 of the equation ia given the d u e
32.2, t!!c equation b nc longer dimenrionalb
homogenwm, became the number 82.2 implier
that length Is mcuuwd in feet and time in
MW&. Noting that the pendulum equation
may be written
T / \ / G = 2 w
it L llen that TI J L is ~a d i m e m i a h
IIDUD~M of the mriabler involved.
From the h r u u i o n of tha pmceding paragraph
i t M y be interred that urY d i i e ~ i o n -
ally homoganeou aquation em be reduced to r
nlrtionrhip between one or mote diaraarionku
pmducta. Thh b, in fact, the cue. A rams
what ltronger otrtunent L the well-known
Buckinghm TU- the following formula-
* T b s h J a d p~u ~ z q i h ~ h r r t i x q h w i n s n
orlglnrl trutmmt by Dr. Louia F. M y , carplkd upull
tor laolvkn b tbb publAa.Uua.
tion being taken d i d y from Ref. 16, where
a proof of the theorem may ba found.
Buekingbk Thmxwn at~tes that if an
be reduced to a relationship among a complete I set of dimeP;rionlem pmductr. In order to diacuss
thb theorem, w note that any formula
depends on certain variabler. If thew vfiriablea
mental dimension8 mpse (Y) length ( L ) and
Lime (T)a ll cancel identically, then thia proup-
I am mupcd into a pruduct such that the funda- '
in^ of variables is culled a dime~ionlesrp roduct.
In the pendulum example just given, the
product T/\/L/g M a dimenmionless product,
because in term of the fundamental dunensiuna
of length (L)a nd time (T),w e have
T = 1
wlrre the symbol "-" b ueed to man, "the
dimemionr of:'
A ret of dimensionlars pmduetr of given
variablor b u i d to be complete if each pmduct
in the wt is ind~wndento f the othen, and if
every other dimearionlau product involving
the lvme variables can be formed by prodacb
o r powen of m m k m of the set,
At thia point In the diruasion it is postulvted
that every equation which describer a phyrical
rituatio~i conwtly must be dimenniomlly homomneaur
(In thh conacction, refer to the
direuuion In Ref. 18.)
In o r b to apply Buckinghnm's Theorem to
a physical rmblem, it ia first nee-ry to
define the wt of vrriabka involved. ThL i.
uaurlly not an u r y b k , beerwe a complete
knowledge of d l variabler involved would Mply
a thornugh undentandlng of all the phylien1
pmeuea involved. In rnany ews t!!e h k
Is slmpliftcd, however, b r u e experience will
have &own thrt certain vnriabks are irnpartan&
but that othem are relatively unimpmtant
for the application eontemplbd and eaq b
neglected.
UNCLASSIFIED
To illustrate the point, conalder the reairtance
to an object moving thmuuh the air. Buth
theory and experiment rlrow that the resistance
dependr on the shape of the object, the air
density, the velocity, the hair vireority, and the
e omp ~ i b i l i t yof the air. However, i t is a h
known that if the rpeed t neither too high nor
too low. the effects of vlsearity and compresaibility,
or varinbles of the problem, can be neglected.
Accordingly, for the degree of appmximation
considered, the equation
P=f ( P , V, D)
may be wrltiten, whore f is a gener:~l, unknown,
functionnl relaUamhlp stating that the mistante
F depends on the dennity p, the s& V.
and a charactrrlstic IenBh C (lor a set of gee
metric all^ similar crbjects). No indication of
how p, V. and D are involved in the function ia
implied, aa yet. One way of determining the
functional relationship in to wt up and aolve
the appropriate phyricd equationr, based on
tho lawr of mechanics, thermodynamics, etc.
Since such solution^ are frequently very dimcult
to obhin, It is worthwhile considering if
any other infonnatlon exisb' whkh will help
formulate the functional rettionshlp. Tt i~ a
remarkable fact that the requirement of dimensional
homogeneity, alone, ir oftm ruHlcleat to
piwide a partial rolutlon to the problem.
As an example, conrider again the functional
form
F=f (p, V, D)
in which the variables have k e n previourly
defined. In order to & M y tha requiremenk
of dimenrlod homogeneity. the vrriab
l r wlll be grouped Into d h n a f o n k e ~pr od&
; m required by Buckinpham'r Theorem. To do
thL it will be runlflent to ellmlnate the dimensiom
of maaa (MI,le nath (L),a nd time (T)
from both rider of the eqcquution. Thk will be
uromplthed one step at a time, by divhllng
both rik ol the quation by a varlrble or combination
of variabla which elimlarta the dlmclubn
under co~ideration Fink note that
, the varlbles have the following dkncnrlom,
F a f o ~ - MIP'
p~dctuityrML4
v=sw.-LrL
D=lenpthmL
where, u before, tbe rynbol "I." denotes IIJ
the dimens io~o f." Next. note that Ncwton'r
l.w,
force = auu X accderation
or
h a been 14to relate force to the fundamental
units of nws, length, and time. lnapection
of the equation and the dim+nrlon of each variable
rhows that MI occur& to the Ant pawar
In F and p. Hence, if both rides ut the equation
are divided by p, mau will be diminated on the
left ride. Thuu,
Since V and D do not contain mus, they will b
unaffected. Further, bmuw dimensional h e
monaeity t required, my mru t e r n mud be
removed from the right aide u they were from
the left. Accordingly, the mass tern (demity
in fhia carc) on the dght side murt cancel itrelf
identirally, b u m them cannot be a angle
nuw term in the equation and still prorelve
bmogeueity. Thur,
where $ k another arbitrary function. Slner
tho functional form u vbltrug we may wntinw
to u e the rymbol f for brevity, without
few of confllrton. Tha quation with mu
ellmiaated u an explicitly appearing vd&h
now reads.
in mkith it ia oobcrved that 'ha dimedons oi
F/. are
Length will next be e l i s l m h t from tlu
q d m . On the rfOht sldc. bnth V and D in.
vdve bngth. The kn@h dimemion may k
elfmiluted by uaiag dther of k;fo r illw

tntlo11, D will be umd. Dividing both dda by
D', to- kllethOPIllF/hPl~~
but lLrce V involva length to Lh. Ant povnr,
tha equation ia written u
where v / D is now free of the bngth dimension,
rclulting in
Once again, the right a/& must be independent
of D hawe it h the only length term
In the equation. Therefore. the dimewiun
length must evncel from the right ride Identicab,
giving
Th4 next dlmenalon of concern ia Ume. Ob-
L.
Ynd the dlmenaion of V/D iu
tln Umc dimwion tr e1iminrt.d by dividing by
v rsruluno in
Shotho Wtrldr Irnowfruof ddimendons,
the right rid* murt be rLo, and (V/D) murt
c u d identidy. Writing f (1) to d d a
dlmolulonlru quantity, tho flarl ruult upon
wlving for F ir
F=pPPf(l)
r i d analysis which ban been derdbad her&
b dva La Ref. 19. Although it tr a known, and
puricutUly ~ h t f o r w a r dtrc hnigue. it d m
not .ppear to b well-known in the &neering
litu.turc) Thr oonrtrnt f (1) may be dotermlnd
by axgorimant, and It u knuwn thrt F
d e p b u pon the product ( p D yP ),in the p r -
Ueuhr combination given. and iu not dependent
upon purely arbltruy valuer of ,I, D, or V. In
other wordm, tha m u l t atako that individd
vuirctlona in p, V. or D do not affect the value
uf F, pr~vldedt he pmduct p D' V ar eniains the
IPma
Thlr e x ~ p l vw rvso to demonutrate the
great power of dimensional humugeneity. I t
wrva, .Iw, to dunonatrate tho nocouity of a
prior knowledge of the phyrid varinblsr involved.
For erwpla, ruppoue experlmenta were
cunduebd on a set of bmrnetricnlly rimilar
objcetr actlng at different s@s. If the speed
r a g a is one whew comprevribility and v i e
d t y M unimpwtont, it ir found that F / p
Dy V* &as a conatant for different mmbfnationr
of p, V, and D. Next, supporo that the *
test spec& M rucce J v e l y i m w r d . A polnt
will be ruehrd at whlch ' I
w lonm 1L a mpItant, but becoma a fumtion
of manething. DImenaional coaridrrationr,
nloll., d l d v e no clue M to the identity of t b
unknown dependence. Howover, if the basic
diffomntid a ~ t ~ t i o orfu c ompreaaibie h w a n
inrrctrd, it ir rrrn that the a& of ruund, a,
Ir a murun of compmuibility. With W undmtudlnq,
the quation L written u
when It L now .uumed Uut the term a t an
knportmt w ~ l l ~ tofr trh e problem. If dimana
o n k prodpdr am formed, u illutntsd
&ova, it t f d th t
UNCLASSIFIED
A oct of experiments will now yield the result
that f, nIthouL not a constant, depesdrr
only on the ratio (Via), rather than on V or a
aha Furthermom, dhennional wnaidentionr
have &own that f d m not depend on p. It ir
now ssen that dimerional eo~iderationac oinb
i d with a knowledge of the phyaica of the
p d h ha ve produced n remurkably useful result.
For an entlre family of aimilar objects,
-F V m y be plottsd againrt -to provide a pD'V' a
ringle curve (of the form ahown in Fig. 4-11)
which is valid for presenting resistance dntn
over r wide runn of ape&.
The riniple example just dwribed rervea to
intmduce the technique of dimenrlund homoge
neity. It a h poinb up the need fur caution
in the lue of the technique with blast scaling
law: them laws should be 4 only withln the
range of their demortrakd validity. Exp
d in a nother fahlon, if parameterr not
accounted fur in the blut anulysis become importmtlunder
certain conditiu~rm, the rndysis
can not provide gcad m u h under there conditloru.
The d i n g technique In Mut oarlvl L
wad to predict performance from the a ~ l y w d
rvultr of prrviow trrtr. The unnylrod data &
uwd with m n m l quationr ( d i n g Lwr)
which ate utablLhrd ior r e h blut punneter
o? htnart.
Lppou it Ldvindtodavebpoding Imw
for the pmuro in the fluid following the pluc
u g e of a rhack front uuwd by a b t . F m
r rtudy of the dllnmnttul equntloar of Iluld
flow, and with a blwkdge of the phyricrl
phenomena hvdvd, it b t hto uru me
that the p r w l m at ray time and &tion,
follocvh tba ai r rpIlacid rhocL
front, depenb upon tba fullovlnl v & W :
E.= internal energy of the uplorive
-MLT-*L= M'LT'
8,=mbient temperature d fluid before blut
R=diitnnce iron bLrt point - L
t=Ume after blut - T.
where 811 varhbb bnvr ban debad, Udng
the technique d a d b a d In plradiny pur.
p n p h for forming dinaauialw prod& thr
dimen8ionr, nun, imgth, and time, ate dlminated,
i thnt oldu, to give the followlug r,
quence of e~utlolu:
-L-l ,--p0.
PP. R'
.- ... - IED
w u obtained by eliminating the dimenaion of
lengtn from Uie previow q11a:ion. The previously
diacuased a r p n e n t was used, that R
muat cancel itself idcnticully from the equation;
otherwise. It would be the only tern pu either
side of the equation conhlnin~th e dimcnaion
length. This clearly would viulnte the requirement
of dimensional homogeneity. In the svme
equation. the dimension of time occurs on the
right aide, bul not on the left side. Thcre is
110 violation of principlc, howeve:., since here
ir more than one tern on the right aide containing
the dimension time, and the requirement
of identical canceling does nut exist. That
ia, identical canceling la required only when
one term would ottwrwlw remain in the u~tiru
oqrutioa
It may be aeen that tha dimensionlers >rodu
c l of the Lut equation are independent, be-
CAWea ch conhim r variable not wntained in
the othrrr. Further, tmcawe the original mix
v d a b l r wera canbinad by didnrtiny thme
d b ~ i o a r i,t L r t a ~ n a b kto e xmt three
dhndonlou product& For convenience, let
them dlmeNioalerr products Lw called r b
wnnob ur rbvnce of dkncnaionn, and give
them dhtinguhhing rubreripta. Thur, let
P
r, * - P.
Thcu X'S -tidy the rcpulretnenta of Buckingh
' r Thoran. but the theorem xilone will give
ao further aid in determining the beat form for
pruwntrtlon or n r u l b That In, while 71, rn
n ur a e~npletrm f they rrr not lu~e r svi ly
tha nrgrt urcful ruch ret .DlKemt complete
M& may be derived. by mmbining u,, ru and a,
and the moat weful a(: can be drcted only
.Ibr r study of tne ghyrier oi the problem.
The quatiorw in thlr puticulor cua m ~JIC
wuationa of fluid fbw. Them are pudd diKer.
entisl equatio~u in which dirtnnccg and lime
each indepnndent vutbler, awl p i. a dependent
vuiable. Further, E., P, uud 8. are
known conditions in any +at.T h e a mmentz
imply a desirability of having, if poaaibls, a
complete aet of a'r, each of which contoim ody
p, t. or R, tuwether with the iu~own vrriabla
Nutu that ra and T, each matidy thk aim, but
wr doen not, h w it contains both t and R.
This m y be remedied by wiving a, for R and
rubrtitutiny that value in A more rymetricul
set ie given by Sach~in Ref. 17. His grouyinga
can be arrived a t in the followir~g way; let
Then, taklng r ~ ,x, , imd re the wml~letar et.
we have
r,=,(w., w*)
or
The lut equrtlon u the funoun SIcho malinp
law, given for the tint time in Ref, 17. It is
Doted that I&f. 17 interprate Eg u Ute weight
of explolivu, We ThL L an equivalent .t.tcwnt,
for W, ir nrtPinly, proportlonrl tu E,
for a givm c h of e x p h i v r .
It L ernpidad that tho waling lam were
derived for fm air burs&. Thw are applicabk
to bumtr in the praence of ground rellectin~ru
only by pmper .Jlowuute for the won
effect. For a diwbn of tllem eKeda, Ref.
17. and the reportr Wed in the Mblioprctphy
N Y b0 W I U U ~ ~ ~ .
b wordr. the &ding. law, Eq. 141, r t . b
t h t the pmnure meuured In unltr uf unbicrlt
pmsture fa the aania for d: couditlons which
make the functional ralatbnrhip h.vc the tame
numerial due. Thlr will cwtainly be trw
if each ;trgumont of the function has the m e
value for the set of conditious rllidcr considera
t io~~T.h us, PIP. will have the wme value fur
t\w ditferent sets of conditions, plnvidcd
(Pu 'E.)"' Bl"'t lave tllu same vduc in each
. condition. Specitlcally. suppose two rucnsriw
testa are conducted, and let the two t 1 ~ 4Ite
designated by "a" anti "b." twpectively. Similarity
thcn requircs thiit the prclsunb ratio will
bu the wme in each t u t , at eon.csponrli~i~
lasitions and times given hy
tunperuture. 'I'his is irlw in eg~wment wl h
rrcnurtic thewy, which &rim thc fact that the
speed of snuntl varioa clirrcCly with thc aqunre
rout of thc aludute tcmpcrrture.
These conridcratiom ahuw that the scaling
hw, with i.euprrt to the rped of trunrmkeion,
bchaves cmwtly when tlic b h t wave haa
mowd suflii-iently far from the murce to be
moving tit a speed near the speed of munil.
Convcnwly, the sruling haw would be rspwtcd
to bc less wliable in thc cluse vicinity of the
explo. si-o n, wtlrrc. the I11Pst wuve is movlng
mwh faster thvn r wund wuvc.
IMurninp to Eqs. 142 mil 4- 1%. the relrrt
i c~~i s la~lipp m ore clewly dhplayd by rewi t -
i r a the quatioar in the form
Srvelrl c~inclusio~mi*a y be inielwd from these
waling laws. Dividing the first equation 1j.v the
wand r i v a
Snyywc, for example, h t te st "!isi c'o rducted
and h i t tat "a" is then condui4d unch-r the
wiiv ambiwt tanperaLur~ wnditions; the
cmling law r l d m to
Cuiuidwing a numerid cwuriyk, aup111t.r.
an explwion "b" ocmn which ir eous~~cb(y m
&rye of cnergy (or weight) R,. under the
ambient condition (P.), nrd (0.) : *9w pmmm
tP,'P,) of thh cspiusion LI ~ h e r v e dt u occur
at dhtanct & frum tho char@:. at time t,. SUW,
let an explnsinn occur in which (u a IIUineriul
exunpic) tire chap is three tima llr
mnt. the mbi-nt prcluure in one-11;tll: and
the mhient abolute temperature io e i h t y par
cent of the vdue of hnt "h". Then tho p r a -
rum ratlo (PIP.) will be numnridr the runt1
a t the d i r t a m
This tyurtlnn ahtes that if the vrasurc ratio
P/C1 i s o b r v d u t rllatan~vR b (run explwion
"b" : ~ tl m~:t ,, thrn the uric! P ~ I U P ,m tio
would bc obmved at i l k t a m R, fmna ewlusion
":r" at .t.t h Since Ji is tbr diltonuct the p!*c?arote
WYVF trYveLl in timo t , R/t Is the
of tha wave. Thlu, warn Cmm twn diffcnnt
explocironr travel at the m a @, provided
tho ambient temperature b the m e in !wth
EYQ. Tht would be expected from acouatlc
Wry. I I' the d i e m h p e n t u r a nre different
in t h t~wo tntr. we b e
and at the tirue nth
where V has bmn wttte11 for R/t. Thh quathn
ststar that thv a p d of the wave v a h a
d i d l y PI the q u a r e root of ihe Pholub
a t tima t = 6 mends after the explosion: then
the w e pr csaure ratio will be observed in the
' 1.22 (6,000) = 10,900 feet
at a time alter "a" explosion of
L = 2.04 (5) = 10.2 seconds.
In order that the prcsslrre ratio be thc %?me,
the actual pressure i s the "a" explosion o b
sened a t &.L, is
. .
In ~ I I Cs tatement of the.>r&lem. it was given
1
that P., = ;-P., = 7.5 pounds per sauare inch.
L
E x p r d numerically. therefore, the result is
P. = 1.2 (7.5) = 9.0 pur~ndsp er square inch.
To consider another example, let the ambient
temperature be the same in both cases. This
mcnns :hat the speed of ware transmission is
the svme a t the scaled distance. R.. as it is a t
the reierence distance. R,. The direction of the
pwitirc ;or neptive) phase of pressure will,
therefore, be the same in both explmions. In
thb case, the impulse computed a t the scaled
~listance I?. is related to the in~pulse a t the
refcrcnce distance Rh by the relation,
for the syne ambient tmnperature and pressure
{The impulse is the excess pnurlre integrated
over the time interval of positivr preswre
durittion.)
If botk ambient premre and temperature
are different in thc ";r" and "L" explosions, an
r s p m i n n for I can be develnpd from the
tirat principks. Since impulse is an integrated
phmomenun. it d w not explicitly depcnd on
t l~ct m*a.nd the functional relation may Ix
xrittm
# I : f (P" E., 94')
whore ail independent variables have been definal,
and impulse iq firtined as thc integral of
pr~.st,n. ovrr ;t time interval. Its units are,
thc~~t+~gmive.n by, YL-*T -'.P roereding in the
manner prrvinurly disc~&, dimennional
homogeneity requires thut
and there are two non-dimenaicnal giogpings.
A more useful set is obtained by using the cube
root of the parameter E./P,Ra, and by then
el~ninating R from the other paramet-I,. The
final result may be expressed as
P."l
In which it is seen that 'he pacirnetcr -EI-: :;,
~ -
is retained in the same form as in ill,, previnus
formula. Inipulse sealing, therefore, rtquires
that
Pel/.-
for a given value of - R. In ! I l k fornula, ns
EenfX
before. "a" and "b" rlciwte two diffvrent explosions.
By virtue d the assumptions made in thc derivation
of the .sealing Ii~wvs, they should be
equally applicable to nnclear explosions as well
ns to chemical expl~sions. Kunir~~ouesx perimenb
have veritied that this is true. at least
approximately. Further ~liscussion 41f scaling
of the type discussed herein is given in Refs. 1
and 20.
Infonnatior~ of a somewhat different nattrre
may a!so be obtained from the scaling law. Eq.
4-41. For example, if the interest is in the pe%k
pressure, time ia not a Darameter of the prob
lem, and the sealing law reduces to
where P. is thc peak pressure ol~se.mnl a t n
particular radius R.
The scnling law given in Ref. 17 states, t h t
f f~cp ressure rntio (P./P.) will be obscrr.cd to
have the same vnlue for nny explosion in which
the diiensionlcss parameter. (:)- R, hr
CLASSIFIED
the s ~ m evs luc Obviously, then. for a given
ambient preuure and c h o r ~P~I ,w ill vary with
R. Dimensional connidemtionu alone will not
eatrblii thu functional nlntionahip; howevcr,
dimenaional considerations may be used to penelrlise
an expiment in the follow in^ way.
Sup,* that a charge is exploded and that
the peak preaaure ia meaaured a t a set of statiom
at varying distancea from the chnrge. If
M empirical equntion ia deduced from corresponding
P., and R drta, dimensional homogeneity
requires (PJP.) and (:)"to.
the parameters of the probfem. As an ex~mpk,
if an empirical law of the form
(where K is a known numerical constant) Atr
the data of the particular teat, dimenaional
homogeneity pennits the equation to be written,
where K, fa a non-dimensional eonatant to be
determined. Evaluating P. and 6. in t h b laat
quation for the c o n d i t i o~of the tut, write
when K. k A known wmariul d u e given by
Then, f m n the two oguationr for PP,
From #la is obtained
h whirh K and Kt we known. The p n u r l i
rgutbn may then be written aa
K.
rtum K, 1s now a h own n o a d i i o ~col n -
a t m t Thk equation my oow I# uml for
vviour conditionn of P. md E., and it ir aeen
that dimensionel considcrrtionr have permitted
a use~ulp ener r l i tma of a rlnple test
In rpite of the gnat utility of the Sacha
d i n g laws, it ahould not be infemed Uut all
blast phenomena can bc p d c t e d from them.
It hns beelr ahown that W r &rivation L bored
on aimple uumptlona that neglect the finite
burning lime of a finite rlu charge, th? possihility
of secondary shock wavm (which are
known to exirt). and numerous othe~ effecta
that are moat pronounced in the vicinity of the
char=. From these considerations, one would
not expect periect d i n g in all wes, Rowever,
it is an established experimental fact that
the laws are remarkably accurate for a peat
many practical predictiom. .
US. (U) ~ d k r i m n m d uU.u +
Wwm P a mk Ilucl.u
lrpkrt-6
446.1. Hocb d AffMde,
The relationr betw- overprerrum, diatance,
and time that deveribe the propagation of a
b h t wave in air depend upon the unbient utmoapheric
conaitiona, which vary with altitude.
In di seu~ingt he efPcclr of altitude on bbat
pheuomena, two ur will be &&red: the
point of burnt and the tar& uc a the rnme
altitude; and the point of bud and the target
are at different aItitucbL
For a surface burat (the (hrt u)th.e p eak
overpreuurea a t a given dLtrncc f r o s the heploaion
will depend on the ambient atmorpheric
praaum. Thb wiil vary with tbe height rbove
ru Iavd of the urfm at tbc point of burat.
With incrwrlng .Ititu& of botb tar& and
burnt pdnt, the ovrrprrrure a t a yivm dintAn*
f m pround zero wllld.errue. carreapondinply.
an incram nuy & axpactd in
the arrival the of t& rhodr froat d in the
duration of the POJtive pbuc
Tie&& w h a t b r b u m t ; u d t h o ~ t ~
at diZaant altitudv & a#ridcnbly mom eomplsx.
Since the b h t wave L Muawed by any
change# in air trmponlurr uul th p l r u u n af
the atmosphere thmuph which it hrveh, vuirtlom
o a r in the prarumdiahwc mhtionrhtp
a t the aurfm. Within tb ruyc of aipaifiunt
damaging overprcaaura, ihw nri.licrm urr
JNCLASSIFIED
prcjsure md dynamic pnrsara. On th@ whok
"
it is expected that the local inemscs in damaga
will largely offnet the local dccmaw in
damage, and the resulting effect of 8tructurd
protiction will be relutivcty smJl (Ref. 1).
445.3. Elhch of S d o o Cct~dltiorr
For a uiren height uf burst and merry yield,
variations in the blwnt wnve chaructenntica will
cmur which are raurd by the type of surface
over which the weupnn is detonated. A certain
amount nl cvtergy Ima will occur for low air or
surface bursts where ;I rhcrck ware in produced
in thv gruund, Yc r ;ur I~~lr?itth>e. n ature of the
reflecting surface rmn i~tTr1t the pressuredistmcu
relutinnship and the tlevelopment and
growth of Ihr Mach stem. Thew mcrhanicnl
affects on the bl;c-I artre. L werer. uw rn1hl.r
small, and have li..,r I ~ I I I I I V IoI n~ I he 11;tnt.ict~-
producing rhur :~tr~ri stics of the Mwt phennrnenu.
I$rticulntv m;lttvr. such II- Y I W ~ P . bnuldem,
etc.. picked up w111l curried nlww II? the blrat
fnmt. nlicy cuuae atlcl~linnndl :<.wrrc tn Ihc taryet.
The.* ~hjertad o not t~-w*urily rffcct the
overpreaunrr at the ware frcml, rtlthouuh in
extrrm~lyd u.zty rnw, e1111uyl1I .~icwnm nltrr
may k prrwnt to affect the dyn;mir ~~n-ure
to :I nrt;c~nc lrww. Thc rnrl 14lect on the Inrget
would, hur +,. rr. be of 11tr;e conrc*llrcnr.r
If the explwmn tmu n mnd~rnt~IhI I VI ~t he
al~rfwea. ome of the enetxy is transferred into
tile ~ u n d A. s a mult. a minor oscillation of
the surface b experienced and a mild groundshock
wave in produd. The prts8um acting on
the earth% surface is transmitted downward,
with the principal strean in the mil king ncrrly
vertical and upproximutely equal in magnitude
to the air b h t overpnsure. For relatively
high air bunts, where large blast pnuurea do
not axur a t pound zero, the effects of ground
shock WIN be negligihk. In the case of a aurface
k m t when cratering occurs, the situatkm
b quite different (Ref, 1). Cmtering is diecucucd
in Par. 44.3.1, following.
CLI.4. H& d M.(..nlqlul CordHkrr
Moia+we In the air and air temperaturea am
considered hem in tenns of their effecb on
blut. Although the presence of luge unwntr 1
VNCLASSIFIED
of molstun in the atmosphere may ei' the
pmpertiea of a bloat wave in the klu. o\. ,re*
rum regions, the probability of enw: Ynnu
proportione of water vapor sirnilicun. .nough
to intluenee the amount. of dumawe IA conr~de
d to be quite smd.
Diffemes in Irv-.vnture nf t h e atmaApneric
layers lnwe h w , noted u causing wme
interesting blu.4 r t ' . :-; N'inli~w breakage,
lijrht structural di~n:sc.r. .tnd nuke have been
experienced a! dis:~ncwz ;rent enough ~o that
thew eRect.4 wr* n8.I expected, under suitable
meta~roloyinil c o n ~ l ~ l ~Tohr~re. phenomena
am ~~aune1 8d 'he atmosphere luntliny the b b t
raves buck . . w t h . In mr ~'.f several waye.
:f thrrr Ir .I tlecreuac in nlr temwrature a t
inemsing tliatawr from the ground, such ps
uruully wcurs in 'he tlaytimu. combined with a
wnd u hoae velu.;ty inclwmn at I& rate of more
than three n ~ i l ep er t5.w for each 1.000-foot
inrrense in ~ l t ~ i ~ ttlhte* b, lut wave will be l'etlwted
bvck to the vmund before it has r k n
mom than a feu thuc~n;mrfI eet. When the eonditions
am such that wveral shock rayr eonverge
at one loca:ion, the bir~qt energy concentrated
at thia poaition Is greatly intennitled.
Under usual atmwphwic conditions the direct
striking focu h limited to a distance of about
eight m ten miles from the explosion: but
under thew conditions, tne blast e n e m may be
refoewad and cause damsga at much prrsbr
ditmar.
A dmi k eni.amcement of p ~ u amnd n oice
h u oeeurmd a t even greater dltanceo from
large explodow. Thh bra been attributed to
downward mfmtion and focusing of t h &.hock
nyr by a layer of relatively awn air. The
warm air layer is generally referred to u the
ozon~phema,n d is situated at a h e i ~ hotf from
26. to 40 m i l a Ibpeatad reflection by the
ground and mfractlon by the ozomphem
awes the ohock pattern to be repeated at intavnlr.
thtu greatly srt.rlclinp the eltwtive
radlur of the rhoek wave (Ref. 1).
CU. (I1 ?nmta(lr of Nuelm Ilort D.h
W.i. i B i Ceiiwd
This pulpnph Provides repmeatatlve amuplea
of nuclear-blurt, nfercncdd.tr mpha.
such PI am uwd 'O d m a b the duncge which
mkht h ~~ to occur a t a particular
range f m a dveu aplo*on. Frum graphs
and curve# ruch u thew, the valuea of b b t
wave properth at the rurfoea can be calculuted.
and tha rtruitr CM be used to detmine
the lwding and Fesponse of a certain target
(Ref. 41).
The grapb (Fim. 4-12 through 4-16) prssent
the propertie8 of :he blvrt wave for a onekiloton
nuclear exploaioa in free air, at standa
d atmospheric conditions, us a function of
slant runye. Instructions are provlded for the
use of each Cure, and an oxample is given to
illutrate their UJQ.
Reference should be mnde to 'I'M 23-200 (Ref.
211, which providea compmhenuive, graphic
coverage of the r l g n i h a t nuclear blaat wave
properties.
In addition, Par. 4-2.6.6., following, pwrcntr
a discussion of d n g between hiihsxplosive
(Pentolite) and nuckar rxplolions.
r S&#
To e a i c u b the dlrtauce and 'ime of hock
arrival for a yield other than 1 KT, use the
following d l n g :
when t,=tima of urivrl of Jlock front from
explodon d yidd W.KT at 4, and tt=
time ot urivd of hack f m t from explosion
of W,KT at m p dl.
a Eum*
Glven: A LOO-YT burst in free air.
Find: The tirm of arrival of the shock
fmnt at 40.000 feet
Solution: The comaponding d*tPnco for 1
KT 4
Fmm Fig. 4-11. the time oi arrival t , for a 1
KT hbunt at 8,600 feet is 7 wconda. Thus, the
UNCLASSIFIED
time of arrival of the hock front from a 100
KT detorrprion a t e dutance of 10,000 feet is.
W,", X t, (100)" 'X 7
C= ,v,va
=
1
c. R&biliiy
Timer of amval obtained from this curve are
eonaidered to be reliable to ~ 1 pe5r c ent (0.1
KT to 105 BIT).
CUI. ICI Ir~fracllaufo r Lhg Fig. 4-13,
k k Orrrprrurra
r. s d n g Pnmlure
Thh curve may be uaed to predict incident
p m u m near the rurface, from air bur& occurring
h e w up ta (0.000 id To wkulate
the d i r h e to which a given overprewm
extada for yieldr other thur 1 we the
foil9whg rfolinp:
-d-I -- w p d, wp=
where d,=dhtance at which a giwn'overprwsure
uccun from an explosion of yield W, KT,
and d.,=distance a t which the same overpmsure
occurs for an exploaicn of yield W, KT.
This d n g is often referred to aa "cube root"
scaling.
6. &.npb
Given: A 100-KT detonation in fm air.
JNCLASSIFIED
Find: The distance to which 7 psi overpressure
extend~
Solution: From Fig. 4-13, r 1 hT-burst prodwes
7 p i at a distance of 1,000
feet. Scaling to 100 KT:
=lo00 X 4.64=1,OJU feet
For rangw leu tbrn l.000 fat (olrer$raraura
grater than 7 pi) the d e a of d
overpressure ob- f i ~mth C QVV(: We Considered
reliable b r6 pr d Thir portion of
the curve ir M k& 018 of d.h
obtained by highrpcad m D h y . For Wetpreasureslour~
7pd,thccurvrLbucd0n
dnh obtained with prclrum g&ms hated
the ground. Tile rrli.bilibr of this lmrtion of
the curve is estimated to be e301 per cent.
CtCC It) 1 8 I t ~ ~ thhr1 U I I F~Is . 4-14
DruW POI~W ?maam
Ckw
a. Salirs P r r J v n
To caleuktcl the duration of a positive pmrum
ph.re, at any given dirtance, for a yield
other than 1 KT, we tho following scaling:
where t;=duratinn of the positive phase for
yield W, KT at dktance dl, and t;=duration of
the positive phase for yield W, KT at dktance
da.
6. Ex.mph
Given: A 160-KT detonation in free air.
Flnd: The politlve plwm duration at
a.000 f s t .
Solution :
which L tho corrapondiug dihace for 1 KT.
From Fig. 4-14, t,, the duration of the pdtiva
p h r for 1 KT at 5,000 fmt u O S b ucond
For 160 KT tho duntioa in :
t p -t, * X Wslr' 0 s X (160) ' Ia
I
Wid' 1
=I& (~0 . 6 7 )re conds.
c. R d h b i u y
Dur a t io~o btained from this curve are considered
to be reliable to 230 per cent (0.1 KT
to 20 &IT).
44.U IC1 Irr)rrctlm~ far U h a Clg. CIS,
P n k Dywalc ?ruun
a. WIy Pmlcmdwm
To dculata the dLtPnee a t which a given
paak dynamic preuun &en& for a yield
0 t h thun 1 KT, uue the following -ling:
Solution: From Fig, 4-16, 1 KT produces 10
psi at a distance of 560 feet Hence,
1&=560 X (100) '/'=5€0 X (4.64) =2,590 feet.
c. Reliobiuly
Peak dynamic pressures obtained from this
carve are corkde1-4 to be reliable to t 5 per
cent for pressures greater than 2 psi, and to
1 1 0 per cent for preaaures below 2 psi (0.1 KT
to 100 MT).
a. Backgmaad & the D c a l o p o~f Cone
e r h Fu&n for Pentolb a d Nucker
nhb
Becaw air b l u t phenomena ausoeiated with
the detonation of chemical high explosives were
comparatively well understood tefore the first
nuclear explosion, it was convenient initially to
compare blast data from nudeu explosions
with thoae of conventionrl explosives, in particular
with TNT. Accordingly. such wmparisons
were used to obtain eatimnter of the total
energy yield for the llnt few nuclur u p b
sions. By u u m i n g a certain energy rrlusc
upon detonation of a given weight of TNT, and
scaling up uis:ing TNT bloat dnta to match
the msoaurcd nuclear M.llt data, the nuclear
yield was expnrrcd in terma of the "equivalent
weight" of TNT. This uprearion of the nuclear
yield was not the LoW energy yield. but rather
the b l u t e n e my ield. The c o m of b~l u t
data wem m d e at pressure lrvclr 1- than #)
p i , where the mte of decay of w k wvprcb
sure with ceded dirbnce in approximately the
m e fo r both TNT a d n u d e u explmionr
Subnequcntly, other mtthoda were developed
to determine the toW energy yield of a nuclear
explaion, but thb total cnvpy yield m a still
expreaaed rr equivalent to the energy released
upon detonation of a given weight (in kilotons
or memtons) of TNT. ExpMsion of the total
yield in this manner is not for the purpose of
predicting the total Jidd of the weapon (baaed
on blmt mmtrsurmrcnts). or even of predicting
the blast effects for nuclmr weapons ( b e d on
the TNT prelsuredltance data), but is simply
a convenient and easily understood way of expressing
a very large amount of energy. Dependence
on the prrssure-distance relationship
for TNT is no longer necessary, because blast
measurements have now been made or, a large
number of nuclear explosions, and independent
pressuredistance relationships have been determined
for nuclear explosions. This does not,
however, rule out the use of high-expiosive
data to predict blast parameters for new or unmeasured
bunt conditions.
Became the widely-used nuclear pressuredistance
curves are based on the total energy
yield, scaling of blest parameters from small
Pentolite charges to obtain blast parameters
expected from nudear explosions, must take
into accuunt the fact that not all of the nuclear
yield gou into the blast wave. A further complication
resulta from the fact that Pentolite
(the explosive used in the tesk descrbed in
the referenced report) is a more powerful explosive
than TNT, on an equal weight bnsis.
I
b. Compar&on 01 ~ r a r u r r ~ i r t a nCmur ves I
Upon fint examination of this scaling prob a
Iem. i t would appear that if the percentage of
the total nuclear energy yield which appeared
u blast wzre known, then a simple adjustment
of the total yield would allow scaling between
TNT and nuclear explosions. Furthermore,
known relationships between TNT and Pentolite
would pennit the establishment of proper
mling facton fur the latter explosive However,
embodied in such an analysis is the assumption
that the decay of pak overpressure
with scaled distance ia identical with all three
types (TNT, Pentdib, and nuclear explosions).
providing only that lirlear adjustments in scale
are made. To test the e[ficacy of this m u m g
tion, reference is made to Fig. 4-16, which is a
plot of the peak overpressure venur scaled distance
for a I-K'l' nuclear device. and for I-KT
of Pentolite (M)/M). PETN/TNT). The nuclear
curve is the U.S. 1959 empirical free-air preasuredistance
curve for 1 KT a t sea level. The
Pentolite curve is from compiled free-air blast
data on ban spheriul Pentolite.
Comparing the two curves on Fig. 4-16. sev-
- UNCLASSIFIED - -
era1 things are to be noted. First. close to the
burst, the p k o rerpressures from the nuclear
explosion are higner than those from the Pentolite
explosion. Second, in the same region,
the rste of decay of the peak over-preszure
with distance is greater for the nuclear e x p b
sion than for the Pentolite explosion. Tnird, a t
the Iager distances, the overpressures from
the nuclenr csp1osic.n are less than those from
the Pentolite explosion, but the rate of decay
with distance is approxi.i~ately the same.
Therefore, while it is possiL,le lo infer some
conversion factor representing the weight of a
given conventional explosive which will produce
the same value of peak overpressure (or any
other blast pamneter) as that produced by a
nuclear explosive at the same scaled distance.
it is clear that this conversion factor must be
a function of the peak overpressure, because
the press~redistan:e curves are not similar.
The conversion factors required fnr scaiing
from Pentolite explosions to nuclear explosior,s
have het.r~ calcalated for peak orerprcssures between
5 1b;sq in. and 1,000 lbisq in.
The procedure usrl to determine the HEtonuclear
corrversior! factors makes use of the
free-air, pressuredistance curves for Pentolite
and nuclear explosions, and of the cube-root
scaling laws. If a Pentolite charge of weight
lV, is de!anated, a given peak overrreswre. P.,
will occur a t a certain scaled distance, 2, where
and R, is the actual distance from the center of
the Pentalite charge. If a nuclear explosion
TABLE 4 4 (5). BLAST YIELD (IN EQUIVALENT POUNDS OF 50/50 PENTOUTEI OF A 1-
NUCLEAR YIELD, AS A FUNCTION OF PW OVERPRESSURE (U)
Peak
Overpressure R.
Level (mi) ( ft )
-w. w.
WP (Ib of Pentolite)
producu the anme peak overpressure a t distance
R., then the effective blast yield, IV.. may
k found by
Vduea of R, for one kiloton of Pentolite, and
of R. for a om-kiloton total nuclear yield, are
taken from Fig. 4-16, and are shown in Table
4 4 , for overpressures ktween 5 Ib/w in. and
1,000 Ib/aq in. The d o of the effective b b t
yield to the 1 kiloton of Pentolite (W./W,) is
calculated by muns of Eg. 460, rnrl is shown
in Table 4-2 Ako shown h the d u e of W. in
pounds of Pentokte equivalent to the 1-kiloton
s u c l a r yield. relationship ktween the nu-
:lur b l u t ellectivenua (W./W,) and the ~d
ovarpmeure b r h o m fnphially in Fig. 4-17.
Over the pressure r8nge of 10 to 300 )/sg in..
which b the region :f interest in the refe$nced ;,
report, the nudear b b t effectivmeas A#,'
about 42 per pcrnt. ...
fied by the earth's surface. As the height of
burst is lowered in this zone, there is a gradual
transition fron the characteristics of an ail
burst to those of a surface burst.
A nuclear weapon burst a t the earth's SIWface
follows the same sequence of evcnt? M
does an air bunt, except that the fireball
boundary and the shock front are hemisphcrica1
imce81 of spherical. For a contact surface
bunt there is no region of regular reflection;
cu a comequrnce, ail objects on tae ground are
subjected to a blast similar to ^hat in the Hach
region below the triple point for nn air burst
(Par. 44.2.6). Therefore, for structures located
near the ground, the shock front may be
assumed to !x essentially vertical and the transient
win& approximately parallel with the
ground. Both overpressure (Par. 4-2.2.1) and
dynamic pressure (Par. 4-2.2.2) will decay in
the same fashion as previously descrihed for m
air bunt.
When a burst takes place at the surface of
the earth, a portion of the energy is directly
transmitted to the earth in the form of 0-outd
ah& (Par. 4-3.3.2). In addition, the air blast
induces r gmund shock rave. At shallow
4d. (CI SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE depths, thiiground shock wave has approxi-
BURSTS matdy the same magnitude as the air blast
wave, for an equivalent distance. The directly
U.1.. (Ul k+b kn) transmitted ground shock, although initially of
For a considerable distance above the earth's higher magnitude, attenuates faster than the
surlree, air bunt e f f h are signiikantly modi- air-blast induced ground shock.
111 the vieinit, t11' prouud zero. tremen~lt~nsly
1;upe yrc.wuist!s are esortt-d on tile earth's rtirface,
causing 3 downrvanl comprc~ri~ionf l l ~ e
wil and displacing material to I ' ~ I aI crater
P a r . 1 ) . In addition to the rnatell.1
thrown out by the bbt, a considerable qwntity
or thc roil is vapori~ed\b y the hbw heat.
Uethods of predictinn nwl analyzing hinht
dnta from surfnce b u r A ate hinlilar Lo tllurs
WJ for air burst& in many respec-ts. ILcfcreuce
in, therefore, made to IJar. 1-2.G, when :t
nunher of repreauntatlve rrferencedata grnlhs
aw presented anti usvd as ex:mplos of Ule
application of s c~l i nlra ws for 1w4icti11gb kst
data In irddltion, rcl'erenvr should be nude to
T31 25-;'1)0 (Ref. 21) for II more cumprehendive,
graplric coverage.
4-39 IU) Ldorqround Duntr from Comvrr.
tionel ICbnlcall Caplorions
Q.&l. Irtrductlom
It was recol[nized during the carly part of
\I'orld War I1 that vciy little experimental and
unified k~mrr-lrdgee erkhrl whic11 cc111tl ' q ~ k i n
Uw genernl phenomena of underproud e x p b
S~OIIY. Undcr tht! ~p011~1~1.roihf ipth e C)llico of
Scicntilic Rt?~earcha nd Development, uri explrimental
propram was conducted in an nt.
tempt to understand the prrmetera of ttw
problem and to lay the &und work for f utnre
analytical work. A very significant portion td
tho work w ~ sca rried out under tht! gonard
direction of Pr~ncetoU~in iversity, with mi s t -
nncc from various Government and industrinl
or~nizations.T he results of the rewalcl~h ave
been reported in a series of OSRD r e l ~ r l r
which have been, forturr~tely, summuriz~!d 111
n finni report by Lampaon (hf.22 ). air nnciaasifled
document which is readily availablr.
Lamyoon'n report presents an excellent d-ip
tlon of the work that wvu p r f o n n d , I~uth
theorolical and experimental, including fairly
clcbiled I~~formatiooun the instrumentutio~~
that was ured to obtain tIm meluurementJ.
Because of thc ewtreme variability of soik
and their properties, and a geuerd lnek of
CLASSIFIED
.. uliderstanding of thr pl~en~meninav nlved, no
r: thenrrtical methods existed which wcre compaable
to those available for hydrodynamic
studies in air and water. In fact, *G many
unknown factors were involved that a straightfonvard
dimensional analysis was not comvletely
possible, because dimensional considerations
require considerable klio\rledqe of the
physical phenomena invnlved. Accordingly,
Ref. 2 is primarily an attempt to understand
t h t parameters and processes involved by
means of empirical studies of numemlls experiments.
l t should be remarked. however, that
dimensional co~siderations were used where
p~ssibel.
For purposes of comparison it should be recognized
that the present prublcm is much more
Micult than such problems as the study of
wave propagation in elastic structures. There.
the basic parameters of the problem, such as
stress modulus of elasticity. Poisson's ratio,
strain. etc., are fairly well understood. In fact,
the l d c differential equations a n be written
fnr the latter pr~tl:lem, at least approximately.
Such u not the case for underground explosions.
Certain features of Lampson's report. Ref.
2 wiil be examinrd in this paramph, as representative
of the significance of the work.
r'uriher information may be obkained from
Ref. 22 and from the many original =ports
quoted as referenm ttarein.
It was recognized early in the work that a
significant parameter was cube root scaling
(Par. 626.3, above). That is, i t was fwnd
that under identical condition8 (except for
charge weight) peak pressures were accurately
given for =led distances, sated according to
the relation
, where a and b represent two different e x p b
sions,.,md t and W are, respedively. the distance
from the explwion and the weight of
: explosira
The significance of this formula can be illustrated
by an example. Thus, i t a given weight
of explosive W, causes a p*ak pressure P to be
observed a t a distance of r, from the explosion,
then (for exarnplr) an explosion with a c h a w
weight twenty-seven times as great would p1.0-
duce the same peak pressure P at a distance of
r.=3 rr; that is, a t a distance three timcs as
great. It is rmphasizerl, however, that such
conclusions are valid only if all other parzmeters
of the problem, such as type of soil,
moisture content, scaled distance below surface,
etc., are held constant.
Further experimentation, descril: \d in Ref.
2, disclosed th it certain other parameters were
important in various different : As. A partial
list of these perameters includes :
k= a soil constant which depends on the soil
type. related to the modulus of elasticity
of the soil,
W=charge wight,
E=explosive factor for pressure.
F=explosive factor for impulse.
p = ~ ~dienl s ity,
V=speed of proytgation of pressure waves,
P=a parameter which depends on the death
of burial of the charge.
and
B=an impulse parameter which depends on
the sail type.
It was one of the aims of the study to fit empirical
equations to the rcsults of the tests in order
to determine the responses to the independent
parameters. The empirical anclyses were highpredicting
the responses of interest, including:
ly succeuful, and formulas were derived for I
P=peak p.. swe in free earth,
P,=peak pressure against a target, including
the effect of reflection.
I= impulse in free earth,
&=impulse against a target, including the
effect 01 reflection,
u=maximum speed of displaced particles.
A=maximum acce1era:ion of displaced particles,
d=maximum transient displarement,
dp=maximum permanent earth movement,
and
Crater radius=surface radius of crater.
Thew results are presenteci in Ref. 22 in the
f o m of equations and *harts.
One of the most significant aspects of blast
wave transmission in earth is the fact tQt
shock waves (characterized as wa\es of steep
slope appmaehing h pressure discontinuity) are
imposs~bleb, ecause of the character~sticso f the
dynamic stress-strain curve for earth. (Rock,
as distinguished from earth or soil, was not
considered in Ref. 22.)
In connection with the formation of shock
waves in air it was previously discussed (Par.
4-23. above) that a material which exhibits a
linear stressstrain curve transmits its pressure
waves unchanged in form. If the particle
velociry is independent of pressure and is,
therefore, cor.~::nt as in acoustic theory, each
element of the wave front travels a t the same
speed and the wave retains its form. In the
nonlinear theory, the particle speed increases
with increasing slope of the stress-strain curve.
If the stress-strain CUNe is concave upward,
then particle velocity increases with pressure
and the particles a t the crest of the wave
(where the pressure is higher) move faster
than the particles a t the base. This c a u r a
steepening of the front face of the wave. and a
shock wave develops, as in explosions in air or
rater . In the u w of soil, h~wevert,h e stressstrain
curve is concave downward during compression.
This means that the particle velocity,
since i t depends directly on the curve slope, is
lower at the wave erest where the pramre ia
greatest This causes the crest to be retarded.
and the entire ware spreads out as i t is propagated
through the soil. Further, since the unloading
(deercasing stress) curve is concave
upward, there is a considerable energy loss
(hysteresis effect) associated with each conprwion
and expansion. Accordingly, the p r e s
sure wave is less energetic than a ahock wave.
and it loses its energy faster than elastic theory
prdicts 'or a spherical wave. A typical 'scressstrain
curve for soil is ahown in Fig. 4-18.
Becaure the speed 3f wave transmission depends
directly on the slope of the curve, it is
seen to be a variable, as dexribed above. The
slope a t a given point is the modulus of
elasticity; hence, the speed of pound increases
with modulus of elasticity. To compare an order
of mxgnitude, a typical silty soil has a secant
modullis (average value) of about 50,W
pounds per square inch, but steel (for example)
has a modulus of ahout 30,000,000. or 600 times
as great. For free soii explosions it was found
that the peak pressure could be i.x~:essed quite
adequately by an empirical formula of the form
where K is a soil parameter related to the
modulus of elasticity of the soil. (Experimental
values of K are given in Ref. 22.) In considering
this, and other equations, it is helpful to
recall that although dimensional consi?~a.t ions
will show that P/K depends or r;W1/:, the
exact functional form can t< determined only
by experiment, or theory (if one exists for the
problem under consideration). It should also
b recalled that, in the discuszion of scalicg
laws in the present text (Par. 4-2.4.4.). it was
shown that a nondimensional grouping was
-P.I'=r E.I/" where P, i3 some ambient pressure and
E. is the energy of a e explosive., In the present
con-ection. however, if E. is interpreted as
weight (because weight of explosive is proportional
to energy content, and Po is considered
UNCLASSIFIED
' - 'I.,'; conritkr tha: great vnri:ttitms ;ii.itt :;;.I;.;.
,.&. in K, and ilcnce in P. d:tta includ~rl as
Iwrt vf Ref. 22 ~'altowst hat fi rnr ie~f rom sevm
d lt:lnri-ed !o ovvr one hunilnd thnussnd.' n
f'acto- 3 f mnre than one h ~ :t1 rv.f. It ic rcmarksbie
U d 1111- empiriri~l f e mi .:I tits it11 cnndi-
!iuns so a(;. ; I . 'd.. . It is ;11owr1 in Rcf. 22 t h n t
h' is rel;ilt .. it) tiit! mtnlti: :. .,i rlaxticit:.. ;is :11-
rts. . 'yr n+.n::.rnt,.i. In f:,~:.:I ) within 5 rev t ~ n l
I , , *\.af itrunt! th::t ivtuk SOIII:\.T:~ IW?:
V,~retr :twnittt-ti at L spwl yivw b!
::ter: I: the Ar..;itv. Witit h i s t*s;rrt..wim it
r r r s :wsriltlt. ' wrril 'P thc fi v:~ilr.- :'w :I wide
-:wyt of MI.. 311s pivin)! . n :::,:. l on thnt
:;he LW.. :"11 SI:.rt.- r d S~PSS-Y~I.;III: .. t' is simi-
;:ir ,. *:I v'rtlr ~.:irwtyo f wils.
. .
b n d crntt!ra alp pit -. depressions, or cavitk
f~vmmin the = ~ - ~ x rolfc the earth by vaporizing.
thywine cnmpminp. or scouring the
r . 4 iu an outwn~rl direction from a nuclear
I!. -ulrntinrr. Lsyall? they an? further charact
e - d ru to king aapnrent or true craters.
The -parent . v t e r is the rlrible crater re-
:tiulf:::$ after a detonation: me truecrater is
tht. crater esclurhng fallback rnnterial. The true
water ir bnunded by a uurlace repksentihg
that limiting distance fnmr the explosion at
shirl~ the original malrt..i; surrounding the
:ip;b..:mt crater was mmoletely disassociated
fmm the undertjinl ma&. The ensuing discusriun
of craters reaultmng fmm underground
bunts assumes rmpons with no air space
surrounding them. bunt under a horizontal
ground surface plane, in locations that have
been compktely backfilled and tamped. Fii,
4 1 9 shows rhematically the dimensions used
in dcmibinga crater (Ref. 21).
The fallback &m i s the zone between the
trueUind app~renmt tcrs, rr defmed..bove. It,.
contninr k t h ditwmciakd matefrrl-&k€ ha8 *
fallen back into the crakr, and d b k i a t e d
materiel 'hat rmi ~ e di:l wfficient energy tube
thrown out of the crater. There is rirually insignificnnt
fallback in cratern from air or surface
bursts, or bursts nt depths leas than 25
Wfa feet (where 1V is yield in KT). Consequently,
there is little difference between apparent
and true craters from such bursts. .
The crater radius is the a-lerage crater radius
nu measured at the original ground surface. It
a c r k as the cube root of the yield. The crater
depth is the maximum depth of the crater M
memured from the original ground surface. It
scalea M the fourth root of the yield. Estimated
crater radii and depths are given in Figs.
4-20 and 4-21 aa functions of bunt height and
depth for 1 KT. Figs. 4-22 through 4-25 are
derived from Figs. 4-20 and 4-21, and present
expected crater diamekrs and depths as functions
of yield for specific burnt canditions. All
figures are directly applicable to dry sail or soft
rock (rock that crumbles wily). For other
typed of soil or rock, crater dimensions may be
entimated by multiply!ng the dimensions taken
fmm Figs. 4-22 through 4-25 by the approp
~ t feac tm given in the instruction paragraphs
for these figures.
The lip of the crater is fonned both by fallback
and by the rupture of the soil surrounding
the crater. For a dccp underground burst, the
nsulting crater lip is fonned primarily from
fallback. For a shallow undergr~undo r surface
bunt. the crater lip is formed primarily by the
shewing of the ground nearest the burst and
its subsequent piling up agains: the soil farther
away from the crater. The approximate Antive
dimensions of the cnter lip resultin(r from
a surfmx burst are indicated in Fig. 4-19.
The rupture tom is characterized by extreme
cracking. This b n e m m n & the true cmter,
and at the ground surface exten& ourpproximately
1.6 timcs the apparent m t u .
However, for burata at m l e dep ths, the
zone a t the ground rurfscc extends o u W
only slightly beyond the true crater. When an
explosion occuq in rock, it disturb the ny&
in the rupture zone by causing surface mbbing
- UNCLASSIFIED
/ of local mas. by opening pre-sxltiny cracks,
: and by developing pew fractures that tend to be
rndisl from the point of burst. The rupture
/ zone in sand may be dificult to define or m y
; bs nonexistent.
t In the plastic zone the soil la permanently
I displaced. but is without visible rupture. This
zone surmunds the rupture mne md may extend
outcwrd a t the ground surfwe approximakly
three times the appnrent crater radius.
Even fur bursts at largegcale depths. where
there is an apptwiable diffewnrr between the
true and apparent crater dimensions. the
plastic zone will extend considerably beyond the
I true crater at the rurIace. In rock, little or no
plastic defonavlion occurs.
At a height of burst less than about 10 W"'
feet, the expvluling from a nuclear dotonation
form a land crater primarily by vapurizing,
and by throwing a d eompmminp the
soil in un outward directha frum the detonation.
As the height of burst decrenscs from
ubout 10 W',' feet, or ttie depth of bunt increases,
the crater radius continues to increase
appreciably. This increase continues until a .
depth of burst of about 55 W',' feet is reached. .
Belo\\. this d?pth, however, the appamnt crater
radius increases only slightly with increasing I CRATER PROFILE I
dewam with in4 &pth of burrt.
k the height of burst is lowered from about
10 llnn feet, or tbR depth of bunt h inclaued.
the crater depth increates appreciably with inc&
ap depth of burnt, until a burst depth of
apprwhtely 60 W1I1 feet is reached. Below
Ois. the apparent crater depth increases but
elightly with increasing depth of bunt, until
a depth of burst of about 50 Wa/l feet is
reached. Xe&w this depth of burst. the fallback
material may fonn a crater with an apparent
depth lers t!un the depth of bur& The true
depth of the crater, however, remains greater
than the depth of bunt, by a constant value of
, approximately 57 W1lJ feet, when the depth of
burst is below h u t 60 WV1 feet.
For bumb at heights greater than about
10 W1jr feet, the tnechanism of cratering ia primarily
compression and scouring of wil. An
indiatcd in Fig. 4-20, the crater radiua incn-
for bunt heightr rbove 20 W" feet,
reaching a nuximum at about 60 WI/' feet.
This m u l b i~ a crouowr of the 60-, loo-, and
3OO.fwt burst-height curvea of Flpk 4-22 and
4 4 . This increw in radius in not considered
signifhint, however, becaure the crater depth
decrcova very rapidly, with increasing height
of bunt, to relatively rml i v d u i~n t he raage
of crolaover. For bursts a t heights above about
60 */I, the crater may be difficult to detect.
Crater dimemions are not expected b change
materially with ground dope, except for very
stoep terrain. On very steep dopa, cratem will
bs romswbt elliptical in dupe, with the downhill
lip eoruidenbly wider thus the uphill Up.
The crater depth, with respect to the s u d w
pl.ne d the terrain involved. ir not expected to
be appreciably dMennt from that of a bunt
: unw h0rLMlI.l b m i n eonditionr , rlrJrrcrluu+u*rb4a,Crur
Rrllvr w Rwr( P d a h
(1) -pckrr
Fig. 4-20 gives thr utimated rppuent and
~IUO crater radius u A function of burat podt
i e for 1-KT bunb in dry roll or mft rock.
For other ah, multipiic~tion frrQn ahould j ~ U U ~ U ~ W :
Hudrodr (p.Pibrad.on&tone) 08 '-
SIturated mi! (water slowly Alb .c
cnter) 1.6
Saturated roil (water rapidly Rllr
u a k r ) 2.0
*Only for apparent v&rn with
sloughing or washing action on the
crater side&
(2) sC.un(l--
The following relation carl be used b estimate
correryonding crater radii for a given bunt
yield an! depth :
where d,=crater radius produced by a yield WI
at. burst height or depth h,, and &=crater
radiua prodwed by a yield W1 at burst height or
dopth h,.
(3) F-pk
Given: Au 80-KT hwnt at a depU, of M)
feet, in dri . .I.
Find : The appucnt crater rrdiua.
Solution: Thc bunt depth for 1 KT in :
From Fig. 4-20 the apparent 'crater radiu~
(and .1Y) the true crater radiua) for 1 KT is
BS feet Hence, the crater radius for 80 KT h: ,
(4) -I7 !
The reliability of crater radii v d w obtainsd
from Fig. 4-20 h o#timPbd to be k80 pcr cent, ,
for h n t heighb of 6 WLfl feet b bunt depth
d 66 Wfa fmt, for d l %el& above 1 KT. For
other burnt conditioru the nllabiIlty is enti-
~ kb dbe t 4 O per cent
c I n a t r M r h jar U h l Pi#. -1,
C n u De* su Bud PwWon
0) Dcwrlprloll
Fig. 4-21 gives the estinukd a p p c i t md
tme enter d* u a function of bunt pgltion
I
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
in dry sail or aoft rock. Multiplication facton
for other roils are as followa:
Hard rock (granite md andstone) 0.8
Slturatrd wil (water slow!y dlla
water) 1.5
Saturated roil (water rapidly fills
erster) * 0.7
*Only for apparent craters with
~loughingo r worhing action on the
crater sides.
(2) Scdiu Procedure
For yields other than I KT, the following
relntioru con be used to ertimah corresponding
cratar deptha for a given burst $+old and depth:
whem d,=erabr depth p r o d 4 by a yield W ,
a t burst height or depth h,, and L=crabr
depth produced by a yield W, at burst height or
depth ha.
(3) 6rumcI.
Given: An 8eKT burst at a depth of &O
feet, in the wet aand of an ocean
beach whem water will rapidly fill
the crater.
Fin2 Apparent crater depth.
Sqlution: Cormponding burat depth for 1
KT is:
60x1
kt=-=I2 feet.
(80) 'fa
From Fig. M I the crater depth for 1 KT a t
12 feet=37 feet.
From the d l ty pe M e , a bove, the factor for
relative crater depth in ~ t u n t e dro il (whure
UNCLASSIFIED
CVRS S I F f E F 1.
. , - .. :- - - ~ - 2 -
I water rapidlv fflb crater) ia 0.7. The crater crater diameter va yield for variwr d e p h and
ckpsh is, fore : heighb of bunt, &rived by amling from Fi.
0.7 Xll1=78 (239) feet. 4-20. No intcrpulalion uf depth or height of
burat Jlould be made for this flgurr. For
(4) YT U y values other than those given, ute Fig. 4-20.
The reli&ilftv of &fir t&n fmm Since there ic little difference between true and 1.1 Fig. a1 &i l l r B ~to be pr ~t for apparent crater diameters from b u m at
A yielQ :.nd burst poritioaa depths larn than 25 1 5 1 8 4 feet, or from above
ground bursts, these figures m y be used alw
'rurruc.uoru lor Fiflr. 532 ad for true craters in that range. The ~ssumed
4-23. . 1 5mn f Crater Diameter VI Yield Soil ir ,lry soil or wfft mk (dt b t will
(1) h r i p ~ w m crumble or :all apart easily). For other roils,
Figs. 4-23 and 4-23 give values of apparent the dialmeter obtained frum Figs. 4-22 or 4-33
UNCLASSIFIED
should be multiplied by the relative crater
dimension factor, as follows:
Soil Type Factor
Harrl- rock (granite and sandstone) 0.8
Saturated soil (water slcwly fills
crater) 1.5
Saturated soil (wat?r rapidly fills
crater) 2.C
'Only for apparent craters with
sloughing or washing action on the
crater sides.
(2) Example
Given: A 30-KT burst a t a depth of 100
feet, in dry clay.
Find: The apparent crater diameter.
Solu:ion: The apparent diameter, taken
directly from the 100-fwt-depthof-
burst curve of Fig. 1-22 for 30
KT is i5O (22%) feet.
(3) ~eliability
The reliability of crater diameters obtained
from F i p . 4-22 and 4-23 for various yields is
estimated to be 530 per cent, for burst heights
of 6 W8/'fe et to bunt depths of 65 W" feet,
for all yields above 1 KT. For other burs! conditions,
the reliability is estimated to be 140
per cent.
e. Inrlruction. /or (iainp Figs. 4-24 and
4-25, Applrcnt Crater Depth wr Yield
( I ) Dewription
Figs. 4-24 and e 2 5 give values for apparent
crater depth vs yield for various depths and
heights of burst, derived from Fig. 4-21 by
scalinq S o interpolation nf depth or height of
burst should be made from this fipxe. For
values other than those given, use ' i ~ . 4-21.
Since there is litt!c difference betxven true and
apparent crater depths f;vm bursts abo\e
ground *r bursts a t depths less than 10 W' '
feet, there figures may be used also for true
craters in that range. The assumed soil type
is dry soil or soft rock frock that will crumble
or pull apart easily!. For other types of soil
and rock, the depth obtained from Figs. 4-24
and 4-25 should be multiplied by the appropriate
relative crater depth factor below:
Soil Type Factor
Hard rock (granite and sandstone) 0.8
Saturated soil (water slowly fills
crater) 1.5
YIELD In1
Figun 4-22 tC1. &pa& Crotw Diameter vs Yield, for Various Depths and
Heights d Burst, in Dry Soil or Soh Rock, for 0.1 -KT to 10043 Yield fUI
CLASSIFIED
Soil Typz Factor water that will slowly fill the
Saturated soil (water rapidly fins crater.
crat?r) 0.7 Find: The apparent crater depth.
*Only for apparent craters with a Solution: From Fig. 4-24 the crater depth
sloughing or washing action on in dry soil is 158 feet. From the
the crater sides. soil type table, above, the fzctor
(2) Example for rdative crater depth in satu-
Given: An 80-KT burst at a depth of 100 rated soil (,-.-ater slowly fills crafeet,
in saturated clay containing ter) is 1.5. The crater depth is
YIELD bnc)
UNCLASSIFIED
.sanw=- LAS SeEJ ELL=, ( ello) sidered u p & V hock Direct
f& ground shock in prduced by the d e n e x w -
(3) ILcll.MIi* sion of the bubbk d gas from an undermund
The r e l i i l i ty of crater depthr obtained or rurface explosion, which wts up a p u k or from Fip. in th I*ound Air-induoed Oround 4-24 and 4-25 for all fie.& and d,. M.sl w.ve, frunr
burnt positions is estimated to be * M ) ner cent. expiorion, tht - and movu prPllel to
U.3.2 Grond Ueak the muad.
r General Fig. 4-26(A) showa the relvtion of the direct
T~~ bit mechanisms are con- ground shock wave to the k-induced ground
i
---.- UNCLASSIFIED .. . .
,kc,LAss l~ l:e, . ... ,. .., -.... . .., I....,i .: - .. .,, .. . .;;%:.:
. \we, In he cnae o the surface buwt. of the air b b t deuwawm more rapidly with dlr-
Becaw sonic velocity ir genemlly hlgher in the , tance than d m the &I& firound shock. He-,
mund than in the air. the din& ground rhock the direct yruu J rhoek event& moves ahend
u indicated ar moving fnbter than the air bhrt ( b f . '2).
aud. cowquently, fvter than the dr-induced Fig. k$(B) shows in idealized form the
ground rhwk. Although the nir blast of a rur- relation of the vertical acceleration of suil parface
or near.rurface burnt initinlly pwpu&s ticles cauud by the two different fornu of
faster h n d irect yl'uund shock, the velocity ground shak. The d i ~wvte rtical acculerntion
gar 4-15 iCJ. Apponnt CmW 0.plh vr Ykld, for VIwku 0 q h 1 a d H.roht~
d Bud, in Dry Soil or Sdt Rock, for 0.1- ta l00-W Yi*d iU
UNCLASSIFIED
u initiated upon arrival of the direct gmucd 300 feet from w r h c uro. d dt?emw to o
shock. What is known er "air blast sinp accel- more conrt.nt S,#M R/'YIC. qproximotely
emtion" (Par. 4-33.1.e. (81, following) is ini- ' 2.600 feet fmm lurl.oe urn. The prupaption
tiit4 ipon the arrival of the air blast, which velocity of proand rhocL d the rurfree m y
opures a sudden local increase in soil parlicle increase with dLtrncl from the bunt. due to
lecdemtion. refraction .ad rdldm fmm u&lerlying
b. D b m C r d Shock
The direct ground shock wnve produced by a
surface or underground burst propnmtes radially
outw~wd from the bunt yoin:. For n 1-KT
nurface or ohrllow underground burst, in Nevada-
type soil, proprgntioa velocities on the
ground surface are 4,600 ft/aec app~uximatuly
higher velocity rtntr: r?r4 tha shock re
Jucea to an uPurtle wave. the velocity will
approach the n o d rode velocity of the
medium near the surface. In round rock, and
nutaide the zone of rupture, the propgation
of shbck obeya elutic formuhe. In such a
homopneoua medium (not generally c h c t e . r -
istic of surface coaditiona), there is little attenuntion
due to intend friction of p b t i c defor-
CLASSIFIED
mation. Ground shock (compression type
wave) in rock is reflected from an air-rock
interface aa a tensile wave. The intensity of
this tensile wave is dependent on shock
strength. wave shape, and angle of incidence of
the direct shock with the free surface.
(2) t'reM= (S-1
At any given point sir blast overpressures
resulting from a nuclear detonation are equal
in all directions, but ground pressures are not.
Stress pulses appear as various ccmbinations
of direct ground 2nd air-induced shock stresses,
depending on arrival time and the range, depth
and, direction of the measurement. Direct and
air-induced ground shock stress pulses may coincide
a t close-in ranges outside the crater, a s
indicated above, but the p u b s will gmdually
separate with increasing distance along the
bmund surface. until two separate pulsea may
be detected a few feet beneath the ground
surface. The peak stresses from direct ground
shoo- usually attenuate rapidly with distance;
however, i i ~hi ghly saturated soils, the attenuatior
of these stresses is leas, approaching the
attenuation in water (~pproximately invenely
as Lhe range). The st- pule from the direct
ground shock is composed of vibrations of high
and low frequencies, the period of which may
vary from a fcw tenthwf-a-wcond to several
seconds. Two hundred feet from a I-KT undergrourd
burst in Nevada-type soil, the horizontal
earth stnu a t e depth of 10 feet ma:' be
1'25 pi; a t 250 feet it may be 40 psi; while at
600 feet it may be only 3 psi. A rough comparison
of peak st- intensities, for various
yields at thc aame distances, may be inade on
the basin of relative crater size.
(3) Ar+dccrtion 01 Soil Pvnklcr
Acceleration of sail particles may be caused
as' a direct m u l t of the explasisn (direct acaleration).
rr a reault of (my ah& reflection
or refraction from underlying bedrodc (indirect
uxelention), or as a result of air blast
(induced a d e m t i o n ) . Direct and i n l r r c t accelerations
ue generally indistinguishable, and
$gether they are termed direct or fundamental
acceleration. For acceleration values of 1 G or
greater, measured beyond a mnge of two crater
mdii from ground zero, the frequency in soil
will usuellg be less than 80 cps for all yields.
For a 1-KT yield, the predominant frequencies
will be from 3 to 15 cps. In rock, the amplitude
of accelerations may be cmsidembly greater.
and the period may k less than in yerage soil.
(4) Dimplacement of Soil Particles
Displacement of soil particles is largely permanent
within the plastic zone of a crater and
transient beyond the plastic zone. For a small,
near-surface burst, and :at a range of three
crater radii, the permanent displacemen? along
the grounri surface will probably be less than
0.0003 of n crater radius. The transient displacement
will probably be less than 0.001 of a
crater radius. A short distance beneath the
ground surface, soil particle displacement is
usually less than the displacement along the
ground surface. Displacements are appreciably
affected by soil types. In wet soils, lor example.
they may be of the order of ten times greater
than the preceding values.
c. Air-Id& Ground Shock
(1) Propagation
Air-induced ground shock propagates outward
from the bunt with the nir blast. The
air blast loading may be considered as a moving,
non-uniform load that generates a ground
shock. The air-induced shock in sail quickly
attains n velocity that may exceed the air blast
velocity; however, the magnitude of any outrunning
shock is small, and its effects nay be
ignored. Consequently. as the air blast wave
proceeds, the air-induced grnund shock propagaten
with a rather complex, underground,
time-of-arrival contour, depending on undergruund
shock velocities. in general, however,
the ground-shock froct slopes backward from
the air-blast shock front, as shown in Fig. 4-
26(A). Air-induced ground shock usually
arrivcls with or after the direct ground shock.
(2) Praavc (Stre-)
Air-induced ground stnsses attenuate gradually
with depth. and the rise time of the stress
pulse increnaes. The pulse of the air-induced
grwnd stress is composed of vibrations of high
and low frequencies, the priods of which may
vary from a few tenths-of-a-secuid to several
m n d s . Observations with I-KT yields show
that, in general, air-lnduced ground stress is
larger than direct ground stress at distances
greater than two crater radii, for average soils,
and for all heights and depths of burst down
to about 75 fect.
(3) Acakralion of Soil Partiela
Air-blast induced acceleration maintains its
identity in the acceleration pattern, and it can
be separated from thc direct shock acceleration.
When interactions with other accelerations
from reflection and refraction occur, the magnitude
is affected markedly, and separation is
difficult. Upon i t arrival, the air blast will
cause a sudden local increase in soil particle
acceleraticn termed "ail-blast slap acceleration,"
as shown in Fig. 4-26B. For acceleration
values of I G, or greater, measured away from
ground zero, the pmlominmt frequencies in
soil of the air-blasi induced acceleration are 80
to 120 cps. Peak vertical acceleratior~ are
larger than peak horizontal (radial) accelerations-
by an amount approximating 50 per cent.
Peak accelerations attentuate with depth, are
directly proportional to the overpressure, and
are indirectly proportional to the rise time of
the preruure pulse in the wil. See Fig. 4-27 for
t the nlatiowhip of peak accelerations to peak
: air-blast overpressures at a depth of ten feet.
(4) DirpLetmrnt of Soil Puliclw
Air-induced ground shock causes little permanent
horizontal displacemnt of ground particles
beyond two crate:. radii. When the shock
is reflected from vertical soil-air interfaces,
local displacement (spalling) of ground particles
may occur. Air-induced ground shock
may -use a vertical displacement of soil particles.
Dry Nevada-type soil subjected to a peak
overpressure of 250 psi has sustained a permanent
downward displacement of approximately
2 inches, and a transient downward displace
ment of approximately 8 inches.
d. cd.nnrdBouSnr(le
' An effect of underground nuclear explosions is the large quantities of soil. rock, and debris
thrown up in the form of a hollow echunn. As
this material falls back to earth it will. in many
instances, produce an expanding cloud of fine
soil particles, known as a bPse surge (Ref. 1).
The maximum column diameter is generally
two to three times the apparect crater diameter.
and the maximum column height is
roughly equal to 400 W"'. The characteristiw
of the base surge depend upon the depth and
yield of burst The shallowest burst depth a t
which an earth base surge has been observed is
16 WLI1 fwt. As the burst depth is increxed,
the extent of the hase surge is cxpeck! to increase
until a burst depth of about 125 W'l' feet
is attained. No further increase in bnse surge
extent is expected below this depth of burst.
Figs. 4-28 and &29 show the rrte of growth
of the base surge, and muimum radii for
various scaled depths of burst.
e. I n r c r u e ~ i ojo~r Using Figs. 4-28 and
4-29, Base Surge Rmiius
(1) Dcrrip~ion
Fig. 4-29 is based on extrapolation from the
maximum base surge radii of the curves in Fis.
4-28. R~ d i oi btained from the figures assume
no wind, or are crosswind radii. To compute
doanuvind basc surge radii a t a specific t h e
after detonation, add the distance traversed by
the wind, up to !his time, to ihe base surge
radius obtained from the figures; to obtain Ele
upwind base surge radius, subtract.
Depth of bursl, and the &mum radius of
the base surge, s d e u the cube mot of yield
between scaled depths of burst of 16 WtJ' and
125 WLIz feet, using
where h, and t, are depth of bunt ord base
surge radius for yield W,, and h, and r, are the
corresponding depth of burst and base surge
radius for yield W,; and using .
t, W,&"
where +time tF mp1ete A given percentage
of total radial growth for yield W,, and tl=corresponding
tine to complete the same ,percentage
of total radial growth for yreld p,.
1
(3) ~--le
Civem: A &I-KT cletoo~tion6 G feat uadar- for 1 KTlr
t V - 0 ~ ~ &, =w=p X-&- =1x6 6 16 b t .
Find: (a) The maximum bw surge w,"' (64)"'
radiua.. From Fig. 4-28 the nnrnrlmum radiur for 1
(b) The t i ~ ast which the maxi- KT at a 16 fwt depth of bunt iu 0010 fwk and
mum radius occurs. it accurs at 180 seconds.
P W WRPRCSSURE (pi)
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED .
The coriwponding radius :or 64 KT Lu The time ut which ehk maximu n d i u a u r a
rlXwnl" 2,OluX (6J)lf. a = - 1 8 , 0 4 0 feet is mll,' 1 tIC-=-,360 wP""11 (64)'"X'180 w n & .
This mpy also be read directly from Fig. 4-29. )I*, I#* 1
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
The subject of underwater rvplarions hu
been treated extendvely, fwm both a theonti
d and experimental point of view. An excellent
preaentaLion of all aapectv of underwater,
chemical explorlonr u given by Cule in ReP. 6.
This reference ir readily nvailrble in book form.
and should be wawlted for detailed infonnatlon.
When the charge L detonated, the resulting
phyricrrl disturbance advancer outward underwabr
t h d th o lolid auterhl of Ulc charge
atahighmteufaped. Intheepwolahlgh
expldve, u distinguished from u gun pmpelk
t , the wultlng &anid reaction in a h
rapid. Thia rsreUM continuer to reinfore the
detonation wave, so that the entire r-s converb
the rdid explcvlve into a ps at high pns.
h r e , in an extremely short time. Tho initial
rphero of high prewure and high temperature
g u t r a d t d this high p m u r e to the surmundlng
water. In this way. the bouadary
ccnditiuna for the wave phenomenn in the
water are generated. Once this happenr a
shack wave forms and travels outward under
the m e hydrodynamic laws u those governiug
the motion of a b l a t wave ill air. In fact,
o w of the theoriu moat used, Uut of Kirkwood
and Brinkley (Par. 4 3 3 . 6 . ~ ;a nd Refs. ll ad
6). an be wed for predicting shuck wave phenomeiia
for either air or water.
i
- UNCLASS
The physical phenomena for the propaption
of the shock wave is rleo similar. T h t h, following
tho initiation of the shock a t the surface
of the gu sphere, the wave travela outward a t
a aped greater than the speed of aound. and a t
a rrtc ' d w y of premure (being a spherical
wave) mewh a t ~r e a t u rth an inversely with
distance, rs predicted by acoustic theory. An
the raaiw increases, the disturbance apprnrches
that predicted by acoustic theory, as
one would expect.
A phenomenon associated with undewater
explusions which k not present in air bursts,
is the formation and rubsequent mntion of the
gw sphere. Because the expanding gps causes
outward flow of the surrounding water, the
bubble continues to expand beyond its preanure
equilibrium stute; then, when outward motion
stops, the external pressure in the water iz
higher than that of the ~ a ian the bubble, and
contraction oermra Since the RPI b a N ~ h l y
e U i c system, bubble oscillation takes place.
Duri:;& this time, the bubble rises toward the
wdaw becauae of ib buoyancy. An stated in
Ref. 6, other factors . f i s t the motion, making
analytical prediction of bubble belmvior very
diflicult. Such facton would be the proximity
of the bubble to the bottom, and to the free sursurface.
Bubble pulsation has an important
effect on the surrounding flow, however, rince
each puhtion becumes a poYible source of
secondary preuure waves. accord in^ to Ref. 6,
tho overpreuure caused by the drat bubble pulsation
ir only a fraction of the shock wave presrun.
The duration of the overplrrrure is
greater. however: therefore, the IrnpuJac in?-
pubd to the water & comparable in the two
WU.
Returnlng to the rhwk wave formed in the
water. and ita effect, it k signiflcrnt that scnling
laws are applicable and give reliable reaultr.
For a given ret of ambient conditions.
the cube mot d i n g iawa (Par. 4-2.63) are
equnl!y vdld when comparing the effect, of
different size c L r g ~ aT hat L the m e p ressure
ratio L okrved for two different exploexample,
if a c h a w of weight E, ~mduceda
pressure ratio of P/.?, at a &tam R, 1 Mon&
after explarioa, then a charge of ,one
eighth the weight would produw the m e
pressure ratio at a d k h R/Z, t / 2 m n &
after detotutiloll.
From an analytical viwpolnt, the rho&
wwe pruprortio~ problem k similar to the
problen~ in air, an hu tkvn stated. It ir Nmarked
in Ref. 3, however, that the &tail&
are simpler in the m e of underwater bloat
waves. This k becuuse the relotivsly d l
entropy increment produced a t the hock front
permits the use of the approximation of adinbatic
flow. Such approximntions acrorr a l o c k
front ore not perrniuible in air.
An underwater crater ir conridered to be
the crater uirting in the bottom materid at
that time, ahortly after the bursf' when con.
ditions are no longer changing rapidly. Subnequent
hydraulic wmh action by the current,
tider, etc., will tend to erode away any crater
lip, while making the crater wider and hallower.
The degree of thin effect dcpenC on the
depth of the watur, type of bottom ~mterial,
and current. wave, 4 tidd activity.
The size of the undmvater a h r ia dependent
upon weapon yield and bunt depth. but
also upun water depth and bottom eompadtion.
Figs. 4 4 0 througb 446 are gmphlc IlluJrrtlons
of the data on crater hew depth, and
lip height for both wrface and bottom h u h
in 25, 50, 100. and 200 let of water. The &-
uren show that the crator dhenrionc are
greater for a bottom burat thnn for r rurfros
burrt. Also, am the depth of the water i n c m
the crater dimaulonr Increase for a bottom
burnt, bu: decreme for a rurface burnt (Ref.
21).
r Ducrip&a.rrlAmdy&
The u n d m t e r d e b t i o n of a nuclear ,
weapon at n dlrtanea kun either the water
surface or the bottom bounduia produwr a
nhock wave early in the formation of the p
bubWe. This shock \wve prupgates spherically
a t the late of roughly 5,000 ft/sec, and is
characterized by an inttantaneuu~ri se in pressure
followed by ;ur exxptnenti;rl decay. In addition
to this initial primary shuck rave, r v -
on1 subsequent PIPSIUW pulses are produced
within the ,water.
When the pressure wive is rrllccted from the
water surfwe it ia reflected as a rarzfaction or
tensile uswve. This reflected rarefad~on wave
cuts uH the tad uF the primly c u m p l ~ u i o ~ l
shock uwe, thewby d w ~ w i n tgh e duration of
its poniilvc phase. fig. 4-36 rhoups qualiblively
the e6xt uf the 4ection wave upon the
pwm~a-timeh istory. The effect of this cutoff
dr~reuscsn pictly with incrnwl depth of Atw
1
! - . . CLASSIFIED
in the wa t e ~ ;th at is, as the depth to tl~uta rget
increazes, the less the effect uf cutoff for n given
depth of dcto~tion. Convem:~, as the depth
of detonation increases, the leas the ctfect of
culod for n given target lcrotiolz
The reflection of pressures from the bottom
surface fur an undenvrtcr burst, is similar to
the reflection of pressures from the &wound surface
for an air burst. A crude approximution
uf the mgnituch and dupe of this reflected.
water-nhwk \\we can be obtained, if it is assumed
that the wave in identical k an imaginary
dirwt wave. thii having traveled a distance
tqual to the pathdistance of the reflected wave.
1.e.. th~ttp erfect rrnection crcurred. Eatitnabd
peak overprcauurea w slant ranges, for vari-
LO I D
YIELD kll
Figun 4-31 1CJ. Cmhr Diamter vr Yield, for Undonrdr Crohring tor Voriow
Watu Depths vidh Sand. Sand and W r l , or Sdl Rodr lo(tw, far 0.1 .hi1 fa
IOG-mT Yields WI
ous yields. are s h o w in Fig. 4-33, where the complete pHssage of the primary ~ m p ~ i o ~ l
order 01 magnitude of thew pressures may be wave.
noted. However. the durations of th- pro* if tha nuclenr weapon is set off a t shallow
rurcl are ahort. k i n g ~ ~ e ; l ~ u rine dtC lU of mil- depths .in deep unter, tho penk uverprersun
liseconds. They may be even -4-'er at winh estimate^ of Fig. 4-39 are excessive in terms of
near the water surfme. r:-ro the surfnce- ~ ~ t u onvle rpressures, tor mcrt repiona of inreflected
wave arrives at the p i n t before the terest. Fur example, a 10-KT weapon set off
Figwe 4 5 1 IC). C r h r h p r h n Yidd, far Und.nokr Cmtuing for Variaum
Wokr D+I 4 h Sand, Sad d Grawl, or Soh Rack lorrorns, for 0.1 -ICY W
100-KT Vkldr IUI
at a depth of 200 feet, in deep water, would
actually develop a peak overpressure of approximately
350 psi at the range of 2,000 yards and
the depth of 50 feet. This is in contrast to a
pressure of 660 psi, as predicted by the Apure.
The actual cverpmure is less than the predicted
because the initial shock wave strikes
Lhe water surface at a high obliquity and reflects
in an s no ma lo us manner, and the sharp
cutoff from the reflected pressure does not OCcur.
Instead, t k . reflected tensile ware modifies
the preauure-time h b r y at early times, and
forms u nearly t?inng&r pulse (Fig. 4 3 7 ) .
The region wherein this anornolour rcfleetion
aftects the pressure history is tamed the nonlinear
region.
. . c LAS,S . . ' . - .- -.a :v-r,,-.n .m. . !qy,q-+ gw. , r*.,- .y " yI)=
I : .. .. . . , ' ' , . !'
onlinenr rwion ir in the form oi a times of the plrssure h b r y is thm any rcwedge,
increasing i n depth ;w the rage fmm duction of owtp~wloure. A8 the depth of burat
the burst p i n t inenma. At the shallower is docreo~ed (or the yhld inereared) the nondepths
in thb region, the anomalous behavior linear zone ineravies is swpe and magnitude.
utheient to luduce the mapnitucle of the Finally, fur a surface bu~ota, ll point8 be.xath
peak overpmaum At greater depths, the water sur fa~e(e xcey? thwv directly under
shRdcs off. ut1t11 only at the later the reupon) are in the nonlinw =ion. Be-
-- - -- -.- -. UNCLASSIFIED
suuse the yeuk pressure in the ntrnlinear region water surface, a1.d the bottom. altzr the penk
is a sensitive function of burst and tnrget pressure and tluraiiou uf the primary under-
~(eometry, prearu~wlistance cunes are not !wter shock wave. Ln Pdditiun t~ the muitiple
presented here, to account specifically for ~tHeetiotist hat mur. the ehuJr r ave iy transthis
eflcct. mitted across these bouudaries (ie., propuated
When a nuclear weapon is detonated in shal- through the uir ard the btttum. and then
bv rater. both the reflecting boundaries of the coupled back into the nV&r). Hence, a t a
Figure 4-35 ICI. Cram Lip Hdghl v8 Yidd, for Unduwahr Cml vmf~o r V&
Wot.r W h r w ilh Sand, Sand and &4w, S OH Rodr loOon, Ikr 0.1 MT k
100.MT Ykldr RII
UNCLASSIFIED
point distant from the source, there will be a flded from the surface and the bottom. The
direct water shock, water shocks induced by order of arrival will be: first, the ground inground
and air skocks, and water shoeks re- duced shock; then, the direct shock with the
- - - -
reflections: and, finally, the air induced shocks
(Fig. 4-38).
At most scaled depths, the direct water shock
is the greatest. As the direct shock travels outward,
thc rate of attenuation with distance is
determined primarily by the depth of water and
the rela:ive position of the weapon within that
depth. The shallower the water and/or the
closer the weapon to the water surface, the
greater the rate of attenuation. This difference
in attenuation can be attributed to the conlinear
surface reflection. and to the interference
of multiple reflection urr.eves with the direct
shock wave. These effects far outweigh any
apparent yield increase resultittg from the
weapon being detonated on the bottom, as contrasted
with the yield i n c r e w that occurs in
the ease of the land ,surface bunt.
Insufficient data exist for the preparation nf
water overpressure versus distance curves for
debnations in shallow water, as is possible for
PRESSURE HISTORY AT
#)INTI ALOM LINE A-A
deep vater detonations. In tile case of a 20-KT
detonation at middepth in 180 f& of water.
the peak overpressures xt moderate ranges have
been observed to be on the order of one-half
those indicated for deep water. Prevsures wen
less than these are expected for a middepth
bunt in more typical harbor conditions, because
of t h e shallow depths of water ?nd
'battom irregularities. On the other hand. a
burst on the bottom will result in ,slightly
higher peak overpressures than one a t middepth
in shallow water.
Since water has no tensile strength, the rarefaction
resulting fmx a reflection a t the w a t w
air interface rauses the water sut.face to cavitate.
Thus, a "spray dome" is fcmed. When
this.collapses, an additional shock is induced in
the water by an effect siniilar to a water hammer.
Little is know;. about the magnitude of
the shock from this source: however. it is tielieved
that it can pnerally be neglected.
The propagation of the un~lcrwatvr ..ti#.,X
waves is distorted on pnssing tllrwg!~ r..gr*m
of sharp temperature changes within the \v:i:er.
with the rrsult that the pressure x\.nvv form is
affected. If the weapon is fire4 in ckrse proximity
to a region of temperature change. there
is a shadow zone former!. wherein predictions
b~s e du pon free water conditions overestimate
the effectiveness of the shock wave. When tne
weapon is fired well alnve. or b4ow, this temperature
reyion. pressure histories a t the normal
ranges of Interest are c h a n ~ t vle 8.y little.
h. Inarrucriona /or Uain~F ip ,M9.P mk
Ovrrprcamre jar D n p Undrnoatrr Rnrara
(1) Drrriplion
Fig. 4-39 gives the expected values for peak
r a t e r overpressure versus slant rank- for varinus
yields burst tlwp in deep Iwter, where tke
effects of a reflecting surface arc absent.
(2) Srmlin~P romlttre
Scaling for yields other than those shown
may be done by linear interpnlation between
appropriate cu wes.
(3) Eurnple
Given: A 40-KT weapon is burst a t a
depth of 1.000 feet in deep water.
Find: The peak water overpressure a t a
1.000-foot depth 4.000 yards from
the burst.
Solution: From Fig. 4-39, the peak water
overpressure a t a slant ranee of
4.000 yards. for a 40-KT weapon.
u n be read directly ss 440 psi.
(4) Rcl&hlllty
Slant ranges obtained from Fig. 4 3 9 are
estimated to be reliable within 220 per cent
for the yield nnge shown.
443.3. Wovo CennUoa
r. Surfarc Wma
Surface rrrves generated by underwater explosions
are the result nf the emergence and
collapse of the bas bubble. The first wave is
generally a welldefined breaking wave. (In the
case a! a deep burst in deep water, this wave
rr?u first observed a t roughly ?,O(H) feet horizonial
range.) The fird wave is folloured by a
train of more stable oscillatory waves. As the
disturhnce moves .\v:ird, the number of
waves in the wave ..am incre;~ses. At first, the
initial wave of the group is the highest, but as
the wave train progresses farther from the
origin, the m;iximum wave heiyht appears in
successively later uwer. I t heas been observed
for a shallw. wstcr hurst that, by the time the
wave train h d progressed out to ?!,000 feet,
the ninth wave was the hiyhest of the group:
but for a deep u t e r buxt a t 10.000 feet, the
seventh wave was observed to have the largest
amplitude. For the shsllow water burst, the
maximum wave height one mile from the detonation
was atmu: 20 feet; for the deep burst,
it was ahjut 40 feet at the sitme distance, reflectin~
in this case the rreater depth of water
and burst depth.
Fig. 4-40 gives maximum wave heiyhb as a
function of range, under a number of stated
conditions for a I-KT underwater burst. These
predictions are based upon the maximum wave
w i n g the point of interest, withou: regard to
its position iir the train. Thus, the maximum
crest-tc-trou~h amplitude decreases linearly as
the reeiprucal of distance, while the amplitude
change with distance for any individual wave
varies in a more complex manner. In a given
depth of watcr, a \\we no higher than about
70 per cent of the water depth can propagate
as a stable phenomenon. Higher weves are
unstable, and they decrease in height until sk..
bility is attained.
The formation, propagation, and magnitude
of surface waves generated by :in underwater
bunt, in shallow water, vary rapidly with the
scaled depth of water and the configuration of
the bottom. For prediction purpom in water
shallower than 80 W''' feet, the b u d position
haa little effect on the wave generation.
For the underwater burst in deep water, the
size of the ~ n e r a t e dsu rface waves is dependent
upon the position of the weapon relative to
the surface. For practical purposes, as the
depth of bunt is lowered from the surface to
a depth of 180 lV1 ' feet, the maximum w v e
hekht can 1% ctrrisidered to i:i: rc:ise cunst;istly.
The sca1.d depth of 180 feet (two-thirds of the
maximum bubble radius of e I-KT burst) represents
an optimum depth. Kith further increases
in depth, the maximun~ height nwin
d ~ r ~ upffs, apprclechin~t he scaled magnitude of
\raves olx~erved from bursts ;it deep depths
(scaled depth of burst of 850 I!'' ' feet).
\Saves movinr! from dcep into sll;~llo~w: ater.
31,' from open rrater i:~lo n:lrnrrvs, may k consiclcrably
increescul it1 n~lpnitudeh; mrever, this
increase is b:!nl~dir!;ll~Ir~u nless the exact geometry
of the bottom is krlorvn. W:ives break on
arriving nt water rtcr,:hs : h u t equal to tltc
rvave heipht. moment:u-ily increasinu in height
by appruximately ::O per cent. thvn rapidly decreasing.

I , greater. From thb curve, the nuximum wave
height a t 10,000 p d f~or l 1-KT bunt t 22
fret. Therefore. for a 40-KT bunt. the wave
F f g m U O Rhea the apprmimrte, maxi-!
mum, umt-btrwpls WAW ldghtr (in berm6
of horizontal dhtance from rurface zem) to be
cxpecM from utrface and underwater bumtr
of 1-KT weapons. This &to mo). be rerled to
other yields, r- explained below. For burat
deptha greater than 180 Wit4 feet but less than
860 WlI' feet, a lineal. interpolation between
the values from the above limiting cases will
pmvlde a rrWactory prediction. Below 860
W"* feet, WM wave height & expected to decrem
Jmort invenaly with incre~linyd epth,
(2) S-W Pm=dam
Urn the following two relations: Fint,
where yield W , will give a r a w height of h,,
md yield W, will give a romponding wave
heqht h,, a t the =me d e d depth of burnt.
-lye
whem yield W,, bunt at a deyth dl in water of
depth C I , & equivalent to a bunt of yield Wr
at a depth 4. in wahr of depth 8,.
(3) -*
Given: A 40XT detonation a t 460 feet in
1,6M feet of water.
BYud: The expected. maximum wave
hrlqht at 10,000 yuQ from surfAce
zero.
Solution: The eorrrrponding bunt depth fob
I 1mt:
The comapondin# water depth for 1 kT la:
/ ULJt he cum of Fig. 4-40 for bwct depth of 110 M u d water 4(h of 4W feet or
(4) Bclid~illty
The wave heighb obtained from Fig. 4-40
re estimated to be reliable within 230 per
cent.
0 8ur Sug.
A slpiftcPnt phenomenon of undemater
nuclenr exploaiona b the base surge, a sizable
cloud or wave of d e m mlrt that movea wtward
from the water column. For depths uf
detonation )aru than 10 Wtla feet, the fonnatbn
of a significant bsse u r g e ia unlikely. When
the detonation ir at a w a t e r depth, but one
h l l o w enough for the gaseous explolion
bubble to vent the surface whiie i t h dill expanding
to ita Arst maximum radius, an extenrlve
wlumn of water is thrown into the dr.
The collapse of thia column f o r m the bus
mm.
h 0bSln.d in one underwater explcrioa
a conical spray dome began to form about four
milltrcconds after the explosion. Its initial rate
of riw was greater than 2,500 feet per ~ffond.
A few milliroeonds later. a hollow column began
to form, rapidly overtding the rpray dome.
The maximum height attained by the column of
water w u probably lome 8,000 feet, and the
g r d 4 diuneter WPI about 2,000 f r e t The
uuximum thicknem of the walk of the column
w u b t 30 0 feet. ApproximrWy l.OOOeOOO
tom of water wen thrown into the hcr. dr the
~olumnfe ll back into the water, them developed
on the ru~face, at tk b of the column, a
brge doughnukhrpal cloud of daue mbt.
Thlr J w d (thr h a urrge), fomed rbout ten
lseondr after d&mtion .nd traded rrpidly
&ward at An initial vdodty greater thn 100
frat per ucond, d n h i n i n p an avo~rpulding
douqhnut&ped fonn. In the fir& 100 uconda,
the avenge velocity w u 63 feet pe? reeond. In
?BO won&, the surge trrrveled 8,100 feet.
If ttu undvmter detonation L a t a depth
wch that the gu hubble goem through aeverd
P -.- -- - UNCLASSIFIED
oscillations prior to venting, a Bushy, ragged,
plumelike maso of water is thrown illto the air
by the emerging bubble. The collapse of these
plumes generates the buse surge. In the observation
of such a deep bunt, the Arst visible
surfaw phenomenon wan aver)' Hat spray dome
some 7.OCO feet in radius and 150 feet in height.
Three seconds later a second spray dome
emerged out of the first, senrliny spikes to a
height of 900 feet. At ten seconds the plumes
spyearad, reaching A height of 1.450 feet and a
diameter of 3,100 feet. As the plumes coilapaed.
a hue surge sp~eaci out labrally to a
emaa-wind radius of 4.000 feet, at 90 reconds.
and to clppraxinutely 7,W feet at 16 minutes.
A t intermediate depth of brat, ruch that
the bubble vents after the first expanuion is
mpletcd, but before several oscillations are
OJ LO 6 0 m
m ~ r o morn~-rw cr: FROM UIAFACL ZERO IU
Flu.*. 4-40 IC). Maximum War, iin'pid for 1 Uldnuscsr h i WJ
UNCLASSIFIED
1
I completed, the inugnitude of the baae surge
: vrrh in a manner dependent upon the phase
of the hubble a t venting. When the bubble
'r in an expanding phm, the rurge
nomenon ia rimilar to that described for a
bkollow bunt. When the bubble venb in a contracting
stage, a trll spire of water ir jetted
into the air. The base aurge result in^ therefrom
is lesa d e ~arnd of a smaller final radius.
However, lack of knowledge of bubble beiinvior
permits only a coarse prediction of the maximum
size of base surge. Figs. 4-41 nnd 4-42
provide representative dkta on base surge
radiu, in terms of time and yield, respectively.
Wind* cam the au9e to travel fnater in the
dirdion in which the wind is blowing. Although
rel~tiveh umidity does not affect the
initial formation of the base surge, it c l w s influence
itr aubaequent growth und duration.
When the relative humidity is siynificantly less
than 70 per cent, the extent and duration of the
base r u m are apt to be leu than predicted. A
, signifiernt increase in extent and dl-ration of
the brw u r g e ia expected when tilt! relative
humidity is appreciably greater than 70 per
cent
(I. r lut r~~cbnjra r Vdng Fig& 4-41 d
442, k w Suqw R&1 /or U n k m u r
Bvrru
(1) Delcrlplron
Pic. 4-41 giver the expected radiul growth of
the water bane surge, M a hmction of time
after detonation, for a 1-KT weapon sit various
depth# of bunt. Fig. 4 4 2 dwr the expected
maximum bnae wrge mdiu w a function of
yidd, for o r r d rpecifk dcpth d bunt condi-
I tioa* The d m u m bane rurpr u developed
, from a weapon detonated a t approximately the
i venting depth ( S O W"' feet).
Proximity of the bdbm to the point of
datoolbon hu little &eet upon the production
of tha &e r u m . For &DUu of bunt bctween
I the limita to 10 Wfl and 260 Wlf* feet, the
diunoter of the water d u m n yroducine the
bma surge L approxinuteiy onafourth of the
~ l l l n t r d i m WiUL depth6 of bunt
&low the venting depth of 250 W8/* feet, no
such simple relation of the column or plume to
the d t a n t wrge exih. Little data or theory i
are avaihble for basesurge predictionr ~t deep
tleptha. A prediction can b6 mode, however. by
linear interpohtion between the bnrerurgc
rndiue of r burst a t wnting depth, and one at
o deep clealed depth (650 Wla feet). A prodietion
thur ma& repruentr Ule raurlmum bPra
surge which could be expected.
Radii obtained from Figs. 4-41 and 442 ussume
"no rind" conditions. To compute upwind
or downward base-surge radii for a
spccitic time after detonation, use thc following
proceduise: to obtain the downwind basesurge
radius, add the distance traveled by the wind
up to this time to the "no-wind" baseaurge
radius: to obtain the upwind h e su rga radius,
subtract.
(2) Ldiny Pmcedum
Depth of burst, and the accompanying maximum
radius of the bane surge, reale aa the cube
root of yield for depths of bunt between 25
WV1 and 260 W1/4, or:
-h=l -=-7 , WI'IS
b t, WP'
where kt and r, are depth of bunt and baaesurge
radiua for yield W,, and b a n d r, aro the
corremponding depth of bunt and Iwerurge
radius for yield W,.
The time re~uiredt o mmpiete a given percentage
of total radial growth of the blue r u r m
scaler an the one-nixtlr power of the yield for
the name mled depth of bunt, or:
t, W,','.
-Et,
wp*
where t l = h required to compktr a given
percentagu of bW radial pro8 rh for yield W,,
and ty=the correapnnding tlme required to
complete the u u n percentage JT toW d i d
growth for wield W,
TLDc tn murimmua mOiw, from
detonation at venting &pth or I c u , m y h
computed by:
where L n t i m e to the muinnun bmwurpc
r d i w in leeon& and r=mu l n~umW u r p c
mdiua in f e d
I -- - .-- UNCLASSIFIED
(d) Flnt Excunplc (c) The e x p e c t e d base-surge
Given: A 10-KT deto~~atioant a dcpth of d i u a 1 minute atter detona-
15@ feet bclow the water surface.
rioe
I Solution: (a) The maximum b u r @
Find: (a) The nrnximum baseaurpt! i d i m ia read directly from
radius. Fig, 4-42 au 7,200 feet.
! (b) Tinre to maximum b~scsurge (b) '& venting depth h 250 W'"
radius. =JdO feet Since the depth uf
burst is less than venting, the
rimplified f o rmu l~fo r time to
maximum may be used. The
time of maximum base-sum
radius is
t-=2.25 (7,200) '/'=I90 setonds.
(c) A 10-KT detonation of 150
foot depth will complete the
same percentage of its ~otal
radial growth in 60 seconds as
a 1-KT detonaticn will complete
rr corresponding scaled
time and depth. Using the
scaling above, the corresponding
depth of burst for 1 KT is
hl=
W,'/' X b- 1 X 150
w - = 7 0 fe et. (10) '/"
The time that a I-KT weapon burst a t a
depth of 70 feet will have completed the same
percentage of its growth that a TO-KT burst
will have completed in 60 seconds is:
t, X W11~s-6X0 1
t , = - = 4 1 seconds.
V ' ( 10) 1.'.
From Figure 4 4 1 the maximum surge for
a I-KT b:mt at 70 feet is 3,400 feet, and a t 4i
seconds the surge has a radius of 2,000 feet.
Thus, it has completed 60 per cent of its growth.
A 10-KT detonation at a depth of I50 feet will
then complete, in one minute, 60 per cent of its
maximum radial gro\\'th, or
0.60X7.200 =4.300 feet.
(4) Second Example
Given: A 30-KT detonation a t a depth of
1.000 feet below the water surface.
Find: The maximum base-surge radics.
Solution: The ventin~ depth for a 30-KT
detonation is approximately 250 W1",o r 600
feet. Few data are available upon which to
YIELD W
Fipm 4-42 fCI. Moximvm Base Surg. Radius vs Yield, for Underwafer Bur* o)
Variour Oepthr IUI
predict the maximum base-ssrge radius at
depth exeeedlng this Hence. a prediction must
ba made by linear interpoLrtion between the
venting depth, 600 feet, and u depth of 060
W1/s=2.000 feet.
Fmm Fig. Q-42 the maximum bwurxm
radius at venting depth is 12.000 fect. At 660
Wws the maximum buucaurge radius is 7,000
feet. By interpolation, the maximum buse-surpe
radius for n +KT detonation at 1,000 feet is
(5) Arllahility
Figs. 4-41 and 4-42 are based upun limifd
full scale and extensive reduced sede testing.
4-4. I C I EFFECTS OF MECHANICAL
FACTORS ON BLAST WAVE
PARAMETERS
It is eon. an knowledge that the conventional
projectile or warhead w i n g surrounding most
explarlve charges tends to lwluce the blast
damage effectivenev of the churge. hecaw
soma portion of the explosive energy must be
umed in failir~gth e casing and is acmleratiny
the casing frsgmenb. Estimate. of the numitude
of thii reduction have k n eonaidered
both theolvtically and expcr~mmtally. There
ia, however, nu pmeralized method fur muratdy
predicting rhu deyrulrtron.
An additionul factor is that xume cwlos
i w are dimcult to detoclre properly unh
a they am e n d . Studiu u n y nrWn
ruiugr of plstic-bonded wwderud metala india
t e &at an explorive I be mewd without
d u c i n s the eflectiveneav. In rume instoncrr,
the damage capabilitiea of the explosive have
bren improved.
44.l.Z (C) hmiurry W1ctlslr YdMa
The &at attempt at accounting for the attenuUon
of air blut uurcd by the presexe of a
r t e l u# wau nude by U. Fano and teported
in Ref. 23. l'he reuoaing urvd by Fano w u M
outgrowth of that d e v c l o ~by R W. Curney
in IW. 24. In thir Lttcr npart Gurney con-
Jaded, by iifling e*@~i i trt dsL to :ai mpk
theory concclning the &tion of energy between
frngmcnts and bkt wave, that 20 per
cent of the tom available e n e m from the explusive
charge was still potentiai energy when
the steel euiog bmke into fragments.
Considering a implifted mudel of the phenomenon,
in which the HE charge ia static and
cwd, the respective proportion of the n c p b
sive snerxy of the durpe which the generated
gwa and the w i n g Crngmenta at the
instant of casing bmkup 1s struuht in the foll
o r n ~ gm anner:
If E = the tuW energy of the expldve chawc'
muterial, p!r unit mass, and C=the m ~ n orf the
chur~st;h en. EC=the tututal enerw of the urplosive
charge. A h , if M=Ule of the metal
wing, and V.-the initial vebcit.~o f the fray.
ments, relative to the projectile, then lfl MY.'
=KE (kinetic energy) uf the frqtmentr.
If It is now ~u ume dth at (at the instant of
wing brenkup) the velucity of the molrculm d
the ~ n e r a t e dg asea varies linearly, from rem
ut the chnrge center, b V. at the meWshPrp
incertacr. and that the density of the gum in
conshnt throltyhuut thd chnrge v Jume, F n :
the KE' of the generated gue1=1/4 CV.' (cylindrical
chaqw), or = 3/10 CV.' (spheric4
charm) . Goaridwing no other factors:
EC=1/!YV.aA1/4CV.* (4-54)
for the cylindrical &rye, hich in one form of
the Gurney quntion.
FMm this Fuw rruon& chat the tntal energy
wocint?d with the blut wave 9 equal to
-1 1+?-M C
of the 80 per cent dtucd at b e p , p l u the
20 per cent potenWly availablu a t the instant
of brec~kup. The concept of equivalent cbrm
weight emerged u being th? we~ght of bare
chPrpe with total available energy cqwl to the
energy conlibukl b the bkrt wave hy the
cued charge. In bf. Fanu eomputsr the
equivalent weight for a qlindricll eued c h a m
as
- UNCLASS
where: cd=equivalent bare charge weight; and
w=actual explosive weight for caaed char@.
At the time Fano'a repon (Ref. 23) wns
written, all the bomb blast data collected in the
pcriod 1942-1946 at the ballistic Besmrch Loboratories
(Ref. 25) were available. This data
seemed suacient to slubstantiab the equivalent
weight theory. However, iater resulta of experiments
with cased charge8 m t some doubt
on the expressed relationship between cased nld
equivalent bare charge weights (Ref. 26).
U.1.3. (C) U. E. Navy Prodictlon Mothod
In 1953 the Navy (Ref, 27) re-examined the
data used by Fano, and upon comparison with
the Kirrwood and Brinkley curves for bare
charges (Ref. a),pr opoaed an improved equivalent
charge relationship. This rekti~nship
waa obLind by abandoning attempts a t simple
explanations for the behavior of cased charges;
instead. the simple expxlient wp1 followed of
choosing a r e h t i o ~ h i pw hich best described the
data Two distinct formulas were specified, one
of wluch was for poaitive impulse, ar follows:
with the condition that M* trikes the value M/C
for all values of M/C leaa than snity, but taker
the valur wity for all values of W/C greater
than unity. For computing the perk prearurc,
tul/a. is taken a8 1.19 times that value wed for
conr,mting positive impulse. However, resulb
of additional experimta (Ref. 29) cut furtber
doubt on the reliability of t h m relationrhipa,
and even ou the whole concept of equivalent
weight.
441.4. (C1 M d l h d Pam C d l c t l o r Y o t k d
A taoditicntion of the formula due to Fano is
in common use a t tho Ballistic Research Lab
oratories; thin appenm to provide a r u ~ n n b l e
At for cxpe~hentadla ta (Befa. 30 and 31). An
w'+w
& d v e charge weight W" L defined M 7
whore w' is found from EQ. 4 6 6 . Thc reaulting
e x p d o n for effective weight of the cy-
1indricaI ERsed c h a m is
or for the spherical cased charge
The effbet of altitude and chawe composition
is often factored into these expressions and
defined as the effective equivalent static bare
charge weight TO*u, sed in the fcnnula
where: n - egectiveness increasing (or decreasing)
fnetr~rf or n different explosive; and
n, -- altitude degrading faccor.
Experimental studies have been made comparing
air blaets resulting from differently
shaped explosive charges. in order to provide
basic data for the terminal ballistic design of
explorlv~c harges to be used in guided missilea
developed for the Air Force ( M s . 32 and 38).
From these studies i t has heen determined that
the peak premurea and positive impuhs from
the detonation of explosive charges of different
shapes 30 not differ significantly at large scaled
distances (Z= R/W')'>Q ft/lblt8), when averaged
in all diredions with respect to c h a m
orientation. However, scaled distanced of thii
order are too great to cause lethal dnmage to
most targeb, unlw the hexplooive weighb considerod
are of the order of 4,000 pounda or
more.
The peak pr-urea and psitive l r n p u k
associated with particulrlr directions about explosive
charges of non-~pher idc onfiguration
con be M much as 50 per cent higher than boae
from an equivalent sptb~riercl h am (Ref. 32),
especially if the charge configuratiion ia cylindrical.
Dosble , l e d wvea are ottm 0bre~ed
from the non-apheriml ch.rges. In mennure
meats off the sides of cyliaden, there raeon&i'
dunh are a d 1 relative to tip primnry wa=,
and usually occur in or beyond the rkrefactdon
p h . In menauremenb off the enda of cylind
e n or block&, however, the wond & uo
CLASSIFIED
be larev; because these occur well within the
initial positive phase, they contribute to the resulting
impulse.
Fig. 443 illustrates how pressure and impulse
vary a t angles about a cylindrical charge
(taken in the plane of the axis; as compared to
those about a spherical charge. In the figure.
0 = O0 refers to measurements taken off the
cylinder ends. From the illustration, it is e n -
dent that orientation of a conventional blasttype
missile with respect to the target may be
imporiant.
(U) N~linerouss tudies have been conducted
to rank explosives of different compositions
according to their effectiveness. The basis for
this ranking has usually been either free-air
blast rnwsurements or evaluation of target
damage. Ranking according to free-air blast
effects is of interest here (Refs. 33.31, and 35).
The relative damage capabilities of various explosives
based on target tests is presented in
Ch. 8. Par. 8-18 in the discussion of aircraft
targets.
(U) To rank explosives according to their
effectiveness usually implies the comparison of
the resulting shock wave intensity, nnmely.
pressure and impulse. Peak pressure and positive
impuhe in shock waves from different bare
explosives detonated in flee air may be compared
in a multitude of ways; the two most
common methods of coinparison are:
1. On the basis of the same volu~~cco. ngruent
shape, and orientation.
2 On the basis of *he same weignt, congruent
shape, and orientation.
These two methods wodd be equivalent if the
densities of the various charges were equal.
Since variation in densities between the different
types of high explosives commoniy used is
not large, either mct!ld of comparison is satisfactory
for military npplications.
( C ) Table 3-3 lists the composition of certain
service-type explosives. in the general order
of decrxxinq et?ectivcness. Some of these
se~vice-:.vpe erplcsives. TNT or Pentolitc, for
examp::, c.n be cast. Others, like MOX-23.
must be pres ad. An hfinite vqriety cf explosire
cornpaitions can ba cbtrined b:. taking
combinar;ons of erp:osivcs in various propnrtions
rnd mixing thcm homog~neo~siy!.. prwent
trend in mixirg e.;plosives i: to add mc dlic
powders, sach as aluminum. to an optiml!m
mount. T t e large amomt of heat released la
reactiow with meuls r-ms to e n ' m ~ -b last
inlensii~es. particul&y the impulx. Small
amounts of dcrensiti~inga pents, usua:ly wax,
are also frequertly added to exp:osises to Increase
safetj in hardling and firing. Such
agents tend to decrease the blast effectiveness
slightly.
(C) Data has been compiled by W. D. Kennedy
(Ref. 3.1) on the order o€ c&ctiveness of
explosives based on air blast me~surements. as
conducted in the United State:, and Great
Britain. This cnmprehensive report lists the
sidean peak pressures and impulses of various
explosives as ratios in terms of Composition 3.
These figures ?re b:sed on blast test;; using a
wide range of c5arge weights (bare charges of
about one pound up to bor:>os of wveral thousand
pounds). Table 4-4 provides a general
idea of the relativ-, l*uantitative -.iectiveness
of several service type explo~;ves. Certain
qualifications are in order. It is to be noted
that the differences in relative intensities are
small, as is generally the case for all the common
service explosives. Torpez-2 i3 usually
TABLE 4 4 (C). COMPOSITION OF CERTAIN SERVICE TYPE EXPLOSIVES (UI
Composition
Per Cent Typical
Explosive by Weight Components Sprcific Gravity
Torpex-2 42/40/18 RDX/TNT/AI 1.76
97 RDX
. !;x-~B 53/36/4/6 AI/NH.CIOJTNT/- -- 3 TNT
2.C5
11-6 47/31/22 RDX/TNT/AI 1.76
HBS-I 40/38/17/5 RDX/TNT/AI/Wax 1.68
Tritaru! W/20 TNT/Al 1 .70
Composit;on B 60/40 RDX/TNT 1.65
PenY ite 50/50 TNT/PETN 1.61
-TNT 100 TNT 1.60
cn.uide~eL the most effective. Later explosive
combinations such as Mox-2B. H-6. and HBX-
1 are considered as effective as, but not superior
to. Torpex-2. Although explosive combinations
exist which are seven1 times more
powerful, they are too srnsitive for practical
military application%. !t should also be noted
that the ranking cf the explosives depends on
scaled distances. Curva derived from experk-
prtuure ratio a ~ sdcal ed positive impulse
TAILE u IC). PEAK rwssuat AND WSITlVL
IMPULSE. RELATIVE TO COYPOSWION 8.
FOR VA1IOUS SERVICE TYPE EXPLOSIVES
(EQUAL-VOLUME BASIS) (Ul
Relrtive Prhtive
Peak P&tive
Explpsive Pt w. w! Imrvise
Composition R '. 1.09 1.03
versus sealed distalsc, for various charge cornpositions
found in Ref. 33 often intersect a t one
or more distances. Consequently, there is no
single ranking or effectivenew ratio that can
be indicative for all cases. However the small
relative difference between the blast wave intensities
of the commonly used high explosives
is again demonstrated.
U . 3 . (CI E k h of Charge MoHoa
The effect of chxgc motion (often referred
to as the velocity effect) on blast parameters
w-m first noted during the many aircraft vulnerability
tests conducted after World War 11.
S i n e most projectiles are in motion when
blast mum. the study of the effcets of this
motion on the various parameters of the aysorie.
t-d blast wnve attmted considerable interest
Tests indicated an appreciable amount of
pressure increase in the direction vf motion,
:u~d P correspouding decrease in the opposite
direction. Although various theories were advanced
concerning the velncits effect. prnprr
evaluation of these explanations required the
fonnulaticn of cnwiderable amounts of quantitative
d&. Ac-ordiagly, in 1952 axperimenls
w e n instituted : ~tth e Ballistic Itsearch
UNCLASS
-
data.
U.3.2. BRL Teat Procedrns
Early experiments a t BRL iRef. 36) were
successful in establishing the basic experimental
procedure since used in subsequent moving
charge tests. Unfottunately, however, the
instrumentation used was suitable only for
providing qualitative results. In 1954. using
minor modification in the proctuure, data of a
more quantitative nature was obtained. This
still w.as not sulffciently accurate to establish a
rigorous theory (Ref. 37). Further experiments
(Ref. 38), however, have provided,
enough info~mation to substantiate, a t least ln
part, a thwry explaining the behavlor of the
shock wave produced by a charge in motion.
The fint step in the development of the moving
charge experiments was to select the type
and size of charge. and to determine some
means of propelling the charge a t high velocity.
Because even a light casing will produce sufficient
fragmentation to interfere with the measurements
of free air blast, a bare charge of
spherical shape was used. The spherical shape
was chosen since charges of this configuration
produce mughiy symmetrical shock waves. For
the projection device. a 57-mm gun with the
rifling bored out to a diameter of 2.293 inches
was eventually selected. Use of this pun fixed
the charge weight a t 3/8 of a pound. The original
experiments used a bare charge of Composition
B (Par. 44.2.2, preceding) traveling at
a velocity between 1,730 and 1.900 ft/sec. In . about 40 per cent of these shots, th* charge
broke up prior to detonation, thus spoiling the
test. Based on the wo4.k of B. F. Armendt (Ref.
39). to e!im;nate this problem a Fihrglas-reinforced
Pentolite charge was substituted for
Composition R. Pentolite charges have been
used in all recent experiments.
Fig. 4-44 is a diagram of the charge construetion
and gun loading method. The charge is
cast in a spnerical form with a cylindrical well.
A small quantity of Comimsition G 3 and a
Tetryl boxter is placed in the bottom of the
well to insure highorder detonation. An e k -
tric detonator with a small, iron-core, wpper
coil . -mss its back is placed in the well. Any
Leboi.rories for the purpbse of providing such remaining voids are then carefully packed with
Composition C3 to urevenC the f i~innf orces
from dislodging any ,of the componen&
The charges fuzed in this manner are fired
through a screen woven from number 40 copper
wire, which is placed just in from of a stationary
coil of heavy copper (Fig. 4-45). As the
charge breaks through the screen, an electronic
circbi: is broken, dischar+g a large condenser
into the coil. The resulting. pulsed, magnetic
field induces a current in the smai! coil inside
the charge. This rctivates the elktric detonator
and detonates the explosive.
If the measured data are to be sufficien:ly
accurate, the point of detonation must be determined
with fair accuracy. The errors involved
when using the smo~thboreg un system and the
magnetic detonating systeE allow considerable
variation in the point of detonation. To estahlish
hn accurate fix on this point, two cameras
equipped with 1-ms electronic shutters and activated
by a photocell are placed 90 degrees apart
and 10 feet from the desired point of detonation.
By triangularion, the position of the
charge a t the instant of detonation can be located
to about 1/4 of an inch.
The velocity a t u-hich the charge is traveling
is measured by two velocity screens p!aced
about eight feet apart. Breakage of the first
screen activates an electronic counter chronogmph
which stlps whrn the secmd screen is
broken, thus measuring the time necessary to
traverse this interval. From this measurement,
the average velocity over the interval car. be
ealculatfd.
The peak pressure and positive impulse are
measured by twelve sidesn pressure gages,
each spanned by a prir of face-on velocib
gages. The gages are placed a t a distance
of 2.71 feet f ~ tmhe d esired point of detonation,
and a t angles of 15O, 45O. 75'. 105O. 136O,
and 165O to the direction of motio? of the
charge. as shown in Fig. 4 45. Wiwn the charge
dctonatcs, the same photocell that triggers the
cameras activates twelve counter chronographs,
one a t each angular position. When the shock
wave retches the fint velocity gage a t onc of
the twelve positions, the chronograph corresponding
to that position is stopped. giving a
Brass Cart. Case
\
M23-A2 Cartonwad Cartonwad Cotton Wad 57-mm Gun Bar
i r e 4 1 . Test Setup, Velocity Effect Prapm (U)
mer.sun of the time of nrrival, nnd a recmd
counter is initintd. This secor~d counbr b
stopped when the rhock reacher the mnr velncity
grm. thus meamurlng the time the shock
hm taken to traverse thc internal hetscen the
angea. F n m this mcnst~rcmcnt, thc avcrape
velocity en81 be cnlculated, and the peak pressure
at the e n t e r of thc interval cnn be found
fmm the Rankine-Iiupmid relation:
rhem P. is the peak excess premure, P. im the
atmospheric pmsure, y ia thu rntio of rpeciflc
heab for air, V in the ahnck velnetty and C. lr
the sped of mund (Rrf. 38).
Thur, the aystcm o! chronauraph, velocity
ptgea, camerns, and the photnccil can memum
nhcrk arrival time, shwk velocity, and peak
overpressure a t twelve lneaticm amund the
rletonutinp charm. AlLerarb tests with moving
m d s tationary c h v ~ ympr ovider basis for corn.
plrrin~m, f n m which the elffib of motion on the
nhtwk uwc may be determined.
The data refiulting from these experimcnta
ncem b agree fairly well with reaulb cnlcalatcd
Cy lhc theory advanced hy C. Ii. Thornhill and
R. I l a t l ~ e r i c ~ a (nR ef. 40). Thornhill and
lfethcrington phdicted thrd, ckkw to the aur-
Ince of a mo v i n ~c harp, the shock velncity
cnula he nppmximnted by vectdnl addition of
lhc shock velocity of t h r~tat ionary charm and
thc termind velcrity of t h c m u v i n ~ c h rT~ho
exprimcnhl tirnu.of-nrrivn1 data indicate thnt
the snmc rule could be npp!icd to the cxpnndtd
shock wave, if the wlucity of the center of tLc
almk wave rerulting from the dctonrtiol~o f
the moving charm! is rubatltuted fi-r the tmrminu11
vclueity of the charge ( h i . 38).
The velocity of the ceabr of the shock anw.
a t any given limv, cnn In* p ~ d i r t ~IVt lt he ntlylication
uf the p r i a ~ i p lu~f the wnnervnti 111 of
lincwr mtmentum. Thwr, the mtrmcwtum I)$ the
charge prior to dt.tmatiee is cwhblisltd PA
cqu:rl to the momentum of thc expl~uion p;o~un
and air n~nbiarubl v thr s>hericnl nia~rk.T hw,
v ~ umi n yth e nveraw ~chwityo f 1\11 the JIIISPS
m d nir eontuincql in the rphcrirel nhtrk i s ut
the m e rc lucity wr the ceutcr crf the sphsm,
wnrlo u; = weight of explcmive (Ills.), V. :
t-c rminrl velucity of the exl~l~wi(vIt~ u w. ) , r c ; weifit of air euntainal Lr the* r(th111 ~ n: h~r kl
(lb.), and V,=the wlocity of the nntcr of lha
rhuck rave (ft/aec.).
Then, Ltting p . eqwl the de~uityu f the air
(Ilu/cu. It) an4 d the diuncter uf the ahwk
rphen (ft.), and neglecting the mud, of air
dirplnd by the exploaive churue, the mult ia
J
of the exploaive and o the oridml c h a m
d i u , into EQ. 4-62, the m u l t u
rnve in illurcn~wlu of chrrge radii, then
Pq. 441 for a known r will then give the
wlue of the M+II.I~Y of the center of the rhmk
w e . The disl:~~l~rv,, , that the muter ha\
tri~vrluli n UIV drrretiun of the original motion
at a time 1, in t h a ~d ven by L?e expression
(4-64)
\Vllrn v i e d frim r 8tatit)nnry rvferenue
frame, tho shock vrltrity on the surfwe uf thc .
rphericul Jktrk wave pndured by the moving
rhnrm brwrn~r
d
whet-? U, ir the ahmk velocity a t the diatnca r
and the mgle from the original line of motion,
4
Once 0, i know^, thc pe.k prrmun u n be
found. Thcae qumtltlor me illustrated in Fig.
546.
Fig. 4 4 7 ahaws the rrlatlonnhip the paint
of detonation and the center of the spherical
dock wave.
Ordirurily, because the m e a u m e n h a m
nuide from the point nt detomth. only the
dhtanct R and the ande r m knoum By In&
pntlon, r. m y a h k found. The diahtce r
and the angle + an then Iw fnund by urn of
the idlowing gcometdc rtlat~ona:
Up to tL present, no rimple w h m hu been
devlrd to allow ruling of the val?ow pumcbn
of altitude, charge wwifik c b w vcloctty.
etc. Therefore, spnnte computation ir
nc~aury for cleh we. Table 4-5 (Ref. a)
pmentn a set of u l c u l a t i o ~m d c for a given
UNCLASSIFIED '
form. For more complete d d l r oa the inrtrumenb,
aperational mpo:tr a41d mmufrrturea'
m \ u b are rvailrble lor further atudy.
The m y (k M @rCI conducted durina tht
put d d e bve contrlbuttd dgnilluntly to
the evolution of blut inrtruraab in their pment
form LndL Corpontbq St.ntord Rc
rurch Inrtitute, the Naval Ordnmce Jrbomtory,
and the Bdli~~tiRe aslrd~t borrbrie~
h v t been outatanding in thl. reapact. ud
ahould k a~nridcred u ditkwul nourn d
detriled infunnation (Ref& I t ud 42).
CLASSIFIED
Thin anirc in FI piwwlt~tric bi:wt prm* lor
twlniinp the ~idt - tmp ~x~ml~w-tihrnirs t o ~w -
scrint~~wdi th I~Inst vnvo. Originidly d r v c l c ~ l ~ ~ l
hy Mr. Roy ,Simps.m nf l3tll,, tho gnw hnr I ~ v n
u . 4 with a prr:it h t l of aurrrx* in rmnll
c h a w (all p~trnctl o 6.1 pluntl) nir blast cxpvrinlrntr.
The wnsitive t ~ l r ~ nwoft the RllL rtrrxuuldiaphragm
p a p is a rhck of four wnfcr-
8h:p:d crystdn Ir.lnrlc! 01' lournuli~leo r a syic
thutic p i ~ ~ r d w t r incla LcriuI), nylwosimately
0.050 inr'rcs thick, with silver foil eltxlrtdcn
betwen cryahls to collect the dmryc. Thc
crystnls a t r usuwlly one inch or onehalf inch
in tliamrtrr. I)ut jmr.rs Iinve hren built in which
thr cliamctc r of thc crystals WM a% smdl irs
c n u - t ~ i ~ h ildl ~^.
Thv r l t 4 r l pr;nriplc which is brli~vcd to In*
most 1linvt1.v ~ t a pms i l ~florr thu nucccw #,I' this
ywcl is 1h1, ,ml~auiingo f the rrystnl xt:lrk Ily
I)rws tli~tphmgnra :tpprrrrimtCly rl.tY20 inch
thick. Interfwwcr lwtmcn t11~cr yxt;tl h c k
rind thr cavity i ~ tch r y : i ~ht rusing, c r i 0.0~:) to
O.Ott2 inch, hna Inun found to give t h r lwrt
rcwIL;c. Piliort~ giu;rs+ anpplid I r l u w n the
frtrva of thr r w k and the trrtur tliaphr;\gmu. :u
well an in the. rltwnnre anrund thc stnck. ia
helpful in ~ I a r n ~ ~ailn~r u ~ ic~ucucisllu tiunm.
The qunl:I.v uf the uwknwnlrhip In mnchininu
tht, htrusing. grinding and p d i r h i ~ y the
tcrurmdir~cr rystills. and ~ n rmb l i n yt he cry*
tnlr into the h~rurinu h u lrcn found to LR of
the utmnnt impclrtnnce in pmducinp gnwr
which ulvr nvtwcls 11f high fitlelitg. A nchemntic
drnw,ng 111 thin ynpc is n h o ~ nin Fig. 4-50.
Ctrlilrrntim of piwrlwtric g n m in nchicvd
by pnrallc4nn kntcwn vrJtap?s ammu arcur~trly
knnwn cap:tcit~~m.T he page circuit ir :~hcru-n
in Fir. 4 4 1 , with n list of aigniCant circuit
elmentu.
_CIU CLASSIFIED
i-
C.=pyrrr cIlpacitYnn.
Ch =coaxial mbk wp~~itmm.
Cppaddiw apncitann (uwd lo adjust
a i m 1 kvell.
C,=ulihntion mmcitrmn.
R=input rr.i.t.nce of Bc. nmplifkr 1100
mcpuhnu) .
KA=w~~litlvItoyf gnge (in micro mi em
cnul~~mb./psO.
P=p a k eace- p&~ ~ u arcet ing un g w e (in
pi).
ti- 1-51. Witkg Dioglom. #I1 Gop
Cdib~cion Circd
Wr reconlin~, the awitch S munda the ulibmtirn
amdenner C.. In thh wnditiun, the
pcak v01t.m V, arm &! k m e a :
Calibration ir ptrfurmed by switching 9
through the five po~itioma nd back to wound.
When tho awitch ir in pmitinn 3, for example.
thr volbge V, .mur R L:
"
where 6, h the vnltaR at step 3 nl the switch.
'Ib voll~pnV , and d, are yroportiorul to the
muimum Jc(lrdlan m r d d on the film for
the pru8urc.tlmc hilbry, an4 lo the thir.: a l l -
bmtk~nst ep, respctiwly. T h e y f ~ ~tehe, ratio
oi the height of the mximuni p m u r e , k, to
the hclght of the third ulibrrtion step, 0, b
COIIM:
-=& -= V, C.+Cb+Cr+C, =- PXKA
a V, CS, C.xE.
Ca+Ck+Cr+C, (4-70)
The mlihrntinn cnpnritancc cnn L mc.:wurnl to
rumcicnt nrr111.acyo n :I rnpacitanrr hritljp. Th*
vultnmrs a p ~ w i n pa t the rarniur stops on
switch. S, an- ntliuxtd 11g rnml~wisnn with r
rtmrlnrd cell As prrviowl, mvntiond, the
sensitivity nf the grim. KA, mud lw known.
44.4. Phekqnphic Mwwnn.r+s *I ?.a&
tmrrrrc
Jlc.lrurrmcntn cnn t* m n h of pak nir binst
pwssurm 11s phc~tnyrrtphinp the pttwcm nf the
rhtrk r a r e ~ p i n rntn int c r rul~tdb nckymund,
such M a fence. This tcchnique is dependent
upm the.princijilr of n.frxtion. J.ight wvavn
pnrrirlg nhliq~rdy fnnm one mnlium trn another,
in this caw f n ~ mun dirturhmi nir to thc ampr**
iud tqtinn immtdintcly Chind the shock
wave (Refs. 4 1 and 45). undergo nn abrupt
change in dimtinn. The bending of the llyht
m p hy thr rhwk wnvr c n u m nn nppnwnt displnrrmcnt
of Q c bnckgnund a m i d which the
rhock wmvc ir viewed. By pnljcctiny hiyh-rpxd
photnmaphn of the cvcnt nt n much rcduccd
rate, the phc.ntmenon ran lu olmenml. The
arrival of the dmck fmnt nt the line of aiybt.
fmm the camera t o each fcnce pAc, b evidenced
on the film m d r by npwrcnt dinlortlon
or deletlnn nf ru-ive p~lra. The rhock
veloclty a n k detenninnl by rnuntiny f r a m r
h c t m n rhock rrrivrl a t nucwwlw poles, and
meuurinp time of travel by timinu markr on
the film
For the mferenced kab, Fantax a m e n r
wnm urrd. Each fenre was appmximately Xi0
f d I n length, and m ~ i r t r do f 21 p i n of
pnlea approxlmatdy 12 feet upart. The dkbnce
betwctn tnv two pole8 in each pair w a
1.G feel. Thc u m e r u wre phced wlth the line
nf rlqht perptnclicuhr b the fence rt the mldpnlnt
of th. fence.
Pemk o v t r p r r v u r a were Infermi from the
hdc n l a l t l m , which were computed from the
fence dab by uw of tllc Ituilii-Iiuwnai&
equation ( e p n a r i n y p-urc rr s f u n d m uf
vhock velocitj), ps fu!iuu.r:
F=-M" I[- lP. I (4-72) 7+ 1
when
P-=sid-n p r k pre%wn, in p i ,
7=r,tio of slnqitlc heats (1.4 tor air),
$1.~r atio of s h c ~ kv elocity in still a i r to
vrlaity in air ahead of Phc~k.
anti
P.=ombient atmospheric pmwre. ir. p i .
Fig. 432 illustrrter the geometry for the
fence technique computation. The distances a,
h, c, d, nnd h arc nut ticalcd, .u 01e fi~wrcis
intmtled only sr r p d e for f o l l u r i n ~ Ulc
r.rlocity computalio~rs. Furthenuom, I;, is the
pole distance from RI, or f l the radius of the
shock wave a t t , ; and t, ir the vmvnl time uf
the shock r a v e at r,. Referrinp to Fig. 4-52,
w h m Vl =averuy velocity
and
where f, = r d i u r of akock at v.
Before application of the rrbdty meuuremcnt
data to the RmldneHumaht eptubloy
thc velocity components of tb pnvliiling rLul
pvnllel to the fences at the thw of Uu b t
ware eliminated. ThL was u the
wind aUcetivelp I n c o r~ the
velocity of the hock froat, depending u p th a
dlrrction o! the wlnd vector h rdAb b rhoflr
wave prop&y(.tion. A wlnd mcbr that i s tan

The RRI. mwhanicnl s14f.c.~.c.ord1s?~r. cr
aurt4nw gag@i s uwl ttw tlw mt~rmuv~rnenoft
~I*-I*I.III.'J1I1I1tUt1 ~p ullithe irnp~!w rvsulting
frtu~t th~. tCtnn:~tiun of nurlwr clCviwr and
Inr.rv I~ighcxplo~icwh nryr~. I' ir ct~mpk.trb
rvll cnnt;,ind. \\'hzn UMWo~n I I I . & ~t~es ts, it h
.wlf-initi;;lcd, hut it a n AIM I w ittitinted hp a
wltepr. t rn~~r~ui tbtyr dw ire. It1krhnge31)le
u!~winyt ~lm1%bam available to ccwr p r cwm
rmgcr fmm 0.1 '2 pri to ILI,W psi r i t h a
nun~b!ru i intvnnrtliatc rYnw4.
Thr Iwwsurc arnring capulc of the nuw
(Fig. 4-53) consists or two cowent~callpco n- ' voluted diaphrymr. silver m l d c d or welded
together around their pwipher)., and nlao ulver
wltlerrd to a mnunting b e . A spring a W n
with nn twmium-tipped phct~~mapnhe edle Is
ruldrred 81 A mounting pwt at the center of the
movabb! diAphrn&m. Preaure enterinjr tl~rough
r small inle! on the mounting hue of the cap
rule cuuur the diaphmm to expand, uurinu
attaciteti needle to rrrrrrlch tie wording
meclium. The di8pk~rtt1v:t 01 the recorded
sentch Is pmpnrtinnd to the rpplied gum
prc:;wv (Refs. 45 and 46).
An aluminized g l w diac, 3% I n k in
diameter and inch th'sk, is rotated under
the,rtylus and records its motion. The resulting
acratch record can be read with a mi.roscope
of 50 powrr or mom.
The turntable hultling the giaas recording
disc ia driven a t constant onyulnr velocity by a
cbrnnometricnlly puverned d.c. motor. A switch
operated bx a star-yenr ciun controls the number
of revolutions of the turnlable.
The components of the mge are mounted on
an Hchannol welded tu the center GC 2 circular
a k l plate. A sheet-mt.1 can hcusiri the initiating
relsy and bnttery is mounted on the
free end of the H-frame. Ad itrter;unnccting
plug prmqidea for electrical cotrpling between
the can an? the gage mhaniorn. The entim
unit is ineloaed in a caw made of steel pipe and
plnte. Preaaurctight waling is accomplirhed
with I\ uroplrne gosket. Fig. 4-54 shows the
g w r ct~nwtruction. and Fix. 4-55 rhows tire
wfe ready for IUC. The overall aimenaiom of
the gnge are ehwt 6 inchea in diameter by 10
inches bin^. with the P a n e top k i n g about 8
,a~cher in dinmrtcr. In nnrmal ope~ation, the
gap tc~p is mwntecl flush r i t h the ground
surface.
n,r stanilanl initintior system of thc g w is
a cuimium-sulfitlr crll backed by a thermala
n s i ' . . wring-loatled link. In teats of chemi

CLASSIRED
ul crploaivm, a wire aignr~l iue can ba ued to
r e p b the phobxell, with the rtrrling ri(plol
occurring at m time mlnuv 2 veondr
'ihr mrb a p p r i n g on the d!ac d
the df-wordlug pyu w in the form of a
prcuure-time biatory in polur coordinrtea.
The time axis ia cdibraW by knowing the
angular velocity of the glpU dire, which is da
termined by the motor and battory urad The
prevlure axu calibration in a function of the
aenaing capaule urad. a d L determined by r u b
jecting the capsule to mxwately known static'
preasurn and muauring the stylus deflections.
Thus, for any meaaured deflection, the prerrure
can be computed from the static calibration
CL-..o f o r the prticukr raring capsule urd.
A Caertner Toolmaker's micmrcope ia an
effective instrument for wading the ordinatea,
h, of the record a t MPll interv&Ia, Ad. of the
abaciu (Fig. 4-66). beews the digital readout
he& on the micmope put the t e a d i g
dmultawourly klro 'I'eleeordex and IBM rummory
punch equipment. A computer, such aa
the EDVAC (Electronic Digitd Variable A u b
die Computer) a n then be usecl to linearize
Figur 4 46. Ilhuhocfm d S h f k Cdibrdlm Cum
rr- e l s & . ~ d n g P - J ~ cog.
the time .ad plpr s~rev alue& and to m p u b
peak preaaure and poritiw h p u k
444, ~ ~ t k I . r r c l r r l b b J l u ~ C . ( l .
Thia gage, illurtrsted in Fig. 4-67. u mmufactured
by the Atlantic Racrreh Corporation,
Alexandria, Virginia. It d bof a ~ y l f W -
rol pirrodectric c r y W mounted on a rtrinlcu
steel houaing, with lerdr cunmctlng the ctyatd
to a aultrble connector. The rtNitivity of U
type of gage mpcr from 500 to 1,000 duomicro
coulombs per pal, depending upon tho
individual gage.
The untilevacbum gage conrirtr of an
duminum strip of pndetermined size held ridd
at one r YI and placed faceon b the bluL. The
strip y have S R 4 strain gagu mounted on
it, to meaaure bending strain, or it may be uninstrumented.
If strain gapes are used, their
output ia recorded on recording equipment of
low frequency reaponse. and the maximun~
bending strain due to b k t is measured.
The beam can be made of 61ST aluminum
strips one inch wide and twelve inches
long. Each paition can consist of two
beam, one 0.091 inch thick and one 0.051 inch
thick. All h m a can employ strain gages except
thoso 10U feei or more frnm the blast
The &ma. mounts. and strain gages of a typical
inatallation ere shown in Fig. 4-58. The
strain gages are arranged to meaaure lungitudi-
MI strain a t a station one inch above the beam
clamp. Selected gages am mounted on each
side of the ham, no that when a tranaverae load
ia applied. one gage b in tension, and the other
is in c o m p ~ i o n . As a m u l t the resirtam of
m e u i n c ~ u u l t h e d b a i r d a r e u a d b y
theumauaount Tbshro~lbccrueaw
nectedtnabridgedrruftudngtrodummy
m i s t o n Using two at& gages la tht nub
ner doubla the aenaitivity and aMcL out trmpcroture
e k b and unwanted axial rtnina.
The change of resiatnnec of the is .mplified
and recorded by a commercinl magnetic
willogr~ph.
The beam are d i b r a k d by firing bare
charm of known weights and mcuuring the
nwimum strain or pemunent deformation
By varying the diatanw and charge waghts,
muximum strain a n be msuured in hnns of
distance from the charge, for given 3urpc
weights. The k w that deform phticdly are
calibrated in a similar manner, except that
permanent deflection h nvnrund and dotted
Venus diataneo from the drupe. To determine
the equivalent charge weight, a eJIb&n
curve ia entered rt the dubnee the gage ia
from the charge. Then, by applying the m u C
mum mewred strain. the aquivalent charge
weight can be red or intcrpulrtod from the
cum.
Section II (Cl-Tbemal and Nrslrar la-
-1. k.p.dthwswdh
Thb d i o n d i the ge neral phenomena
.eeompaSying the detonation of a nuclear
weapon, with the exception of b l ~etff eeb (Ch.
4, Sac. I). The two major subjects covered are
thvtmnl radiation and nuclear radiation. The
them1 radiation paragraph presents data concuninp
the mwurement of t h e d radiation,
the Wid d i n g lam, A n t range verrua
oxmsure data, and the nuthenutid t e h -
niqua for computing ruliunt exposure. The
nuclear radiation pangraph diauuuea in detail
the unlb of n u d w radiation, the techniques
a! m u r i n g rnch ndiibons, dab for both
initial and midud ddarper. and the problems
mmd&d with nuclear shielding.
k mentioned above, tho blast &cch of nuclear
explwiona are plvrcntd in Ch. 4, Sec. I.
General information wneeniing thermrl ndttion
and nuclear radiation u kill mrrhnLmr
ia k t e d in Ch. 2, SLa X I .ad XI& mpee
tively. Thh material JIould be nd prior to
the p-nt aection. In &ition, varim chap
ten and &ON of Pnrt Two prrrcnt the b
formntion neceaury to apply the data dLauud
here b targets of a specific ~uturc. Cmrmterenm
are made, u nnaury, to thesc Nb
oua, related Mica of infonnrtim
The extremely high tempemtuna in thr fireball
of a nuclear erplodon rcrult h a large
emiaaion of thennrl rdLtioa Tbe reiatiwly
large fmction of tha total ammy o t a na&w
exploriun which la dtted u thvmrl ndUfolr
h one of ita m a t -king -a. Thir
miiant energy unounb ta approxim~blyo r u
third of the total energy of an dr-bunt weapon
UMCLAS - - - - - -
yield; it u rulRcient to cam wtiour b u m to
espwd personnel at eo~iderpble dbtances.
The duration of the t h e m 1 emimion depcnda
upon the weapon yield. being 10-t for the
hrp?r yielck (Ref. 1).
For a rurface bun: having the m e yield
u an air bunt, the p m m of the earthor
surface raulta in a d u c a d themul radiation
emission and I cooler AreboU. Thiu ir due prinurily
ta heat tnnrfer to the mil or water, the
&tortion of the tlrebd by the reflected ahwk J
wave. and the prtinl obEcurntioa of the flrrbrll
by dirt and duet (or water) thrown up by the
b h t wave.
In underground bunts, the fireball b o b
v u d by the a r t h column; therefore, therind
rrdiatim dtecb m negliuible. Nearly dl of
the enerey of thermal ndiation & rhorbd In
fus.,la. and vaporizing the earth
The enerw of thermal rnctiation from an undawrter
detonation u abaorbed increadngjy
/in vnporktion and dissociation of the rut-
UNCLASSBFIE
rounding. d i m u the depth of h r r t L in- &. Ib dim& effrctr a n imilrniAcPnt for
mart practical purpcw; eg.. for a %KT
bunt in ninety feet of watcr. thennal eff&
M negligibte.
I! it ia aasumwl that the firehll in a nuclear
explorion bel~avrs in thc same manner as the
run, as a perfect radiator (black Lwdy), then
the thermnl rdMiun energy can be rdnkd to
the surfme temperatuw of the flwhll by
Planck'r radiation quation. If EA dA denote8
the c n em density (energy per unit w~lum)in
the ware length interval A to A + A, then:
where e is the vclocity nf light, h in Pl~mck'a
quantum of action. I' is the Boltsm:urn n~nsknt
(the gzu constant per molecule), and T is the
absolute temperature.
From the Planck equation it is pouible to
calculate the energy denaity of the t h e d
raiiiation over a rnnm of wave It .hs for any
specified temperature. Resulta obtrtrned for reve
n l temperature8 are presented in Fip, 4-69,
It may be noted that fur temperaturn exeoeding
8,000" K (this ir the case during most of
the A m t radiation p r h ) , most of the thermal
~rdiatiou lies in the rhort wave lendh (ultrnviolet)
region of the spectrum
Aa the temperature of the flmball d e c w ,
the wave length at which the energy denaity ir
a muimum inclan#. By differentiating Eq.
4-79 with terpect to A, uul equating the derivative
tu zero, an cucpre~bnf or the wave length
for mPximum energy demity. k,, can be o b
bind Thb u p m i o n b:
The wave lcnpth for muimum enem density
is, therefore, iweml y proportir~natlo the a b
lute temperature.
Since A is r known value. it can thm be
cnlculnted that the maximum energy h i t s of
thermal radiation falls just into the visible
region of the spectrum at a temperature of
about 7,600" K. lhir value k very close to the
maximum surface temperature during the aecond
pube, and it is conriclcnbly higher than
the averaye tempraturn during that period.
It is evident, themfore, that moat of the radiant
energy emitted during the w s n d pulse conautr
of vidble and infrared ray* with very little of
the energy falling in the ultnvidct region of
tha spectrum,
The intensity of radiant enel~yL LHnJ u
the amount of energy p j n g through om
quare centimeter of aurfm of a bLdr body
per o~cond By intemting a. 4-73, it k wen
that the flux (intensity) of radiant energy, +,
ir related to the absolute bmper.ture by the
cxpraslon +=TE~A (4-76)
+-d" (4-76)
where 8 L a m nahnt q~ubl .
The total ndirnt InbdB from the
fireball them can be crkuldrd for any rrgutrrd
hrnpelrturc
h a w n in Eq. 4-76, the inLcarity of the
rcrdl.tion d t b d from thc drahll ir proportlod
to the fourth power of the nbrolutr nrrb.
ll temperature. &ouw tbs rmrfaca temperaturn
are very Riph durhg the primary pub,
the rate of awrgy aiuioa per unit uea wiU
a h L high H o ~ bo. am a of the short
d u d o n of the initid puke, the toW quantity
WAVE LmGtW MI
i.
-- UNCLASSIFIED -
of rndiation uaittcd ia re?ativeIy amall when
comwred with the quantity emitted during the
wcond pub
The tot4 nte df emluion of radiant energy
un be obtained by mult~plyinpE q. 4-76 hy the
surface a m of the fir~ball. If the radius of the
fireball is repreaeuted by the symbol R. then
the area of the flrebll is 4nK'. and the totnl
rate of thcnnal cnerw emi~i o ni s ~ T ' x 4 d P .
Boenuae power is defined M the rnte of pnduetion
or expenditure of rnero., this is the lurme
M the t h e m 1 pnuwr. Then, wprwntin* the
t h e m 1 pwer by the symlxtl P,
P=7.13>:10' T' R' erga per sccond
wherc T in in de- K and R is in cm.
However, due to a number d factors, the
Anball d m not act aa a perfect rndiator. Thib
haa been proved conclusivrly by the rencilta of
a number of t e s b During the firat rntlintion
pulse the surface temperature is mndifird by
the disturbed air immediahly around the firebfll.
At later s t a m . the temperature is not
that of the aurface, but the nsdt of radiation
lome distance inride the fireball. In addition,
radius of the flreball during the aecnnd
pulse becomes extme ly d l ~ c u ltto determine,
beaue the surface of the fireball becomer very
diffuse. Becrwe the fireball r d u a nnd surfnce
temperature will deppnd on yield. a different
curve will be obtained for every value of energy
yield. By mrvna of atding law i t ia poaaibb?
b generalize the reaulb, however, so that a
curw a p p l i d k to the h c n d p u h can be ob
tained for all energy yielda, fmm a single w t
of calwlatior~. The thema1 d i n g lawn will
be d i a c w d in detail in Par. 4-7.4, following.
Eecanm radiant flux is a flow of energy, ita
v a l a may be expnrred in my of the unib of
power (the amount of energy per unit time).
For nrunple, the whr conskt (i:ktenaity of
radiition from the sun) la uaually exprarcd
u the energy in calories that fail. in one minute
upon a quam centimeter, at the earth's
mean dmtam, and n o d b the run's raya.
Ew. joules, dodo; or BTU/awd, watb,
or wen honepower (all per rmrr unit area)
my be W. lldort phydcl.tr. howaver. prefer
dorie~-pcr-aqUCCIDtimeter.
When meaaurina spactnl ndiant e n e m the
unit of w a n lerfih m u t aho be defined. The
lour most common eta of uaib, with their
symbols and values are presented in Tabk 4-6.
Whichever unik ure used. care must be taken
when absolute m~asunmenha re to be made,
hecuux the r.umerical cnnstanb (for example,
the constnnta of the Plnnck equation) are dven
for a dcfin~teu nit of wave kngth. If the c.g.a.
unitr for the constenb are used, the wave
length mart be expressed in ~cntimeten.
Radiunt energy meaaumment divida ibcli
into two claases: the measurement of the totrl
radiant energy, or flu+ for all wave lenllfhr;
and the measurement uf the thennnl flux for
vnrious wnvelenfih intemlr. The Amt meaa.
uremnl is the eaaier of the two, u a single
me~urcment may aufice. However, for ~ 1 -
rate resulk, the receiver must hive the m e
radiant eneqry absorption dunchrktia for
all wave lengths present
For spxtral-mdiantsnew mururrmonb,
the absorption charncteriatics of the receiver
m y be included in the inatntment calibration
for any particular wave length. There .rr two
problems involved in measuring s p d d ndiant
energy: the rpnrntion of the energy into
diferent wavelength intervalqpnd the mcuunment
of the energy within thee intervals.
In addition, the radiant energy murt k w p l
rated into intewah permitting energy m w -
TAUE 4-6. UNITS OF WAVE LBICTH
YWlREYLllt
Micron c I* =lO.mm
MiWmicron m* 1 mp '10- mm
Angstrom A i n =iP mm
X-Unit XU lXU=lO-Umm
uremcnt without too grc:ct an error due to
stray radirtion.
When meaaaring totnl or spectral radiation,
either cumpuntive nr nhu~lute values may be
desired. If ahanlute vnluco am necessary, the
instrumenb must ccrlibrated. The calibrntion
of nn energy-measuring device consl.*b of
finding the m p ~ n s eof the instrunlent when a
know irmount of rrliation fdls upon it. The
k t nethod of nrhicving this is to cxptme tho
rasuriny device to the ntdiatiun from n shmdard
radiator (blnck h d y ) at a definite temperat~:
re, nnd to then compare thc rtvtiling
with the known amount of enern incident
upon it. If the wrfwe tempen~ture i>f thc
black budy is known, nnd the dirtunce to thc
device is measured. by making we nf the inverse
square k~ (Ch. 2. Sec. XI) the r;rdi:rtion
inridcut ulxm the device can be caladnted and
comprd with the rending.
In practice. however. uw of a black lndv for
calibration purposes u n tedious and expensive
operation. Tlrelofore. incsndcsccnt lamps calibrated
in terms of a specifird nmormt of radiation
per square centimeter at a definite distance
and direction from the h p . may be used.
These lnmps can bp obtained from the National
Llmu of Standards. To o h i n a dibrntion
for spectral mcnsurmenu, relntive Intensities
within the visible spectrum f r r a lamp or otter
aource of icnown luminous i n t e ~ i t ym a y be
maemured, and a summation taken of the product
of thii relative energy and the rel~.tive luminosity.
wave length by wave length The
wlibration wnatant is then given by the candle
poker of the lamp, or uthrr source, divided by
thh sun.
4-7d.3. 8 d c CwJdemWrs
For the general use, the amount of radiation
that passes from the source to the measuring
device ir geometrically dependent upon the distance
between the two surfaces, the size of the
two rurfoepu, and their respective orientation
with reapect to the line joining them This
constitutes five geometric parameters. In actual
practice. the receiver is ~enerallym ounted perpendicular
to the line joining the two rurfaces,
and la erlibrated to record the incident energy
per unit time and unit area. This climrnates
IIar mmn~oremcnt fnclors oC size ond arinntntion
of the receiver, and reduc~r the vnrial~les
to three. In addition. fur a nucltwr detonutios
the orientntion of the souxc is not a variable.
ih?cluse the source radiates in all direccionn.
Thus, for field mermuremenlr of a nuclenr detornubton.
the nmomt of radiation is gtnmetric;
dlg dependent upon t\rn factnra: the dihtnncc
hcttvem the source and the mcaaurin~d evice;
and the size of the firehcll.
The field of rndinnt.cnerm measurements includes
not only the free-field mcneuremenb described
nbwe, but the study t)f the a!trrationa
produced in the chnrncterislin of bodies upon
which the rnerw fnlls or throuxh which it
pcws (i.e.. the reflection, almrption. and
trnnumissivity of material bodies. Because
thcae values ore rntiwi, only relative calibrrtimi
of the me.uuring devices is rcrluircd. For o b
jecta more than a few wnve lengths thick, tire
reflectim depends only on the surface characteristics,
while the nhsorption and t r a ~ m i r -
sivity vary with thickness,
MA4. Imrtruuhtlu
a CJorinclr).
Calorimetry ia the mcnruremcnt of quantitia
of hent. In general, the quantities of heat are
measured indirectly by observing the effects of
the heat on various subtnnces. Heat effeeta
most frequently used for mensurement are: the
rise in temperature of n mnas of !mown heat
capacity; :he change of s h t e of a subatante
of known Intent hear: and the tirnsformption
of energy. In order to execute heat meaaurrmenb,
a system of unita must be obtained.
For i b n c e , if the quantity of heat required
to melt one pound of ice ia known, the mcorurement
of any unknown quantity of heat can ba
d u d to the simple ad of determining how
many pounda of ice can be melted by that unknown
quantity. Such is the principal of the
calorirr.eter. Another and more fan~lliumr easuremert
unit La the quantity of heat ~ p u i r e d
to change the temperature of one kilogram of
water one d m ce ntigrade (fmm lSO C to
C). This unit is defined as the calorie.
b. Rdionrur
The ndiometrr is an instrument designed to
measure the quantity of radiant energy by d t
CLASSIFIED
tcrmloing ib: md u u~l s r l*f f& It consisb of
cmur;l a m ul wry flne duu which have
vam of thin mica a t Uiir c d w n e ends. These
yams am blackened on one ride with all blackened
rldea facing in the w e di rectio~a~ro und
the uis of rotation. The instrument is ruapendvd
by a quartz Rbre in un evacuated glwr
vessel. When the vnncs nrc c x p d to rnys
of light or heat they rotate with s speed prcywtionnl
to the drcngth of the thermnl rnyr
to which thcy are ex&. Ir. principal, lieat is
a h r W by the blackend side uf the vanes mnd
is thm Lrnnrmittt*l to ruch rnrefii4 KIW pnrticlrlr
an ~vmain in the vcsucl. The eneryizd
partick thrust against the vanes and effect a
torsional moment Modern radiomptets are extrerncl!.
eRicient a t d nccurate even whes only a
ringle reading ir taken.
c. Sprctror0p
Thc spectroscope is an o p t i d ievice which
uws prism, diffraction gratings, or interferometers
to 8epnmte radiant energy into i b
constituent wave lengths to produce r spectrum.
Thia spectrum may then be observed
visuully. recorded photographically, or detecrod
by rsdiometric means. Among the more important
u r n of the spectroscope is the study of
the rnihion and absorption of radiant energy
by mnttcr. Wave lengths may he found to an
accuracy cf 0.001 wlth a small prism apectm
by wing a l ~ r g ed iffraction
IcOpev 2.000,000
Fabry-Pemt interferometer Is utilized,
The radiint energy memuring devices d e
&bd are general clasaea of ilutrumenb.
No attempt hu k n made to present de-
U e d information pertaining to rpccific Inrtrummtr
with the paned c h The p m b
lunr invdved in modern quantitative measurement
of thennrl radiation necwitate the
IUG of many specially designed meuuring d e
vices. There instruments, although in gneral
adhering to the buic principles of dorimetw,
ndiometry, and spectogmphy. sm much more
elnborata than the ample devlcea d i e c u d .
Delailcd information w u t d u g tJte rpcdffe
typcs of ndiant energy mum* equip-t
can be found in Reb. 48 a d GO.
E n e m partition t Mncd u t& dirtribution
of the total energy re- by A nuclear
detonation amnng nuclear r d h t b , t h e d
radimtian, and blast. Energy putition dependa
primarily upon envimnmental conditions; i.e..
whether the detonation takes place in air, under
ground. or uader water. Furthermore.
enr . uf partilion has mean in^ only when related
to rr particular time after cletonatio~r. For example,
if evrltiatd within the Ant minub, the
energy prtition of a nuclear debution in free
air, under ambient conditions varying from a
horno~enous aca level ntmospherc to thc conditions
existing at 60,000 feet altitude, Q in the
proportion of about 60 per cent blrst, 36 per
c ~ n th ermal, and I6 per cent nudeor (6 per
cent iiritial r a d i a t i o~1, 0 per ccat from h i o n
products). The energy partition ef an underground
burst, on the other h.rd is entirely
different There is a reduction d thmnnl radiation
received a t a distance due to the mount
of heat used in vaporizing the lurrwnding wiL
and a reduction of air bht due b Lka mount
of blast e n e r p used to pmduc* watering and
ground shock.
he nrehll IIM been -bad ( ~ bz. ~ c c
XI) PI emitting thennvl d U b n Q A
chreeterized by a mpid ri# O A fint d
aum, a decline to a milurnurn. Dndher rime to
a second maximum, and a rubwquart Pnsl d e
cline. The first p h m of thk pabe occurs M,
very rapidly that lean than 1 per cent of tha
total t h e d ndiation L emitttd Cowpwntly.
it is the mend ph.rc of the pulse which ia
of interart in w e ~ p o d e cdb e mt i c ua t
altitudes in the lower tropxphah
Throughout, Ute Areball ary k cauiderd to
radiate essentially, though not iMly, u
black body, for which the mdht IDI&~
p d o d t o th. mdiriiiy G Tan d a e f a *
power of the tempentun (See Par. 4-7.1.
pmeclina). Aftcr the rndinnt powcr minimum,
the radiating area an0 radius increM rdntively
slnrly. a) thst the rndiant power la prcdominantly
detenninnl by the tcmprnturc
cycle of the Alrhll. An illustration of the a p
parent kmpcr.2turc (and firchll radius) vcnos
time, for a ?&KT airburst, is slwrn in Fig.
0 It should be cmyhn8i~ctt, however, thnt
the uctunl radiatiny area may vwy suhtnntinlly
fnim that of ttlc luminous Rn.hll. Vow
little qurmtitritive information is svaibblc conccrninn
the rate of growth of the firebull fol.
lowing the time a t which the shock fmnt
breakr awny frum the fireball (approximutely
0.016 seconds for thc ?&KT bunt shown in
Fig. 4 4 ) . Up to the time of break away.
Ilurever, the radius increases approrimatrly
;b the 0.4 power of the time after detonation
(Rut. 21).
G *mud
The.ahape of the p u k afkr the r o d h t
pwe r minimum (h.)is +ullicientb ~imi l afro r
nuclcar dctonntions, permitting a ringle cllrve
b be ured to rcprcwnt the time distribution of
rntlianl power emitted (Fig. 4-61). Thir curve
hlL\ k e n developed by using ratiw. The ratio
-P i s plotted against rrtio t P -. where - P". t- Pin
tho ratio of the radiant power a t a &en time
t
to the mnximum rndiant poser, and - b the
t w
ratio of timc nftcr detnnntion to the timc tu the
w o n d thermal mximum for thrt acumation.
l'he per cent of the total Ulennul radiation
t
emitted veravr the ratio -(I. b alu, shown on
Fig. 4 4 1 . From this R ~ r iet L recn thrt ap
proximately 20 per cent of the total emission
occurs up to the time of the wcond pnrcr maximum,
whereaa W: per cent ir emitted prior to
ten-timeethetime to the recond poser madmum,
By thii time, the rate of delivery h u
dropped to such a bw value that the remaining
energy is no longer o t aipiAunce in dunrpe
production (Ref. 21).
UNCLASS
. . . ..
L ill-
#, . ;;
Flp. 4-61 rhorr L a wld r d h t vower
rektive to tb. wewd maximum, and the per
cent of total t h e d ndLUon emitkd, u funetlona
of timeafter-bunt rchtive to the time of
the m n d muimum. The flnurc? applies to
wmpnr burat at Jltitudes between W.OOO fcct
and $e surface. Only the second ghm ( m n d
nroridwn) of the puhe Is rbuwn, rincc the first
phme includu Iw tl~an one per cent of the
em~ t t dth e& energy and ir usually neglected
in eUats wnaiderrtionr.
The rccond d i a n t yowet maximum nnd the
time to thia peak both wale u the rgunlo mot
ot the yield. To dekrmiw for a weapon of
yield "W KT any inrtanhecrcu levcl of radiant
p e r , and the eormgoading time of thu
level after debnation, the vaiuur ubtainrd fm
Pi. 4-61 are multiplied by P,, and t , re -
~pectively. The Ltter am determined by:
t,=O.oSz Hnl' I ~ C . (4-791
(3) Eumple
Given : A *KT air b u d
Find: The radiant power at 2 m c b ,
.od the per cent t h e 4 radiation
amlttcd up to 2 monb.
For a *KT air bunt, when tz2.0 mconda,
t
--4.6, gives the vrlrv of 76 pr cent
t u
(4) RclWity
Thp radinnt power values obtained from Fig.
4-61 are reliable to within t30 per cent for air
bunt yirlds between 6 and 100 KT. The relia!)
ility decmum for air bunt weapon yieldr
lower than, or above, thia ran* Tima are
rdiable to r 16 p r cent for air bunt weapons
in the rnnm 6 KT to 100 MT. For air bunt
wapm yield8 lower thrn 6 KT, the timar may
be aa much u 30 per cent higher ihan those
obtained frum U.o above mling relationship.
For other types of bunt, the reliability of tho
scaling of radiant power ia expcehl to be lower
than thct &own for air bursts: the reliability
cnwot be eatimnted .eeunWy, however on the
basis of available dita (Ref. 211.
It hns been found that both the time to the
radhnt power minlmum and the time to the
second maximum are proprtiorul to the qw
root of the weapon yield Thw for air bunts
a t altlludes below appmrimrtcly 60.000 feei
the time to minimum (b.) L 0.0027 1VI" aecond.
The time to the weond muimum (t,) L
0.092 W'/* raond. (See Fig#. 4-62 and 443.
Thus llgurer may .I.o be ud for rurface
b u n k ) It &odd k noted thrt for weapon
ykldo lower than d x klb- the actual vduea
of t, may be rr much u 30 per cent higher
than thore given by Fig. 4-62. Thia u c u d
by the hifiher mur-to-ylcld n t l o e h . ~ t l a
of the low yield weaponr lYme &UOM iadiah
that a one mol~ton~ ~ o&livlenl I ta
t h e n 4 radiation over a period 52 time~ u
g r a t u d e a a one Libtoll weapoa. Thir un
be expected to reault in M o n a in the total
thermal energy required tor a given eIKect. The
xfgc!fic~nca of the depcndam d delivery nb
on weapon yleldn ia dlwurwd fn @ mthm
h l i n p wit11 tl1rrnlP1 injury :~nd d - ~ (Ref.
21).
F i n 4 4 2 uutl4-GJ dve the time ta the recond
ndinnt e w e r maximum i tmo. ) ,:m d the
time to tht! rorliuut power mi~imunl1 1 ,I.), both
M a fui~rrion of weirpon yield for air burst
wenyonr :it d t l h d r s k l o s 60,000 feet. The
f~jwwm iy also be ured for rurfncc! bursts.
(2) Exunpb
Given: The air burst of a 1-MT wenpon.
Find: The time to the radial11 power
minimum. and tI11! time to thn seeond
lrdinnt power ~naximum.
Stdution: Find 1 M'r on the skim of Fig.
4 4 . and read fro111t he 1 .w~ti me
cuncs t.=0.085 (20.009) seeond,
and 'H,=l.l(r0.2) second.
Thc timcs rcad €rum the t. curve of F i .
,142 and 4-69 arcb relinhle to -10 per cent. The
:imea read from the t , curves of Fig. 4-62
and 4-63, in tho range 6 KT to 100 XT. am reliable
to r lG per cen.. For weapon yields lower
than 6 KT, the values of t,, may hu as much u
30 per cent higher than those given by Pix.
4-62. (Ref. 51).
a G Y ~.
MeuummcntJ of the total thennnl e n e m
emitted fnr air burst weapons of low yield indicate
that this th-l energy is proportioml
to weapon yield and is atwut onethird of the
total yield. From this and Fig. 4-61. JI scaling
prowdun for maximum radiant power may be
derived. Thua
Alepruremenb from the ground of the total
thermal energy from aurface burr@ akhough
not err extensive err t h w for air bursts. indiate
that the thernul yield is a little less than half
thnt from equivalent air bureta. For a aurface
burst, thermal yield ir rssumed to be one-wvent11
of the totnl yield. For surface bunts, the
d i n g of the mond radiant power maximum b. lanrm&m for U r PQ. 4-44. lLbirr
(P,) annot be determid on the bnrk oC T ~ Y U I r & r r C A ~
rvu~lpbk data. Shilarly, there am no data (1)
which show what the thermal r;uli;ttion phe- Fig. dva -tc of
nomenulow m y b e for detonation altitudes in t ~ e rmly idd for vdobuurart alUtudu. ~h~
excew of 80.000 f ~ l I.t is cxwt ed that the vulurs Ptmolphrric trammi.uivity at vcrj.
thermal energy m y increue with altitude of hivh altitudes are not known with any cerbunt.
Fir. 4-64 gives a purely theoretical esti- &tY, but are belicvod to be only sliyhtiy less
mate of this ~ncrcase ( Rcf. 21 ) . than unity.
(3) Procedrrr P=dativa L e m v l yield (from Fig. 4-64),
To alcuiak for a high altitude bunt the a d
(3) Zxunph
8.16XlO' W l ep,,sp
Q=- .,, (4-81) Given: A ISKT burnt at 60,000 feet.
uwhen
W=wupon yield (in KT),
Find: Radiant expaaure at 1,000 yards
from the detonation.
Solution: From Fig. 4-64 the relative thermal
yield, F, at 60.000 feet ir 1.0%
Tharrtom,
enl/aq em.
(4) Rrllabillly
The values given for the relativc thermnl
yield are s u b k t to errors of 216 per cent nt
50,000 feet and to increaingly lnryer errors at
greater altitudes.
4-11 (Cl Rdut E.p.sm Venus Slant
Ralgc
4-7J.1. S p d d Chamchrl~tlca
At distances of operationnl interest. the apes
tral (wave length) dktribrrtion of the incident
thermal d i n , in tegmtcd with rwwct to
time, membles v e q c l d y the nwtrnl distribution
of sunlight. For each, slight!^ kvs thnn
one-half of the radiation occun in the visible
range of the spectrum, approximtely onc-llnlf
occurn in the infmred region. and a very smdl
f d o n (rarely m k r than 10 p r cent) lies
in the ultraviokt region of the npectrurum. (See
Fig. 4-59 for energy densities of various wave
lengths.) The color tsmpcraturc of the run and
an air bunt are both about 6,000° K. A wrface
bunt, M viewed by a ground dmerver.
eontrim a higher proportion of infrared radhtion
and a unrller proyodon of vuibk rediation
than the air bunt, with d m a t no r.dh
tion in the ultraviolet =pion. The d o r
temrrature fnr 3 surface bunt ir about 3,OM)O
K However. a wrfacn bont viewed f m th e
air nrny exhibit a apeclrurn more nearly like
that of an air burnt.
4-7.6.2. Atmorpkrlc lmrululvlty
c C.nnrr;d
The atmnspheric tmmissivity, T. is defined
us the fraction of the rdinnt exposure nwhd
a t a given distance, after paaaage Lhruuuh the
atmonphere, relative to thvt which would 11ave
been received at the same distance if no atmosphere
were prmnt. Atmonphcric trcmsmisaivity
depenb, upon ~ v e r a fla ctors; among them
an water vapor and carbon dioxide abrptiun
of infrared radiation, ozone aborption of
ultraviolet radiation, cnd multiple scattering of
all radiation. All of there factom vary with
distance and with the compmition of the atmoaphere.
Sfnttering is produced by the reflectiun and
refraction of light ray8 by certain atmospheric
cmstituents, such aa dwt, moke, and ion.
Interactions (such M scattering) which divert
the rays from their original path mult in a
difluae, rather than a direct, traminsion of
the radiition. h a result, a receiver which h u
a large field of view (i.e.. most rnillhry targ
e t ~ r) e ceiwr radiations which have been ~ t -
tered toward it fmm mrny angle& M well aa
the directly trnumitted n d i t i o h Since the
mechrrnlsma of absorption and rerttcring are
dependent on wave length, the atmaspheric
tranmiuivity dependn not only upon the atmwphertc
conditions, but d m upon the aportnl
distribution of the weapon miintion.
In Fig. 4-66, the atmoclpheric trp~mirrlvity
Is plotted u a function of the elant ranm for
air and surface b u d . For each ttype of burat
t h m retr of atmonpheric condition8 a n PIsumed
I t ir believed that thme mnditiona reg
rerent the average .nd the artwnea norrmlly
emounkred in n r t u d ablmpherer These
conditionr correspond to the following: a h i -
bility o i 6i) miha rad r. w&r vapor concentmtion
of 6 pn/cu m; 10 mllw visibility and 10
gm/cu m water vapor eoacenMfon; and 2
mila visibility and 26 gm/cu m water vapor
coneenbation.
The curve8 cf Fig. 4-66 are plotted to rlnnt
j nngw equal to one-half the visibility of ench
of The t h m viaibility conditions. The rcawn
for thia u that thc trawmirsivity valuea have
not been verified for higher viaibility eonditiona.
As a reault, the curves cannot be extrapolated
to represent greater slant-range diatanees
with any conbdence. If the curvu alp
extended beyond one-half the risibility ran@,
there is muon to believe that the valuer of
transmiasivity would be too high. Where cloud
cover is appreciable, or the air w n l i n s large
q~untitieso f fog or induatriul haze, knowledire
nf the interactions ,with the radiwtion is tM)
limikd to provide estimates of atmoapheric
Iramipoivity.
(1) Ikrrlptkoll
Fig. 4-65 giver the atmospheric transmiasiv-
Ity veraur slant range for three sek of utmoapheric
conditiona, fur both air md aurface
bunt weapon& Theaa curver are presented
only for illhstmtive p u m w , M they !!.we
uaed to derive the radiant expo8ure vemua
dant nnge i;rveu of Fig. 1-66,
The differenas bvhvccn the air bunt and
surface bunt c u m are cauaed by thc difference
in apparent radiating temperaturea (when
vbwd from the ground), and by the difference
in pcometrid configuration of tltc two h.Dn
of bunt The t h m rctr of atmoapheric eonditiona
repcrronkd are:
1. 60 mile viaibility and 6 gm/cu m water
vapor.
2. 10 mPe vhibiiiLy and 10 gm/cu m water
vapor.
3. 2 mile vidbility Pad 26 gm/w m water
vapor.
It b believed tbt thm d t i o n r pert*n
to the ~ t u r n l l yoc curring averam and extteme
atarorpheric condition&
Referents ton 1# mute to the atmospheric
mhr vapor concentration arrvu in Fig. 4-71
to ueerWn undar what eontiitla of relative
humidity and ambient temperature a puticu-
L r water vapor eoncentrztion will occur.
(2) R c l u i U l y
The curves of Fig. 4-85 have not been verified
at ranees beyond one-hnlf the visibility.
As a result, they are subject to conai&rably
r e d a d reliability beyond them rangea (Ref.
a).
&7*5A R d ~ f b
If a weapon ia bunt in the air below a large
cloud, the t h e m 1 radiation is diffusely d t
flected downward from the cloud. resulting in
greater rndiant exporures at a given dbtrnce
than would be received if no cloud were prerent.
If a weapon is bunt near tha earth'a aurface,
the radiant exposure received at wme altitude
above the earth (an in the ure of an u r d t
flying above the detonation) will be greater,
because of the reflected radiation, than that
which h iwix!ived on the ground at the aame
distance. If the receiver ia directly over the
bunt and the terrain haa a high albpdc, the reflected
d h t l o n from the terrain may be M
much an twice the direct radiation. If a renect

ing or wttcriag lryu such u a cloud, however,
k h e mt he debartion and the target,
the radiant txpooute lreeivsd will be reduced
dderably.
The radiant exposures a t various slant
ranges from air and s~rrfaceb ursts can be calculated
from the following expressions:
Q z n d i r n t expwun ( W w cm),
T=atmoapheric tranmhivity,
1- weapon yield (kiloton),
and
D=slnnt mn,,a (yards).
The vduea o! ? for both air and urrface
bursts are obtained from the appropriate
curves in Fig. 4-65. Curves showing the radiant
exposure (Q) ~ ;a1 f unction of slant range
( D ) for three atmospheric conditions, for both
air and surface bunts. are ahown in Fig. 4-66.
Thew curves are plotted for r a n m up to onehalf
the vhibility, for the rsuona mentioned in
the .Par. 4-7.62~1, priding. The surface
burit cum* differ f m n tbe air bunt curve3
for two reasons: the apparent thennal yield
from a s11rh.x bunt, when viewed from the
eur2uw fs lower than tirat t ~ a~n arir burrt;
a d i.b . :mtral dbtribut!on of the surface
bwn+ ti tuf?4dently diflerent from that of an
air I. c:r w warr.int the weof diferent atnorph&
:: mi: tittity c u m . Radiant expowre
t r r 'mit tr. che t m i t i o n zone may be atlomt.
w -; t-.brpolation hetwecn t h a t curves, aa
t.,(.) .. A .;. ?trr. b, following. It rhould be emp\
airrrd that theae surface burst cuwea apply
La the ndiant e m r e cd qmund targeb.
When the surface bunt is viewed from the air
(M f r o a aimraft) the apparent radiating tun.
penture and the thermal yield will be greater
thvn when viewed from the gmmd. All af the
cunw plotted in Fig. 446 ur for r total
weapon yield of one Idbtolr. For wapon yiddr
~ b r o r l e m t h o o n e ~ t h a e r d i . n t
exporums should be mPlLiplirrl by tha yiad of
the weapon in quertiop
b. I~lrurtional or U * Fig. 466,R I l l l v l
Ezpoawo from Air uJ S w j m Bur&
(1) Dncripttoa
Fig. 4-68 preaents the tadiaat exposure ( . :.I
incident radiant energy pcr unit area) vervua
slant range curves for l-KT air and surface
butata. The wlld cum- are for the s i r burnt,
those above 180 WM feet. For blurah a t heiphtr
between 180 Wa( fret uad the lurtp~8t.h e radiant
exposure will lie between the cormpondiag
solid and daahd cunw. Until further clpu
a n obtained, a linear interpowion between Ule
two curves should be made for bun& in ths
transitior~ zone (Example 2). For each type of
burat shown, three curvea are pnsenhd: 60
mlle visibility and I m/cu m water vapor; 10
mile visibility and 10 p/cu m water. vapor;
and 2 mile vuibiilty and 26 p / c u m water
vupor. Fig. 4-66 u bawd on the air and surface
bunt thermal yicidr ud the .tololphcric
tranambivity c w m of F& 4-66.
(2) sc.llag Rradua
For a given slant range, the radiant exposure,
Q, is p r o p o r t i d to the weapon yield, W:
a W' -a-,
0. wa
In Fig. 4-66, QI b given for W,=l KT.
(3) G p k 1
Given: A 4O-KT detuiution at a k t
height of i),aOO trrt und a I W l e
visibility.
Find: The alunt ramge at which the Miant
expomum b 10 cal/y em.
=685 teat; thrdom, the ai; &nt
curve JlMlld k uud. Then,
From Fig. 4-86, the rht m#e at w h i 0.26
= 100 fe& therefore, for this bansitlon
bumb the r a w mufit will
a,
(4) LC2 lie oi tho dirtan- k t w ti~^^
Given: A W K T deto,ution at a b u d 180
height of 1.W feet, and a Wd1e surface und air burst value& Then.
vhibility. 1
Q,=25 -=0.05 cd/q an.
~ l a k The slant range at w hi& tho d i - 500
(5) Bcll.Ww
Focton limiting the applicability of Fi&
4-66 are d l s c u d in Par. a, preceding. In addition.
the reliability is expected to decrease as
the weapon yield is increawd above 100 KT,
and aa the slant range is i n c ~ c bdey ond onehalf
the vlibility. or, noted in Fig. 4-65.
4-7.6.1. tapagrmpby and Clouds
Propagation of t h e m 1 radiation from a nuclear
detonation, like that from the wn. is
affected by topography and by the atmosphere.
At cloe rsngcq however, where the fireball
rubtendr a relatively l a l a~ng le, the ahadowing
eff& of Intervening objecb ruch .s hills
I*r treor are less than are experienced with the
run. A# dLewud earlier, (Ch. 2, Sec. V).
dwdo in the atmorphere significantly nftect the
propagation of radiation through the atmuphere.
Where the bumt la In the air above a fog
covering the ground, a rignitant fractlon of
the thermal d i u t i o n incident on the log layer
L rellected upward. That radiation which yenctratu
the fog b ~crttered. Them two effeetr
mu l t in rubrtrntkl r e d u c t i o~in thennal enorgirr
incident on pround brycb covered by
fop. White rmoh rreenn act like fog In the
.tturgat&n of t h e d diation. Reduetio~~!
pcrrw large u 90 per cent of incident themul ener*
a m realized by dew fops or unoke
rrraaa(Ch.2,sce.XI).
U. (El N U C U I RADIATION
Th. debnation of a nuclear or thenudeu
r a p o a hu aawchted with It certain
phumma not typical of conventional high explarlva
bomba Per- thr unique phenomenon
L the emidon of nuclear radiation. Thm nuclear
rrdi.tioM CoMlBt of d typw oi
&ion: prmmr rays, neuhu, beta puticlc*
and a l p h pPrtidrr The aujority cf the mutram
and a eDluidarrblc portion of the g u m s
raya are emitted rlrrmlt.oLcwrrly with the axplorion.
The mmalnder of the p ~ mrrriy a and
the beta particles are produced by radioortive
decoy of the fissinabh materiala Not all of the
uranium or plutonium la conaumsrd by the explosion,
and the material remaining emib a
portion of the alpha raya u a m u l t of natural
rvdiovctive decay. Other a l p h particlea am
produced by hydrogen fusion reactioas.
The nature of the radiitionr. either by immediate
&on or by radioactive decay, makes
it convenient for practical purpow to c o ~ i d e r
them M either inithl or midual d i t i o n a .
The initial nuclear radiation ir ulully defined
M that emitted within a timc r p n of one
minute after the exploli.~n. The time period of
one minute ia aomewhnt arbitrary, and waa
originally bwd on the following data fmm a
twenty-kiloton weapon. A8 a coconsequence of
attenuation by the atmaphem, the eUective
range of the radiation is roughly two m i l a
Therefore, aa far u effect a t the earthsa rudace
Ir concerned, ray8 originating from a raflrce a t
an altitude of over two ~nih m y be ignored.
The rate of rlae of the atumic cloud, from which
the nuclear radiations enmate, b ouch that it
taka approximately one miaub for the ebud
to reach thia altitu&.
For a bomb of enerpy yWd g r u t e r th.n
twenty Uioto~u~th, e dl- over which the
radiatiouu are affective wlll be corrcrpondingly
lrrpcr than two m i l a Howwer, them L Jlo
an increw in the rab& G? rLc of the atomic
cloud. Because onr, fador cnmpeauk for the
other, It ir rutliciently accurate to conrider the
effective period of thc i n i t i a l - d i m u OM
minute. Similuly for a brmb of lower anarpy,
the eiYective dLbnce ir ku, but ro .Ira L the
rate of mmnt of the dwd.
The h eonalQlrtio~ ur Lrpdy relative
to air bumt typd ~ o n Forr u d q m u n d
and underwater explodom, the b e of denurution
between initial and dpurl ndiion ir
br aharply defined, and It rr, W o r e , ku
mermiagful to make the diUerrefltian.
In order to expresa the nuclear rndiotlon expaurcs.
and to correlate measurment tshniqur
to e n em diatributio~an d physiological
effects, it is necerury to establish suitable units
of measurement for the various radiatinna. The
unit used to measure the exposure to (mmmr
rays ut any particular point ir referred to M
the mentgen.
Radiation measuring instrumcnl do not
memure the number of roentgens directly.
However, by auitable design, the phenomena
nbwrved (e.g., electrical pukes, acintillution, or
film fogging) can provide a practical recording
of the exposure in roentgens. The various
radiation measuring devices (Par. 4-83, fcllowing)
are thus calibrated with a standard
gamma ray source. For this purpose, a known
quantity of ndiwtive cobalt or radium k
generally wed. The gamma-radiation exposure
in mntl;rens from ruch a wurce can be rnmulpd
accurately with special laboratory equipment,
and tho meaaurementa then uscd to
calibrate fidd irutrumonta.
It is generally believed that the hPnnful conropuencea
of nuclear radiationr to livinu
organisms are largely due to the chemical decornpodtion
of the moleculer preaent in animal
or vegetable ccllr. Fundamentally, it is the
ionization and excitPtiw caused by nuclear
radiation8 thnt is responsible for this action.
Therefore, the mount of ionization or the nubkr
of ion pnirr provide a bnsb for measure-
The m t g e n 11 defined M the unount of
gamma radiation# or X-raya whiih will form
161 X 1OaU ion pain when ahorbod in one gram
d air. The absorption of one roentgen k
quivrlcnt to the .brorptIon of 87 crm of
energy per gram of air, ot wnditicmr of atuuiard
vwuure and temperatun. The roentgen,
u a unit of radiation douge, ia defined wIth
mpect to p u ~ ~orl lX -ray& and rpplia only
to thue rndiationa. Further, it L a memure of
the strength of the radiation Reid at a given
location, not of the radiation abaorbed by an
Individual at that loeotion. The radiation done
in roentgens is thur referred to as an "exporure"
dam
Originally the roentgen equivalent phyricrl
(rep) waa establhhed to meet the need for an
"absorbed" dose unit. Aa previously stated, a
gumma ray expoaure dose of one roentgen is
equivalent to the abrption of 87 ergs of energy
per gram of air. Accordingly, the rep was
originally defined an the dore of any type of
nuclear radiation that reaulta in the absorption
d 97 erga of energy per gram of animal the.
However, it waa later found that the exposure
of one gram of wft t i u e to one roentgen of
gammr. radiation was accompanied by the absorption
of 9S ergo of e n e m by the tilsua
The definition of the rep was therefore reviaed,
to denote the d m that would produce, in r unit
volume of loft tbm, the same energy abaorp
tion u that produced by one mentipn of i p m ~ ~
or X-rqyr, 93 erps pcr gram.
AJ a unit of maaurernent, the rep, based on
the mentgen, ia somewhat unaatiriactory for
several reasons. Fink because the number of
ergs ahorbed in based on the mount of energy
required to produce an ion pair. T h i quantity
b relatively uncnrtrln, and u mw experimentd
informatiou becomes avrlkble, the number of
e q r in the def\nitlon mu3 ehmpa. Second, Uw
quantity of energy rborbed varks with tha
nmkrlnl irradkted. 10 compmute for k h n ~
drawbacks, another unit, the "rrd" h a been
introduced. The nd u defined u the aimorbed
d m of any nudcar radiation which u .crampanied
by the libention of 106 ergn of energy
per pnm of rbwrbing mterl.l. For loft h u e
the diflcrence batween the rep md the nd (98
e mto 100 ergo) u idpniRC.nt, and ~ u m e r i d
value8 of absorbed dose formerly exprrrwd u
nw may be w~ui&W auntidly unehmg.d
when converted to rub.
.. . . MOB
ua.r b. R H V ~ ~ ~w~ t i *1. r e u 4
fRRl Uul?
Although dl ionizing mdiatlons u e capable
of pduelng dmiiar. biologid effects, the abmkod
d o e which will produce a errbin effect
may vary appreciably from one typc of radiation
to another. In other words, different radiations,
even fhough producing the same energ)'
absorption per unit volume, have different
cffectiveneas :n producing biological injury. In
order to evaluate the probable effects of an absorbed
d ~ s eof combined radiations (neutrons
plun gamma mdutions) it ir ne-ry to take
the relative biological effectiveness (RBF) into
account. If, for example, a rep (or rad) of
neutrons ia found to caue 30 per cent more
dnmage than a rep of gamma rays, it is aaid
thnt such neutrons have an RBE of 1.3. The
unit of rneusu~wnent is based on assigning an
RBE of 1.0 to X-rays or gamma rays having a
Bj0 KVP (kilo-volt peak). The hazard of other
radiations ir measured in term of effectiveness
relntive to rays of thir nature.
The value of the RBE for a particular typs
of nuclear radiation depends upon wveral facton:
the energy of the radiation, the nature
and degree of the biological damage, and the
organiun or t h w under conaideration. Aa far
u weapons are concerned. the RBE's are estimated
In tenus of disabling ricknw and death
u consequences of a nuclear explation.
CUI. 7ba R . . r t g u I q r l w l u t Mammal
l l r l kit
Along with the concapt of the kBE, it beume
advmtpeoua to introduce a unit d
WdogiePl dao called the "nm" (roentgenapuivakntnumuui).
Tbh ia defined b:r the
qlutlorr
DOK la ram=Dose in radXRBE
(4-84)
or, for mil ti&
Dou in rrm=Dose in rcpXRBE.
(4-m
443.7. t e t d hup
Becaw the criterion for RBE ~vaiuationi
b a d o n tho pu~num y RBE k i n g unity, the
bidogial d wi n m,fo r other dht ionr, m y
be relatad directly totbr-damin repor
roentgeas. Mart t.bb of biobgid do& for
,nudear r r d i . t i 0 ~ M rrt.bllhd in bCm8 of
the total doawe axprrucd in matgaol. 'hnfore,
tu use these tabla fo: camhbd r d d o u
results, the pemnu doae in roeatgem b rimply
added to the other radiafion in ram, t3
determine the total dauge.
442.8. TL. Crrlr
The curie is that quantity of mdionetive
material which provides 3.7 X louad irintep..~ting
atume per eecond ( h i . 49). One gram d
radium decays at ruch a rPtc The tobl amount
of gamnxa fiasion produetr at one hour after
the detonation of a %KT bomb Ir 6 x 10.
curies. One megacurie (lW mriea) of h i o n
products per squan mile, distributed uaifmnly
over nn ideal, llat surfaw, produces r gamma
radiation doae rate of approximately 4 r m t -
gens/hour, at 3 feet above the surface, at the
1 hour reference time.
The biological effecb of vuiolu radiation
dosed are described in p n e n l it1 Ch 8, Sec. I.
and a n c onsic~eredin detail in Ch. 6. Par. 5-16.
Hawever, in ordw to provide urm indication
of the aignihnce of the units, it mry ba rtrtcd
that a aingle wholabody dnu of 26 run will
pmdr~ce no detectablr ellaid rcrulb. krwr
dooer have incru.ingly mon miour. cannaquencea,
and a single expoam of 400 to 600
rum may be expected to prove f.W to about
per cent of thore expod. Expmurro of 1.000
or more rem over the whob body cis be expected
to produce 100 percent f.wib.
443.1. RdlrtlmwMwtWr W k . r Und lor
Meoar-mt
The human sensm do not rc*poad to nuclear
radiation except 8t vwy high Intauitk, under
whkh condition8 of Itching and ti&ng of the
&in am aperiencd. Therefow, rpcdrl i h
mental methods have bsn dcvcbped for the debction
atid maasuremmt of the w i o u typm
of nuclear radi&ms, bud primuily on 'chc
inkraciion o i the heitious with mutttr.
There ue three importwit typu of pamr.
ray intmactlon with nu*, u a mutt of
which the rays are scattered or ubwrbcd. The
flnt of thew b generally referred to au the
photmlec'trlc effect. A g ~ l m raa y photon posm
i n p a kinetic energy greater than the
energy which bin& the dectmn to the vkun
tamden dl ita energy to the electron, which is
mwquently ejected from the atom. Since the
photon involved in the phobektrio eifcct hna
lost d l it- energy, it ceases to exiuL The atom,
after laring 'the negatively charged electron,
now h u a poaitive charge. This process is ref
e d t o ns ionization. The ma~i tucleo f the
photoelectric effect, like that of the Compton
effect, increases with the atomic number of the
atom and decreased rapidly with increaainy
energy of the photon.
The second type of iherodion of gamma
rays and matter is by the Compton effect. In
thii Interpetion, when the gm~mra y photon
wllidea wlh one of the atomic electrons some
of the e n e r p of the photon ir t ~ ' ~ s f e r r etnd
the e:ectron. The photon, with its energy d e
cnued, then uudly move8 of€ at soma angle to
ita original dimtinn of motion. The electron,
having acquired an additions1 mount of
energy, iu converted into aa excited (high
energy) state. Thu phenomenon is known
exdtatioe. The extent of the Compton twatter-
Ing effect k proportional to thc number of
ehCtXt3~in the vtonr tie., to the atomic number).
I t is py1ter per atom for an element of
high atomic number than for one of luw atomic
nwnbr. Howvw. inwpedve of Cle a h n i c
weight of the atam, the Compton rcottering dfect
decreua rapidly with an incruw in tho
oner# of the gamma ray p h o h .
Gvmmo radiation CAII inbract with u t t o r
in a third manner, that of palr pmduct.o~~
When a gamma ray photon with energy In excam
of 1.02 miU&n electron volts (Mev) p ~ u c s
nesr the nuckuq of an atom, the photon may
be converted into matter, with the fomtion of
a pair of particles: a positive and a negative
electron. Aa In the caae of the photoelectric
effect, pair production reaulta in the dimppearanm
ot the photon. However, the poritlve
electron eventually inbracts with a nemtive
electron to fonn two photonr of 0.61 Mev
energy. The o m m n c e of pJr prodadion per
atom, PI with the other interwtbna, ~~EFCWI
with the atomic number of the material. However,
i t PbO incresea with the energy of the
photon in execru cf 1.0' Mev.
Neutrons, being elcetriully neutral putickr,
do not produce ionization or excibtion YmUy
in their puaage through matter. They a n .
however. cause ionization to onur indirectly,
as a result of their interaction with c a b i n
light nuclei. For instmnca, when a fast neutron
collides with the ~~ucleuufs a hydrogen atom,
enough energy is transferred tu the nuclew to
frce it from ib vssoeinted electron, and the
nucleus m o w off as a pomitively charged, highenergy
proton. Such a proto?! k capable of
producing a conslderab n u n k r of ion
Neutrons in the rlow md moderate rpeed
rarrgea can produce indirect ionization in other
ways. When auch neutrons are captured by the
lighter iwtope of boron (buron-19) two ekctricaily
charged particles of high energy are
f o r m e d 4 helium nucleus (Plpha particle) and
a lithium nucleuk Both of thc*c particles m
capable of producing ion p i n .
Indirect ionization cm rlro readt from the
halon of plutonium or umium iwtoper llu
Ascion fragments are electrically charged nuclei
of high enem whirh leave coddenble ionhtion
in their path (Ref. 1).
All of the p-ta plaviously dernibed ern
be utilized to memure and detect the presence
and inbnaity ?f nuclear radfatioru.
CUL Rwdhtk. Yomawead I r s ? ~ m r t a
Two +ypea of inrtnunenb, the Geiger
Counter md thr W e t chamber (dosimeter),
am b a d on the formation of electridy
durpcd ion pain in a g u and on the con#-
quent ability of the p to mnduct dactridty.
Normally, a gm does not conduct ektricity to
my plvnt extent, but arr a m u l t of the pmap
of nuclear radlrtbnr, and the aubequent forming
of ion pdm. the p~ bwmu a mesonably
good conductor (Rd.DO ).
The operation of rintilktion counten d b
peada upon excitation. When an atom or molecule
beeom axated it will mnmlly give off
the amm cr;ergy within about one millionth
of a sceond. Certain makr!!ls. usually in the
d i d or Uquid state, are able to lom their exd
U o n energy in the bm of virible fkrhu of .
CLASSIFIED
ox- of 2 6 Mer. Similarly, Uls a~preciable
lidon of ulu3iun1-238 requires neutmnr having
m energy of 1.5 Mev or more. The differs
u be~twe en the hvo ruults gins the neutron
i n t e ~ i t yin the energy range of 1.5 to 2.6 MCV.
Othar foil tnnterinla which are used in the same
mnrlor are: neptunium-237, with a fiasion
threshold of 0.7 Mev: pluLunium-579 (shielded
wtth buron), with a ksion threshold of 100
Mev: and mid, which iia activated by the very
alnw nn~lrnne.
This results of a aeries of measurements.
mtdr at various diabncm from a nucliw teat
~ x p l ~ i oanr,e presented in Fig, 4-67, in which
rVDa on R vertical lo&tI~mic scale is plotted
against D on a horiurtital linear wale. N r e p
resenis the number of neutrons per square centimeter
which pruduce Ldon, ur activation of
the Tnila of the indicated tnntorul, at a distance
I ) from the explwion. Since tb actual valuea
~f ND' alr not necessary to this discmion,
wlntiw values are dven in the Amre.
It will he ~bneclfr om Fig. 4-67 that the
variorw linw alope dnwnward to the right, M ia
to lw expected, indicnting r rteady decrease in
thc intensities of the neutrons at all energy
mnm, with inere~singd iatance from thc er-
~losion, However, the really si~nidcant f.;d
I* that the lines are all approximnkly prrallel.
1iom. alt%nugh the total number of neutrona
m i v e d per square centimeter derreanea with
incruring dbtnnce, the proportiom in the vari-
~ uerno rgy ranges lrtnefn arentiolly the same
tltmugtrout. This ia tho rocolled equilibrium
sp~rttum. Thw. one set of foil meuurement
sb111d be sufficient to indicate the total neutron
JUJI at give11 location.
The conmaion from the manured aoutron
flux b neutron dore nuy he ~eeomplillhed with
the foliowing fonnuln (Ref. 52) :
where D.=the tlluue d m in d s : Nt=: the
thermnl nwttvn flux; Nr.. Nrd., and N+ the
number uf n c t l tm~pc r rq cm above the thnshold
for plutm~ium, neptuniim, uranium, and
sulphur, renpectively.
r)ccmionally, a c r e is no Nxr data available.
I f ruck k the eox, the following formula should
be u d to compute the neutron dose:
DI= [O.OZ9N1+I.8(N,.- N.) +3.'( N.-N&) +
3.9(N.)]X10 ". (4-87)
For many wee, the contribution of the thermal
neutrona to the dose is negliyible, compared
with the fast neutrort components, and can
therefore be excluded from the crleulntion (Ref.
63). The basic conversion formula is then:
D,= [l.O(Nr.-Nsr) +2.5(Nsr-Nu) +
32(N.-NJ + 3 . 9 ( N s ) ] XI@". (4-811)
Since a statistical error is involved in taking
the difference of two large numbers, Eq. 4 4 6
is often written in the following form:
DI = [O.O29A',+ 1.ONp. + 1.6A'vr+O.7
(N.+Ns)]XlO.". (4-89)
By combining tenns, Eqs. 4-87 and 4-88 m y
be written in similar form.
CIA. IC) I.IW Nuckor Radiatlm
4-8.4.1. (Ul t3we-I
The ranges of the alpha and beta wrticles
produced by a nuclear explosion are compratively
short and, even when the fireball toucha
the ground. these particles m y be regarded a8
inaisifi&t The initial nuclear radiation may,
therefore, be conaidered ps eomiating of only
the neutrons andgamma raya emitted during
the drat minute after d~tonation. b t h of these
nuclear radiation#. although diflemnt in char-
Pcter, can penetrate ~miderable diatmcon
through the air. Further, both gamma ray8 and
neutrons are capable of ptuduclng hnrmiul
eK& in living organlunr. I t ir the injurious
nature at theae nuclear radiations, combined
with their long range, that makes them such a
significant hazard.
At dirtancea not too close to mound zero,
rhielding from thermal radiation ia a relatively
simple matter. This b not true for the
initial nuclear radiation. For example, at a distance
of one mik from the point of bunt of a
one megaton bomb, the initid nuclear radiation
would probably prove fatal to approximutely
flfty per a n t of all humana, wen if sheltered
by 24 i n c h of e ~ l l ~ ~Itne c.o ntra& a much
lighter rkield would provide complete pmtectb
d n r t them radiation at the ume dbturec
The Mective injury nngcr of thermal and
nuclev radiation8 may vary widew. For 0%-
plariona 02 moderate urd lnrpe energy ..ield&
thernul r r d i o n can have harmful conrequena
at appreciably greater dktnees than
can the initial nuclear radiation. However,
when the energy of the explasion b relatively
mall. such u a kiloton or less, the nuclear radiation
has the prerter effective range.
In d t c d n p the dureteriatica of the initid
nuclear radiatiin, it in prefedb to conrider
the neutron6 and gamma rays nepmately.
Although their ultimJtc eR& on living matter
are much the ume, thu two kids of nuclear
ndiatiow~ differ in many reap&.
4-8.42 (Ul 0.m- Rap
In addition to the punmr rap which m m -
pany the fission proee.a, rddltionnl ga~.larru
mya are contributed to the initial nuclear r d i -
ation by other sources. A large proportion of
the neutrorv pmduced in the h i o n reaction
are captured by nuclei of aonthionablo mnterU
Aa a rerult of neutron upturn. the nuclei
are converted into a new rpecim known as
compound nuclei. which are in m excited (high
energy) -te. The uau energy k emitted
hart iartmt.llsouly, u gunma radiation
Thlr radiation ir raCsmd tau capture yommr
rap, and the pmcea~ la refemd to u radiative -*=.
The nentroPu ptodued in the h i o n &on
uu undergo ndirtive apture with the nudd
of atmorpheric nitroma, u well u with thr ; nuclei of tha mrhrwl pmeat in the bed.
9 The intenrtfon with nitrogen nuclei la of pu.
ticulu import.ll~, beeuue the p ~ m omy 1
emitted from thim reaction have very high ene
a r n and uc. therefore, much lsrr cruQ attenuated.
In addition to radiative capture by no&-
aioadb nuclei, rrdirtive apture may oc.wr
with nuclei of r d W v e nature, thereby pri+
vlding a further source of gamma rdL.tion
i All the p ~ mnry r produced by Won and by
radiative rapture with the bomb mrkr*h a p
pear in ku tlun a recond after the iwtaat cf
detonation For thh rawn, the ndktionr are
known u the prompt or inrtantPll~)~
myr.
The fbsion fragmmb, and many of their
decay prcduetr, are radioactive iaotopes which
emit gamma radiatiolly, the half-lives of which
range from less than a millionth of a refond to
mrny yeua. Eecauro the deuy corrrmencm at
the i m b t of Arrlon, and becnue the rate of
d w y in greatest at the beginning, thaw radioisotopes
make a ni([niAunt contribution to Uw
initial radiation. The gamma ram libemtot by
this means are refemd to u delayed OPmara
m.
The prompt gamma rays, md the portion of .
the delnyed gamma mya which comprh the
initial nuclear radiitlnn, are nearly equal in
quntlty, but th-y are by no means q w l PO?-
tioru of the initial radiation trarumittcd f!Wn
the exploding bolub. The prompt gnmnu rwa
are produced almoat entirely before the bomb
hnr dirintegrated. Therefore, they am lupcly
rbrorbad by the dense bomb mrtaripb, md
only a rmrll portion nre actually tr~lumittedt o !
the atmosphere. On the other hand, the delwed
gamma rap am generated mostly after the
bumb materide have vaporfd and urpndrd
into a 'icnuoru p;u. Thua the.. ray8 rueer little
or no attenuation before emerging into the a t
morphem. With mpect to the toW initial
radiation rreeived at a point m e dirtsaee
from ground zem, the delayed m a u ~m
and those rnya produced by radiative upturn '
with atmospheric n i b m a contribute .bout
h u n d d timer u much ndiatlon u do the
prompt m
Still .11ot&r pouSbb m k of gamma ryr
my k mentioard If Uu n u c k arph.fon
occum ncur the earth% awfra, Uw d t b d
neutron8 can caw what ir n f d to w induced
radioactivity in the m.bri.k p m n t In
the earth. Thts mqy be accompanied by NiktionruhiehwillbepartofmdalVed~
Since induced radioactivity ir primuily
UI aspect of reddual nuclear radiation, it wiii
be d i d more fully in the section under
that hudinp (Par. 4-8.6.8.).
i
A ~ L t o k ~ , t h o ~ r m m r , r a y e x -
gorm dau multing from a nuclear explosion
b m w kr with irrcNiw ditt.mcu from
tb point of bun+ The nhtioruhip of the
ndlrtlon dar to the dfr5nm b dependeat
upon the ~UIMfa cton u thome which influence
tb therinal milation: drat. thc gei~ernl de
taw due to tho dispennl of radistion over an
increasingly larger uu M it moves away from
ground zero; and, sceond. to an attenuation
f&r due to absorption md scattering by the
intervening at~osphere.
44.43. (UI IVertrars
Camnu ray8 a n elcctmmagnetic and similar
to X-nyr in character, while n e u t r o ~ a n
nuclear particles of conriderable maas. Bath,
however, affect the huma~r body in the w e
manner. Only extremely large doonr of there
ndiatioar cnn w i b l y be deteckd by the
human mses. Even though neutron radiation
repwanb only about 0.026 per cent of the
tow explosion energy. the long range wnttration
chamt.erirtiu of the neutrons nuke them
a 8igniAunt b r d .
EamntLlly, all the n e u t r u ~a ccompanying
the detonation of a nuclear weapon are released
In the h i o n (or furion) proceu. All the
I I O U ~ ~fMro m a furion reaction, and approxim8teb
99 per cent of thore from a ftsion
d o n am pmduced within r millionth of a
M C O o~f ~th e hitlation of the expldon. Thew
M refemd to u the prompt neutmru
In addition, somewhat IGM than the remaining
one per cent of the W o n neutrotu, called
the drlPyal neutrons, are emitted rubmquently.
Evan the delayed neutrons are pmduced in the
lmt minute, therefore. they constitute part of
th. initial nucleu radbtiun. Some neutronm
Jco mult frma the action of high energy
gamma ray# on the nuclear bomb nuterids.
Rowever, arutrona from thi. mrcr make such
a minor contribution that they can ba rudily
b*
lb prompt I IW~ ~ ~altMho,u gh relaud in a
w q ahort tima spur, rre urmawhat delayed in
escaping t !e nvlm~~~l io!f ntt he erplododinp
bomb. ThL delay ir mwcd by numerous eol-
IlrIorv of the neutrons with tha nuclei p m n t
la the bomb reddue, resulting in a complex,
r i e ~p~atho b aam the m t m s t lrnlly -ga
Tb.drLy in t h o a u . # d t b p r o m p t ~ u t r o ~
4 ~OVWW, n0 Iwn tho h~ndndth of 8
laoond
Althoughneutmaatnd.trpa&IrrUun
thJT of light, they r5UI tmvei at ruch apa&
*,at at t h e dkt.aca from the explosion at
which they repmeat a kwrd nearly dl of the
ncutronr are received by the target during the
tirst decond. Consequently, my evuive action
initiarcd at the iart.?lt of detonation would
have little effect in rrducing the tom neutron
dose received.
The neutrons prod& in the h s i o ~pr oecu
am virtually d l h i kinetioaavpy y.rticlu.
These high energy neulmrrr are generally re
ferred to u f a t neutro~. The rrttering collisions
between the fast oeutroru d the
atomic nuclei mult in a dowing down of the
neutrons, and in a corresponding t r a d e r of
energy to the &mic wdci. Themfore, the
neutrons actually emerging from the bomb m y
have ranging from very k t to very
dm.
After t h e nwtroar iuve the environment
of the bomb, they undergo wrr mtbriag collido^
wilh the nuclei of cJnaeutr pmcnt in
the atmorphem Bceru.xe of tho b w u prerrurr,
and density, thea colbioiu uc! ku frepuent
in the atmosphere t&n in t& bomb. but their
effect u ImportUrt On the average, the f w
tid decmur in mtron k gmakr
for mhtively light nuclei (ruch ma thou of
oxygen and nitrqn) than for tho heavier
nuclei. Thb rrrultr in an apprskbl. lbwlap
of the n e u t r o ~d uring their thmud
the atmosphere. Further, h maw collLia~,
particularly with nitrogen nuclei, the neutroar
can be captured and become meffectiw. T&
prob~bility of aptorr im m r wi th the
dower aeutm~.
It ir imporht, in oonmctb with tkr mmwement
of neutma rdLtiopc to kaov rollt.-
thing of the nunaer in which the diattibuV3n
of neutron e m d a (aprdr) vuiv with dl,
bnce from m a d mu From n h d
m u r u r e m c n ~ m A d e * t l u n u e k u U ~
dona in Nevada in I#% for arh pnrtiak
device tuted it would .ppu thnt the margy
apeftrum remains the aamc over the nnr[er
which are GI biological intrreaL T h t condition
k referred to aa an equilibrium apectnrm The
tau number of neutrons per unit area received
at a plvtn distance from grornd zero decwith
increasing distance, but the proportion of
neutmns af any particular enerny range appears
to be csreatially the mame, at all diataaccte
which are biologically of interest (Per. U.3.,
P=~~JJW).
44.4.). (Cl Cl&a of 1Hi)rda a111 Type of
Imnf
r. Cunu Rd*rba
Air density is the controlling factor affecting
nttenution of gamma radiation in the atmosphire;
consequently, prnima radiation duw
variea with air density. Fig. 4-68 jllrurtraks
ymma radiition dose, for different yielda, in
air denaity d 1.0 atmoaphern. Rc~ative air
dmity- ir the ratio of the denaity under a given
wndiiion to tho denrity at a temperature of
! 0@ C and a prcuure of 1.013 millibars flub).
(Standard preaaurerl aLmorphere-1.013 mb
! = 14.7 psis29.9 inchea of mercury.) Typical
relative air denaitier at varioua altitudea me
liated in Tuble 4-7, and information for obtalnlng
relative air density in various nituatioiu
b givsn in F b 4-70 nnd 4-71. The contribution
of relative humidity b the atmo6phetL
density L negligible aa compared rith tho^
changes which are due to tamperature and
p ~ ~ ~ u Trheer.e fo I e h t i s not in:luded
in the pumar do& llwa.
A conrldenble Ructuation of air dcudty ocnur
tlw nhck flunt from a nuclear detonation
hPI) paad a gim pint. The r a i d
I air &uuity in the negative &me Jlowa a heavy
I dore of gamm ram b uriw at the point
before the dr d l c ~ i t yr eturn# to Ita ambient
value. This hydrodyruunic enhancement m r i a
with weapon yield, rmge, and height of burst.
The enhancement factor inemam with inmv~c
ing yield and distance, within the ran- of
i n h u t . From a b u d eloae ta the rurface of
the earth, WIU be both a direct hock
ww a ~ h o ~WrY C. a muit,
the shock enhancement of fke d m is greater
for bar& w or n u r E r siillocs than it L j for higher allude burate. when thr magni-
TABU 4-7 (a. TYPICAL mnva AIR
DENSITIES (RI. PRISSURI (C), AND
IILIrCUTURES t i ) , AT VARIOUS ALTITUEI
(kt. i l l (Ul
t
Altitude (ft) P (mb) R
( O C ) (" F)
0 1.013 16 69 0.56
-
tvde of the reRefGd rho& wave k unrU The
height of bunt above which the enhancement
due k the rellected shock wave h a"ep ligible
ir Uken an the lower limit of an air bunt,
for the initial gamma radiation effect. Although
a pruci~d~et ermination of this height ir dificult,
or impauible, with extting data, a maled
height-f-burat of 1.600 W8'' feet has btsn
crtinuM RI the point at which the ch.ngeovrr
OCCUII.
6. Surf- Bvnc
Fig. CB8 p ~ tbc inbitid NUtion
dwe in rocntwu, WMU b t me, for
variou yielda of nuclsu weapons debaubd om
the marface of the earth. Thae curva u e promted
for the Ulove air denaity of 1.0. Inatructiom
for Intrrpolating for vdua of &-
tive air denrlty other than that praentul in
Fig. 4-68 air given in Pu. c, following.
The curve# of Fig. 4-88 a n strictly applid
e on ly to a receiver in c b pr oximity to
the earth'# rurface, auch PI a man *ding
on the mnd. The m i v d gamma rry dnre
dew not ail arrive dlmctly or A It1w~f4ght
propagation from the aouree, ocRtnp to mtkr
by the .tmosphcre, and elevation of ths m a
to rignlllcurt dirtan- away from the aurfw
SLANT R W lyd l
R ~ 4N-68 ICL l&ml Gamma Radiolion Dare vs Slant Rap, kfoa Jud ard
Surfoc* Tor~. t ,R mloiive Air Density I .0, for 141t o Z M T Y kblr IUI
UNCL /FIE
permils a larger unount of radiation to reach
him from ail direetio~. ' correct for thia
effect, the d m d mwu iP k~c4. 4 8 rhould be
multiplied by 1.3 when the receiver is tbrro
hundrrd feet or more a h th e wrface, M
would be the eue for p e ~ n n eiln d m a k
c. Dwrr In th frud&m Zone
Thr rho& enhancement of the gomnrp radiation
doae from weapona detonated near the
aurface will be ahout the u e aa that for a
surface bunt. This condition holds through
moat of the transition mns, but dvnpa rapidly
to the air bunt condition near the top of the
zone. For thir row& the Joro from weapons
detonate4 in the tranaitlon wne rhobid be obtriad
frum the rurfuce bunt curves (Fig. 4-
68) in the mnner described.
d. Air Burr(
Aa w d in thii parugraph, the term J r bunt
refera to a bunt above 1,600 W"' feet. The
ahock dnhnneement f u b r of tho initial gamma
radiation from an air bunt h .bout ewd to
that frum a rutfree bunt of hrlt the yield.
Thus, to Rnd the initial punnu radiation d m
received by a surface target from a partlcular
air bunt, the dose delimd during the surfaca
bunt of a weapon of half that yield muat k
found (whlch will have the w m enhancement
factor u the weapon of intemt) . Beuuae the
prmnu flux emitted ia pmportk0.l to yield, the
dou delivmd during the d a c e bunt of tha
mulbr warpon muat then be doubled b obtain
tho dou ddivend by tlu wupou of inbrat la
.ir (Flp.4-W. IfthatrrlcthmoreUunJ00
~abnvetheruri.ccofthecutkthedom
thur 4cuI.t.d IhOUld once &a k multiplied
by 13.
(1) D-w-
Th. c u m of Fig. 4-68 pnrrat the inM@
g u n n u ~ t i o n d w r u t s f u n r t i o n o f ~
forwiolmyiddk Fmmthgrrdu~lwunbd
deitumhed ttu a h t r u ~ aat which a wupon
I of given Jfold wid produce a rpellkd dm, or,
canveraeb, the yield required to produce a
given do# at a d4red range.
The mn k dirrdly applicabb to burata bn
tho rurface or In tho tnnrltbn zone (height8
of bunt up to 1,600 W"' feet), aurfpcc target#, .
and mditionn of alandard relative air denrity.
The rdrtive air density to be useC is an average
between burst point and receiver. Methods for
obtaining the proper value are detailed in Fip.
4-70 u d 4-71, and for ready reference, atmaspheric
propertia am listed in Tables (-8 and
4-9.
InterpAtion to obtain the initial gamma
ndlotion doae for conditiw of relalve air
demity other than thow pmaentcrd in Fig. 4-68
may be ~on~pl i aheind t he follow in^ manner.
Obtain the dore for the burat height and target
location of i-t, and for the two valuu
of relative air density doaost to the value of intemt.
Plot the dosea, ao obtained, oppcdta .
their mpective relative air denaillea on the
accompanying InhrOolntbn rhert (Fig. 4 4 9 ) .
nnd cumact two pointr with a atraight line.
The doair4 dose k then r e 4 opposite the in

torrrdion 0: thk Urn wlth ttU vllw of r M w rhcn nLblw & drnvity B=U;
.Ir density in quwttol~ When applyin0 thk .nda&mdSaQOr.wbonR=a&
authod of intrrpoktlon, it mu& k born In Th. rrdhtbD
mindtbatthedolrlluutkobW~fortbr
uandtIonofbumtheIehtmdtvpL~- htiw Jr R=O.T.
tion. Solution: Plot thr glva Qar on the dative
(2) Hurpb 1
d r density Ltupol.tlolr b t
Cim: A 10-IKT ~uriace bunt, with rrh- (Fig. 8-11), q p d t c R=OB and
tlve air denrfty Ra1.0. R = 0.6, mpactively. CQ& therc
Find: The do60 at a point on the pmund points by a atmight l i i At the
8,400 ymb from the bumL i n t e d o r of tab line, witb the
Wution: From the 10-MT curve of Fig. 4-
linc eprrenting R=0.7, thr d m
68. the daK at 11,400 yard8 18 Lwdu5800r.
4,000 r. (4) E=u.billV
(3) k p b 2 The curvcs of Fig. 4-68 wply b d a c e
Given: A gammu ndhtion dore.of 1,900 r, bunt weapon# in thr nnp of 'I KT to 20 MT,
For y i e 6 from 1 KT to 100 KT the d m ab -
tained A I ~re liihle wiWn a tactor of 2. For
yirlda m t e r than 100 KT and lea8 than 1 MT,
the doau obtained are reliable within a factor
of 6. For yields above 1 MT the dose8 obtained
M reliable within A factor of 10. ExtrrwlPtion
to yields greater than 20 MT for surface
bunb h not reeommerded The ranw obtained
tor a given dose will be relisble to within
13 per cent tor yields fmm 1 KT to 100 KT,
20 per cent for yiddr greater thm 100 KT and
1- thm 1 MT. and 80 per cent for yields
prerter than 1 MT.
/. Ud.rgr.und BWU
The initial ~PMMra diation dore from
underground nuclear explosion rL a depth nf 17
feet ir given in Fig. 4-72 for A 1-KT debantion.
For yields between 0.2 and 7.6 KT, md
deptha between 12 and 22 feet the dose is
p r ~ p ~ r t i oto~ tlh e yield. ~ x t n p o h t i o nt o
higher yialdr ia unreliable: For d e t o~t i oma t
prroter depUu, the initial pmm dooe ia leu
than that indlmted in Fig. 4-72 The mqpit
u b of (hk reduction with i n c r d depth L
not h o v a The gamnu radiation from 'm
underwater bunt & beliaved to be limilar to
that from aa underground l o t , though it may
well be somewhat greater. The underground
detonation curves of Fig. 4-72 may be used to
estimate initial gammn radiation. dose M 3
function d distance, for underwater bursts.
a. In~ucdoru lor U h g Fig. 4-72. Inifid
Camma Radicllbn D o n lor an
Underground Bum1
(1) ~ r l p c i o n
The curves of Pi#, 4-72 p-nt the Initid
gamma radiation dose as a function of distance
for several air densities, for a 1-KT detonation
17 feet underground. These eurvea m y ulso be
uwd for underwater burst3.
(2) Sfding Produrs
For other yields. at about the same depth and
the m e re lative air demity, the doae at a given
range is proportional to wcnpon yield For
relative air dewlty we Fig. 4-70.
(3)
Given: A &KT burst 16 feet underground.
with reWve dr W t y R=O.S.
Flnd: Thm &tanat at which 460 r initid
gamma dosr L recdved.
460
Solution: The quotient -=SO r dam for 1
6
Fmm the c u m for RaO.9, the range at
which 90 r ia received la 1,100 ya*.
(4) -f
Thc curva of Fig. 4-72 apply to weaponr in
the yield nnp from 0.2 KT to 7.6 KT, and for
actual depthu of bunt from 12 b 22 fad. U d
within the praeribed limib, m l t r am good
within a factor of two, provided the rofl at the
point of burst ia not too different from tha IOU
at the Navrda Test Site. The error that would
k inttroduad by s very different roil t yp~ir
similar in origin, but not neewrlly in -1-
tude, to the error Uurt woPkl be expected from
n dhtindy diffemt burid depth. At th plauent
time, the effect of dl typa -not b c - 4 -
mntod Extrapohtion to otber ylddr Ir unrellrble.
,
L lbeluron Rdk&ua
The neutron radiation dolo delivered PI a result
uf a nuclear detonation varies widely with
different weapon condlturations. Fig. 4 7 3
presents the neutron radimtlon dose versua alnnt
range in various air densities for a 1-KT
detonation. Fig. 4-74 presents the prompt neutron
dose veraus ahnt lange, for three different
weapun yields, for surface bunk in relative air
density of 1.1. The curven of Figs. 4-75 and
4-74 may be eonrldered PI representative of
lbion weapons. From thew curves the slant
lOla.26
26s.00
66293
11666
2.9977
8.786XW
rsalxw
6.841 X 10-1
1.224Xli1 :
22MXlo-'
4.689XlP
1.187XlP
8.810X101
1266x101
SS36XlW
MS8X 1 P
L I l X l W '
m xlo- '
8.641 X lo-"
~ ~ c l l l l b r d d r m l u d 3 w u a m p o a o i
giva~y.i eld will pmdua a rpdftc dcrs. Con-
.rrwly#thryWdnOuindbgmd~.dv=
douatal inonnp, . l ro~~kfwaTdh.e
darpmdict4dfmnFI@.4-7s~tkhfOb
by afrrtorofbnforwupolumW~Lrlr,
q ~ o f w u t m n ~ l n r t r r Ak l
k t b r ~ o i ~ ~ ~ h o n d o r c l f o r a w r y f i p a
d l h ~ l l v y b ~ f r m n t b s N u d . r r
aull.tim H d b d (APSWP-1100), PU!
U.bcd lllld01 a SECRET JurlllorCion (Ral.
66).
Flg. 4-76 pmwnb tha aoubon dirtion d a ~
(1) Snlil# Pmcdura
At a dven m g e nnd relative air dearity, the
neutron d w is ~roportiond to weapon yield.
For relative air dcnuty, we Fig, 4-70,
(2) E.XMlple
Given: A 60-KT 6unt at 2,000 feet above
the surface, when the presaure at
the bunt point u 935 mb, the prersure
at the wrfuw Ir 1013 mb.
Find: The m~ximum dow a t a shnt
lrnw of 1.760 ~ a r & .
Solution: Fnun Fig. 4-70, the relative air
dmity is 0.77. From Fig. 4-73,
for RrO.8, the dore for 1 KT a t
1,760 yards Is 6 rem. Therefore
the maximum dare for 60 KT a t
1,750 yardr and R=O.8 h 6XM)=
SO0 rem
Depending upon wwpon design, the d w
v d w 1n Flp. 4-73 and 4-74 are eatimuted to
be low by aa rnuch u a factor of 4. for cerhin
experimental devinw, and coa be high by a
factor of 10 for other w e a p o ~ .
(1) sl8mll.l Raadnm
At a dven r a n a and relative air detuity the
neutron dom t proportid to the yield of the
weapon. See Fk. 4-70 fcr dotemahtion of
nlative alr &arity.
(2) riblnPie
Glwn; A ZBPT bunt at an altltude of
2,000 feet above the rub, whem
the pmsure at the burnt point L
800 mb, and the prruun at the
rurfm L 800 mb.
Find: he A n t range at which a mini-
Solution: From Fii. 4-70 the relative air
cbnrity fr 0.77. The conwpaadhlg
With mapeft to the rate of speed of neutron
travel, any evasive action takcn a:ter the ins
h n t d detonation would have little effcet.
For, while i t u true that n e u t w travel with
clpeedr Icu than that o! light. a t such distancer
from the explosion that they reptwent a hazard,
nearly all of the rreutrons are received
within a tenth of a second. This rapid rate of
dellvery exists for neutron radiation regardless
of yield.
U . 4 . L IU) Ulddlrg
E clk.ral
The bait data newmar)' for accurate consideration
of nhieldiny pmbletns include: the
variation of dole with diatance from the p i n t
of detonntion; the angular diatributior. of neutrons
and grimrua rudiation; and quantitative
information, eonccming the spectral distribution
of fast neutrons. Empirical dam and formulw
have been collected and presented in *e
praceding oectionr of t h t chapter to sugply
doledistance relatiomhips. The pmWm of
providing sutRcient information concerning the
angular diatrlbution and radiation spectrum is
more diicult one.
Until very recently, quantitative infonuntion
in t h w areor are practically nonsxistant. In
January 1460, the Los A1Pn;os ScientiAc Laboratory
publiahed the reaultr of a Monk C d o
calculation of the distribution of neutrons,
which give neutron fluxerr and clpeetra M a
f u d o n of d i e an d time (Ref. 62). The
Nuclear& odurtr Divkiun d tha Lockhred Airemft
Corporation, in conjunction with the
Aberdnn Roving Cmada Bahtic Raerreh
kborrtorly b currently engaged in r study
of nuclear warpom radiition daor in umomd
vehicles, utilizing. the Monte Cado technipue
(Ref. MI.
Rkhie urd Hunt (Ref. 63) have contributad
much infonuation on the angular dhtribution
of nudear ndhtion, and have applied thb data
to studier of light buildings ruch M thore
present at lIirorhims and NagdcL
The utilizrtlon of these teehnlquer involvea
d h n b computer programs, and a a p i s r t e d
knowieige of the subject. Xiereioia, tha ddlscuuion
of hielding which followr d l mrlte
certain b i c mumptionr, which will allow the
de.dopment of approximnte rnethoda of computation
on a more general level. Detail information
on the mure advanced techtripua may
be found in Refs. 62.63, and 64.
b. C m n R~q Shidding
(1 ) Ccacrd CPadder.clonr
Cumma rays are attenuated t o some extent
in the colrne of their paage through Any material.
As an opproxi~nntion rule, lt may be
mid that the decrease in the radiation intensity
ia dependent upon the mass of material that
intervener Setween the source of the ray6 and
the point of observation. Therefore, it w d d
require a grwter thickneaa of low density material
than of high density materirl to provide
equivalent attenuation. Acttlolly, it is Brat por.
aible to attenuate gamma rays completely, but
if a suRLcicnt thicknern of matter is intorpod
between the radiation cwume and the target,
the exporure dose can be reduced to negligible
pmpurtions.
In a vacuum, gunma rays travel in u straight
line with the speed of Hght. However, in a t m w
phrre. pmma radiation & scattered, wrticu-'
lnrly by oxygen aud nitrogen particles. AI a
mult, the gamma rays arrive at the target
fmrn all directions. Most a. the dose received,
will come from the directio~o~f the explwion,
but a co~uiderable amount of n u t t e d radiation
will arrive from other directions. -4 person
taking shelter behind an embankment or a hill
will b partlPlly shielded from the di& radiation,
but will still be expored b mtt~red
pmna rap. A k u a t e protection un bn ob
t a l d only If the shelter eompletcly ~ u w n d r
the individual, ao Uut both direct and Mtkd
r a d i a t i o ~u n b e attenuated.
The shielding effcctive~ar of a & e n nubrial
In d a c d n g the radiattoa intcnrlty CUI
be conveniently ropmnted by a quurtfty m
f e d to rs t!!e Wf-value layer thickneu. Thi
is the thicknem of the p.rt1cul.r mrtarlal
which n b r h half ?he gammn d h t i o n falling
upon it. Each auccendlng half-value layer
thickneaa decresler the radiation dore by half.
PI follows: one hlf-valw layer thidwerr d e
e n v u the ndktion done to M f of its oribnal
va!'~~t;w o half-due hyem rrdvce i t to on+
quarter; three to oneeighth; four to onedxbenth,
and so on.
From Fig. 4-76 ior R=0.8 a d a
d a a e o f ~ m m , m d r l a n t r a n p c
=s,roo yards.
Reliability ir very puor, due to aimoat wmplete
lack of data and aenaitivity of neutron
&Ix to weapon deaign. Actual dose m y be
within a factat of 10 of dose computed uaing
Fig. 4-76. Extrapolation of curves to riant
nnpu Isu .W 2,000 yards k not recornfwdad.
CUJ. 1CI MI- kh
In order to detonnlne thu amount of radiotion
which could & avoided by U n g aheltar
within a w n d or two of oboerving the lumC
now &ah of the sxplorlon, it ir neceuary to
know the r& at which the r r d i a t i o ~ar e delivered.
ThL differs for the p s mr~rry r and
thencutronr.
niyl h dependeut upon a number of f&m
the uuut aiyrriAud d which .n the energy
y i e I d o f t h e ~ . p d U u ~ f r o m ~
pulntof bunt Thr-bmolt&toWdo#
d v o d at varlour tlpW tor two dliXemt e ~ e r
ia b w n in Fig. 4-76. One a w e repreaentr
the rrte of delivery a t r d U c e of 1.000 yPrdr
from a 20-KT air bunt. and the other at 2.600
yarda from a CMT explodon. AJ shown in the
Rpre, about 66 per cent of the total initiai
gamma radiation dow h delivered in the fimt
seeond, in the Ant cam, and about 4 per cent
in the aecond mar.
It is conceivable, thandore, that U rome ahelter
could be obtained within the Int veond
(e.g., by failing pnme behind a mhtontirl object)
in certain circuadan#l it might r d e
the dlffomnrr between life a d death. The
curv.r in Fig, 4-76 aha ohow that for a bomb
of high enerpy the punrmr ndi.tkm mry be
emitted more rlowly Uua tor one oS relatfvaly
low yield. A+dcLnoa $, port of the initie
gnmma my doro would appsv to be mom pnctical
for explodam of higher ararpg ~leldS.
Tk. umo wried rule on be applied to my
apecidd fraction. For example. a onctenth
value War would reduce the radlatlon by a
factor of 10; two ondeath value layers by a
factor of 101 (loo), e t c
Strictly speaking, the half-value layer thickn
u concept ahould be applied only to shielding
againat gamma radiation meetiw the following
couditiom: all of the radiation must be of the
same energy range, because diderent energy
gamma rays are attenuated at different rates;
and the radiation muat be monodirectional, or
the shielding material must be relatively thin.
Although none of t h w conditions actually apply
in hielding a g a i ~ gt a mma ra,x fmm a
nuclear explodon (the rays cover wide energy
ranges, are ~preado ut over a considerable areit.
and thi* shields are necewuy), adjusted half-
'due layer thicknews can rerve a useful,
practical p u m e , by providing r rough approximation
of the degree of atteauation that
can be achieved by meam of a particular
mount of ahidding.
The chief materlala likely to be available for
ehieldtng against the initial gamma radiation8
a m steel, concrete, earth, water, and wood
The approximate half-value layer thicknebses
for theae ruhtPneu are &en in Table 4-10.
With fair accuracy, the d a b in the table are
applicable to thick &el& and to the energy
rangea that &re moat rignificant In the initial
radiation. In general. .r pnvioualy
=the more d r w the nukrkl, the more
dective an attenuating substance it makes.
TABU 4-10. ACIRO)(IU*YI HALF-VALUE
unr~~lc rnesseso r: umrlru FOR
INITIAL CAMMA RADIATION
- --
Half-Vdue
Dendty Thicknem
Markl (Ib/cu i t ) (in.) Product
9hal 490 1.82 882
c o ~ ~ e t e 14 ao 864
Earit 100 7.6 760
Water 624 13 811
Wood 34 23 782
Fmm tha rault~h tlu lut u hm d Tabh
4-10, it b 8een tbt the pmbrt of the density
and the half-vdw tbi.bYU for tbr five nubri.
Lurwpblytheynw. ComquenUy,Kthe
U-value thicLncu of a 8- is wt
known. but the W t y is, a f d r eatimate can
be made of i b &ectivenaa. Thii u accomplished
by ~ u m i n gth at the product of the
half-valuc layer thidmerr. and the dewity in
pounds per cubic feet, Labout800 pound inches
eu f t '
The attenuation factor of a given ahield eon
be readily calculated from the number of halfvalue
thickneaes, togetbr with the data in
Table 4-10. For example, a &inch thick l i e l d
M) inches
of earth will contain -4.0 half-value
746 inched
t h i c k n m . The at&R'uation factor L then
2'= 16. ao tlut the pnuna radiition doae will
have been decrrvrcd to 1/16th of that which
would have been received without the lield.
The erlculations may be rimplikd by the use
of Fig. 4-77. in which the attenuation factors
are plotted for vanour thicknorwr of lead, iron,
concrete, earth, water, and wood. Suppom tbat
at a given loution, the gamma ray expsure
without rhielding L 660 roeatgem The thicknew
of a mate* required to ~xduce the do^
b 10 mentgens would b found ar follow: The
The foregoing dkcllvion of initial gamma
radiation lidding hrr been nowwht general
in naturo. Enough infomution Iua been provided
to enable the ulu to nuke reamable a p
proximatfopu of the WWu matariab .rUl
thickntwr rrpulred to wccadully attearub
the inltid gamma rdi.tioar The fdlowhg
paragraph will deal with aome of the mom
technien) rape& of pmrrv rdktion and ab
rorptioa,
U a narrow ( a d l i i ) houri of gamma
ray6 of r rpecik aergy having m btfnrity of
I., falL upon a thlhmm, z, of a given rrmtuial,
. .
in eentiicten, ro h t . t h e corruponding unit
for ia the m i p r o d centimeter (em-'). The
rrdktion intenaity b dcfiaed u the rate at
which the energy flows paat a unit area a t a
given location. I t h ementially proportio~ial to
the upooure d m rate. The value of H, for cr.y
materid and for gamma rays of a specific
energy, b proportional to the aum of the a m p -
ton. photoelectric, mZ pair production effects
(Ru.4- 83.1. p d i n a ) . It can be aeen from
Eq. 4-90 that, for a given thichcar, r, of material,
the intensity, I, of the emerging gamma
rays will be leu the larger the value of b. In
other wo r k tho linear akrpt ion co~ficientis
a marwrc of tke shielding abiiity of a definite
thickma of any material.
The value of p. under any givm conditions
can be obtained with the aid of Eq. 4-90, by
dstcnnining the gamma ray intensity More
and after lurupe through a known thickneu
of a material. Some of the data obtained in
thL mmner, for punnu nyr mdng in energy
from 0.6 Mcv to 10 Mev. are recorded in Table
4-11. The valuer, liven for e o ~ l ~ a at pep ly b
the camon mixture having a danrity of 144
pounds per cubii foot. For specid. heavy concrrkr,
eoslkiainrims.imaaridqorhr;l*~lr
the coclfidento am iParvd rouphly in pm
portion to the cluuity.
J y ruitpbb - acid throrrtiul
ulcu\.tiom, it L p o u l b b t o ~ t h e w p
w eontributionr of tJm Cam- ERtd (k),
of the photocl&e aikeL (dl ud of * production (p,,) b the totrl linear Jrorption
coeficient. The r a u l b lor led. a typial he~vy
element are presented in Fig. 4-78, and thore
for air, a mixture of Light elolcmsntr. in Fig.
4-79. I t is seen that for low gamnu-ray energies,
the linear h r p t i o n mclReirot decmwa
with increnaing energy. Thk phenomenon &
due b the Compbn rmd photor!ectric el€&
(Par. 44.3.1, preceding). At energim in exof
1.02 Mev. pair production begins to Mke an
increasingly ripifiunt contribution. Therefore,
a t suMcienUy high a&, the rhorp.
tion coemcient bcyinr to inereue after fint
w i n g through a minimum. Thu is apprent
in Fig. 4-78. For ekmatr of bwer Ptomic
weight, the inmame don not wmmenoc until
exceptionally Ugh ewgiea we obkined; e.g..
about 17 Mev for uwmh .Dd 60 ldev for
water.
Thefrettlutthe.borpnondcereucuutho
p.mnrra~e~~)rpyinewcq.admpypiur
through a minimum, hu M i m p o h ~htv nng
on the nhklding problvn For -pb, a
rhield d m i d tq &bu& 8.unm. nyI of 1
Mev energy will be much Irr & d w for
--- - - - -
0.6 1.11 X 10- 0.097 022 0 s 1.7
LO 0.81 X l(r 0.Wl 0.16 0.4'7 0.80
2.0 0.67 X lo-' 0.019 0.11 0 s 0.62
&O 0.46 X lW 0.040 0.088 028 0.47
4.0 0.41 X lo-' 0.084 0.078 026 0.47
6.0 016 X lo-' O.(1SO 0.0n 025 0.60
10 -0.26 x lo--' o.wa 0.060 0 s am 4481
rpdlntiom d 10 Xev energy, brinw of the
decreue in the vds- of the rhorption dcimt.
Thlr b true mgardku of the material of
which tlm rhisld Ir c ~ ~ ~ p o r s d
The initial gamma my4 fnnn r nue&r amlorion
wwr r wide raqp of energies, up to 10
Mev or mom. For tha puurpou d mrlrlnp r p
pmvlmptn s h i d d i~r tllprta, an empirlcli
d u e of 4.6 Mev r ~ r mto d w ut*fdrv
lapulh. Tho half-vnlw Iqyrr thicknu~up
wted In Table 4-10 ~8 bud OpI Iommr
radiation of UIL c~ezrnc~ezrn
AJ a mugh .pproxLar.tion. the linur Pbow
tion d c l m t for gamma my8 of r particular
energy hW b m f ond b b pl "p0~iO~t0l t h
denrity of the shield mated* Le., the linear
rbrorptlon coalIel.nt divided by the deruity b
apprn.imr,*& tha ume for all rubrturccr In
.nu rpsdfkd rnaw rage. TZlL auotiaut L
~ l p r d m c d t o u ~ m u r . b r O r p t t o l l
Eodlcbat T)IL Ir ape'rlll true for - u i b w d ~ i u m r b m i c ~ t 8 , ~ t h s
Colnpbn .fleck mrLa the nulor contribution
to (lu rbrwpth eoctilrimt. For the hW
~ ~ t h o e ~ e c t i v e m u r . b r o r p C i o n c u -
dEdeat hu r d u e c'-u to 0.021 for w h ,
wood, macmt8, CUruI, and imn; the drnritiw
klng aprrwd in gram8 per cubic cantlmoter.
lb wlw 0.021 hPr indaded in it an adjutmeat
to allow for the codltionr wplyinp to
thlek &id&, - nrbrcpucnt.
UJng the lymbol * for the dem(ty of the
~ m ~ ~ E q . C S O c m t & n k ~ k n
in the fonn
a d the .ttrauatlon factor of a thfchurr of z
,m o? MY mtcrkl of known denaity cm be
e m at omic might.
A half-value bar, w previously deflned, L
the thickmu qf any materid which will &nuate
rpacifiadarcm ~ m a rud i.tion by r frc

The haU-value thickness is, therefore, invenely
proportional to the linc~ar absorption
coefficient of the given materinl and the specified-
energy rays, and is independent of the radiation
intensity or dose.
If the m a s absorption coefficient b,pis taken
to be a constant (0.021) for gamma rays in the
initial nuclear radiation, then lrom Eq. 4-94.
For a tenth-value layer thickness,
and
P
Eq. 4-90 is strictly applicable only to cases in
which the photons scattered in Compton interactions
may be regarded as essentially removed
from the gamma ray beam. This situation
holds fairly well for narrow beams, or for
shields of moderate thickness, but it fails for
beams with a wide field or for thick shields. In
the latter case, the photon may be scattered
several times before emerging from the shield.
For hroad radiation beams and thick shields,
such as are of interest with ~ ~ g atro dsh ielding
from nuclear explosions, the intensity, I, of the
emerging radiation is larger than that given by
Eq. 4-90. Allowance for the multiple scattering
of the radiation is made by the inclusion of
a build-up factor. This factor is represented by
the symbol B ( z ) . and the value of B ( I ) depends
upon t!!e thickness of the shield. Eq.
4-90 is now written as
The magnitude of the build-up factor hss
been cnlcuiated for a numhr of elements, from , lheoretical consideraticns of the scattering of
photons by eleetrona. The build-up facton for
monoenergelic gamma rays hnving energies of
4 Mev and 1 Mev, respectively, are givenin
Fim. 4-80 and 4-81 as functions of the atomic
number of the absorbing material, for shields
of various thlckneauea, expressed in bnns of I .
The build-up factors in Fig. 4-80 can be applied
to the nbsorption of the initial nuclear radiation,
and those in Fig. 4-81 to the residual nuclear
radiation (Par. MS.f,o llowing).
From the preceding dkussion, it can be seen
thal the half-value and tenth-value layer cvncepts
apply only to monoenergetic radiations
and thin shields, for which the build-up factor
is unity. However, as already discussxl, by taking
the mass absorption coefficient for the initial
gamma radiation to be 0.021, an approximate
empirical correction has been made for
both the pulyenergetic nature of t t e gammarays
and the build-up factors due to multiple
scattering of the photons. Consequently, Eqs.
4-95 and 4-96 are reasonably accurate when
used to calculate the initial gamma attenuation.
It may be noted that the attenuation factols in
Fig. 4-78 also include allowances for multiple
scattering in thick shields. F i p . 4431 and 4-82
may be used in conjunction with Eq. 4-97 if
more accurate results are desired.
c. Neutron ShiclAing
Neutron shielding is a completely different
problem than shielding against gamma rays.
As far as gamma rays are concerned. shielding
is a matter of interposing sufficient matter between
the radiation source and the target.
Such is not the case with neutron shielding. An
iron shield, for example, will attentuate bomb
neutrons to an extent, but it is far less effective
---
ATOMIC NUMBER
Figun.440. Build-Up Foclor or o Funchn of
Atomic Number for Cornmo Ro)% in Initiol NucI.01
Rodidion 14.0 Mevl
Figure 4-81. Build-Up Focior as o Function of
Atomic Number for Comma Rays in Residual
Nvckor Radiation 11.0 Me4
-
than the shields which wLi be discussed in the
following paragraphs.
The attenuation of neutrons from a nuclear
explosion involves several different phenomena
First, the very fast neutrons mwt be slowed
down into the moderately fast range; this requires
an ineiastic scattering material such as
barium or iron. Next, the modemIPteIyfa st neutms
must be decelerated into the s!ow range
by means of elements of low at~micw eight.
Water is very aatiictory in this rerpeet.
Then, the slow neutrons must be absorbed.
This is not a difficult matter, as the hydrogen in
water will do the job nicely. Unfortunately,
most neutron captures are accompanied by the
emission of gamma rays. Therefore, as a final
consideration, s1ufTicient gamma attenuating
material muat be included to minimize the
aseppe of captwe gamma rap.
In genera!, concrete or damp earth would
represent a fair compromise fm neutron 88
well as gamma-ray hielding. Although these
materiala do not normally wntein elements of
high denaity, they do have a fairly Lge proportion
of hydrogen to slow down and capture
neutrons. and a considerable portion of calcium,
, silicon. and oxygen to absorb the gamma radiations.
A thickneas of 10 inches of wnmte will
decrease the neutron doee by a factor of a y
proximately 10, and 20 inches by a factor of
roughly 100. The initial gamma radiation
a would be attenuated to r leurer extent, but if a !
saf?icie?t thicknm were employed, concrete
could be used to provide dequatr wteetion
frnm neutron and ganma raZiathn. Damp
eafih may be expwted t r~a ct in a somewhat
similar manner.
An increase in the attenuatio~fs ctor m y b e
achieved by using a "heavy" concr*te, made Dy
adding a good proportion of an iron oxide ore.
The presence of a heavy element improve^ both
the neutron and the p s m - r a y attenuation
characteristics of the macerial. The attenuation
of the neutron dwe by a factor of 10 requires
atout 7 inches of this heavy mix. '
The presence of boron, or a boron compound,
in neutron shieXs offen certai:, advantages.
The lighter (bo:on -10) isotope of the element
captures slow neutrons ver/ readily, the reaction
being ncccmpanied by the emision of
moderatc energy gamma rays (0.48 Mev) that
are more wily attenuated. The mineral colemanite.
which conkins a lame proportion of
boron, can be ensly incorporated into concrete.
' Neutrons, like gamma-rays, suffer eomiderable
scattering from the atmasphere. However,
at longer ianges from the point of detonation,
the atmospheric scattering has so attenuated
the neutrons that they do not make a large contribution
to the total dose. At shorter ranges.
as in the ease of gamma rays, adequate protection
can be secured only from a shelter which
is shielded in all directions.
The aGuation of a narrow beam of neutrons
by a shield can be represented k an equation
similar to that applied for gamma rays:
N = N.CS i4-98)
Where N. is the neutron d m that would be
received without the shield, and N is the dose
penetrating the shield of z an thickness. The
symbol P represents the macroscopic crmu seetion,
which is similar to the linear absolption
coefficient for gamma rays. Actually, there is
a specific value of Z for every neutron energy,
and for each type of reaction the neutron can
participate in. However, for shielding calculations,
an empirical value based on actual messurements
is u d . This experimental P is a
complex average for all the possible neutron
interactions over the range of energks in

TABLE 4-12. EMPIRICAL MACROSCOPIC
CROSS SECTIONS FOR ATTPMUATION OF
FAST NEUTRONS
Water
Concrete
Iron cbncrete 0 16
volvcd. Some rrugh values of x for fast ncutlons
are contained in Table 4-12; these include
an adjustment for bwad neutron beams and
thick shields.
(U) When a substance possesses a relatively
large macroscopic c h se ction, this n;eans
that a smaller thickness c f the inaterial will be
as effective as a greater thickness of a substance
with a smaller macroscopic cmss section.
Thus, concrete containing iron is more
effective than ordinary concrete. There is no
simale correlation, however, between the density
of the material and attenuation, as is true
in the case of gamma rays. In conclusion, it
should be emphasized that a good neutron
shield must do more than attenuate fast neutrons;
it must be able to capture the retarded
neutrons and to siuorb any gamma radiation
accompanying the capture process.
4-85 ICI Rddnal Radiation and Fallorf
Although most of the damage nmnlpanying
a nuclear explosion oemn within a few seconds
after the instant of detonation, there is a
further hazard which extends over long periods
of time. This haurrd, residual nuclear radioactivity,
is most interne when the weapon is
exploded a t such an altitude that surface particles
are drawn into the fireball. The intense
heat of the Arehll change8 the physical characteristics
of the particles, causing them to be
' come efficient scavengers of the finely divided radiosctive remains of the m p o n . Under the
action of gravity. these particles then fall and
are deposited over an a m which may cover
t!iousands of square mila. The size and pattern
of the fallout are determined by auch fact
o n ns particlc size, cloud hcipht, a ~ wdin d
velocity and dimtion.
Fer nn air bunt, psrticulnrIy when the fire
ball is well above the earth's aurface, a fairly
sharp dirtinction can be made between the initial
and the redidual radiation. After the first
minute, essentially all of the radioactive residue
has riaen to such a height that the nuclear
radiations which reach the ground are no
lonwr significant. The particles nre finely dispersed
in the atmosphere and descend to earth
very slowly. For energy yields less than 100
KT, the height of burst a t which f a l lo~c~eta seq
to be significant is approximately 100 W"' feet.
For yields in excess of 100 KT, although not
well substantiated, this height may be conservatively
taken to be 180 Wc4 feet.
With surface and, especially, subs~~rfacexeplosions,
the demarcation between initial and
resirlual radiation is not as definite. Since some
of the radiations from the bomb residues will
be within range of the earth's surface a t all
times, the initial and residual radiation categories
will merge continuously with cach other.
For very deep underwater and underground
b m t s , the initial radiation m y be ignored.
The only radiations of significance are these
arising from the bomb residues, and these can
be treated exclusively as residual nuclear radiation.
The fission products constitute a very mmplex
mixture of some 200 different isotopes of
35 elements. Most of these isotopes are radioactive,
decaying by the emission of beta particles
and gamma radiation. Appmximately
0.11 pounds of fission prnducts are formed fw:
each kiloton of fission energy yield. Initially,
thc total radioactivity of the fission products is,
extremely large, but the radioactivity falls off
at a fairly rapid rate.
At one minute after a nudear detonation, the
radicactivity from a onekiloton weapon (0.11
pounds of fission pmducts) is comparsble to
that of a hmdred t h o w d tam of radium.
Thus, it can be seen +htt he radionctivity p m
d u d by megaton explosions is enormous. In

deed. the radiation interuity a t the end of the
dint day u still large, even though it hw d e
d by a facbr of about 6,000 from the
wncentmtion pnrent one minute after detonation.
An indication of the rnte a t which the Ruionproduct
radiosctivit) decreases with time may
be obtained from the following approximnte
rule: for every wven-fold increaae in time
after the exploaiun, the activity &crews by a
factor of ten. Fur exrrmple, #:ring the radiation
intenalty at 1 hour after deb u t i o n an a reference
puint, at seven hours aAw the explosion
Intewity ~r1t h r
the inbnaity will be 10 a t 7'
By meana of thiv reference dose rate and the
curve, it t pauible to determine the dose t.te
at any Lime after detonation. Thus, if the duu
lmte at 24 houn desired, Fig. 4-82 b entered
at the point representing 24 houn on the horizontal
scale. Moving vertically until the plotted
curve is intersected, it is wen that the required
dose rate ia 0.02 times the 1-bur reference
dore reto, or 0.02X100=2 roentgenn per hour
(r/hr).
If the doae rate at any time ia known, the
rate a t any other time can be debmined by
comparing the rvtior to the 1-hour reference
for the two giver timer. For exsmple, if tho
d m rate at 3 hours k known to be 60 roent-
Intensity a t 1 h;-
h ~ u mit will be' at 7' houm it
will be
Inknrity a t 1 h r
10' , etc Thh rule b
ruughlr applicable for u h u t 200 daya after the
cxpldon, aftar whfrh time tire radiation inten.
rity dcayr aC a nlure rapid mtu
b. RmdI.J.n b w R6u
Pig. 4 4 presents dntP concerning the decmm!
of activity of the ttrsion produeto. b~
ylolting the time after the explosion againat
the ratio of the exponuredole-rate to the onehour-
refcrenccdo6e-rPte. It is to be ncrW that
at great distances from the pmund zero of high
yield explolionr. the h i o n products may not
arrive until levera1 houn huve e l a p ~ d . Newrtheleu,
the hypothetical dose rate at one hour
Ir &ill wed or a refero~lcoi n making calculatinu
In much a cue, the reference value ia
dellnod tn ba what the dwo rPto would have
been one hour after the explosion, if the fallout
M beon eumplokr at that time.
For arunylc, a t 4 plvm looUon the fallout
~~mmtnceata five houn after debnation. At
15 hourr the fmUout ir complete, and the obmwed
dore rate ir 8.9 nwntgelu per hour.
Entering Fig. C82 a t 16 hourn, on the lower
male. rcnd rudinp the male at the left opgarite
the i k m c t i o n i f the curve and the l&hour
. . .
-0.099. From thL the 1 hour rrfonnco d w
&, 0.031 the value at 18 houn is 60X--6o.7. n
r/hr, where 0.031 and 0.27 are obtained from
Fig. 4-82.
Tho results in Fig. 442 .ko may be regrerented
in an aiterrste form, u in Table 4-18.
This h a more convenient, although krr ampW.
pmntation of data. The 1-hour dglc
ence d m rate b token u 1,000 (any radiation
unitr ddml). The doae rates a t a numbr of
wbwquent times are given in the table. If the
dose rate at any time after the explosion in
known, the dose rate at y.1~ot her t h e , within
the limib of the table, can be determined by
rimple proportion.
tMU 4-11. RNAWVC DOSI RATES AV
VARIOUS TIMLI A r n R A NUCLUR
aFLOsION
Time Relative Time Relative
(houra) Doac Rqk I houirr) Dome Rate
4% r l C U Y l O r T ~ ~ D O y
Fig. 442 and Tabla 4-13 ue usad uniy for
tho orlculationr of dou Wm. In order to
determine the actual w total ndiPtion dore
received it b necmuy to multiply the dose
rate by exposure time. taking into account the
decay of the &ion ptwiuctr with time..
The 'mixture of radiodopes conrtituting the
h i o n producta ia M complex that a mathematical
repreeentrtion of the rate of decay in
terms of individual hnlf livea is impractical
Howeber, from experimental +ata it hPr been
determined that, for the pcriod of revcnl minutes
to wveral ywn after detonation, the overall
rate of radioactive deup can be e x p r d
by the relatively simple equation
Rate of d&integrntjon=Alt4 * (4-90)
where t ia the timc after tha expbrion. und AI
b a conutant factor (defined u the rah of d h
integration ut unit time) that is depcndcnt on
the quantity of h i o n producta. With appruprkle
valued of A,, thh equation can uho be
uud to give the ratea of emhion of beta
ticlea or gamma WE. A beta particle k
emittod with each diaintegmtion, but pamm~
ray photona .ue liberated only in approximately
M f the dbintegrotlons. The erpct fruction
vPrier with the time after the exphion.
In conridering tho dose rate due to fluion
products, the ray?, b wof their long
range and penetrating power, are of much
gmkr ripoihnce than the beta partick.
(Thin u not true if Ule beta pulicicr ere on the
rLLn or wlthin the body.) 'Ibdore. far mort
cam the kt. particle d W n can be
neglected when atimating the done rate v v f ~
tlon with time. Since the nya in the
arly rtrpg of Mw-product d w have
&her ew-gka than tharo emitted Inter. the
duumtu~~~ll0t1)11dlr(lftlyrelOtdbthemta
of emladon of p ~ mrrq m However, for the
perlod of pneticrl interedt, the mea mmy
of tbe gamma ray photunr may be approxinvtd
u r conrt.lrt 0.7 Mev. Although the
fraction of my unkuioaa vuies slightlr
with the, a fair npprox&ution & then,
CUIUM Radiation DOM hte=r,t-l.'
(4-100)
when r, b a co~tnnte,q uivalent b the rufm
enem dare rate a t a unit time. Usually the tit,
in exprauad in houn, and r, ia, therofon, the
demnee dave rate at one hour &er tho axplonbn.
1 rr reprerenb the dore rate fmm a
certain q d t y of fluion pmducta at t houri
after the 6xplooion. then, from Eq. 4-99,
-.
taking logarithm
r,
u g -= - 1.2 Lop t. (4-102)
).I
. a
t lhould give a straight line of dope -1.2
, . TI When t= 1, r,=r, and -= 1. l'hb
r.
r-e ference point timu& ;hiJI ~ iinr of &pa 1.2 i( drawn in Fig. 4-82.
If the We, t, k in hwn, the ndttion exposure
d m rak T, and r, are e x p d 111
rocntyrms per hour. The toW done in r o e n w
can be readily determined by d i d inbgmtbn
of Eq. 4-100. For the intervl from t, b t,
houn ufter detonation
E,
totaidoae=r, 1 p.*dt
bW cbm=-
-0.2 Itt "t ,
Hence, if the reference d#r rate r, (mnb
gear per hour) u known, the total dole (mentpar)
m y be calculated for any period. The
curve in Fig. 4-88 b derived fmm Eq. 4-1m
with tl Wran u 0.0167 hour (1 minub), the
time at which the renidurt nncleu ndi.tlon b
oortuw wn*.
Another appllertlon of Eq. 4-108 L tho dc
termination of the lmpth of time an individual
can day Within UI a m polltaminatad by fjll.iOll
pmductr, without radving more thrn a rpcci

fled dose of radiation. In this uw, the total
dou ia rpecffied; t, Ir. the known the of entry
intothe-n; md f, h htimeatwhichthe
e x p o d individual mlut lerw The refaem
d m rate, tb murt be known before the quatior
can I# rolved for varioua valm (li L
(Ref. I).
443.3. (C1 Mertnr4dac.d Adklty
L Air Bwrt
The neutron-iwluced gamma activity from
an air burst will depend on mil type u well M
weapon type and yield It is therefore i m p r e
tical to attempt to definer heipht of burat above
w h i i thb affect ceaaa to hsve military ,dp
nibnee.
b, Burd In I& TmndtbI %OM
(1) ccmrai
Even if r n u b r weapun L detonated at r
height of bunt above that at which fallout ir
expcfW ta be a huud, the ruiiorctivity which
ir induced in the mil by neutmnr rUl can give
rim to clorr rata d n~ilikryim pultMce in the
vicinity of ground urn The type, intensity,
and energy JLtrIbution of the miduol d v t t y
produced will dcpmd on which irotopts are prod
u d and in what quantity. Thia, in tunl, d*
pcnda on the iuunbor and energy dlrtribution
of the incident neutmw, and on the ,&emid
e~~porftioofn the roil. Induced eonkdnation
eonburr we independent of wind eNeck ex&
tor maw wind redutribution of the surface
wntunlaurrt, md k exp&cd to be mupith
circular.
Four m h have km ehown b ill- the
extent of the h d wh ich may be &
fivm nwhm-induced activity. The wlb were
ul+ctd ta IIIWmte wide va r i a th,~in p*
dieted Qu raw tbo activity fmm mort o h
wilv h n l d fall within the migo of activicicr
pra#nttd for h wit. The chemical comw
rltion of the aelected aoib h llhown in Table
4-14 (Ref. 21).
The dsmenta which may be e x p d d to contribub
mot of the induced rctivity are dfum,
magame, m d aluminum. $null charig'm in
ths q a a t l t h of thole material8 can chrnp t ~ m
activity nurkedly; howem other elementa
which uptura neutrttm can rLo influence the
magnitude of the activity, The elanmtr uu
lited in Tahle 4-14 in the order of their pmb
able impohnee M far M induced activity ia
wnamed.
Fig. 4-84 indlcaka the manner ia which the
induced activity L expected to vary with slant
range and weapon type. H + 1 hour dasb rater
for the four wilr may be obtained by multiplying
the dwe rate obtained fmm Fig. 4-84 by
the multiplying factor for that mil, rr given in
the inatruetionr for use of the Agure (Par. 2,
following).
In order to calculate the dose rates a t timQ
other than oau hour after the detonation, decay
facton may be token from Fig. 4-66, which
~ p m n tthr e decay cbaracbr*tiu of the four
mils. The decay facton are w~ t a n t aa,n d are
multiplied by the value of tho dDle rate at one
hour, to give the rate at MY other time.
Fig. 4-86 i s prcvlnted to fadlitate cornpubtlPn
of total b e . Multiplying f p c t o ~m ay b
nbtalned fmm tht @re which, when applied
to the oU(Lhnur dnae rate for the particular
mil (Type I), will give the daa accumuhted
over my of weml periods of time, for wioPr
time# of entry into the cont.mlarhd ula*
When applying the data presented to mih
other Ulon thoae uled for illurtratlve purpow,
the retlvfty ahoukl be estimated by wing the
data for the Uluatratiw mil which molt cbrely
reilemblr the loll in qurrlion in chemical composition.
If none of the illurtrative roils rsremb
k th e a i l In quation very d d y . the folbwing
re& clhould be kept in mind, For timm
leu than H + 1/2 hour, aluminum u the mort
important contrlbutar. For tima ktwwn H +
1/2 hour and H + 6 hwn, nugame ir penerally
the mort important dema~t In the ab
mce of mugawe. th d i u m content will
probably govern the activity for this psriod.
Between H + 6 houn and H + 10 houn.
d i u m and aungane content are both iinportrnr
After H + 10 houm d u r n will pnenUy
be the only large contributor. In tlu~
rbenca of d i um, m m p ~ad~ a~lum, i num,
Uw activity will probably k h, urd will genenlly
be pcocrncd by ths r iU~ o ac onbnt. Soil
type IV u ra ulunple of thb lrtbr type. Thw,
the tima (of intereat) dtez H time is d tlg

TABU 4-14. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SELECTED SO115
Percentnge (by weight)
Element
Soil Type I Soil Type 111 Soil Type 17
Liberia. Soil Type I1 Lava Clay, Beach Sand
Africa Nevada Desert Hawaii Pensacoh. Fla.
Sodium
Manganese
Aluminum
Iron
Silicon
Titanium
Calcium
Potassium
Hydrogen
Eoron
Nitrogen
Sulphur
bfagncsium
Chromium
Phosphorus
Carbon
O x ~ m
nificance in the choice of the most reprezentative
soil type.
If a weapon is burst a t such a height as to be
in the transition zone (from the fallout standpoint),
the neutmn-induced activity can generally
be neglected if the burst height is in the
lower three quarten of the fallout transition
zone. For weapons burst in the upper quarter
of the fallout transition zone, the neutroninduced
activity m ~ bye significant when compared
to fallout For the cases where fallout
doae-rate contour parameters, are much smaller
than those for a burst on the surface. an idea
of the magnitude of induced activity may be
obtained from Figs. 444 through 4436. The
overall contour values may then be obtained by
combining the induced activity and fallout sctivity.
For these cases, it must be remembered
that fission products and induced activity will
decay a t different rates. This necessitates a dete~
mination of the magnitude of each type of
activity for each time of interest.
(2) Inskuc t i o ~fo r Uning Fig. 4-84.
Ncu~ron-indmd Gmnu Activity
(a) Description
Given the weapon type and the s h t range
from the p i n t of bunt to the point of interest,
do^ tht will ba r d v e d by o wnon enbaring unit of dove rrb (r/hr). .t one rffcr
a ooat.mlruiad area of soil type I. in tumr of detonation over tiid .dL 'he d o u r ~cuvr i
tb thawf-en?ry d tirrPaof4t.r. he verti- mpnront t i m & o f e in the h.tmbtuJ
eJ ua glvo thc .rrumSted dors lor eaJl uea. To &tennine tbc rcllmuLbd dam, a 1
multiplication factor ia taken from the vrrtical Find: The totpl dose received by a man who
axb, eorrmponding to the inkrreetion of the enkm the area 6 hours after detonation and
t i i f - a t a y curve and the time of entry. The -im 02 h o w
pmbv f thia multiplication factor and the
dola r.;k at OM hour gives the accumulated tio on: From **. the in-ion
dow. of the liar for timo-of-aatry of 6 houn after
( . R*amp& detorntion with the 0.8-hour tirjeof-atay gives
a factor ot 0.09. Therefon. the accurnulal.ed
Given: The dare rate in a given area over
r i l type I at one hour after debnation ia 300
r/hour. d30xO.99=27 r.
Figure 4-86 ICI. Totol Rodiotion D o u Received ie on Aiw C0n)ominatd by
kutron-Induced Carnmo Activity, Soil T y p I (UJ
(1) - Much of the radioactive material of the nudew
explosion u &borne. Thu nuclear &ud
may comtitute a great radiation haad for
roma time for pemonnel in aircraft flying
through it. The cloud dm and rate of rise vary
with the yield of the bomb and the prevailing
mstcomlogied d t i o n r In far-weather detoarLionr,
except where meteorological conditiona
urch u high wind velodti am involved,
the top and bottom of the mwhmm head of
the cloud hrw been obemd to rtrbiiiis In
dtltude at a time appmximately 6 to 10 rninutp.
after dcbnotbn, indcpodrnt of yield. The
.Itit& above uurat point of thiu portion of the
: doud loerrwr with weapon yield, when 0th
forton nrmin tha luaa. Fig. 4-87 illudratea
thh for yiab between 0.1 KT md 100 MT.
The hnight of a nudwr cloud ia influenced by
&wapbdc conditions, which include the tanpentun
gradient, win& dative humidity,
and tha helpht of the trogcpaus~!. Because theae
.Qwpharic efl& am vary miplex. and a h
bauuse it muld k moat difflcuit to eonsidcr
all &blc wmthw vufrllow, r quauUtntfcw
trentmnt of tho ell& of i~tmwphuric conrlitiom
an doud heighb ia not included in this
p u l J i n . Thr: parantrr!~of m~tximumc loud
, h ~ @ t ~ b y U l c d a d u t u a y t i m a m f k r
I a ddo~t iona, nd More rt.blliutioa, iu rslr-
! tively independunt of the yield. %I diamrCLt ' of tbt cloud l n m ra pidly at time -liar
f t&n 1 minuta tster a ~ a t o ~ t i o n~. i t ehr n t
: minub, the width of tlw cloud UICM mow
altitude. This k true for irll yielb exmpt thore
that are extremely larm If ULF ykId tr large
enough for the cloud to reach the trgclpruse,
thc daud rim num slowly upon this
: lwcl uul incrmm in lnkml c i i i u u inom
; rupidly, 41s tblugh flntten~ngo ut opimt a a i l -
ing. The nta of lateral growth of the cloud
daring thir tium t .bout three timea the mtC
before lrrdcinp the tropopuur Mtu reaching
muimum altitude, tha d h e k rlowly in-
~ureruthecbuddrUbdownwriad.
(4 1F=ampb
Given: An 80-KT bunt at 3,000 id above
ternin.
Find: The altitude &ve t e d n of the top
and bottom of the rtDbilted clwd
Solution: From Fig. 4-87. o cloud fmm m
80-KT bunt dabiliza above the burst print nt:
Therefore, the .Ititah above ternin L:
and I
bott~=~000+3,000=41,000id
(b) Rsr;crbi@ 1
~t ir expected that clouda will not rim .bovr 1
thi bunt point mom than 20 per teat higher
than indicated. However, e%trrma in meborn
logical wnditioy vlch u via& of 60 hotr or
g n ~ h r c,a n doudr fmm wenpon ykUu
leu t4un 100 KT to rim only h.li U' hi& u
inclicabd. For yields grunter than 100 KT,
und4r h t all d t i o a r .m etcroml0gif.l am.
ditlom us ku imporl.nt in limiting the IJHt11dea
given.
..&BuNl
Thrr 8lUfm mtrmiartba rdFdr of htlwt
fmm a r a dr-bunt wmpm are miliMly in&-
nidaurt in mollt cases, bauw the bomb clnud , awb practidly 3U thP radioactive bomb
debria to high n l t i t w b In gcnrrrl, by the tlme
thfa uute~.kel rn frll back to earth, dilution and
r u l i ~ d v ed a y wi l l hw dawucd the &
tivity to lcvclr wtiiclr are no I~~twoimr portant
An exception mny tlccur in tlic cusc of a mall

WLAmm YIOL3
Figun 4-87 1 0 . M e Abo w llwd Point cl Top ond lotlorn of Sfobilizui Nuchat
Cloud vs Wwpon Yield lU)
yield weapon burst in the rain. In this case, the
uavenginp effect of the precipitation may wuse
a ninout of radioactive nabrial, creating a
hazard to personnel locnted downwind and
dowuhill, although outride the haz~rd area of
initial radiition and other nuclear effects.
The range of weapon yields for which rainout
may become hawdoffi Is not large, but
quantitative treatment of the problem is difficult.
The wntaminaticn pattern on the ground
depecda upon two major d g ~ m i cp rocesses,
each of which ifi extreknely sensitive to several
factom. The major procesues are: the scavenging
effect of precipitation on auspnded &ion
pmducb in the atmosphere; and the flow and
m u n d a h r p t i o n of rain water after reaching
tlu! g m u d Some of the factors which influence
the scavenging effect are the height and
exter~ot f the rain cloud. raindrop size and
dlatribution, the rnte of rainfall, and the d y a -
tion of precipitation. Other factors of riplifiam
the position of the nuclear cloud
relative to the precipitation, the hygroscopic
duracter of the W o n productr, the wlubility
of tlle h i o n products, and the size of the fkdon
fragments. The llow and ground atwurp
tion of the rain water will, in turn, depend upon
such factom w the soil prority, drainage festures,
including rate of druinnge, and the
degree of soil duration.
Even in extreme cares, the rainout from nn
air bunt should not k a serious military
problem for yields in excess of SO KT, and for
the average case, it ahould not be a aeriow
problem for yields in excess of 8 KT. Althosgh
the weapo~ur of greater yield produce more
radioactive material, the updrnfts cam the
bulk of the material up through the weather to
an altitude above the level of precipitation.
Where a rainout problem doa exist, it muat
be evalunted with respect to h 1 wnditions.
Ditchca, puddles, and low ground where nnbr
collecta should be avoided by personnel u n l a
survey indicates these are= are snfe. Caution
siiould be .,.remised for a considerable distance
downwind .bod downhill from the bunt. However,
as long u drainage u taking pl.cc, the
rate of decreose in intensity ir likely to be
preater than decay laws pndict.
In nddition to rain-out. mother wntanina
tion mechanirm assumes m e im portance in
the case nf a low air bunt. Thia is the fonnat
i o o~f radioactive elements in the mil by action
of the neutrons emitted by the weapon. 'ACtivity
induced in this manncr ia trcatcd in Par.
446.3. preceding.
b. Sur- Clur~r
(1) Lud&urfur Bunt
The d i t i o n nctivity available from weapon
components, a t n refcmnce time of one hour
after the detc nntion, ia approrimtely that corraponding
to 300 mcyncurir~ per kiloton of
bomb rield. For n burst exnctly nt the cunh's
surface. roughly fifty per cent of t l ~ ca ctivity
avdiablc is depurited in the general vicinity of
the detonatiw, r h i k the re~nnindcr is carried
hundreds, or perhaps tb)usunds, of mi1c.r fitrm
the point of dctonntion by the windu of the
upper atmowhero.
In a wmplrtr! calm. the fnll-out contamination
forms a rou~hlp circular pnttern riuund
the point of detonation. The existence of r wind
te& to an rlongated area, the exact nature of
which depends upon the velocity and direction
ot the r!nd, !rom the ground ourface up to the
altitude' of the top of the stabilized el~iud If
the direction of the wind don not v u y ex--
riveiy from the surfuce up to the top of the
cloud. the m n d fall-out contoun m y be
ch.racterized by a circular pattern arrund
bmund zero, and by an elliptical palttern extending
downwind from ground zero. The circu:ar
patbrn k fonned by the rapid settling of the
henvier particukto matter in the stem, while
the downwind elliptknl pattern ia f o d by
f&ut of mailer and lighter particlor from
the cloud.
The existence of complicated wind patterns
(wind dear). u well M variationr of the wind
pattern in time and spaw, may caw extreme
d e p r t u m from a simple elliptical pattern. In
addition, tiu measured dorerate conbun have
frequently been observed to occur In pattern
bwt clerrribed M r neriru of &lands of relatively
high d v i t y surrounded by arena of lower ac-
Uvity. The mort cmmon pattern of t h b type
has been one in which the higher dose-nte contwm
rppur around two d o r areas and one
or more snuk area& One of the larger areas
L in the i d W e vicinity of ground zero
while the other L in the pnerri downwind
d i d o n from ground zero. The loations of
"the srnallu areas of high wtivity lmve not
demonstrated pnttam which can be dcacribed
simply in terms uf the wind sttycture.
The uase ratos ohserved within there high
nctivity a m ha ve been of c v ~ p a n b l am wnitude
when extrapolated back to some early time
after detonation, such an H+ 1 hour. However,
due to the carlier s r r i v~ol f the cont;tminan:,
the activities actunlly ukrved near around
zero have htwn higher than in the areas away
from ground zero. It nhould be notcd that these
islunda of relutively high activity generally
cover arean cmlaid~ra&lyl nrgcr than those of
the "hot spdu," cauued by 1 1 4 met~nrolol(ic:~l
conditions discussed &where. A quantitative
treatment of ruch ~ ~ ~ l p l i c adtcwpul l rltion patterns
would be yurslbl~c mly through use of a
cnmplex cornputationnl mudel, towther with
time-consuming calcuh~tiow. The simplifkd
method f o o~bta ining deposition patterns, which
in presented below, will not prcdict these *In&
of relativclg high activity.
Thu arm covered, and the d c m of l o c r l i i
tion of the contnminatiun, depend nlro upon the
character of the wi1 at th bunt poitc. For
example, a s u r f w debation over dry roll with
amull partide r i m nsub in a lorper th.a
average area enclosed by low dose rab eon-
. toura, and in a smaller than average nreu enclosed
by high dtur! rate contours. A aimilar'
detonation over watereovered, flndy divided
soil, ruch PI clay, probably rerultr in nlrtivrly
high dose contoun over hqpr a m close to
the detonation, with a corresponding duction
in the arena of the lower done-rate contoun
farther out.
In discursiona or the areu aRected by midual
contamination from fallout, it k conve
nient to wt up a system of coniunination dose
rate contoun whlch, although simplified and
idenlhd, fit actual contoun meuured in the
field u donely u possible. Fig. 4-88 Blurtrater
such a contour system. The idealized contour
&own c o d & I. w d l y of two prb: the
ground aoro circle, and an elliptical approximation
to the downwind component of the fallout
The ground zero circle m fonned qu;W won
after L a cicianrtion, largely imm huvy particulate
mtter, thmwout, md roil made active
Ground Zero Dormlnd Displocmr of
(G.Z.1 C n o r of G.Z. Circle
Figure 4-88. Generalized local Contours for
Residual Radiation
by neutron-capture reactions. The parameters
which define it are its diameter and the downwind
displacement of its center from ground
Zerc.
The idealized dowhwind component, consisting
of the fall-out proper, is elliptical in shape.
The parameters which define it are its major
and mnor axes (the downwind and crosswind
extent, respectively). One end of the el!ipse is
a t ground zero. To define the downwind axis,
the simplifying assumption is made that the
downwind direction and extent are determined
by a single wind of constant velocity, the aocalled
scaling wind. To obtain the scaling
wind, it is first xecessary to obtain the resultant
wind vector for each of an arbitrary number of
equally spaced altitude zones located betwecli
the top and bottom of the stabilized cloud.
Each resultant wind vector is the vector avera@,
of all wind vectors for equally spactd aititude
intervals, from the altitude zone in question
down to the surface. The scaling wind is,
then. the vector average of all the resultant
wind vectors for the various altitude zones
within the cloud.
As a rule. wide discrepancy from the idealized
elliptical pattern results if there are large
direetionat shean in the resultant winds computed
for the altitudes of the stabiiized bomb
cloud. Such shears can give rise to 3erious distortion
of the idealized elliptical pattern, so that
in practice radial distortions of these idealized
patterns can be expected. However, contour
areaa will remain substantially unchanged. In
such a case, the close-in portions of the fall-out
pattern, in general, follow the direction of the
. .
resultant winds from the lower cloud altitudes,
while the more distant dnwnwind portions of
the pattern tend to lie in the direction of the
resultant winds from tke upper cloud altitudes.
The idealized contouis described herein have a
more general application.
I t is important to recognize that H + 1 hour
is uscd as the reference time in the preparation
of.ihese contours, and that only the canburs
from low yield weapons are complete ooe hour
after burst time. For very high yield weapons,
fall-out over some parts of the vast areas indicated
does not commence sntil many hours
after the burst. In order to calculate the dose
rates a t times other than 1 hour after the detonation,
decay factors may be taken from Fig.
4-82, which is a representation of the decay
law. The factors are constants, which are multiplied
by the value of the dose rate a t l hour
to give the rate a t any other time. (These
decay factors apply only to fission product contamination,
such as predominates on the gnund
after a surface burst, and must not be used to
estimate the decay of neutron-indcced, ground
contaminaticn resulting from an. air burst.)
The t'.: law, which approximt$s the decay of
the mixture of h i o n products, holds reasonably
well for actual coiltamination over long
periods of time, but not as well over short
periods of time, because of the pr5sence of
weapon contaminants other than fission products.
Families of curves (Figs. 4-59 through 4 -94)
are given from which data may be obtained to
draw idealized dose-rate contours, for landsurface
bursts of weapom with yields between
0.1 MT and 100 &IT. h l&knot sealing wind
has been used in the preparction of the curves.
This rate is near the average of the scaling
wind values most commonly encountered under
field test conditions; it is probably a good average
vaiue for general application. Fig. 4-94
p r d d e s height-of-burst adjustment f s d o r
data
Contour areas are substantially constant over
the range of scaling winds likely to be experienced,
but the linear contour d i e n s i o r ~e,x cept
for the diameter of the yound zero circle. must
be scaled. Directions for scnling are given in
Pw. (3f,ol loving. Use of a true ellipse an the
idcalizfrl contour resxlts in ;arcis lwper than
those actually ohservcd. The downwind contours
obsemcd in field tests, in general, cover
slightly less area than true ellipses. For this
reasos, true contour areas should be rend directly
from the area curves. rather than ccmputed
frnm the contour dimensions obtained.
(2) instrurtienr for llrinp Fip. 4-89
tltmugh 4-94. Doot-Ralc Contour
Parmmctrrs
(a) Drscription
The basic d a b presanted in these fimres is
for weapons for which all of the yield is due
tn fission. Howrver, as described below. the
d a b can also be u s 4 to obtain fallout contours
for weapons for wi~ich the fission yield is only
a fractiim of the total yield. prnvided that essentially
all of the contamillation produced (90
per cent or more) is due to fission products.
The dose rate values are even for a reference
time of H+ 1 hour. It must & reco&ed
that the more distant portions cf the larger
contours do not exist a t H+ 1 hour. because the
fallout which eventually reaches some of these
more distant awas is still airbnrne a t that time.
The dose rate contours do exist a t later times.
when fallout is complete, but uith contour
dose-rate values reduced according to the
appropriate decay fartor from Fig. 4-82. Visual
interpolation may be employed for dnse-rate
contour values between those for which curves
are given. Extrapolation to higher or to lower
dose-rate contour values than those covered
by the families of curves cannot be done accurately,
and shoulr! not be attempted.
To obtain drr- rate values for times other
than H f l hwr, decay factors from Fig. 4-82
should be uM. To obtain contour values for
scaling winds othrr than 15 knots, multiply
downwind distance and downwind displace
ment of the ground-zero circle by the appropri-
* ate factor given in Table 4-15, and divide
ctosswind distance by the same factor. Numerical
values of contour arens and groundzero
circle diameten are essentially rindindependent.
TABLE C I S IC). ADJUSTMENT FACTORS
FOR CONTOUR PARAMETERS FOR
,VARIOUS SCALING WINDS (UI
Sca!ing Wind Adjustment
Vel (knots) Factor -
5 0.7
10 0.9
15 1.0
20 1.1
25 1.2
50 1.3
40 1.4
50 1.5 '
For the special (and unusui~l) case of a zero
scaling wind velocity, contours cvoulu' be circular
and centered a t the burst point. with radii
determined from the area curves by the formula:
,ontour Area
Contour ~ a d i u=s ( )"'.
For a burst in the transition zone, a rough
estimate of the resulting fallout contamination
patterns m y be made by mu1t:plying the doserare
contour values, for a contact surface-burst
wapon of the same yield, by an adjustment
factor obtained from Fig. 4-94 for the appropriate
yield and height of burst.
Note that the contribution made by neutroninduced
activity may be sip$ficant, compared
to the fallout activity in the area near ground
zero for weapons burst in the upper quarter
of the fallout transition zone. For guidance, a -.
rough estimate of this contribution may be ' . .
obtained by using Figs. 4-84 through 4-86, to- t .;.
gether with the discussion in Par. 4-8.5.3, precedhg.
It should be recogniml that contour shapes
and sites are a function of the total yield of
the weapon, whe:eas the doserate contour
values are detennined by the amsunt of contaminant
available: i.e., the fission yield. Thus,
if only a fraction of the total yield of the
weapon is due to fission, and this fraction is
known, Figs. 4-89 through 4-93 may be used
to estimate fallout contours resulting from the
detonation of such a weapon. The dose ratc for
the dimension of interest, read from the figures
opposite the total yield, must be multiplied by
the ratio of fission-yield to total-yield to obtain
tile true dose-rate vaiua iur lhal dimension.
Similarly, to obtain contour dimensions for a
particular dose rate. the value of the desired
dose rate must be divided by the rntio of fission
to total yield, and the dimension of the resullant
dose rate read from the figures opposite the
total yield.
we?pon for which the total yield is fission yield.
Figs. 4-89 thrnugh 4-93 can. thrrr.fore. be
applied together with wind factom from Table
4-15; i.e., the 300 r/hr contour vdues read
from Figs. 4-89 through 4-93 (for fissi:.n yield
=toL?l yield=fiu~) KT) are also those for thc
100 r/hr contour of the :,eapm described in the
example. The proble.? solution is indicztrd in
Table 4-15.
(c) Et c i i~p I?~
Given: Same conditions as in Example 1.
Find: If the tveap~n were burst a t a height
of 1.950 feet above the sun'ace, what fallout
contour would be represented by the 103 7,'hr
surface-burst contour solved for in Example l ?
Solution: From Fig. 4-94, the adjustment
factor for a 600-KT burst a t a height of 1,950
feet is about 0.04, arld the contour :olved for
in Example 1 correeyonds for this burst condition
to 0.04X100=4 +/hr a t H C l hour.
( b ) Etanlple I .
Given: A weapon with a total yield ~f 600
KT, o i which 200 KT is due to fission, is d'tonated
on a land surface under 10-knot saling
wind conditions.
Find: Contour parameters for a dose rate of
100 r/hr a t a H+l hour reference time.
Solution: The 100 r/hr contour for a fissionvield
to total-vield ratio of 200/600 is the same ( d ) Reliability
The sensitive winddependence of the fallout
distribution mechanism, 2nd the d e m e to
a s the contour for 1 0 0 t E = 3 0 0 t/hr, for a
600
AREA Iaq mi)
F i p m 4-89 IU. Land-Surfore Burst Dore-Rate Contour Areas ot s Refwnce Tiam of
Om Hwr AHer Burst, Megoton Yields fU)
- TABLE 4-16 (Cl. CONTOUR PARAMETERS FOR DOS
Source Basic Wind Param,.ter Value
Parameter Figure Value Factor for 10-Knot Wind
Area 4-89 190 sqmi 1.0 190 sq mi
Downwind distance 4-90 38 mi 0.9 34 mi
Crosswind dishnce 4-91 6.7 mi 1/0.9 7.4 mi
Diameter of ground zero circle 4-98 4.5 mi 1.0 4.5 mi
Downwind displacement of
ground zero circle 4-93 0.8 mi 0.9 0.7 mi
vhich wind and other meteorological conditions
affect these contour parameters, cannot be
over-emphasiz~d. The contours presented in
these curves have been idealized in order to
make ;t possible to present average, representative
values for nlanning purposes. Recognizing
these limitations, for average fair-weather conditions,
the curves can be considered reliable
within k 5 U per cent.
(3) Water S u r f r c Bunt
Although detailed exprimenta! confi~mation
is lacking, it is expected that there will be some
differecce in the character and distribution of
residual radioactive contamination between a
water-surface and a land-surface detonation.
For a surface burst over water deep enough
that particulate matter from the bottom is not
carried aloft in the nuclear cloud and stem, it is
expected that the contaminant is distributed as
a very fine mist As a result, the lowdr doserate
contours are expected to be larger and the
higher dose-rate contoun smaller than for a
corresponding bunt over a land surface. There
is also a somewhat greater probability that
local meteorological conditions may cause condensation
and roin-out of portions of this mist,
resulting in localized hot spots, the prediction
' of which would be a nearly impoaqible task. However, the total activity available for a given
weapon burst under the two conditions is the
same, and there are indications from limited
test experience that the ex'cent of the con+&-
rlsted areas will be about the same aa for landsurface
bursts. The contour parameten given
in Figs. 4-89 throdgh 4-94 for land-surface
hursts may also be used for watersurface
bursts, to obtain dose rates over adjacent land
masses.
For the m e of a burst over water so shallow
that a significant portion of the contaminant is
e n t m n d in mud and particulate matter from
the bottom, and is carried aloft, localizatio~l of
the fallout may be expected to be m a t e r than
for the deep w t e r case, with bigh dose-rate
contours of increased size close to the burst
point, and low dose-rate contours of somewhat
smaller size farther out. Quantitative estimates
of contour parameters may be obtained from
the land-surface burst curves (Figs. 4-89
through 4-94), with the reservation that the ,
values for contours of 300 ?/hour or greater,
a t H f l hour, should be thought of as minimum
values, while the values for contours of
100 ?/hour or less, a t H+1 hour, should be
tholrght of as maximum values.
c. Bwrf in & Tramition ZOM
The Jeposition patterns m d decay rate of the
contamin?tion from weapons detonated very
close to the su.face will be similar ta those for
a weapon of the same yield burst detonated on
the surface. !iowetrer, a smaller quantity of the
available radiaCion activity will be deposited
locally. resulting in bwer dose-rate values
along contours derived fcr surfacebunt conditions.
As the height of burs: b increased, the
activie deposited as local f~,ll-nt decreases,
but the residual contaminatic-. dl.: to neutmn

. . ' , . . . . . v', . .,
induced :divity LKcomea un increnoingly more 48 hou
impurtaat part of the totul contnminvtbn
-. The exact rcnling of the fallout due-late the tower, r w W rhidding, and other tsst
m b u r valw with height of bunt Is uncer- quipmerd arc mtu~redb have eonbibutd
bin. Reridud coutemination from ter,b at n cansiderable portion of tlu fjlwt d u l l y
hcivhb of burst immedlntely above, or blow, experienced, and acutmniadPad activity in
100 W'' feet haa heen smul! enough to permit the roil haa furnished an added wntribution to
appmeh to ground zero within the Arst 24 to the totul contamination.
Thus, for yields leu than 100 KT. and for Due to the unrcrbintier,in the ecdinp, it LP
heigkts of burnt of 100 W"' feet or w a t e r , it unsafe extrapdate the above eoncJusions t .
ia considered that tir!luut contnminntion will not ,vcnpons hllving yklds preater thPn 100 KT.
be sufficiently cxtensivc ta crffect militnry oper- rbsenee of conwrvative
atians mnterirlly. This is not to say that thew will never be u residual mdiatma problem un- be obtri,cd by using a height of bunt of
der such wnditicns. The neut~un-induced 183 Wn.' feet rrs the point above which fallout
mtivity a n very il~tcllse in a rela. c e ~ s eto~ L e militarily siylificnnt It ahould be
tively small urea around gruund zcru. ndcd wain that the neut~un-induced gugnmma
activity m y be inkare for bursts aluvc or
below thii l&fht.
A rough . b t e of the dase-rate contour
vslues for buret9 in the transititrq zone mny be
obtai J by a ~ ~ l ~ ainn ard justment fnctor
from Fig. 4-76 to the dos+r~te contour values
& h i d from Figs. 4-89 through 4--94. For
hurats in the upper quarter of the fallout tmnsition
zone, seutmn-iadueed rtl*ibr Purl Jlo
be conridered. For bun& jn thc bwer thme
quark.* of the tnuuitioa ror. tbc ~~- , induced ~lwrmcr activity an gmemlly be
lected when compvred &I the fallout actitrib.
d. Submrjim &vrc
(1) Uacleqgrosd Burr(
i
A Inrge aml~unto f residual contamination ia
$CC"
b d j r ti

deposited in the imrn~diatcv icinity of the burst
point afhr nn untlcryround clctoniitition, becauxe
the major portion of the radioactive mut
d u l fnlL quieklx from the column and cloud
to the rurfafe. A very shallow underground
burst conform I-urlw clwly to the conhmimt~
on mchnnisms untl pattercs outlirr~d previously
for 1;lntl-surkce bursts. As depth of
burst is incrci~wdh, owever, a greater pelwntwe
vf the totiil available c o n t a r .~i~nist deposited
ns loci11 fallout, until for the case af no
surfuce venting, all of the contamination is
umtained in the volume of ruptured earth s U r -
roundinx the point of detonation.
Families of curves exist for different ranges
of weapon pcld, dcpths of burst, refere~ce
OWNWIND DISPLACEMENI OF ORWW ZERO CIRCLE C W e ml)
Figure 4-93 ICI. 1ond.Sudace b r a Downwind Displacenun1 of C d - L n o Circk
for I CKnol Scding W i d , On*-Hour Polomnce Tim, Ahgoton Yield: 1UJ
times, and wind conditions, by means of which
idealized dose-rate contours .can be drawn for
underground weapon bursts. These curve8 are
similar to those presented as representative of
land-surfnce dose-rate contour parameters
(Figs. 4-89 through 4-94).
As the depth of burst kxomes greater, the
contour shaps depart from the idealized pattcm,
and. particularly in the c p ~ eof the higher
dose-rate contours, tend to become more nearly
circular. For depths of burst greater than
70 H"" feet, virtually nll of the nvailable contamination
comes down in the vicinity of the
burst point. As burst depth is increased, contours
ean h expected to decrease in size, with
increw in doscrate values in and near the
crater.
(2) UnJcr*&r Bum1
One test a t middepth in 160 fect of water
provided some infomtion on the residual radintion
from an underwater debnation. The
rather specislized burst c o n d i t i o~m ake appliation
of the resulk to specific enses of interest
of doubtful valitiity; lwwcver, certain guidelines
were edablkhed, which are applicable
and useful in the general caae. It waa shown
thnt on a ship subjected to fallout radiation,
much of the contami~ted fallout material
drnined off the sh!p into the water. and rapidly
became relatively ineffective b u s e of the
diluting effect of the rater.
For land arcor adjacent to the explosion, and
at the same relarlve mition M the h i p , midunl
radiation dew rates a b u t four times ra
greut rs on b o d drip am expected noon after
completion of fallout, because dilution and mnoff
do not wcur. For adjwent land areu, the
decrease in done rate with time can be calculated
from Fig. 442; however, thir cannot be
done for ship. As in the w e of other types of
contaminatinu bursts, the area o: con@mi~-
tion variea codderably with meteamlogical
conditions, particularly with wind.
In the case of a nuclear explosion in a cornprrntively
shallow harbor, = in the hold of a
ship, mora than half of the rvnilahie radi~ctivity
associated with the device is deposited M
local fallout, and large, localized, high dose-rate
contouts are expected on the adjacent land
mouar. Alt\ough it does not appear feasible
on the baak of avPUabta informa*hn to Jtempt
a detailed delineation of contour *pea for a
harL b u d , mgxituder of expected wnbur
a r e a can be givm with same confidence Fk.
4-96 indicate6 expeebad harbnr bur& contour
a r m on adjacent land a.kpu tor yielda from 1
KT to 1 MT. Fur yields in the megabn rancontour
arean sh~uld ba e timated from the
surfnce bunt curvan already presented (Fia.
4-89). TU dimate dose rater on the weather
deck oC aarhored ships in a harbor divide the
given ;an&- vnluea by four; and for ships
alongside a wharf, divide the land-w V ~ U M
by two.
(3) InUrurliom br Udng 4-95, Hubor
8wrl b l l a l e h b u r Are-
(a) R~~eription
Fig. 4-96 prorntr dorc-rate contour areati
to be expccted nver djacent land m y ~ a s3t
1 hour after burst time. resulting from residual
radiation from sha1lr;w-harbor burst. of nuclear
weapons with yields from 1 KT to 1 MT
Assumptiom for this purpose are a harbor
depth of 30 to &W feet of vater, a mud bottom.
and bunt depth a few feet below the water
surfue, such as in the hold of a ship. The
areau &en may be uumed to be independent
of wind, although rlyecific locarion of the contaminated
nnu .. ith respect to tho burst point
u a sensitive functic.n of wind and other
meteomlogid conditionr, as with other types
of eantami..ating bunts. Area ma iituclca may
be read directly from the %r e 8 ..;. t,h~sdeo serate
d u u for wh'4 nlvn are provided.
E&~pobtiW to hifier ur h e r dose-rate a n -
tour d~ '&n covered by the curves cannot
be done rccurntely, and should not be attampted.
To obtain dose-ratn values for timea
other than H+1 hour, multiplying factom from
Fig. 4432 ~houldb e usd.
W Emmplc
Givur: A SO-KT harbor burst.
Find: The area of effect for doae raka of
1.000 r b r , sr greater, a t X+l hour.
Solution: Rending directly from big. 4-95,
the uu for a uose rate of 1.000 r/kr or more
at H+1 hour, for a %KT harbor burat. is 3.4
(54.7) quare milea.
(c) Reliability
Area magnitudes obtained from t h w rurvea
for a epeeiik yield are conaidered reliable within
=KO per cent, for Lhe bunt conditions indicat&&
8. & O U ~ Z@r0 DOY RE@4
The residunl dose rote curve6 presented
herein make no provision for contours delineating
doae raten gre-ter than 3,000 roentgehs par
hour. except in the cpre of hurbor bunts. Such
dose rates occur in hot spots, rathor than over
signifiont areaa. The maximrrm, ddual-radiation,
doae rates dwrved on the ground in
such hot s&a a t a eferenec time of H+1
hour, remrdlesn of weapon yield, have been
nom than 3.000 +/hour and lean rtsn lO.O(H1
r/hour for surface bunt nuclear weapons. The
bunt conditions for moat of there Inti were
not truly representative of land rho% hence.
there is a larw dcmee of uncert.L~ity regardinp
the maximum dose rates which may be expected
a t ground zcro under true lnndaurfam
bunt conditions. Higher doae rated !?MY be expected
only under .certain special arcumstance&
ruch as deep underground burah and
bunts in shallow harbws, and ere not m d l y
expected for land-aurfece burrts.
j. Told R.d*Lion Dou P d v e d
(1) &nerd
To estimate ;he dose actually received at a
point within an area COn h I i ~ t e db y faliouk
the time of arrival of fallout at that point b
eatimDted (wing the d i n g wind velaity and
the dhtance from the bur& point), and the
curve of the dose rate is integrated as a function
of time over the period the individual b
within the a m . The rvme cIoeodum u uaed
for the case of a pemn entering a contautinattd
aren at some time after canpletiun of
fnllo-49. Fig. 4-96 ia presented to facilitate thU
computntion. and can be wed to estimate btd
radiation doee received while in a contaminated
rrea If, at the time of the errlorion, the individusl
is within the mdiu of cded of the hitid
rodintion, the acute dorc ro w i v e d murt
bs added to rhe cumulative midual radiation
figun 4 4 5 ICI. Harbor lurrt h - R a k Contour Ateas, Asawnin0 S h a h Wohr
(30 to 50 Feet1 Over Clay Iotlom, at One-Hwr Uehrenre Tim (UI
dose, thua giving the totrl dose received. If the
individual b sheltered, the free field value so
obtained should be multiplied by a reduction
factor, estimated from the degree of shielding
involved, iu described in Par. 4-8.85, folbwing.
(2) I a u ~ nWb ufo r Udn# Fig, 4-%, TorJ
Bdialiaa Dwc U e r e i d iE a
Gntamllulal Area
(a) Dercription
From Fig. 4-96 can be obtained the total
dose received by penonnel entering a given
conlminated area, a t a specified time, and remaining
for a specified interval of time. The
vertical axh gives the accumulated dou for
each unit (r/hr) of dore rate, at one hour after
tke detonation. The various curva r e p m n t
timesd-.tPy in the contezninnted area. To
ddennine the accumulated d m . a factor COTmponding
to the time of entry and the time of
stay ir taken from the v e r t i d axis. The product
of rtir factor and the dose rate at me hour
gives the accumuhted dole.
(b) Ezample
Given: The dose nib in a givm area at one
hour after detonntion u 600 r/hr.
Find: The total dore received by r IUUI tntering
the area two hwn rfhr detonation and
remuining 4 houra.
Solution: From Fig. 4-88, tb hbnectbn
of the.line fcr a time of entr; of two houri
after detonation with the Chow cum gives a
factor of 0.80. Therefore, the .ceumuLtd
doae iu
600X0.80=400 r.
Appmxinute tuW dost contnura. for .rcumulated
dolor received during the 48 b u n
immediately following b u d ollr k r t i -
mated wing the a~pmp r k t el- hour. be r a t e
contour curves in wajundion with a d i n g
factor obtrined from Fig. 4-97. Thc ruling
factor averam the time of wid Meet for
600-roentgen, totaldone wntoun wing a 1%
knot scaling rind, and given results auficicntly
accurnte for planning puwaw over a range d
doaea from 100 r to 1,000 r. This method my
be used with somewhat leu, accuracy for nccumulated
d w s outside this roam. It should
be recognized that. dose contours and dose-rate
eontoun do not have the same shape. although
the shapes are suAi~iently alike to mike this
approximate method useful.
(2) Inrtllrrzionr far Udng Fig. 4-97,
JsHour Dorc Whg Factor
(a) De8cription
Fig. 497 gives scaling facton for weapn
yieldr from 0.1 KT to 100 MT, by mwns of
which approximate contours can be obtained
for residual yommn-radiation doam accumulated
during the 40 hours immediately following
bunt time. Given a 1-hour dcwe-rate wntour,
the dore-rate value is multiplied by the
appropriate d i n g lactor from thir cum.
Th!, dvor the approximate totaldm value m
dved, over the Qghour period following the
burst, by personnel in the open within that
contour. If a pnrticular 4&hour dose contour
is ta be constructed. the desired 48-hour dore
value ahould be divided by the d i n g factor
obtained from Fir: 4-97, to obtain o preliminary
doaerate value.
For a surface burst, thu vllw mry be wed
with Figs. 4-83 thauah 4-83, to obtain the
desired contour dimmaions for the lhour dore
rate resulting in thc deaind J&hour dose value.
For a burst in the tramition zone. divide the
preliminary dose-rate value by the appropriate
heightof-burst adjustment factor obtained
from Fig. 4-94 before using Figs. 4-89 through
4-93 to obtain the desired contour parameters
for the necenaary I-hour dou rate.
If the fiuion yield is lesa than the total yield,
the valua (for c a t burst condition) that
would have been wed with Fig% 4-89 through
4-93 are wt uned u such, but am further
divided by Lim Auion-yleld to total-yield ratio.
Thii will give the actual value to be wed with
the appropriak Apure.
I
ior n 400-KT w u p ~ lils 2.0. h e a.U u~t- ~d m .~ . I
Gfven: A 4MKT 8u~faceM under 15 mnbur *u F800 m r,h. i
knot Wng wind conditions. -- 1 Wnd: Ayproximrte contour pmmtels for Thh rppmxfrmta the 4 6hur k d d o e~ona
total d m of 600 mcntgepenr, rccumulrted up tour for 600 r, md it L d with Fb. 4-89
to 48 houm after bunt time. through 4-98, 'RE rpproxbnrte tot.l.dou con-
Salution: Fram Flg. 4-97, the scaling factor tour parameten for 500 mittpens .eeumuLted
I
T U U 4-17 (El. APPROXIMATE CONTOUR
FAUIIIETEIS FOR &ti TOTAL DOSE OP
500 R IU)
Solme Pc.rrmet4r
Fbre Value
Area 449 160 sq mi
Downwi~d distance 4-90 34 mi
Crwwind d i i n c e 4-91 6 mi
Diameter of ground
zero circle 4-92 4 m i
Dowurind 4spl;leement
of gmund zero circle 4-95 0.7 mi
.during the 48 hours fdlowing the burst are
given in Table 4-17.
fc) Rdiobilitv
Recognizing the idealized nature of the bri
eantoun, totaldore contoun obtained in the
mm.w deacrlbed above are coddered lrlinble
within a factor of two, for dorer betwwn 100 r
and 1,000 r and for d n g win& up to abnut
16 knob. The method m y be applied for other
dore eaaditiona with somewhat leu confidence.
in the multa, but rhould not be applied for
4 i n g wind conditions dgnific~ntlp greater
than 15 h o b .
(U) In their puupe through matter. alpha
putielu p.wluce a co~~iderablme ount of
ionization. and in doing 80 rapidly lose their
own dllcrgy. An &ha partide L identjcal with
the nudeus o f 8 helium a h . After traveling
A d n dish ace (range) the particle, which
has then loot moat of itr energy, apturea two
electrnns and reverts to a harmleaa helium
atom. The range of an alpha prrticle dependa
upon the initial energy. but m n thore partiela
of relatively high energy hrve am averr(~c
mago in air of juat over 1-1/2 lnchm. In
more &nee media, such ao water, tb. raage (I
about me-thoumndth of the range In air. Conreguently,
alpha puticla are unable to pane
trrk wen the outer layer of the &a Therefore,
u far u attenuation Ir concerned, they
do not co~tltutca radiation problem.
(U) Beta particles, like alpha putidea,
uuse direct ionization. The beta partielas d i i -
pate their eaergy mu& more rlowly, towever,
and correspondingly have a much greater
range. Although beta partick traverse an
avenge distance of 10 feet in air, due to eons
h t defiectionr their effective range ir considerably
lesr :n more denae media, the range
is still shorter, approximately one-thousandth
of that in air. Even clothing providea aubatantial
pmtPetion from beta radiation. C o w
quently, unlesa the particles are deposited directly
on the skin, beta radiation provides little
radiation hazard.
(U) The residual ganuna ndintiom present
a different dtuation. These gamma mye, like
those which form prt 'of the initial nuclear
radiation, u n penetrate a considerable diatance
t h m d air and into the body. If injury ir to
be rnlnimized, dehite action must be taken to
provide adequate tihielding from reridual
gamma radiatlonr. As A matter rf consequence,
any methad ured to decpaw the psnuan rubtioa
will provide almost complete pratection
from alpha and beh partick
, (U) The abrorptlon of midud gamma mdiation
b h d upon exactly the same principlea
u t h w d i a c d in cunaectioa with the
initial purm &tion (Par. 4-8.4.2, p W -
ing). However, except for the earliest srtropr
of decay, the midual gamma rryr have much
leu kinstk energy than tho^ anittad in the
h t minute after the uplooion (0.7 Mev for :
m i d d ~ l e o a p w dt o 4.6 Mev initial average '
energh). Themfom, u eompued with the
inltid radiation ahidding requirements, 8
smaller thiekncu of a given material will produce
the ramc degree of attenuation
(u) T b appmxlmrta Ni-value layor tbicknauem
of lomc common shielding nuteri.L for
r a i d 4 gamma radiation are p m n t d h
Tabla 4-18. Aa in the cuct of the initii gamma
rdktlon, the product of the denrity and the
Ni-value thkkncu ir spproximrtely the umr
in dl u u ~How war, r im the half-value
thielcneu in omallcr for reddud gamma Irdb
tion, Ule product ia lower ah.
I.
- - CLASSIFEE
T U U CIL APCIOXIYAII W V * U I R Urn W w N t S w or M A T R a r r u roe
W W W AWINST GAMMA RAYS FROM
HUlON PROWCTS
HJf-Value
Dcnrlty Thlckneos
M.torW (Ib/cu ft) (in.) P~oduct
S M 400 0.7 343
Concrete 144 2.2 317
E;uth 100 33 330
\Vator 62.4 4.8 300
wood 34 8.1) 300
(U) For additid I0~1trUiono f atteamtlon
frbrr, Fig. 448 d T.bk 449 ur
pruvkled. The a t t e m u h facton for rbel.
concrete, roil, eattit, woo& and led am pre
r n t e d in Fig. 4-06 u a function of variou
thiekncuca of thae mrterLL F m th e p m -
tical atandpoint, it is of intoreat to mord the
tranamiuion factun (attenuation factor -I)
offered by vrrioua rtructurra a d merhanierm.
Approximate v a l ~fur thee are given in
Table 4-19. Thwt haw been dmted partly
f ~ u nca lcuhtioru and partly on the bmis of
retual Lid me~ummenta, .
... TABU 4-19 ICJ. (coat)
Commr Boys
Item Ncutronr
Initial BerMual
Tanka M4C M 41: Tank rewv. vehicles
hI-51. M-74
Tonks 81-26, M-47. M48. T43E1;
Eny. urmd. vehicle T-39E2
Tractor, crawler, D8 r/blade
l/l-ton truck
314-ton truck
I-1/2-ton truck
Pelsonnrl carrier, TlCEl
Armd inf. vehicle bI-69, M-75 and SP Twin
40-mm gun M-42
SP 10&mm howitzer M-37
lulriple d. .60 rag motor carriage M-16
LVT (lading vehica tracked)
Bsttluhipr and large carrion:
15% of crew
26% of crew
101 of crew
60% of C W
CmLcn and urriur:
10% Of crew
20% of cnw
80% af c m
40% of crew
K i t
Dentmyerr, trmrporta, and acolt cmiarr:
10% a C ~ W
20% of m w
30% of crcwr
40% of trw
4-9. (Ul INTRODUCTION
44.1. scepodtbkrh
This rection p m n b the analytii and experhental
techniqued for obtaining temind
ballistie data concerning the phyaicd prowam
of fragmentation md the mechanism of pene
tration and perforation. Included in the section
are a darcdption of fragment density and mvrs
dktribution, a b u r s i o n of the bchniquca for
analyzing and/or nmauring the fragment init
U velocity and velocity decay, a beription
of meehanisma of penetration and perforation
by single Fragments, and a discussion of the
theoretical and experimental rrpecta of t r a p
ment perfonname in the hypervelocity speed
regime.
The literature of this rubjact is lomewhat
incomatent wilh respect to the nynbls and
unib of mw u w ~ e n ut r ed by the variour au-
#om. No attempt h a been made to st.n&rdim
thae item; quoted referone material h
presented in the notation and n n i b the particular
author.
Fragmentation & ah Lnporht phelromenmi
ruo~lated with artilbry dld4 wuherdr.
mid bomb mortar Jlcllr, grenadw etc. The
shell or bomb u h i a l l y a high explomive
charge a n t r i n d within a metal awing. The
foress ralaucd by the detonation of the h i
exploriw b d up the cawing into fragmeak
I t k & a i n b l e t o b . b l r t o ~ e t t h a ~ u
dltributioa. rpnW d!strihMon. and velocity
duncbriatiem ol thcv fcagmentr m that the
of?& c.. be o p t h i d for the inbndcd target.
When no proviaiom arc mub to contml the
r*c of the Pwaanb, imguh rhm uui
wrioua w are obtained.
The p d a n of uncontru1Icd Imgmentatioo
t to predict tho mu dhtribution of the fragme&.
ThL & treated io Pu. 410.2 following.
Them am rcvcral methob or tontrolling
th rfor and dupe of fmgmnb lnto which a
cuing will bren&. The problem, here, h ta
vlcet the bat mathod of eontccL Controlled
fngmeatrtion ia kuQd in Pu. 4-10.3, following.
Methd of mdicting other fragment
churrtvLUcr, such u velocity and dinction
of projection. hold for natural or coatidkd
fra8mentation. and may be treated independsaw.
The general dlcwion of the m e h n h a of
fragmentation is pnaentcd in Ch. 2, QLC I.
Conpacable infonnation on mlid projectil.
and ahaped charges t given in Ch. 2 S e a I1
and 111, respectively. There sections ahauld be
read for introductory purpow. In Ch. 3 each
of the various ~ctiona includes appropriate
information or the vulnerability of rpecih
typeu of targets to fragmentation and penehtion.
Reference should oLo 'be made to Part
Two for information on Ule collection ane
analysis of fragmentation and penetration data
PI applied to rpeeihc tyws of trrpets.
Thir pataimoh preaentr the pncrol laws of
~ t w (dun cootrdied) Fr.pment.lion and the
usual m e w fo r ortrolled fragmentation. A
dlrcuuion ia presented relating the dynamic
fragmeui dhtribution to the static distribution
and the procedum For obtaining h i r e d rerulk
Experimental techniqua for the mwurrmcnt
and reduction of data are given in considerable
detail.
(U) Natural f-mtatioa of a bomb or
shell uring m u b when no special deign
f&m are incorporated to conk4 the fmgment
aize. Some pmhtcrmltution d tJw tmgment
maan dirtxibution w however, be mule
by Selaetion or * ratio, urinp
mterkl. and thickness d cuing. Thin
fragment in two dhnenriotu, wh- thick
cuinga fragment in both two and three dimendom.

(U) T h s ~ t l u t w i l l b r p r o d u e s d ~ r
fragment, impacting with a given vdocib, b
pcndronthamurandprc.c~~ttd~.oftha
fnpmvnt. I n o r d v t o e o m p ~ t h a f ~ t -
tion YIRnilllFIa of dinerent pmjectilm it is
thedo. I 'mummy to how, for each projectile,
the rpproXLMte mus and a m distribution
of all the fragments large enough to p m
duee damage.
(C) Mott and Linr'oot (Ref. 56) present a
theory on the and m ~ s sd ktribution of
fragments from an explodiilp warhead. The
theory given is applicable only to casings which
expand plulicolly before rupture.
(C) At the moment of rupture, the kinetic
enerw uf the cPling ?or b d t length, r e f e d
to the sxir moving with the cnaing, ia
p = m a u dcruity of the mabrirl. in rlugs/cu
in.,
a=dimtma between cradu, in inchem,
r= ndiua of thc Wl cuing at rupture, in
inehc~,
KE=k.inaic enerw, in ft-lb/in. fragment
Lnlth.
t,=thiclneu a t ~ p h r e i,n inches,
8nd
Vnoutwud vebdty at rupture, in it/-
(C) If W L the energy per unit required
b fonn a czmsk, the energy requid
per unit length will ba Wt, Tku, no fmgmcnt
will be formed with a width a plaptcr
than that given by aquating Wt, to KE, M
dannsd by Eq. 4-104, or
(C) For r bomb shich t roulhly rphricrl
rtthrmomrnLdmpturZthrrnclnmsrrof
r fragment k
(C) If r. md t. m f u to the bomb bfom
upnmion, and if r, the ndius .t the
of bunt, is equal to as.. then t,=t./,: tht
the mean fragment anasa,is proportionrrl to
(C) If the charge is kept constant and the
thiekneaa t. k varied, Va will be proportior&
b I/(. for h w d q;th w, the average
mnre of fragment in proporLiolul to t . if~ t, L
Eonstant. Theoretically, r =ling k w w be
applied from one tat to another to predict the
average fragment maas, by varying t. ud kecp
ing the other psrameten the ume. M y ,
however, thick-walled rheb expond furthcl.
than thin ones befom breaking up, a d a h
rapid variation with t, L erpoeted
(C) For the twadbndorul b d p oi , &el, Mott (Rd. 56) that tb mur
distribution of fragmentr caa be rtrtd u:
K = ~ d a p a n d a n t o n e x -
wrs for mmpb: E =
Om (TNT) ; K = W
~Amrbdmm. unltrd
K = mm -/indl 'a.
Inddftlan. t . = ~ t h i d r n ~ i i n e h -
a (i.ibW),
I I I $ . ? ~ u ; I holds rlotvn k~ :lie finest fragment,
tll~ll
t C ) ' Sot i~rg ;Ii.d M;2!0 wptesentr the total
r1:~111kair f ~ ; g nI I~~. . S., Eq. I-108. m y be
$, li!t # , I :
tvhcre t - using t l ~ i i k ~in~ sin,e hea
I initial).
d . = internal dianu-ter of nuing.
in inelm
ailti -C mnrr trf explosive cham rl w d metal urinp in the
ume unih
1rntr1nW-y (Ref. 60), are list4 I;w rrwt : I I I ~
prewvd explr).*ives in Table 4-21.
CI03J. IU) St.01 Codngs
111 generul, the aver;rge weight c d tr.igmr~ib
predueed from a &el u i n y Jecreaaeo M the
Shell TNT 1.7
Shell Ednatol, Pentolite 1.8
Tetrytol, RDX,
Compoeition B
Bomb Amrtol (GOlSO and t.9
ridupray a0/40)
l3od1 Edrubl,Torpw, $6
*id- RDX
CUBE ROOT ff m
Figure 4-100 IC) Numb.: of Frognnntr, N, with
Masses Greahr than m Grams vr Cube Root of m IUI
tensile strength of the steel is increased and
the ductility is decreased (Ref. 61). This has
been shown to be true in testa on carbon steels
varying from .I05 per cent to 1.06 per cent
carbon. At 1.06 per cent carbon, it is believed
that the different microstructure cause6 the
test results to vary from the theory. Shapiro,
et. al. (Ref. 601, lists scaling law constants for
the Mott parameters derived from the mas3
distribution study of steel casings..
4-10.2.3. (C) Ductile Cost Iron Casings
From investigations on ductile cast iron casings
(Ref. 62), it was found that the half
weight (the particular fragment weight which
divides the individual fragments into two
groups, each containing half the total weight
of fragments) appears to he on the order of
I/-! that of steel casinm for ring type fragmentation,
and on the order of 1/16 for cylindrical
type fragmentation. Three grades of
ducti!e cast iron were csed in experiments.
These showed littlt or no difference in f r a p
mentation. notwithstanding a substantial difference
in strength and ductility.
4-10.3. (C) Mars DisMbotion, Cantrolld
FmgmmtuYom
The effectiveness of a framentation warhead
against any target or targets for which
TABLE 4-21 IC). VALUES OF "A" FOR VARJOUS CAST AND ?RESSER EXPLOSIVES (U)
Explosive (cast) n(gm/cu in.) ' 1 2 Explosive (pressed) .? fgm/cu in.)
Baratol
Comp B
Cyclotol ( 7 5 r n )
H-6
HBX-1
fiZX3
Pentolite (50/50)
PTX-1
PTX-2
TNT
BTNEN/\Vax (90/10)
BRNEUflVax (90/10)
Comp A 3
MOX-2B
Pentolite (50/50)
RDXfiVax (95/5)
!?DX,Wax i85/15)
Tetryl
TNT
"i'Ct L
it is used is largely determined by the size,
number. and velocity of the fragments it produces.
A warhead which wil! produce a predetermined
number of fragments, of a predetermined
weight and velocity. will be more
effective against the target for which it is d e
signed than will a naterally fragmented warhead.
Controlled fragmentation refers to control
of the size, and consequently the weight, of
each fragment. The size and weight of frag-
. ments produced by a controlled fragmentation
warhead are determined by a combination of
design factors within the basic method selected
lor producing the fragment. None of the
methods employed in controlling fragments are
completely successful; that is, they do not
achieve 100 per cent fragmentatior control.
Varying degrees of success have been achieved
by the methods described in following paragraph.
Considerations in the selection of the basic
design approach include ease of manufacture,
cost, size of warhead. size of fragment, and the
intended use of the warhead.
(U) Preformed fragments are those which
are molded, machined. or athenvise formed to
the desired size, prior to detonation of the warhead
in which they are used. Preformed fragments
achieve nearly iOO per cent fragmentation
cor.trol, because breakage upon expulsion,
adhesion between fragments, an6 adhesion of
fragments to other warhead parts are usually
negligible.
(U) The principal objection to prefomed
fragments is the need for additional structure
to support the fragments. The structure adds
weight which contributes little to the effective
ness of the warhead. This additional weight
deem the number of fragments and/or the
amount of txi;!asive which can be placed in
the warhead. However, in appiiwition; where
the acceler~tiono f the exploding device is lovr,
such as in missile warh+tads or grenades, the
supporting structure is light and preformed
fragmentation is widely employed. In the artillery
shell, which must withstand large acceler
a t i~, . .i~n the y n , preformed fragmentation
has never been used.
(U) One type of preformed fragment which
has been investigated is thc flechette, an
arrow-shaped fragment (Ref. 63). The advantages
of this type of fragment are its aerodynamic
charxteristics, which are far superior
to those of cubes, spheres, or irregular fragments.
The fin-stabi!ized fragment has greater
range, higher remaining velocity (if. it does
not tumble), and greater penetrating power
than its "chunky" counterparts a t velocities
under 3,000 fps. At velocities greater than
3.000 fps, however, the fin-stabilized frament
h,?s greater cavitational effect. The difficulty
in explosively launching fin-stabilized fragments
from a warhead surface, without causing
excessive damage to the fins of the individual
projectiles, is the major problem encountered
with this type of framnent.
(C) An additional problem is in finding a
suitable method of holding ?he framents in
position prior to detonation, without hindering
the launching and flight of the fragment. Experiments
have been conducted with small scale
warheads in which the fragments were
launched from both the fin-forward and the finbackward
positions. A projec:ile pack which
w,is tried in a limited experimenta1,progran is
shown in Fimre 4-101. The fragments wer!
imbedded in a polyester resin matrix and
backed ap with an duminum plate and a rubber
buffer. Composition D explosive was used.
These limited experimental results indicate that
the fragments may be launched most effectively
from a point forward position, and that they
can be launched a t velocities of 1,800 fps without
damage.
(C) One widely used type of preformed fragment
warhead is loaded with cubical steel fragmenk.
Tests have k e n conducted on s
warhead of this type (Ref. 64) ;.I which Cle
fragments were .bonded to a thin steel shell
which surrounded an annularshaped explosive
charge. The major problem was to obtain a
method of bonding the frajments to the sl~ell
that provided individual launchklk of the fragments
and 100 per cent controlled fragmentation.
The tests indicated that soldering was the
most Mective method for climinatlng fragment
b d - u p md for reh' .ricg fragment wpam
t&IL
(U) The principle diivantaga in produeing
w u h u J of tbe preformed frqmenr type
L tlm hi& a t -le~untmdin manufacturing
a d uumbly.
Thb mbd of foming fragmmt. -abb
of M a g r uria of notched krooved)
r i q m Uut uch ring fomua uetion of the
w u h g d cuing, prrpoadlcukr ta the uL of
~yrrunetry. The t h i h and width of tho
nnw pmvi l e ~ ~ t roof lt wo dillYIUiWr of tha
fragment* while n& abag the arcumfuence
uf the ring prwib l i u r of Ioast ruUw*
where Irr~lulloin Uu third p h eo avr Te&
luve been conducted oa vuiau aixe w u h o d r
with diferont w e i g h of iu&&&
and n u m b of proova IW. 66). A typii
warhud of h i s type L &w.r in Fig. 4-102
Thaconclurb~nrehd inthabtswcmthat
utlfactary uniformity d fragment waifit.
u n k I K U ~d~a g. follori= p-h&Y:
1 .Th width m ;-dt of t& ring
rhu,uld br equal.
2. The number of notches per ring for ductile
steel should be detonnined by tbe fonnuh
G = 456 V/S, where Y = fragment
vebdty (ft/sec.), and S = tensile strenpth
of the rteel (psi).
8. The length-todiameter ratio of the warhead
rhould not be less than 1.25.
4. Medium carbon, low sulphur steel. Rockwdl
hardness B95 is desirable.
5.The notha should have rhnrp bobma
with a depth of & to 10 per cmt of the
ring thicknun.
6. The ring rhould hnve a smooth finish.
7.A thin liner llhould be wad. (Five per
cent of the radius hPs been f m d &Mtory
for phenolic)
When there ptindpku are adherad to, thr
following ~ u u l tms ay be expected:
1. The average weight of the majority .*f
fragments ahuuld lie within the range of
80 to 95 per cent of the d s i m weight.
2. The average fragment velocity should bo
within 10 p'?r cent of the velocity computed
by Gurney's formula, Eq. 4-120.
The fragnmts recovered during the texts
reported in Ref. 65 indicated that small slivers,
triangular i n crogi section, were produced as is
shown in Fig. 4-103.
In general, the fracture is a tensile break
along a radicl line. New the inner surfaca the
tensile break changes to two 45-degree .shears
making the sliver. This, characteristic is explained
as follows. With increasing values of
acce!aralion, the tnnyential or terlsile stress decreases
rapidly, and may become Zen, for sufficiently
high acceleration. The $.-ring stress
dsereaseu nho, but at a much dower rat'. than
tangential streas. For rulficiently high aceeleration,
shearing stress may qua1 or exceed
the tensile s t r u . It ia concluded that if the
UI NOTCHED RIN6
FRAGMENT PATTERN
accelervtion is high, at the inner surface the
ratio of shearing stress to tensile stress will
exreed the ratio of shearing strength to tensile
strength, for the inelid, and any failure st&-
ing at the inner surface will be one of shear.
It wu, found (Ref. 66) that the addition of
wood or cork cushions p l a d between lhe
charge and caw resulted in eliminntion of the
slivers. The reason given for this is t h ~ tth e
cushion reduces the aceelerntion and velocity
of the case, thereby reducing the shearing stress
without reducing the tens'le stress. Howevfr.
the cushion reduccs the fragment velocity by
reducing the amount of charge weight available
for conversion into kinetic energy.
CI0.U. ICI Notched W i n
(U) The notched-wire wrapped warhead is
aimilar in design and theory to the notched ring
type. The wire is actually a long bar. with two
of its dimensions equal to those desired for the
fragments. The bar is notched at inten-als
along its length and wuund in a helix to the
I a p of the warhead casing.
(c). Reasonably good frcgment control has
k . 1 obtained umng notched wire wound on a
cylindrical warhead, in that epproximately 80
per cent of the design number of fragments
wen prodnecd (Refs. 67 and 68).
(U) batad of notching in one direction a d
huving actual diocontinuitiea in the other direc
tion, such M in the notched ring or wire method,
u r i m with a two dimensional network of
ritchaa (grooves) may be uaud. The notchea
m y either be machined or integrally eut on
the inside or outaide surface of a using.
(C) Testa conducted cn a machined warhead
(Ref. 69) of thb type were very successful,
in that approximakly 89 per c8nt of thq
design number of framenta warn produced.
The warhead was made by milling a pattern
d longitudinal and cirtumferent\al proova on
the inside of a cylindrical tuk. The tuba was
then swaged into the modified ogive shape of
the warhead d o n .
(C) Teats were alm conduct& on t h m cutateel
warhead9 with inbmrl dots desigid to
TABLE 4-22 fCL FUGMENTATION RESULTS
OF INTERNALLY smm wmnws IUI
Warhcqd Weight of i'er Ceni of De-
No. Fragmenb aigncd Number of
give controlled fragmenbtiou (Ref. 70). Additional
heat treatment after casting wan applied
to warheads 1 aad 2, but warhead 3 wus tested
In the es-cant cnndition The design weights of
fragments were 957 prm in warhead 1, 9.13
grams in warhead 2 and 8.83 gra&u in warhead
3. The results of the tmt* mnsidercd to he
6 d . are shown in Tabk C22. The initial
velocity was the s a fo~r d~l th ree warhe&.
A m t e r number of partial fragments w a
produced by the MG-treated casing than for
the heat-treated onet
4-10.34. (C) f l u i d Uwrr
(U) Instead of uing i m l . r i b or weak
areas in the casing of o wuhead for wntrolliep
fragmentntion. a lllcthud of shaping or graoving
the charge may be uscd. The explosive
charge is duped m that i ~ l u r i t i c orf tho
detonation will break up the w i n g in the
desired pattern. The ehupe k shaped by wrnr
of a liner eonrtraetcd of plastic, cdbwrd,
balm wood, or rfmikr nuW which is inserted
between the w.rhud d . g and the
expbive. When the wsrhead fr detonated, the
flutes or grooves in the @ve give r duped
charge effect which ten& to cut the metal c r c
ing in the pattern f d by t he flutes.
(C) The casing ~uedw ith fluted lbr wurheads
may be wlid (Ref. 71) or pmtidy p r e
formed by mepar of or wire (&t. 67).
Testa on warheada uing fluted LLncn indiute
that fragment control an be M suceuiul u
with the notched cuing or mtdd wire m p
ped types. The fragment vrbdtiea from lined
warheads a n lower. due to the reduced ntio
of aplorive to uritag weight. Use of thc fluted
liner introdum voiL M a n tha using md
exploolve, with the result thrt ramc Iwa of
weight and sprier for erpioaive accun Tha
fluted liner tPehnique is practical for thin caswhere
the fluto a h and expbsive weipht
b b d l . Teat m u l b with identical -in@
p m d u d 14 per cent lower fragment velocities
w:th the fluted liner thon with the notched
win wound type of warhead.
A method for produtiny a greater number of
fragments from a naturdly frapented warhead
has been devised through the use of a
multi-walled casing (Ref. 72). Tests were conducted
on straight walled cylindrical warheads
consisting of one to five prea8-fitted cylinders.
The inside and outside eiameters were the same
for all \wrheads. The total ahell thlclin6-88 was
divided equally by the number of walls being
testcd. Different charge-tometal ratios were
~leedt o determine their effect on the performance.
It wan d i v e r e d that the n u d e r of frwments
produced k directly proportional to the
number of walls. In this respect, Mott's Equation
for natural fragmentation,
i: a h i N(m) = number of fragnwnb of
mssr greater than tn.
C = a constant dependent on
the weight of the wing,
, m = mua of the fryment,
and p, = a masure of the mean
frarment mass
takes the form
I l t
(55) ' : frnmentation pattenu: mo&~ r . ~ i ti h e m e
Nfm) = WCc (4-113) where detonation wavea traveling around o p p
aite clidea of the annulus m&, fr-ant &atfor
a warhead having W walls. ter and nlteration of velocities are t*) i ex-
The spatial distribution of the fragments pcfM.
Iran multi-walled warheads waa rutbfactor~, Returning to the usual exampla of .xkl
in the rcnae that adjacent fmgmntr from each symmetry, fragment denrity aa a function d
cylinder wore separate i n space and rhowad angle of emiasion (measured from thc farward
no evidence of k i n g fused together. However, direction of the warhead axis) remainn to be
If detonation started at d l ~ c i 5 bai multaneously
throughout the explosivq. fmgment
would be projected normal to the element
of casing from which it originated. The fact
that detonation starts a t a Anite number of
points, usually one or two, raults in r deviation
of the dlrectiun of projection of each fragment
from the normal direction. How to determino
the angle of deviation from the n o m l is the
main topic ui this section.
In the case of a fragmentation warhead, it is
usually assumed that the fragmentation patk
r n is symmetrical a b u t the miwile axis. For
trUlj symmetric warheads, the availabie evidence
docs not contradict this hypotkia of
symmetry of the fragment pattern, although
here k limited experimental evidence on tJtb
point effort^ I m e been concentrated to a
preater d e m on & determination of the
variation in asymmeiric warheads, u dircussed
in the next paragraph.
Warheads with asymmetric st.Rperiag of
notches in the cnaing, culnga made in more
than one part, or asymmetric iocatioa of the
point where the detouatian is initiated, dve
aome indidionr, of asymmetry in the fragment
pattern. However, the only example in which
the problem appean rriour u that nf a very
asymmetric detonation point, ~yccially if the
warhead is annulr in shrpe (1.e.. haa a large
hollow apace along the axia). In tbh a m p l e .
the letonation wave may atrike the cuing at
suhtantinlly different andem on the near and
far ridu and produce correrwndinnlv diffemnt
considered. Of interest are cwo different versiorrs
of this pattern, usually knned static and
dynamic. The static patbrn is the one pmduced
if the warhead is detonated while PO.
tionleaa, while the dynunic pattern is the one
obtained if the warhead is in flight.
The h i e idea for the prediction of, static
pattern fragments is given In Taylor's theory.
Applicsticns have been mad2 by Shapiro (Ref.
18) and by Gibon and Wall. In the Shapiro
method, the shell or warhead is assumed to be
arranued in successive ring3 (Fig. 4-102),
the part of the shell or warhead cashg of
intenst being composed cf many such rings
stacked one on another, each with its center on
the axia of symmetry. Although this may not
be the actual mode of fabrication of the casing,
the Shapiro method is probably a sufficiently
accurate approximation for initial design purpow.
In order to establish the beam spray angles
for each ring, the following formula by Shapiro
can be usd. ThL equation gives the direction
of fragment t h r o w 4 from the warhead asin#.
According to Shapiro, the debnation
waw munates aa a spherical front from all
points on the surf- of the booster or allxiliary
detonator, which h wumec' to be a point
D, u ahom on Fig. 4104. The normal b the
warhead f.*llp mrkea an angle +, with the
TABLE 444 (CL ~OIUTlonV ElOcITII
OF SELECTED DVLOSlVES IUJ
Fxplorive Vdocity ~m/#c)
TNT (Cut)
Comp B
H-G
75/25 Ocbl
axis of symmetry, and the n o m l of the detonation
wave tat a point on the casing makes an
angle +, with tke axiv The deflection @of the
fragmcot velocity vector from the noravi to
the casing is given by Shapiro'a fonnuln
where
V.=initial fragment velocity,
and
V.=detonatii velocity of the explosive.
Allowance may .Lo be made for the dispersion
about the predicted direction of throw.
Some reprUI!ntrtiw detolution volocitilu for
Fmm the ddic fragment pattern, the f n p -
meat density for the dYIIU3JC condition t derived.
Ifthewufrsdkmovingthrouphap.ec,,
the vector velocities of the fmgmnt (rtrttc
condition) and warhead am uddd to W th.
actual direction in which the fngment p m
ceeda outward.
The dynunic density D(R) for 8 given dinet
i o n , o d , L ~ f m m t h c I t r . t l e c l m r i t y
DW.) for the corrempoodino dircetioa, 0.. by
the equritianr:
ANGLE FROM W E OF SHELL 1-1
Figure 4-105. Typicol Angular Fragment Oirtribution
where
V,=scatic fragment velocity in direction of
8, in ft/sec.,
anti
V,:-.relative velocity of missile and tarwt in
ft/sec.
Angular distributions of fragments lron
high explosive shells and bombs are experimentally
determined a t the Aberdee~r Provinp
Ground by detonating static projectiles. For
these tests, screens are phced around the p m
jectile a t 'arious distances, an4 the number
of fragment hits on each unit area of the
screens is determined. A typical distribution
found by this type of test is shown in Fig.
4-105.
Results of stntically detonated shells having
various degrces of end confinement and shell
lengths indicate that the spatial distribution
is not affected by the type of end confinement.
but ,*at i t is affected by the shell length, for
lengths less thanabout 14/4 calibers (Ref. 74).
This ir caused by &he emxpe of detonation products
a t the ends a1 the cylinder, tfiereby releasing
and diverting energy that could be used
more unifolmly, as is apparent from spatial distributions
of projectiles several calibers .in
length.
C10.5. (C1 Tochniqm for Meorrmnd and
Rtdnctim of Dek (Rch 67
c d 751
(U) The technique employed in measuring
mass and spatial distributions of fragments
from both uncontrolled and contm:led fragmentation
warheads are - identical. The tech-
I
niques which follo;v are basic; later improved f and standardized techniques are available (Ref. i 88). Fragment recovery by a means that pro- 1
vides known orientation with respect to the
warhead is the logical and most frequently used i
technique in fragment distribution tests and I
experiments. I!
(U) For fragment recovery, it is assumed
that the Irapnents produced will be equally
distributed around the warhead. Fragments
are recnvered in a sector, usually 180°, and are
ccnaidereti as being r~presentcltive of the total
distribution. The warhcads arc normrlly supported
with their longitudinal axes horizontal,
in m arena which contains appropriately
placed recovery boxes, velocity panels, velocityrecovery
boxes for velocity mass correlations,
and ricochet stop. Warheads are supported a t
a height that will plncc their axes in the same
horizon!al plane as the centers of their recovery
boxes. In d h e r words, the axes o: the warheads
will be four feet higher than the bases
of the normally eight-foot high boxes. Warheads
must be supported exactly horizontal, as
determined by the use of spirit levels or. quadrants.
mey may be supported in one of two
ways :
1. When the total weight to be supported is
less than 35 pounds, the warhead should
be suspended from a cord running from
the tops of opposite recovery boxes, or
from poles placed outside of the arena.
2. When the total weight is greater than 35
pound& the warhead should be supported '
in a wooden cradle, cut to the contour of 1
the under side of the warhead, and
mounted upon an upright wooden pole or
poles.
(U) A ricochet stop is used to prevent flagments
from ricocheting from the ground into
the recovery boxes. Ricochet stops may be constructed
in one of the following ways: a ridge
of dirt, with or without a retaining wall on
one side. having a plateau two-feet wide; steel
plates renting against a ridge of dirt or
mounted on a frame; or parallel wooden walk
enclosing a two-foot thickness oftamped earth
Ricochet stops are normally required only
where there is a possibility of fragments strik

Coma Y
ing the ground a t angles of less than 15 d e
grces.
(U) Recovery boxes are used to entrap undamaged
samples of the warhead framer&,
which are used to determine both spatial distribution
and the weights of fragments. Recovery
bortes are fabricated of wostl anu are large
enough to house four-by-eight foot sheets of
half .inch composition wallhard (celotrx) , or
other suitable recovery media, to a depth of
three to six feet. The Imxes are placed on end,
with one open side exposing the wallboard to
the \ia;;~c!od. The depth uf s box depends upon
the size and velocity of the fragments expected
to strikp that box. To determine the spatial distribution,
the recovered fragments must k
oriented with respect to the warhead location.
The areas of the recovery boxes are subdivided
to permit frapmeni recovel+ in terms of zones,
lunes, squares, or other suitable geometric configurations.
A representative fragmentation
test arena is shown in Fig. 4-106.
(U) After detonation of the warhead, the
fragments in the \vallboanl are located with an
electronic metal detector. Each fragment is removed
from the wallboard, cleaned of all residue,
and weiuhed to a maximum error of 1 per
cent. As the fragments are recovered, their
location in the recovery box is nsorded for determination
of spatial distribution. The mass
dist-ibution is then determined by separating
the fragments into weight p u p s . Results of a
typical mass distribution test are shown gnphieally
in Fig. 4-107. These mults indicate the
ability of a u-arhead to pm?uce frapments
which will be iethal or damaging against the
target for which it is designed.
(U) Spatial distribution is a measure of the
density of fragments in space. The number of
fragment3 in any area around the warhead esn
be determined from the lmtions of fragments
in the recovery boxes, and a relationship similar
to that shown in Fig. 4108 can be plotted.
,From this curve, the fragment spray can be
detennined by noting the size of sector in which
effective fragments were projected. In *e case
illustrated, the fragment spray was approximately
2 2 4 degrees from the equatorial plane.
d
WEIGHT IMTERVAL igroins)
IAI PER CENT WEIGHT OF FRAGMENTS
RECOVERED IN WEIGHT INTERVALS
WEIGHT INTERVAL Igrnim)
IBl PER CENT NUMBER OF FRAGMENTS
RECOVERED IN WEIGHT INTERVALS
Figure 4-107 IC). Histogram of Fragment Moss
Diskibution fUJ
(U) Strawboard is often used by the British
when recovering fragments. The density of
srra\vhnnnl is approximately twice that of the
Celotex used in this country. The density of the
material used sometimes affects the rcsults, because
secondary fragment break-up may occur
in the higher density materials, and a true
measure of the mass distribution may not be
..
- rrraE WITH AXE) WARHEAD (*I
Fipre 4-1 08 IC). Spalid Dis:tibution Graph (01
obtained. During the fragment recovery operation.
careful observation as to fragnent location
and size should be emplcye?, in order to
detw: any fragment break-up after impact
wilh the recovery material.
(U) Closed sand pits were previously used
to recover fragments; however, due to fragment
break-up upon impact with the sand, and
the inability to orient the fragments to the warhesd
location, this method is now considered
inadeq~atea nd obsolete.
4-11. ( C ) FRAGMENT VELOCITY
This paragrsph discusses the theoretical
aspects and experimental techniques for obtaining
the initial and downranb~( decayed) fragment
velocities. The experimental metinods
include various explosive shapes, types of explosives,
inert materials included as cushions,
and detailed photogaphie instrunentation.
e (U) C a d
The theoretical expression for initial velocities
has been well predicted by kinetic enel,-;
considerations, and most laws and formulas
have been derived from the basic kinetic energy
e x p & ~ u presented here.
b. (C) Cyltdsra ad S p k
(U) The detonation of a long cylinder of
explosive, e n c d by a cylindrical shell of
metzl, is eonsidered in the following manner
(Ref.24). IfMisthemwofmetalandCthe
msss of the charge, and if during the expansion
the velocity of the gru i n m u niformly
from zero on the axis to the fragment velocity,
V, a t the internal surface of the expanding cylinder
of metal, then the local kmetic energy is
dt any i d n t . If E is the energy per unit mus
(specific energy) of the emlasiw that can be
converted into mechanical work, then it fol-
Iowa that, at the time when all this energy has
been converted, the fragment velocity (usually
called the initial fragment velocity) is given by
The velocities predicted by Eq. 4-118 were
found by Gurney to be in good agreement with
the experiment, when the quantity \/=wa s
given a value of 8.000 fps for TNT.
(C) Picatinny Arsenal (Ref. ?6) givw the
value - ~ fv ?!? as 8,800 fps for Composition B
and C3 explosives.
(U) Gurney's fonnula for s p h e ~ so,b tained
in a similar manner, is
(C) For the initial fragment velocitv ~f a
cored cylinder, where a, is the ratio J; the core
radius to internal cylinder mCius, a t rupture.
the initkl fragment velocity (Ref. 77) is
a
For steel, a,=- when a is the initial ratio of
1.6'
the core radius to the interad cylind* radius.
(C) Sterne (Ref. 78) gives fragment velocity
of L sphericd shell containing an inert core
as
C/M
1 +3/5 C/M f (a) (4-121)
where
Again, a. denotes the radius of the core divided
by the radius of the spherical shell, and may
be taken as tile original a divided by 1.6.
e. (C) Fkr C k b g
(1) Sccmc'a FL1 PLte Farmah
Conaidering the velocity of f m ~ t fmsm
a fiat slab of meW in mntrct with a flat rhb
of high explosive. a11 in h e sp ace, Sterne (Ref.
77) writes the momentum h b c e aa
c u-=v m 2
where M=Uw mass of metal per unit area
('=the ma- of r h a r ~ pee r unit arcn.
V= t'sr velncit) of the mc:al a: :my instant
of expansion.
a : : U=I!Wz as veloci:y a t the free bwnd-
" q'.
Assuming I.. :'mn F;.u vriwil: variation
:'mm li to V,t h: 611ieticP rier+:. c ~ :f'IC y.ls Is
A s s u n ~ i n.;"~in t t h r ;?tc.rn;\i Pn r r p of th:. ?Xpllwivc.
i:/'. is con.-rtd ~ n t ok: :irtic . .wK~o f
mrtnl and gas. by :t;ijrl~c;c:ion ~ s :ib > .wt r - flat
plntr formuh:
d. (C) h ~ j u f i c xfr nm rL &ad of High
f . x ~
(U) Hauver and Taylor (F*I. 79) pmser~at
method of projecting a &in pate. intack with
minimum deformation. Slerne's quation
w u found to app:y. in which
p = d e ~ i t yi,n s1up;cu in..
t-thickness. in inches.
E-specific energy of explosive, in ft-lb/alug.
and
p-date. ?.
(C) The ~i s znay-~cha rdienff ect (projectinr
plates from the end of high explosives). described
by Pugh (Ref*), states that the axial
frnpmrnt velocity is ' well represented by
Strrne's equation.
t C) Experiments have produced velocities
11; to 5.4 km/sec. for a pellet projected from
n cavity a t the end of a cylinder of explosive.
c. (C) Effecto f Type of E~plo*iweo n
Velocity
Experimental results from Crabarek (Ref.
hl ) l i s t the relative fragment velocity of thin
and :kick walled warheads. Taking Compositinn
3 xi 1.00. t!ie relative fngment velocities
of HBX and Tritonal, for both thin and thick
wall0.d warheads. are found to be 0.92 and 0.82.
respectively. Statistical tests applied to the
data showed that these differences are significant.
By ratioing Gurney's Constant, E, the Naval
Ordnance Laboratory gives the following, partid
list for several explosives: Composition
B= 1.00; PTX-2= 1.01; HBX-8=0.83; and
Baratol=0.59.
Sheperd and Torry (Ref. 82) measured the
average speed of fragments from the No. 70
Mk I1 grenade for various explosive fillings,
and list the following velocities: Amatql (80/
2G) =2,000 ft/aec.; Baratol (20180) -2,705 f t /
scc.; TNT=3.730 ft/see.: and RDX/TNT (SO/
50) =4,245 ft/sec.
f. (U) E f e f of HE Confinemcni on .
v-1
The United SLhtes Naval Proving Ground
(Refs. 83 and 84) lists the fragment velocities
found from open and c l o d ends of cylindrical
warheads. Small length/diameter ratios were
used as shown in the results listed in Table
4-21.
In another report, cylindrical warheads with
axial cavities were detonated for fragment velocity
measurements. Under the conditions of
the test, the removal of an axial core of explosive
results in the reduction of fragment velocities
as indicated by Table 4-25.
TAYM 4-24. COMPARISON OF FRAGMENT VUOCITES FUOM
OPEN- AND CLOSED&ND 6" CYUNUERS
I/d Ratio= fe I/d Ratio = 1
Muwrement --
Location (Open End) (Closed End) (OWE- En d) (Cloaed End)
Fuze End 4.360 ft/sec. 5,090 it/=. 4,480 ft/= 3,260 ft/sec.
Side Spray 3.420 it/sec. 4,110 it/sce. 4,570 ftfxc. 4.960 f t , ' ~ .
Curncy (Hef. 85) eansiden the hypothetial
case of a cylinder which expands indefinitely
without cracking. At any moment during this
expansiun, when the radius has reached a value
r. let the velocity of the metal be V . As the
value of r tends to infinity, V tends to a limiting
final velocity V , . The value of & MV? is
less than E, the difference being the kinetic
energy retained by the explosion gases. The
expression for the kinetic energy of the metal
is
where
(7-1) ~ ( l + C / ~ ~ ~ - l ~
Ill=- of metal per unit length,
C=- of explosive pcr unit length,
and
E=energy per unit length liberated from explosive
by the passage of the detonation
wave.
The value of A is lesa than unity, unlesr C/M
k negligible in comparison to unity, in which
crrs A k unity. From Eq. 4-18, for A = l ,
E= l/WVr8a, nd
where
r,=initial i n t e d radius of metal cylinder,
and
I=ntio of specific heab of propellant gases.
While 1.26 for y is usual. Thomas (Ref. 86)
ussd 9.75, which is some average value between
7 of u gas and y of a fluid.
Finally, Ior the per cent uf the total charge
lost through cracking, Gurney (Ref. 85) gives
Kc1/2 cos 8,
8 =angle between cracka made with elements
of the cylinder.
p= propellant density,
and
M= mors of metal per unit length.
Using averam numerical values, Gunley
show7 only small amounb of gas will escape.
I. (U) E f l d oj R u U luagtL/Dlunr~r
Rat& u 1rriJ.l Fmg- Ydudty
None of the theories used for predicting initial
fragment velocity (Gurney, Sterne. etc.)
takes into m u n t the clfcctr of warhead length
or of the end plates of the warhend on the
development of the detonation wave, nor is
Percentage of M e u
Explosive Clurm-Maaa Velocity
Removrd Bntio Ift/sec.)
.-
0 0.9218 6P70
14.1 0.7913 5,560
3 . 8 0.8291 4,840
55.6 0.3997 3,700
there ma& in;'ormation available on thii subject.
I t has bren ahown, however. that when
the length of the warhead b not effectively infinite,
and particularly when the warhead
Icngth/diameter ratio is less than 2, the velocitin
predicted by the various theories are not
achieved. Correction ( 7 ) to the initial velocity
of side-spray fragmenb fmm a cylindrical warhead,
due to variation in the length/diameter
ratio. is shown in Fig. 4-109 (Ref. 87).
a (U) 4hud
The initial veiocitiu of fragments produced
by the explosion of a warhead or shell are determind
experimentally by several methods.
Each method employs aome means fur remrding
the time of flight of the fragment over a
measured distance. The average velocity of the
fragment is then calculated, using $his time
arul the known distance. In most cams, the
fragments are recovered and identified, M that
an analysis of velocity versus man; may be
d e . In addition, the distribution of the fragments
is determined for uae in the analysis of
the effectiveness of the wa:head. The following
pamgraphs describe aome of the comr-sn
methods of memuring the velocity of f r a p
menta.
The rapidity and hroad wope of improvements
being mnde in the Ansh photographic
method of moaruring fragment velceity render
it infeasible to describe such a method in a
publication of this type. Ref. 88 describes the
Irbt method in use at the time of this writing.
r. (U) S U r Md&d (Ref. 90)
Thi- method wnaists of recording. with r
sing drum camera, the ahadow images of
the frwmenh pudnn in frunt of three illuminated
dits. The slits are equally spaced, and
when illuminated they produce three bands on
the n~oving film. The :lib are illuminated for
a time slightly less than that required for one
rotation of the film drum Fragments paasiny
between the slit box and camera produce
shadow imagw on these bands. The velocity of
a frrgmnt, with suitable correction for devia-
, tion of i b trajectory from horizonw, is invenely
proportional to the relative displacement
Pbnp the tUm of the three image apok
The three image spots pmduced by CPC.! oi a
number of frqpwntr g d n g in iront of the
camera, a t about the L P ~ Bti me, are ennily
ideatifid because they lie on a straight line.
The fragment veldties measured by thL
method are actual!y average velocities measured
over the dgtance between the slits. Since this
distance is usually small. the calculated velocity
may be considered as king the instantaneous
velocity of the fragment at a distance a, which
is the averaxe distance from the point of initiation
to the slits. The initial velocity may
then b cnlculated by using the aerodynamic
drag principle, as described ir. Par. 4-11.3 1.
k (U) MJcip& B ~ S u c r mW Muhod ~
(Rek 91 and 92)
This method uses a wire scrrtcn, locaied at a
known distance from the warhead, for m a u r -
ing the fngment velocity. The screen includes
n h n k of identicel rooistors in parallel. The
resistors are mcrunted on a terminal bonrd, with
one end of each reaistor t i 4 to a common bus.
The other end of each ~e a i s bbr terminated at
another common bus by the individual winn
making up the screen. A typical ween is
shown-in Fig. 4-110.
The fragmenb travel a maaured distance b
the sereen and break a numher of the wires.
The Srcnkinn of each wire produces a voltam
change in thE screen cirevit - ~ f t esrh pying a i d
amplificPtion, the voltam Cflectr the electron
berm of u cathode ray indicator. A high-aped
streak image camera views the face nf the neupe '
and records the action of the intensified h t r o n
beam.
Light from the expiorion triggem a photo
tube which is used tn ttigger the scope ta indicate
the start of the explosion. Simultaneou~
recording on the film of a known t h e bw aunpletes
the data newawry ta determine the time
of ftight of each fragmect to the screen.
A modification of this method utilizes a pndetermined,
single-frame raater or pattern of
sanning lines displayed on an olfilloscope
screen. The raster is triggered at the instant of
warhead detonation Spikes hpwucd on the
Lrn RATIO- ...
Fiwre 4-1 09. C f f i * d i ~(7 ) R tb lnilial Vdecily 1V.i of F r w m k f ron
Cylindrical Wortmad, Due to Variation in tho Ien$h/Diar*hr (I/DJ R&
the fragment over the d L W r. The initid
velocity of thr: fragment mqv be determined by
applying tbe aerodyo.mic drag principle d e
rribed in Par. 4-113.1.
r. (C) Flvk Rrliogrqihk M u h d
(Raf. 89)
Thh method utilizes two ttPeh nadiogmphr
far determining the distance traveled by the
fragments during a knom time interval. Be
raster indicate the prrival time of the fmgmenb
at the wire mrreen. and a dewloping
amera records the wont. A photograph showinp
raster crlibrationpnd a typical firing recod
is anown in Fig. 4-111.
Without any rPeriftee of accuracy, thia modi-
6ed mthod c a n be wed to o w n either rubmnic
or rupnnnic velocitiar of frnpmtr~~q,
rrpardkrr of the timc of dcbwti011. Much kur
film ir uud in thin method thnn in the method
employing the high oped amera. In addition.
the record is avaiLMe for reading within a few
minutes after firing.
The velocity obtained by dividing the known.
diitance from the warhead to the wire m e n , 0) KCCORD
r, by the time of flight of the fragment os mep1- Fiv 1 ,. lrpic,4 Cd;wan
srsd fmm the film, t, is the werage velocity of Uwsd
4-11.3.1. IU) T h r y
This paragraph preaenb the theory and experimental
techniqucs for determining the
decpy of f r w e n t wbdty from mnw iuitial
velocity. 1: is usumpd tht a quadratic law of
resistance appliea to the motiolr of the fragments;
an asaurnption well subtantiated by
experiment.
-use the amount of ezplasive used with this
method is limited to approximately one pound,
a scaling problem rmn exist. Therefore, the
ffnah radiugraph method is more often used for
qualitative than for quantitative results.
Thc warhead 3 set up in firing podtion and
a static picture Q taken. A "primacord clock"
consisting of pin electrodes is initiated simultaneously
with the warhead. When the primacord
detonates to the pin electrodes, which have
been placed a t r: calculated distance from the
p i n t of initiation for the desired time interval.
the hot gases ionize the gap between them and
trigger the X-ray unit. By this nieans, another
picture is taken after detonation.
Fragment velocity is then determined by
superimposing the two negatives and measuring
.he expansion in the following three zones: 2
cm from the top; at the center; and 2 cm from
the bottom. The size of the static picture, 8,
subtracted from the total expansion, I, and
divided by twice the mamifiation factor, p,
gives the actual distance traveled, d, or
2 - 8 d=-.
2r
The average velocity, V, for each zone is then
colcuhted by d t v i d ! ~th e distance d by the
time t, or
where t ir determined by the lenpth of the
prinueDrd.
Elm 4-112 and 4-115 are contact prints
from radiograph8 of A skel cylinder filled with
RDX Camporition CS, before detonation md
26.19 micmreeon& after detonation, respectively.
Other radiographs 'were taken at 60 and
67 micmeconda after initiation. For all three
of the poatdetatution mdingrapb, the measurementa
indicated that. the velocity of the
I-nts WM 1,336 meters per second This
prova that the timer and dktoncen involved
In this method of velocity meuur?ment are
.ueh that M velocity decay Wen place. Therefwe,
the vrloeiha of the fnpmcnta. u me;rsu
d . m y be conaidered equal to or nearly
qua1 b the initial velocity of the f g m e n b ,
without the nml for applying opmction fatt
o n for d w dcrinp thk a b r t tixe inbrvnl.
The ability of a fragment. projectile, or flechette
to penetrate a torget k dependent upon its
velocity a t the instant of impact This velocity,
referred to as striking velocity, will be lau than
the initial fragment velocity becauae of the deereaae
due ta air d r a ~ .
Ir. the movement of a bady through o fluid
medium such u air, the body encounters a certain
amount of resishm, tending b W.rd its
motion (Ref. I).Th e major murce of realt-
.nee lies in the unbalanced p r u s u n diatribution
over the aurfclee of the moving body. Reasoning
that a body of mxwectiond area A,
normal to the direction of night. and mrring
with velocity v, will impsrt itr own speed to a
OIRcio( U. s. A n y
maw of fluid of mru, density p, and that the
force neceaary to do this is proportional to the
rate of change of mcmentum. thr mistance or
drag, D, offered by the a i r is found to be
While the medunism of miatance is much
more complex thcn indicated, thin quadratic law
of n r l t u . c e applies in a great variety of aim,
pmvided the aerodyrumic drag eodfieient, Cc,
t pzoperIy evaluated. The value of C. depend9
pr'acipally upon t.he &a and dupe of a body
and its velocity. In the aae of a projectik the
reaiatance is somaima writteu
where d=the projectile di.wtu,
8 a d & = w i t i c coditdent of mirtrna
A r snd that for projcelilcq
i
The value of ihe drag coefficient is usually
obtained from wind tunnel experiment3 where
the residing force. R, is measured for a given
air velocity. Then the drag coefficient, CD, is
computed, based on some presented =a, A.
Hence, the d i n g laws can be agplied for
similar shapes and variotis velocities, provided
the area upon which the drag coefficient waa
computed is given. A typical curve from &
bullet of C, versus the Mach number M is
shown in Fig. 4114.
Note that there is 4 large change in the dm8
cwtiicient for the region around Mach 1, p w -
ing from subsonic to supersonic velocities.
In general, then, the equation of motion for a
body in flight of relatively flat trajectory (the
effect of gravity is neglected) is written
when m is the msaa of the body. Applying the
quadratic Inw of resistance, and integrating
when V, is the down range velocity at distance
r, and V. is the initial velocity. In moat cases,
when the initin: and the decayed velocities remain
above the sonic value, an averagv value of
Cn is assumed and +e integration fields the
downrange velocity as
IT one 's given the drag d c i e n f Coo of a
frrpment and the mceamq strlking velacity
(in thb cue V.) at the downrange pwiuon,
the nmrrvry initial velodty can be mmpted
from Eq. ClSS.
The drag eoeHkir,t for frspmenb ia wuaily
detennined by musuring the times of Aight of
a projected fragment over known distances z,
and x, (Ref. 04). Eq. 6133 ia left in a Anite
difference form and Cu is deflnrd by the equation
D=CdpVa
Subtitutiny in Eq. 4-133 pi^:
Referring to Fig. 4-116, the term AV fs the
difference in the average velocity over a meanuml
distance, where the times t, and t, nre
obtained from t !vel ocity acrcena.
21
From Fig. 4116, :l
and
Having accurately measured the diahncw o,
and h, andthetimes t, and t.,thtdlmgcoeglcient
Cn ia obtained from Eq. 4-136. As prcvioualy
&Wed, the dzag d u e n t murt b
band upon mm given iragment pmentrd
aror A usan presented a m h dtterminad a8
d h w m in the Par. 441.32, following. He
sulb cf teats conducted on vuioua fixmnenb
era &own i I Fig. 4416. It can be seen from
t b C W Vh~ow Ca ~uierw ith rrrpcet to f r ~ -
ment ahape and velocity.
4-113.2. (CJ U- T.ci.iyu
r (C) Crrrd
The variabka which mu& be determined for
each different frpemrnt are the drageoaftkient.
Cn, and the ppresonted .req A. The equation by
which Cn is obtained w.r derived in Par. 4-
11.3.1, p n e d i g , and b repea& here:
--aV , Pr . (4-136)
-f -A L
In order to determine AV and V , of the
w t i o n , the vetocities of r fragment must be
measured a t w v d points along its trajectory.
T h w velocities may be mtrsrural by either the
wire rcreen (Par. 4-11.2.2.d.), shadow image
(Par. 4-1 l.Z.2.e.), or Rnrh photograph (Par. 4-
11.22.6.) methodr. or by other suitable
methods. The fragmanlr for these teatd may be
projected either singly fram a gun, or in mupa
from a wnrhd. In the former method, the
fragment ia placed in a eup~hapedm nUner,
eplled a =bat, which l a p behind the f-nt
after it e t n e f~rom~ ~the gun
b. (C) Wiw Sawn M U
When the fragment u to be fired dngly from
a am&-bore gun, the win maven meuum
ment method Ia norrrrlly crnployed. For that
raeaaunmenh, tbrcs rka ue deployed
IU shown rhemrthlly ia FigF4l-r1r17 . k the
fragment in itm f i a t bsab, a wire ir. each
screen, a h r p voltape pule k produce4 which
stnrb or $totops an elcclmaie chronogtzph. One
Figun 4-1 16 IC). Summary of Cu va Mach Number for Various Unttobi1i.d
Fragmrnfs in Air IUJ
set of chronographs is started by the pulse from
the first screen and stopped by the pulse from
the second screen. This measurn the time t ,
over the distance z,, from the first to the second
screen. Another set of chronographs similarly
measures the time t, over the distance z,,
from the second to thz third screen. The aver-
& age velocity oirer z, is Vi=- and the avertl
21 age velocity owrz, is V,=-. It is ~arumed
t,
that these are the velocities ~t the mid-points
between the screens.
c. (U) slllocc fwmge m-
The velocities of fragments projected from
a shell or warhead may be measured by either
the shadow image or f l d photograph methods
(Ref. 97). The shadow image apparatus measures
the velocities of the same fragments at
three locations which are of known distances
r, and z, apart. Only c small portion of the
total number of fragments produced is allowed
to pass in front of the slit boxes for
velocity measurements. Normally, controlled
--
fragmentation ~&heads are used ih these
tests, so that representative velocities of the
fragments which are lethal are obtained. On!y
major, or design size, fragments are considered,
because the velocities of the small fragments
and slivers may be greater for short dista;
lces and smaller for large distances, thereby
affecting the value of Cu. '
d. ( U ) Flarh Pholographk Method
The flash photogr~ph method of velocity
measurement (Ref. 95). employs flash targets
located a t various distances from the initiation
point. Since the velocities of the fragments
would be considerably reduced in passing
through the target used in this method, it is
necessary to measure a different set of fragments
for each target A schematic picture of
a typical test .setup, with targets for measuring
five velocities at different distances, is shown in
Fig. 4-118. To eliminate the velocities d the
smal! fragments ar.d slivers, recovery screens
are placed behind the targets and all of the
fragments are recovered. Only those velocities
which an! definitely correlated with major
fragments are retained.
Prerented Area
Determination o i the presented area of a
fragment is difficult, since orientations of the
fragment vary during time of flight. The assumption
is made that fragments are tumbling
when projected from a warhead, and that the
uniform orientation theory is applicable. Based
on this theory, the mean presented area of a
fragment is used. The mean presented area of
a regularly shaped fragment is taken to be onequarter
of the fragment's total surface aren.
An Electro-Optic-icosahedron Gage (Rcf. 76)
is used to measure the mean presented area of
irregular fr-agments. A schematic c!iaylam of
the gage appears'in Fig. 4-11s. In general, the
oscillator deiivers a modulator signal througl.
the driver unit to the light source. After collimation,
the modulated light is directed on the
ilirnbal system, on which is mornted the fragment
whose area is to be determined. After the
light behm passes through the condewer lens.
it is focused on the photo tube. Minute, electrical
signals originate here that are proportional
to the total light flux permitted to pass
the gimbal system. These signals arz a111ji:i;5d,
rectified, and then metered. The meter reading
is used to determine the presented area.
To determine the mean presented area of a
fragment, the presented area is measured with
the fragment in 16 different orientations. The
16 orientations correspond to the normal, the
ten wentially different mid-points of the faces,
and the five essentially different vertices of an
icosahedron. The remotely controlled mechanical
gimbal system automatically orients, to the
desired angles. the fragments whose areas are
to he measured, and communicates these positions
to the operator through indicating lights.
Fig. 4-120 illustrates the gimbal system with a ,.
mounted fragment. The gimbal system is eapable
of orientation a'mut the following two
axes:
1 The horizontal axis coinciding with the
r i n ~ge ar diameter, motion sbut which
is defined as "tilt."
2. An axis perpendicular to the horizontal
axis a t the ring gear center, about which
the gear may rotate in its own plane of
I. ELLVNIOW vim
ployd are shown in Table 4-26. The CIZ1. (,,, I-Y-.
d u e d the UPU memure4 with the
oriented in the poirtio~uo, hom, Q wed M the Thir m p h p m t 0 t he theory oi pm
prarented uet of the frrgment for deter- W o n md perirmtion, u llenurlly ured for
mining the drop d&k projectiles &rut various br&a Caf& ex

,sm-\y-<'-i> b w
pla of urperimrnkl data are also included TABU CU OlWAnOlJ UQLEP USED
to illurtr~teth e applieph of the thpory. WWH WUML SYSTEM
612.2 (I) T h q mt Bot.tlon
Clzal. (5) Cmnl
(U) The theory of penetration b ururlly O0 00
, some form of the Poae~MR erirtnnce Law; it im 87" a' - 00
bawd on projectile motion through a target 3'1° 23' 720
hiag similar to a projectile's rnotim +LIDugh
air or water.
87O 29' 144"
(S) To dotunnine the &-elation between the 37O 23' 2160
penetmtiun power and perforation power of ST0 23' 28S0
projectiles, and the physical pmperties of b 6S0 26' 3Sa
ge& the target reatstance R to the pwjdile is 63O 26' 10BO
slllumedaa 8J0 26' W
and
4-192
without rupture ocewrinx, in Ib/ (S) The velocity, V:, depends on the fonn of
sq in., the streas-strain curve of the material of the
~ , = ~ ve~loci~ty iin t~he lrup~ture target, and it is amlogous to the rupture velocfront,
in in./sec., ity in a semi-infinite wire when it is snatched
a t one end. This velwity is wnernlly smell; it
A=the projeclion of the area of eon- is neglected, herk, to dve
tact between the projectile nnd the
target, on u plane perpendicular to R= ( B + lZypk")A 14-138)
the line of flight, in wurrc inches, which is the poncelet h i s h n c e L ~ T~he .
y=target resistance coemcie~~(atn al* Poncelet Resistance Law attempts to account
gous to a drag cwmcient). for the two mnst important components of r e
612.2.3. (SI Mlld S W
Rord Rerssreh L.boratory (Ref. 08, eJ
the following partial I t t (Table 4-28) for the
penetration of mild steel plater by syberid
balls. V, u the mloeit -yn fcr perimtion,
T the plate thickness, and D the diameter
of the spherical profectile. Fmm this lint i '3
deduced that B44 tom per wlum inch
approximately from experimental dub (Rd.
101) :
For normal obliquity
where C-O.61X 10 poundm per square inch in
the Britidh Gravitatiao.l Sy~tom,
Experimental data provnted by Duane JIuw
good rgkment wi+h the above -ling for both
irregular fragments a d rreturpuLr padleiepipeds.
From dfmousiolul alulysia, for fr.clgmen(o ef
similar ahape the relation for rteel frsments
r#rcking mild steel is of the fonn given by Eq.
4439.
Fipe. 4-121. 4-122 a d 4-123 plot t/J;d
& -YV' for angles of obliquity of 0 da
ASIS
The unknown function f --=s 0 L obtained
(:A
SO-depeer, and 60 degrees, respediwly.
The graphm glve muonable valuea when mm

paring Ilxed panmeten of projectile shape and
cbljquity, and projectile and target nutrriak
As a m u l t of experimental firings of general
purpw bomb fmgmnb against mild &el, the
following empirid fonnula haa been obtained
for thickncpr, t, perforrted at nonnal i m m
Here t is in inches, M Ir the weight of the fragment
in ounces, and V the ~t r ikingv elociiy in
it/* The ballistic limit on which thia formula
is bsed mge~ from 1,690 ft/sec. to 3,775
it/-. and the weights of the fmmenb vary
fmm 0.197 ounces to 0.130 ounces. Note that
the numben 0.012 and 1.000 must be dimensioned
conz.tonts for thii equation to be corrxt.
Welch (Ref. 102) reproduced the following
list (Table 449) of the required eritienl values
of a parameter for penetration venus ande of
obsgity. The valued listed are for the expression

4422.4. (C1 Alurnlnum Alloys
Taylor (Ref. 103) found expcrirnuntally that
penetmtion nf duralumin plates by steel spheres
at velocities of up to 4.000 ft//sec fan be dc
scribed by a Poncelet equation:
whcre
and
4-196
.=a dimensionless constant w r r c
rponding to a drag coefficient,
p=a conatant that relater, to the resistance
of the target malerid, in
Ib/sq. in.
p,=tPrget mass density,
A = a m of hole,
V=vdocity corresponding to 60%
probability of perfomtion,
zzdepth of penetration,
m=mw of pellet.
Fur best pneral results, Taylor uses V1J' instead
of V', n=0.40, and /3=3.49XlW Ih/
sq. in. There is eridencc that a different value
of fl should be used lor velocities below 1,000
ft/sec.
The considerable experimental data obtained
for penetration of titaaium alloys is too detailed
to be yreaented here. Perhaps the most extensive
data id presented in reports by Midwest
Research Inst'tute (Ref. loo), describing the
depth of penetration, ballistic limita, and the
rarious pnrameters used for comparison.
4-113.b. (Cl kt, T m q d
Repeated exi,erimenb (Ref. 104) with steel
spheres of various sizes showed consistently
that a critical striking velocity of Vc=5,2G0
cm/aec. is required to break the skin of gont-.
which is considered to be conrpatible with
human h u e . The expe~imnentald ata were all V," V,C -*- (C149)
conaistent with
where V, is the reinainiug velocity after emergenre,
I.', the strikiug velocity w a t e r than Ve,
a ths skin thickness in centirnctcm, and d the
sphere diameter in inches. Sterne (Ref. 106)
rewrites the equation, to xccout~tf or an (Alnl)
factor, as
rvherz A is the rnierile crow-sectional area. and
a iY the mass of the mkslle.
For framenls striking the skin, and for
owrage skit. thicknw of a=0.176 cm
V,=G200+ V, e*."'"'" . (4-148)
. .
For pnetratiou through soft tisauw with
steel h l b
For penetration, P, through bone, with steel
spheres of rdiw r
with P in miUh.etcrs, r in inches, V, in it/-
For complete penetrrtin of non-apherical
frugmcnts through bane
( I',.:v, I + 8.OBX 10' PAYA I ~ J
lit V," ) (4-151)
in cgs, unitr.
Fur penetration ink& gehtin h u e models,
the dynamics of a sphere h o v e the critiu!
velocity are &anbed by the following equation
(Ref. 52). The constantr of this equation have
the values lidted in Tahle 4-3Q
When the valoelty of the sphere ia below the
criticrl velodty
where V,=critid velocity.
The general equations of penetration into
pelntin are
(abovecriticsl velocity) (4-164)
and
dV a~V.+B~v~+y,,
ve
(below critical velocity) ( 4 4 % )
where
al=20.?07,
8, = 1.926,
7,=g93,000,
A=&~OMI area ot rphare, In quala
meter4
and
Xrweight of sphere, in kilogram.
By the proper integration of the above equat
i 0 ~t.h e velocity. the, and distrnce of penetration
at MY point in the gelatin t p w t un
be calculated, if the striking velocity and the
r h and weight of the sphere are known.
~t k llccaurry when coaridering penetmtbn
by t r m t i to remember tht there ia m one
velocity limit h v e which perfonb'joll (tor &
given set of pammten) will occur, and bdow
which perforation will not occur, There
rather, r of velociti~o~v er which perforation
may or nuy not occur; the pwbobility
02 perforation being clore to zero rt the lower
doithe~;~andclosrrtO1rt.tK~er
end. Furthennore, the veldtY differentid at
which perforation may occur k wider in the,
say, 9,000 ips regime, than it L in the 1.000
f p regime. Thh m w r that the "blliatic
limit" (see Ch. 6, Par. 6-13.2.) is leaa meaningful
at higher velocities. The upper and lomr
en& of the range are of more intereat than the
bUistic limit. A h . pcirforation done L not the
wle criterion for d&%t of the target mnhhl.
The target raterid, itself, is wuplly an i n k -
mediate target (the armor of a tank, the hood
of r truck) which pmtoets the primPry Wpt
(tank crew and eombustiblu. an engine block).
What ia ot interest L whether or not the uer-
Coating fmgmeut lur enough midual velociLy
and midual maaa to damage the primary target,
and if rq how brdly.
Them question# would not be hportant if it
were pouible to estimate the hererid& weight
and velocity of fraumentr, after impact. under
a varieQ of mnditbs (Ref. 116). The midual
velocity enti& rmld then be LUOUwDithM
an estimate of residual fragment weight, ro
that a better decision eould be rendered with
rapact to the primary target. The criterion
fo: ~ucceuk M longer, themfore, whether or
not perfomtion offon. but U bued on behindthe-
piate clun*pe.
TABU ua rc1. VALUO or CONSTANTS roll w. cru tu)
Critiul
sphcm Velocity Q B 7
5/16 in. SO m/- 6.86 925 97,000
1/4 in. 20 m/m. 4.42 544 76,070
3/8 in. IS m/m. 8.00 260 ~ W J
7,'16 in. 10 m / w 290 120 46,m
ing velocity (Ref. 116). The fitst. d l e d the
protection velocity, V,, is used to identify the
highest striking velocity below the ballistic limit
at which the fragment never perforates the
plate. The m n d , called the guarantm velocity,
V,, will identify the lowest striking velocity for
which the f-ent ia s s~ur eodf rucceaa in perforating
the armor.
Experimental residual .~elocity data have
been collected vith respect to mild steel, Dural,
billlet-resistant glasu, and Plexiglas (Ref. 115;.
From these data, an empirical relatiomhip for
predicting fragment rwidunl velocities for each
material has been derived:
V,=V.-l((rA)m n@(secti)r V.a
(4-156)
where
V.=the fragment residual velocity, in fps,
V,=the fragment striking velocity, in fp3.
c=the plate thicknerr, in inchea,
A =the average impact area of the frngment,
in square inches,
m 4 h e weight of the fragment, in mains,
8=the angle of ohliquity hetween the trajectow
of the ftagment and the normal to the
plate, and K,a . fl, y, and A are c o ~ t a n tth at
am &;ermined separately for each materid.
The baah fonnula is converted into the asd
t e d logarithmic form:
With thu linear form, the method of 1-t
equares ia empbyd to detennine a antiafactory
I set of valuea for K, a, p, y, and A for each makrial.
Thir concept is developed in much more
detail in Ref. 116. and cannot be fully tmted
I here.
A typicd mt of nsults of these studies M
illustrated in Fi. 4-124, where the ra* of
rsrldual wloclty w striking ve lo,c:ity, k
plotted against rtriking velocity for eigitmdifferent
thicknesses of mild steel. It can be wen
thrt a SO-grain fragment irnpactir.~a mild steal
blah 0.05" thick, at a striking velacity of 2,000
fps, will have a residual velwity between 1,900
and 2000 fps. By interpolation, a d u a l vclacity
of approximately 1520 tps is indicated.
The same fropment impacting a plate 0.10"
thick (other paruneten unchanged), will have
a midual velocity of only 500 f p a
The results of the above brllistia atudier
emphasized the need oi a companion effort to
analyze data on the raridual weight of steel
fragments, after impact ulldcr a variety of
conditions. A documentation of this effort is
found in Ref. 116, a summary of which is found
in the following paragraph.
442.33. Lou 1. Pmqmnt Wolqht Ovlaq
?orhratfor
With low atriking wlocitiw, the 1w in
weight of a fragment during perforation is
small, and is usually ignored (Ref. 11 6). With
thu advent of high 8kiking velocities, the
break-up of the fragment ia inevitable and
spectacular. and can no longer be disregnrded.
The residual weight of the fmgmnt, aa well aa
the residual velocity, murt be known to the
vulnerability analyst. Only then can a reasonable
estimate be nude of the continuing potentiality
of the fragment to crate w e .
In moat ewr, the weiht oi the largeat piece
of fraement approximatea the total weight of
fragment recovered. The ability of the fngment
to damage a primary target beyond an
initial barrier can be conservatively apymximated,
by considerirlp thc Midual velocity of
only the largest piece of fragment which ruea
~ l u l l ype rfolrees the bur*r.
An empirical rppronch, jn?ilw to that which
has been uaej and described for obtaining an
equation relating lorr in velocity to impact
parameters (Eq. 4-157) has been attempted
for estimating lour in f-ent weight. The
form of the equation iltbd to the data k:
m,=m.=lO%A)* d ( l e c 8 ) 7 YeA,
(6168)
where
m,=the initial fmgment weight in praim,
&=the residua; weight; in miy, of the
hrget piece of fragment which prsrer
thmunh the tarpet md c, a. 8, 7, and A
L&:
Yo(alal =Mild Y n i F-l TObliquitl
= O'
F?- T y p = A 0 Pro-Fn* u vi FropnM S i n a 10 Grains
are constants determined separately for
each tatget material.
' All cowtank are determined by the application
of the method of leaat squares to the linear
equation relating the Brigga' logarithm:
To accommodate thia logarithmic treatment,
a fragment which emergea in- k wumed to
have loat one @a in weight.
Thir concept .Iso is more fully treated in the
original document (Ref. 116). Fig. 4-125 is an
illuamtion o.* f the type of data obkined. As in
RC. &I%. Y' it^ plotkd .kinat V.. However. v.
* the rbseiuP on the right plots the ratica of
striking velocity for selected plate th~cknesa. A
prrph of thii type pennits the vulnerability
d y a t &I estimate the midud mus and velocity
(for the material tested) of an impacting
fragment of known v&city and mass.
For a more d2tailed understanding of the
concept of residual velocity and residual maas,
the reader is referred to Refs. 115 through i17.
In experiments concerning penetration and
perforation by single f r a ~ e n t r a, m u m of
controlled fragmentation ia usually amplaped
to eliminate approximations of fragment size,
weight, and imp& area in the empirical equation
of penetration. Regukr shape. such aa
spheru, cubes, prhm, and cylinden are u8ed.
and in line with current thought, they are normally
in the weight rank: of 1/4 b 1/26
ouncea.
The fragments may be hunched one at a time
from a snioothbore gun, or they may be projected
by a controlled fragmentation type explosive
bomb or warhead. By either launching
method, it b w i b l e to produce fragment v c
locities up to about 16,000 ft/sec. The velocities
of explosively launched fragments m y ba
measured by me of the methods describcd in
PSI. 4-1122, such as: break-wire (Ref. 91),
tin-foil "make" rereens (Ref. 107). light interrupting
sfreear. spark photography (Ref. 91),
or Faraday shutten (Ref. 107). Kerr cells and
X-ray photography are used with gun-hunched
projectiles.
The attitude of fragments is indicated by the
pattern they makc in passing through the v r
locity scree^.
One technique is the use of target plates 10-
cated at varioua distances from the bomb tapproximately
10 feet, depending on bomb size)
and arranged in a senli4rcular pattern. The
plates are positioned at predetermined angles
to the line of fragment flight, so that penetration
data as a fuuctiun of awle of obliquity
a n be obtained.
J a m o n and W11lhn.a (Ref. 107) diacus~a
method o! obtaining projectile vclocitiea before
and after the tar& plate. The projectile vdocity
above the plate b found by using lllnke
screen& of photographic mounting t k u e w d -
wiched between ulcminum foil 0.0007 inch
thick and Potter ebronogmpb countem, mudcl
460. Projectile orientation h determined by
wing the pla& ththcmva* aa yaw cad&
Make screens, however, a n not be ured below
the plates, because it becomes impossible ta
determine what velocity u being measured. A
photographic technique, which is a variation
nf the usual shadowgraph method, proves adequate
for this purpuse. Thir method emplo?
two one-half microsecond Rapstronie shutters
(Edgerton, Germashausen, and Grier) and a
halbsilvered mirror. The projectile is @klighted
by slightly converpent light from a
douhle spark aaurcc. The time between exposure~
k controlled by a preset interval mnerator,
and is recorded on 1.6 mcgscytb, model
460 Potter chronograph countera, The preset
interval generPtOr ia tripeered by the pube
V, ltpl
F ; p m 4-125 (C). V,/V, ond M,/M, vr V, for Sdutd Plate rhirGwlrr fUI - 4401
from the second screen of the pair of screens
used to determine projectile velocity above the
plate. Fragment and projectile ohapes are d e
tennined both from pictures and by recovery
of samples for comparison
4-13. tU) HYPERVdLOCJTY FRAGMENTS
The theoretical acd experimental aspects of
fragment impact in the hypervelocity regime
are presented in this paragraph, which also
includes a discussion of the state-of-the-art. A
general description is also given in Ch. 2, Sec. I.
The superficial differences between the process
of penetration at moderate velocities and
?he effects of hypervelocity impact we illustrated
by Fig. dl'26, which shows 'eratern prcduced
in lead targets by sfeel apherea impacting
at a variety of velociticrs (Ref. 108). At relatively
low velocities (topleft view), the projectile
penetrates the target without being deformed
and fonns a deep, roughly conical
cavity. If the velocity is increased by a modest
amount, as shown in the aecond view (top
right), the amount of cavitation produced increases
considerably but the cavity does not
became significantly deeper. In this velocity
range. the pellet begins to be deformed but not
destroyed. Increase in impact velocity to a p
proximately 1 km/sec. results in complete destruction
of the pellet and in the formation of
a crater which is considerable greater in dinmeter,
but still not significantly deeper. (Note
that gun velocitiea are given in the nomenchturd
of that phase of the science, i.e., ft/sec..
but that pellet velocities from explosive devices
are given in m/sec.) Further increases in velocity
to 1.7 h/stc., 1.9 )an/.xe. and, finally, to
3.1 km/aec.. result in s u c c ~ i v ien creases in the
dimensions of the crater. and a closer approximtion
to a hemispherical shape. The hemi*
spherical shape of the crater is considered a
necessary, although not a sufficient, indication
for hyperve:oeity impact.
The transition from the narrow, deep cavity
to the hemispherical cavity can be produced at
Figure 4-126. Skel P&r Pwwrafion hto
Lead forgels, d Vorioua Pdet Velociti..
lower velocities in soft target materials, by rrsing
soft projectiles. Therefore, the condition is
not simply one of velocity, but also depenC
upon the strength characteristics of the materials.
Higher velocities are requiied with
either harder target materials or harder projectiles.
At the higher velocitiea, the pellet @
not only deformed and destroyed, but i t is
found plated over the surface of the mdting
crater
Another, more critical, criterion for h m
loeity impact depends upon the behavior at
obhque incidence. At lower velocities, as illustrated
in Fig. 4-127, the crater produced at
high,angles of obliquity is very asymmetric and
codderably shallower than that prrduced at
low angler of obliquity or a t normal incidence.
However, if the velocity of impact k i n c r d ,
even st very high angles of obliquity, a completely
symmetrical and hemisyheriml crater
will be formed. In the sue of a steel pellet fired
into a lesd target, a velocity of 8.2 km/sec. is
suificient to pruduce a hemispherical crater even
a t 80 degrees obliquity. The volume of the
crater, however, is considerably smaller than
would bY obtained with the same projectile
travelit~ga t the m e ve lucity but impacting at
normal incidence. It has been found, empirically,
that b assure a symrn~trical, hemkipheri
d crrter, the impact velocity must be SO hi&*
h a t the componentw norm1 to the target surface
exceed the SIN& velocity in thc targel
corresponding tu the impact presaute. This
condition can be uwd as another criterion for
hypewelocity.
The above-mentioned criteria depend upon
only suyerflciai wpect~ of crater formotion,
The redly fundamental criterion depends upon
the velocities of propagation of disturbances ir~
the tuget material, and thc impacting projeetlle,
and upon the equations of state of the two
-tori& By definition, true hypervelocity
I (rl rrr~co+i O BLIOUITY. WITH IMPACT
VELOCITY mLD CCWTANT
HOrm 4-1 27, I i y p d d Q Cmkr Famdon
Undu Obiqua Impad, S h d Wuh info had Ing.h
impact occurs when the vckeity of penetration
h greater than the 14 veiodty
of streaa wavea bound or dhhtiolul d ~ ~ l t y ) .
Thin inrurea that defurmalh of both pellot and
.target will occur at the inMae
betmen ,I*t aZ$?wih an intense
strw front (probably. rhvk ram) pNcaling
the interface at a u p a ~ ~ dveclo city. 86
cause pressures produced under typical conditions
of hypervelodty impact will k in We
megabar range, the veloeitiea of pmp~(rrrt~an
concerned will, in genrrd, be wnaiderably diffennt
from the velocity of sound in the
mnterial.
All the energy of the ryabm h cnaAned b n
small volume, etc., kcuvr under the velocity,
eonditiuns it w u o t emcape. The e..plPnotion of
the crater form l i a in the mwer to such fundamental
quatiom.
One mean8 of obtainimg dependable predictions
is the eatbliuhment of a re& &isfactory
theory of the Phe-04
verificatim by urn of rueh mat&& cpn b f ~
subjected to hypewelocity m~dltiona. (haiderable
effurt hru, h put inb theomtical illvestigationr,
but thus far with little red
succers. The rnort ufeept.ble Uleontiul treat.
ment carried out thus far is that by Bjork
however, thc d t r s p p a r to be in aaurtinl
diayreeraent with experiMnW ObservaIions.
With p m t kn owledpz !a order to mnke quulitative
pmdiitiopr of w W wuuld be exmbc:
to occur in atructwal mat&da ut much highar
impact vdocith, relirncr aurt be p h 4 on
aperinuntul obrcrv.tiWs using such avollable
materiai~th at un b w b j d t o tvr#meloci?y
a d i t i o n r , and on a P;rVrical mod4 of rhe
pheaomem that Wre pkca
4-1- Ufgb Spud ~ + Y .
6hdn&DI).ckrr
Om appro*ch to pPr0bl.m is np-nted
by the photogmpbr in Fig. 4-128. For banspuant
tuget materLL, hizh ywrrd fzuniw
L!ameraobrervlltiolllcwbemulrbeCnraand
during &e fornution d the c d & and the
propa&nn of &I& wsvea a n be obwrved in
a qud,itstivc IM~WA-. In thm picLurm ahnm,
which prcgmsa In time from u p w left to lower
right, the peUet un bc ua?l .ppm;.Ehirg the
tarpet in the third, fourth, and fifth frnrnw.
The pellet k a thin di; the elongated. lumi-
- noua trail behind i t is due to ionization crf the dr. In the sixth frame, impact occurmi. and
in the seventh and eighth, the reulting craler
can be seen expanding. During thew early
. r t n g a of crater expawion, no detachcql shock
w v e ia visible. This condition would be anticipated,
I w u a e in this experiment the impact
velocity is much gwater th;m the velcrity oi
propatgation of wades in the plastic mbtcrial
uwl: and wen tho most a t r i n m t conditions
slwihed urUer for hypervdofity inlpact have
b n achieved. In the ninth frame, a Jloek
wave can be wen to d&ch itaelf fmm the rurface
of the crater. In n u d i n g framer. the
shock wave & seen to proprp.tc at a velocity
somewhat in excerr of the velocity of expansion
of the crater, although the crater continuer to
inereaae in size. After approximately the
twdfth frame. crater expansion is no longer
ohr\wd, although the shock wuvc co~~tinuerr
to expand and to didpate i h rnergy throughout
the body of t k target materid
Quantitative meaauremenh of propagation
rates, using such pictures, arc being combined
with known equationsof-state for 11s torget
muterial, in an attempt to determine the preasures
and particle velncitie8 within the material.
It b intended that t h qu~antit ies will
thcn be correkted with thc rates of expuuion
of the crater. in an attempt to test a hydroclywnlc
nude1 uf crater f o d o n .
Similnr data arc! being obtained tor opaque
target makrhb, including metals, by inserting
electrunic detectors at varioucr paltiom in the
target, by means of which the velocities of
propagatiun of dress waves can be memured.
As a result of the JcscriM observations.
nnd of other experimenbl and theoretical investigations,
a model haa brvn developed a t
the phenomenon of crater formation under
hypervducity impact condltio~rs. The model is
illustrated by Ute sketche8 ahown in Flu. 4-129.
Ths nlrtiw time required fnr the crater formation
prom8 b reach the stage shown In each
1
view ir ahowl u -?;, when T & the to@l time
required to form &e crater.
During the initid stage6 of the proeeu, a
mutud deformation of the target and the impacting
projnctile t a b place, in ~ceordmce
with hydrodynamic conceptr. Since the p m
sure a t the boundary during this period is in
the megabr range. it cannot be satisfactorily
approximated by the use of Lmoulii'r equation
becabscr of the extreme compiPssiun of the
material. The velwity of motion uf the crnter
wall exceeds the rpml of propagation of a t m
waves nt thc pressures pladuced, so Lhnt all of
the energy of the system i s contained in n very
small volume in a thin layer neur the interface.
The crater expnnds, and the projectile continues
to deform until it ha9 been completely
deformed and plated over the surface of the
crater. The energy of the system iu t h ~ nal l
contained in u thin layer of target mnterinl,
and the presswe is to some extent relicvcct. The
rate of cxpnnsii~n of the crntcr decre:~ses nntl
the wave thcreuftcr propagates irt n grculcr
rute than the crnter \vall, with the wlume trf
material in which the energy is confintd increasinu
rapidly. During nll of this period, the
eombinatitrn of radial and shear flow of materiul
in the vicinity of the crater wall results
in an ejection of considerable ~meunt so f mnteriol
at npprccioble velocities. Eventually, the
expansion of the shock wuve and the dissipation
of energy resu1t in a mtluction in the lwtl
pressure below the value rlrluired t overcome
the intrinsic strength of the materinl, and the
expanlion of the cratw nws. The shock wave
eontinurn to propagate. ~rndt o dissipate energy
in the form af hent and Itml changes in structure
of the material which are irrelevant to
the process of crater forn1;rtim. At this stage,
that projectile material which hru nut been
ejcetcd remains ))luted over the surf;~ceo f the
cr;der \vn11.
In soft tnmt materials, t t o expansion of
the crnter may prcrceeil tu such an cxtettt that
the plated pn~jectila matcrinl is sepnrnled into
fruyments, distributed at random over the aurface
of the crater. In ductile target m~rterinls.
the ejection of material terminates in the fur

n r
kh ive lip at the edgc
crater. In brittle target materials, the propagation
of a tension wive from the free surfsce
results in fracture and removal of the lip. In
the case of very frangible target materials, extensive
drnttering m y occur and actually obscure
the original form of the crater.
It will be noted that at no point in the model
is the poruibility of "explosion" or fusion of
the material sugggsted. In the early stage of
the process, when the energy densities far exceed
those required for fusion and vaporization,
the material is subjected to such great pressure
that its density may b more than double the
nonnal qalue. Therefore, qcestions concerning
its state are pqrely academic. Later, after the
pmure is somewhat relieved, the energy retained
within the material is too low to cause
vaporization.
The initial stage of the process, during which
'the projectile maintains its integrity, but is
deforming, continues for only a very short
time. If projectile and target material have
approximately the same density, the duration
of this part of the process can be approximated
21
by t=-, where 1 is the length of the impacting
8
projectile, and B is the impact velocity. Thus,
a projectile 1 em long, striking at a velocity of
20 h/see.. will have completely disappeared
as a causative factor after one microsecond.
and the crater at that time would have a depth
equal to the initial length of the projectile. The
second stage of the procesa, c~itation. may
continue for a period of the order of hundreds
of microrecon&, resulting in a final crater
having dimeions many times neater than
those of the projectile.
The densities and compiessibilities of the
projectile and the target material are important
in determining the pressures produced,
the duration of the initial stage of crater formation,
and, conseqrently, the intensity and
shspc of the stress waw that produees the
, later cavitation. The dynamic strength propertiu
of the target material, in addition to density
and compressibility. determines the extent
of cavitation and the ultimate dimensions of
4 the crrrter.
I
From tho model that haa been developed,
several inferences can be drawn that have s i p
nificance for possible applicatiom. In the first
place, plates of thicknesses many times the
dimensions of a projectile can be perforated
under hypervelocity wnditions, but it cannot be
expected that any significant portion of the
impacting projectile will be found behind a
target whose thickness is greater than the
dimensions of the pellet. Consequently, behind
even moderately thick plates, the only damage
that can be anticipated is that produced by
fragments of the target spalled off by the stress
wave. These particles will be fairly large and
will be spread over a considerable area, but
will be traveling at relatively low velocities.
therefore, their damaging capacity will be delermined
primarily by the type of internal component
being considered ("hard" or "soft"),
and not by the mass and velocity of the spall
fragment.
4-13.2.4. hero-Carllclc and Mlcro-Cadkle
Pro/ecHoa and Oburvatfoa
A sketch of a typica: crater by maemparticle
impact (0.; to 10 grams) in a comparatively
ductile material is shown in Fig. 4-130.
In the sketch, P, is the depth of the crater below
the level of the undisturbed surface, Dc is
the diameter of thecrater at that level, and PH
is the height of the crater lip nr petai above the
surface. Fig. 4-131 shows quantitatively how
penetration, P,, into lead targets varies with
impact velocity, for projectiles of different materials,
as determined by various agencies involved
in this work. In order to include data
for a r a n p of pellet masses, the ordinates have
been normalized by dividing penetration depths
by the cube not of the pellet mass, in accordance
with saling laws.
I t can be seen fl-om the figure that initiaily,
penetration increases very rapidly, and approximately
linearly with impact velocity. Thc slope
of this portion of the curve is quite sensitive
to the hardness of the projectile. At about 0.6
km/w., the projectiles tend to fracture, and
the penetration falls off rather sharply. For a
comparatively hard projectile, a velwity is
reached where fracture occurs shortly after impact,
and penetration is continued by each of
the individunl nieces. Because in aggreyatt
these present a larger area in the direction of
motion. and because at low velocities penctration
is invcr;ely proportional to the presented
area of the projectile, the penetration falls off
rapidly. As the impact velocity is increased
still further, the penetration again starts to increase.
Referring to the figure., the significant point
should be made t h t , when the impact occurs in
the hypewelocity range, penetration relations
obtained a t low velocities cannot be used, because
penetration in being produced hy an entirely
different n~echanism. At low velocities,
the projectile maintains its integrity and
pushes aside the target material that is ahead
of it; thus, during the eatire penetration p m -
ess, the pellet is present as n causative force.
At hypewelocities, the pellet acts as a point
source of a n e m on the free surface of the
target. Whereby. the projectile acts like an
extremely shnrt shaped-charge jet, and is used
up within R few microseconds after impact,
while the crater continue. to i n c r w in size
for a considerable time afterward.
Equipment and techniques ate described in
Ref. 109 for the projection of hypen.eloeity
micro-particles and in the evaluation of their
terminal ballistic effectivenes. Velocities of
12.0 km/sec. have been achieved by these techniques
for clusters of micro-particles in the
size range of 1 to 100 microns. Higher velocities
are expected with suitable refinement and
modification of the means of projection.
I t is not possible to acuociate a particular
measurable micmmter with a unique deter

minable particle mau; for quantitative analysib
of ve!ocity-energy cratering relationships.
Therefore, it is necessary to treat the crater
measurements statistically for relating ta corresponding
particle size and, hence, tti masa.
For several materials, targets exhibiting swera1
hundred measurable craters have been
subjected ta crater size distribution counts and
analysis. It was found that a 100-micron particle
forms a crater approximately 730 microns
in diameter in a copper target. Converting the
particle size to mass gives a vclue of 4.5 cml
gramstm for comparison with macro observntions
at lower velocities. Fig. 4-132 shows this
comparison plotted together with some data of
Kineke's which is previously unpublished (Ref.
110). The solid line represents the data for the
macro pellets, for which detailed analysis is
still incomplete. Similarly. the 100-micron Farticle
corresponds to a 1.150-micron diameter
crater in lead, and the normalized valus computes
to 7.0 cm/gram"' for comparison with
the micrd pellet lead data of Fig. 4-132. The
doublesircled point with an arrow. indicating
the value nported a t the Third Hypervelocity
Symposium, is plotted to show the effect of
refinements in technique.
The statistical distribution method of treating
the particle size venus crater size correlation
hns resulted in the detennhation ,f the
size of crater. rormed by a given mass partide,
a t an impact velocity of 10 km/sec. in lead and
copper targvts. These techniques are presently
undergoing further necessary refinemenb, in
order to extend the observations to higher vitlocities,
in excess of 12 km/sec, and other tarp
t materials. Results of these experiments.
together with the macro pellet data, indicate
that scaling lam hold fnr the range of particle
mass from 10" to 10.0 grams.
Figs. 4-133 and 4-134 show penetration. PC,
of various projectiles into aluminum a;~dc o p
per targets. It is evident that the penetration
depends upon such physical and mechani-a1
properties as density, hardness, and yield
strength of both the target and projectile mterials.
The acceleration of projectiles for the study
of hypervelocity phenomena is accomplished by
three generai classes of projectile aceeleratom.
They are light gru guns, high+xplosive devices.
and electrostatic and electromagnetic aceelerators.
Light gas guns include both the expendable
and non+xpendable types, while explosive
devices include both single pellet projecton and
devices that produce n number of particles.
4-13.3.2 Uphf-Gar Grrr
Fig. 4135 i3 a schematic diagram of the
operation of a typical light gas gun. In tho ant
stage of the gun, a conventional gunsartridge
case containing propellant acmlentcs the p b
ton and, thereby, compmm thz light gas. After
a b u t three millimnds of compression, the
light-gss pressure ir.:~eases from an initial
value of approximutely 600 pai to approximately
100.000 psi, and a temperature of 3,600
degrees Fahrenheit. At about this time, the
shear disc ~ p t u r e s ,a nd the projectile begins
i b movement down the bore of the second
stage of the gun. Because of the large masa
of the piston, its ii~ertiac auses it to continue
the compression stage and push the light gu
down the born of the second stage, behind the
projectile.
Limit~kiol~tos the nlaximum yelocity of con- 2. The maximum pressure within the d~arnwntional
ligl~t-gas guns are: ber is limited by the strength of the
1. A shock is propagated down the barrel chamber material.
ahed of the projectile, which causes the 3. The available kinetic energy is divided
projectile to break up when the gun is between the driving gas and the projecoperated
near its maximum conditions. tile; therefore, a large fraction of the
(A) BEFORE FIRING
@I 2 MILLISECOWOS AFTER FIRING
available energy b wJ. in moving the centrated on rabiiig the maximum dumber
, gas, even when a light gaa like hydrogen preaaure, by operating near the limits of the
. or helium ia 4. strength of the material, and oil reducing prw
Shocks in &3 -1 of the gun an Iw pre. M i l e fmture by varying the thickness and
ankd to some extent by evacuating the bore. atren8th of the projrctile.
Mnet of the ..rscsrch edorts to date have con- The nuimum velocity nbbinabk with exist-
Lp q"'c[y
1L&LBci ilk

ing light-gas guns is about equivalent to that
obtainable with explosive devicu. Reproducibility
of data with light-gas (tuns b not as
lvtkfactory m with explosive devices. In addition,
the initial coat ol existing guns is very
high, and they are obo very expenrive to opera
b on a peMhot a t hsis. For there reasone,
only a limited amount of usable data has been
obiained by thia method.
4-13.3.3. Expndabl. GUMS
In view of the high cost and the limitations
of the more olnventionel light-gas guns, several
inreatigation~ have been made into the use of
expecdable gun systems. Since explosivw reprerent
a cheap and compact energy source, they
have been used to obtain the necessary high
prersum within the gun chamber. This bruteforce
techniqce has the disadvrmtage, however,
of an extremely rapid rise in pressure, whirh
tends to cause pellet breakup in the barrel of
the expendable gun system.
The techniques used in this iIISbnce are illustrated
in Fig. 4-136 wherein a wnventio;ral
gun duigm, if it may be eonsldered as such.
hna the chamber of thc gun surrounded with
high expleive <Ref. 111). At an appropriate
time, after the drat detonator han released the
helium, the HE is exploded by meaM of its
detoaator, thus collapsing the chamber to esrentiully
zero volume, wmprwing the light
gas, and eeeehrnting th projectile. A second
design for en expendable gun ith at shown in
Fig. 4-187. The explorive is placd within and
a t the rest of the pun chamber. Upon drtonation,
the pressure rise is attenuated tltmugh
the air chamber. so that pellet breakup b inhibited
Eicli of these guns is Capable of projecting
m intact pellet 3t 12 000 fm or a broken pellet
a t 1P,000 fpa. Testa ure being conducted with
the gml of obtaining wkeitier in th9 order of
18,000 f;.q with an intact pJM, by varying the
attenuatior~ of the prc?rsure p u b riae, or by
varying the chamber wall thickaar. w by varying
the pellet strength, in lufh a manner Uult
the high explosive doer not caw the breakup
of the pellet.
4-13.3.4. Rep..hd Pulu u d T n v d b #
Cmarg. Guns
The repent& pub? gun .eta on the prindple
of firina a pellet through a hole dong the u i a
of an explosive cylinder. Aa the pellet emerges
from the front end of the explosive cytinder.
the explosive k detonnkd. In principle. the
explosiun will accelcratc the projectile by a
Aniic amount. By using one, two, or many
atarps of high cxplusiva, and by detonating
each charm of explosive at the appropriate
time, it nhould be porsibie to realize a mall
increax in velocity with each ebge of the gun.
Ideally, it ahouid be pluible to achieve almoat
any velwily, up to the escape velocity of the
detonation produetS given contmlled explodon
timing und controlled p n u s ~ rpeu &erh.pe, provided
the projectile r h t a i w itn atmight
course along the axis of the explwive charge&
The traveling charge gun iu bwd on the
principle of Langweiler (Ref. 112), which requires
r propellant, with a high linear burning
rate, &.:od to the lnue of the projectile in a
more or l e a conwrtio~upl m a m . R ecause
the propellant is traveling ahtog with the projectile,
it Q uot nreeunry to mainbin an extremely
high pressure nor an extremely high
wnic velocity in the propellant gas. If the ~ r o -
pellant can he controlltd to such all .?xtent that
it b u m unifomly, and imparts a suitable
fraction of its energy to the base of the projech
e , it &wid be po8sible to r d i z e un extrumely
high p r o j ~ t i l rv elocity. Attempts to date lo
build a traveling cl rar~eg un have pmvided only
a teu per cent improvernerrt upon the nonnsi
velocity of a conventiond gun system, primarily
because it h~ not befi pawible to control the
burning of the pmpe~lanbth at were used.
Three explosive charge dedgns used to o b
tain hyperveluctty pellets are shown i ~ iF ie.
4-138 (Ref. 113). In the Arst typ.1, a pellrr h
placed on the end of a simple explosive charge
and co~finedw ith a "surround," which i- 11aC
ly m d e of a material suc5 an lead, thu, L I ~b e
vaporized by the detonation. The mond type
k the dr wit)- charge, in which a pUet is
cmkdded in m rir cavity in the eru of an
explorive chrrgw. The third type is the selfforginy
fnqn~ent (Ref. 80).
Charge h i g n s (A) and (c; of Fig. 4488
have been made to arc-elerak m m w at vcloci
l i a approaching 7.000 m/sec.; however. the
mama of the pmjeeted pellet has not been n p m
ducible. Conwquently, these design8 have not
been used extesrively to obtain terminal ballibtlz
dab.
The mant promking of the threa Lsigxs k
that uriw an air cavity (B), which reducs the
p m w w on the pellet hhci allcu~irte!i br;rksfi
(Rcf. 113). By varying the dimewionn of the
air cavity and the thick- of the pellet, intact
maaaas h v h g u known velocity nnd mpw have
been projected a t velocitier of from 2,000 m/
ss. to 7,000 m/sec. In every inatano, the
pellet last ~lwnen w s around i b p eriphery, the
quantity depending upon the particular charge
design uwd. In general, it has been found that
as the depth of the air cavity behind the pllet
is increrwed to u limit, the velocity of the pellet
is increased: be,vond this point the pellet breah
up. As the velocity of the pellet increases. however,
the mass Itst ia reprorlueible for a dven
pellet and charge design. The f i ~ dm nrs of a
girea pllet is reproducible to ku, thnn .1 per
cent of probnble error.
Micro-particles can be And in a cloud from
a low-ande, conicalcavity charge. Tliese small
maases (10." to lo-' gram) have k e n d r d at
velocities of up to 16 krn/sec. A statistical technique
is used to obtain data w single impacts.
Two kinds of charp that have been ured effectively
to rc4ernte micro-partielas are de-
~ r i b w lb elow (Ref. 114). A 20-degree cone
having a very thin wall (0.010 inch or l w ) luia
provided particle velocities of up to 10,000 m/
sec. and a cyliider h w teen used to project
particles up to 12,000 m/nec. The d d g n s and
prone&# of the materials are ~ u c hth nt a convenlional
jet is not obtained from thia typo of
shaped chnrge. Instead, a cluster of particles
hrviug u preferred particle size, depending
upon the p a i n size of the original liner ma-
Fi- 4-1 38. I . p n a e E~rp lorirb Charge
W a n r for Uyp.R.lmcify h/&k fads
terial, i s projected a t high velocity. This small
chaster of pnrticks is quite compact and h
very little gradient in velocity. Trailing the
hiph-velocity cluster of particlad wili be the
slug and residue material, which we natural
consequences when using ahsped charges. Thiv
massive material however, is moving a t a velocit).
low enough PO that it can be eliminated with
an explrsive shutter.
As described and- illustrated in Ch. 2. See. 111,
when the mehl liner of s shaped charge collapses
on charye detonation, a dxtile jet is
formed which is continuous in nature and hau
a velocity gradient from its tip to its tail (Ref.
110. J. E. Feldman. Jr., "Volume-Energy Rolation
from Shaped Charge Jet Penetrations").
The jet ultima'ely breaks off from the liner slug
and, when it hss reached its maximum elongstion,
begins to break up into discrete particles.
In principle, it should be possible to consider
each element of the jet as a eepsrste entity,
and to determine the volume of crater in the
tarpet due to each increment of jet length.
Ideally, from a single shaped charge firing, one
can obtuin the volume of crater produced in the
target per-unitenergy of tho impacting material
for a complcte s&rum of velocities, due
to the velocity gradient of the jet. It should be
poasibls, therefore, to obtain data from a con-,
vnntionnl, copper-lined, shaped charge a t veloc-
'ties r n n g i n~f rom 8,000 m/see. at the tip to
sppmximately 2,000 m/aec. a t the tail of the
jet.
Another shaped charge used to obtain high
velocity cmter data is the charge 4 t h a cylindrical
liner. Normally, cylindrical linen do not
produce a jet-like contiguration, bN rather a
dispersed r ~ t t e rof framneul. Thie is true
when the liner material approache8 the strylation
point, a t a velocity in exceu of the aide
wave velocity of the Y!I ,r n : > d J . Iiovwer, if
an explosive 4s us4 that hur a iletcluation rate
auch that the liner approaches the etagabtion
point at less than the ehtlc wave vdocity. 3
true jet cnn be formed. By wing Bantol exploalve
(detonaticn rba, 4,000 m/=) and a
cylindrical aluminum liner (elwtic wave velocity,
6,100 m/uc.). A weU-Jeiined jet ia obtshed
having the velocity of 9,800 m/sec. The length
of the jet was approxinutely one-half the
length of the original liner nnd, in flash radiopraphs.
appeared to have little 01 no velocity
gradient.
Using beryliium linem (elastic wave velocity,
lZWO m/sec) and exploaivea having a detonation
rate in excess of 9,000 m/scc., appreciably
Iarpo. yet well-defined. masses of material have
been projected at velocities as high rs 21.0UO
m/sec. Use of wave-shaping techniques should
even permit belocities up to 60,000 m/sec. with
the same m*terials.
4-1 31.7. EktmnaqneHc and Elutroafaric
A c c . k ~ o r 1
The technipurn o; eieetromagnetic and electrostatic
accelervtion of particles have been
investigated for I me lima. Ele~~cmagnetic
accelerators are dcpe;der; u p n ::Be characbaristiw
of the power sqply. A r'umber of power
supply type$, including capacitors, inZ*retor'.
rotating marhinea, r t d batteries . w e her
used; nme, however, have shown eat success.
Dircct current rail gum have heel? .wccwful
in accelersticg 10 gn:a to 3,300 :'*/acz.,
and 45 tn 2,OOL' ft/sec., velocities not high
enough for hypewelocity pnrticl- wnrk. It a n
be concluded, therefwe, !hat a successful electromagnetic
accelerator has not yet been built.
Electrostatic acceleration ut' small particles
is even kss feasible than elwtr~magnetica cwleration,
since the charge is only on the surface
of tho body and i s limited bj- the field
strength of the air. It is, therefore. necesmry
to make the particles M small .a posible in
order to increw the charge to mass ratio, so
that prenter velueitiua may b~! possible. Macrrr
scopic particles cannot be ucwlerated practically
to high velor,'tieq by electrustatic nlrans;
it has been enlcul.?ed that an acceleration
potential of 1 millic.4 volts is required t n accelerate
a 2 micro3 co per sphere to 20 km/
see. Furthermnre, t h!f ac+ual surface c h a w
density will be less than urlculateted, due to nurface
irregularities and charging difficultica, M
Lhht the required acreleratiny potential b
actually greater than calculated.
It has %an conclrded that neither electm
mcgnetic or electrnstatic acceleraiinp tech

m dcetromunrtie ryrtcm could pr .~IY be
CIUI. &mmwy
Each of the techniques available to the experimeter,
by which hypervelocity projectih
CUI be obtained, hw boen brie@ dmribed. It
har ban seen +hat, with m w n t i ~ ll~ighl t -([PI
guru. velocitia up to approximately 23,000 ft/
rce ! w e been obtaid. Future efforts, rpecifiully
along the l i m of a combination 1ight-g~
elcetriedkeh.rge gun, could in the future lead
b ~ t o f i tUi ~ hi ph M 55.000 ft/= Expendahlm
punr have given vhitica rs high u
18,000 ft/mc.; if pellet b d u p can be over-
U I ~p,ot uibly thir present limit could be exbnded.
L&ht.gu g u u~a e xpensive, putlcaluly
at veloeitieI mch above l!&m ft/Mc.
They ur W b l e in being sble to project a
variety of pellet rhpar, muaea, and mahiah,
rlthough t& effect of roboting, and the loss in
velucity when pallet density ia increued must
be eorvlderad.
to thm CrpllUfty of mjecKng frame& to
velocidm of 7,000 m / r e No dimate of a
limiting velocity for tlc air aviQ k
avaikbk Erplmive. bchniqrur aN mort
prmniring foc two m m ~ I:ln t, tbrry provide
mprodudble pallet - 4 veloeitim; md,
8 e cmd l y , t h e y u rEtWrPmd ~ ( ~ r t oA~ ~ .
terminal W t i c program requiring many
rhdr can be .cromplWled with relative uur
and Uftle ox pen^^
The conwntiu~uhl p e d ch- tcrdm~queo f
projecting a stream of L1. puticln hviny
a rpectrum of velocities shown promise, but remainn
to bc proven. The mod rignilie,~~dt -
v w e in thh nrua tr in Lbs technique dcreribed
for producing vhort jeb with IWe .~elocity
gradient, thereby projecting hagible mwm b
wbCjtiOJ in ex- of twies debrution velocity
(18.UCO mn/aec).
Small shaped charges using a cant iron l i r
for projecting micro-particlr hve been urcd
with marked wcces. Unfortuiuteiy, there is
dwayr a quentdon u to the ~ M Sof a d m
particle which uured a puLicuLr cmter in Uu
target. Attcmptr to obtain M ucurrtc cormla.
tion between crater dimen*uw urd may haw
been bred on a rhtbtierl trri~tmcoiH. owever,
it u pouible tn project ralvovropic putirkr up
to velloeitim of at kut 1ZOOO m/wc Tt~ir
veldty repmnts the h i t nhined by
actual oxpcrilner+
444.1. Sups sf (Iw kctlcu
ThL saction L mwmed wi(h the dedlrction
3Dd anulynb of deltac overin# the ~hyaicau i aplo*
ve dru~.Uon. Tba mut;;cmuLi4 thenrv
!
a o v d a tlu detolutioa pmera.~, inehrdlliy
tha uwl quatima oi hydrodynunk ir out-
Uned, and tho iPrplwt io~of the theory ~ i t h
npuJ to p r o ~ i ~ ~ t *ianekg md bwnation
wzva i~ explmivai am dimmed.
Exper;mentPI icennipur Scr the 7tu;lj- uf
dchnatloa w r w are a h dkwsd. T!im blddr
mch v~tetbnodn M (Uw pic tachniqu:.. :&ak
~hotoprr.~hy&,r ay, and optical luck.i:iqlw,
ClL IEOIIIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
Probably the most important and the moat
r i p l h n t parameter uuodPted with expludv~
detonation k the resulting detonation pressure.
However, due to its tranuient nature,
huh magnitude, and short duration, d i d
mewturement of the pressure haa not been pmctlaable.
VaAour theories have been pcwtolated
which anaiytictrlly relate detonation presrura
tu detonation wave velocity, and several experimer~
tal techniques are presently used to
meuaure the detonatror wavu velocity. Recent
investioations a t .iberdeen Proving Ground indic&
a procedure for :he direct measurement
of dctonatlon pressures by use of sulphur
traducers. In addition, investigatiuna are
continuind on direct temperature manrumments,
but to date limited auccear has been
achieved.
4-16a.l. Ha Y0fh.d
Prior to 1966. moat of the meruunmentm of
detonation rater were made by using eithw
r t m k camem, th6 method of Dautriche, or
the Mettegang recorder (Ref. 118). The pln
method. an electronic technique wh~ch meanurer
debnatiiun velocity with extreme pmcirion,
offers w e r d advmtuges over other
avuiiable meUludr Among thaw advanturn
are very high time remluti~na, nd the abllity to
indicate whether thlr detonation wave u in an
dvanced rtate of decay or ts still wmpantively
atrong. Tho pin method .Ira provides a
W M O f dl- 0 b S e ~ hhg p10glWl of the
wave in the inbrim of an i ; r a~uluIya haped
piece of gxpkdvm.
A brief deacriptlon of the pin method fol-
Iowa The eicetronic circuit mluiats huically
~f three puts: the explorlve, into which ic Inurbd
aither ionizatlanspcratod or ahockoperated
pin rwlteheu; r rlgnal mlxer drcuit
and b.anmlulon line; nnd a cathodway
ehmnoprr,ph. The pin awikha am p M a t
wry nccurately nwsrured d l t a c s r along the
uplwive. After ciosua bf th awirchw, the
cathode-ray &chronograph record0 the tima b e
twcm p u k r of thr pin rwitchr, M ncdvad
through thr mixer circuit and tnnrmlraion
line.
The pin method of rneaauriny detonation
velocities has a atandard error of obaewation
thqt ia lew thui 0.1 per cent of tho detomtion
rate. for charger only a few inches in length.+.-
Expressed in tenno GI time, the error is I&
than 3 X l(r seconds for most experiments.
Fig. 4-139 is a achematic of the test appnrrtur.
Distortlnn of the dabwtion wave a t the
charge boundwiw i s not detrime~hln, or does
confinement of the charge in metol or other
opaque materiala hamper tbn sewurement of
debnation rate. However. if full advantap
is to be taken of the precision afforded by the
pin technig'ie, great care muat be token in pm
paring each charge and in cuntru1:ing the Aring
wnditionn.
C I C U . Y k n w w r T.oLriqur
The mierowvs technique is used primarily
In phco of the pin r.~ethod to maaun nonabndy
detonation velucitier. This technique u
b e d 011 tha relledion at rnfcmwuws from the
ioniud debnation front, and it yioklu a w.
quence of detonation velociLiw which a n averagw
over fclual and adjacent inten& dong
the length uf the exylmve being vturlird Tha '
cimuih for generating and deteetingthe micro- ,
waves, and for the diaphy and reduction of tho
resultant rignal, are given in Ref. 119.
Simply d d b e d , the rpparatua k a platon
(rrprerenting tha detonation front) genera^
a periodic dgna~ that k rrrorded by r prok I I
and detector (Fig. 4-140). An atbnuntor iy
ituerted htwetn the movable piston and the
oseillotur, to b l a t e the oacillntor from any
had changea cnuacd by the pivtoa move~mt.
One recorded cycle of the signal enrreswnds ta
n piston displncemcnt of onc-lmlt the wavelength
in tho guide. I t the guide \vnvelcnuth
md the initinl paitiun of the piston nrt? known,
the position of thc pisttin M n function of time
can be dctcrmit~ecl. This gives, in turn. the
detonation vcltrcitp.
The microwvc tmhniclnc is more compl!-
rated than the pin method, has an accui%cy on
the order of one or tw per ccnt. and in limited
to w with cxploni\~es which hhnve pnd dieleetric
pruperti~r.
4-1LZ.3. High S p d I h i q ~ p h ~
There are various high-aywd phutognrphic
methods employed for'*mCmurlng detonation
velocity. Brixncr hsa developed a high-aprd
framing camera with a mnximum rate of 3.-
500,000 fnmpr/aecond (Ref. 130). Thin came
n urcr, the pneral principle of a rotating mirror
relaying the imuge to the film by a serien
~tl ensc~ab, ut ad& n two-faced nbtnting mirror
to divide the optleal mycltem, 80 as to appmiably
reduce the blind time.
Sultanoff p m n b an extenrive rurvey of
at& oinglmporurr, and h i i h d p d 8UcCUdw
framing ummr employed In the atuciy of
exploriw medunlrm (Ref. 121). The hi-t
frame-rate camera L a grid framing camera
by SultmoR, having r rate of 10' fnmm/rec
ond (kf. 122). Among the other more popular
camera ilutid by Su l t n~f fu rc thu low-cost,
Bowen R M , rotating-mirnrr, stnak-t).p camera
(RU. U 3 ) , with a writing n p d of 3.1
n;m/pwc, and the Rupntrtunic' Furutllry singleexponurc
type cnntrru (Ref. 124). with expcwure
time of 1 #MY. Tl~ene three t g p a are
diacurwtl in more &tail in Ref. 121, and p h o b
gmphic rrs111t.s tygicnl of c ~ c hty pe arc proacnted.
Sercrnl uther rotnting-mirror cameraa
of inter& arc d w r i l d in Ref. 1%.
The streuh cnmerns pr~nlucc photuyraphr of
distance an a funct~on of time, fur studies uf
drtonntion and shnck rrkr. The Rapatroni~
Farnday cumcrn taker a single cxpwun a t nny
p m e t time interval nfbr the first burat of
light. Sultanoff'a grid-framing camera e x p e a
100 independent framer at the rate of 10'
I n m a per second, alluring the entlre film to
Lw ewpimed in I @ec. Becuuw the iumincmlty
prevalb longer than 1 rscc., muliiple exposure8
are made, prmitting n direct m u r e of the
velocity a t 1oO.frame interval.
Due to the very tnnaient naturs and high
mrgnitude of explosive p ~ e u u n r o, nly llmlted
work ha8 &en reported on the direct mcaaure
ment of detnnatlon prrrrunr. Two 8uch mcth-
& arc p m n M hero, .with wmb IrrltW
graphid reIulta.
CIMt. Wdrg wd hwer Motbod
hhring and Dewey dcrcrik the fdlowiag
method of dcknnlning the detonation preuun
(Ref. I S ) . Conrider r detoartlo~fr~o nt travelinp
into a mcW rurlur. At nomul incidence,
m k t l o n o w n with a large increaw in prarum.
With the fmnt perpendicular b the
mr(rl rurface, the comprenion of the nudace
p m d w r rareimction in the exdodon product~.
r olultln~In r decrease in prnrure below
the detmatlon prmun. At m e @mall an&
betwen the rurfaw and dirr~tiuno f Row, t k i
flow into the metal jut compensates for the
&ect of corrprrsrion of the metal. The prerrum
on the metal rurface ir then the debnatlon
prusure. The d a i d condition ir c k r l y that
a t which ths flow khind the front is nbmg tho
eompreued rurface.
Flp. 4-141 k a diagram of ouch a flow, the
detonation front making un angle n. with the
perpendicular to the original surfriro of the
metal, such that the flow i m ~ l i e h l yb ehind
the front L pnnllei to the dcprrnaed nurfnw.
This rurface ia then a stwnmlinc, m l the normal
mmponent of strcw on it in the tlctmntion
pressure. The rial flow hna n component
D tan 0. in the detonation fmnt. Bru.auue this
component in unchanped by the pnunpe of the
detonation front,
where D & .6btptnd from loptical mecuuremcntr
Thu, deterinination of a. and 8 determines
U,, and the detonation prtarure a n be
computed from
detonation front ir unstable. A graphical plot
of U, verrw 8 will then detennine ... a t the
abrupt c h a m in the monntonic function.
Pcrhnpr the moat direct and m n t method
of obtaining dctonatiun prcuun L that of
HI~UVCaIt. Aberdecn Provinp Cmund (Ref.
7 . ln thin method, tlte depmdenec of the
electrical mnductivity of aulphur upon prpuure
I8 und to metuure a pwwurcr-time profile lor
dctonntiny hrutol. The mevumncnta Lndicat
J an initial prcrrure spike, and lend further
eonflnnation to the bydmdy~unich r y p ropm4
by von Neun ... n and 0 t h
Fig. 4-1 42 show. an experimental arrange
ment of Joiuncau and Thournin (Ref. 'll),
and Fig. 4-143 shows the d i l k c l ay&m wed
by Hauver in obtaining p ~ m t i mdeata . Appmpriate
reahtuneecrpncibme (RC) c i m i b
am wed for the meaaumnmta. They comirt
of a known mirtor in aerkr wlth the aulphur
traludueer element, A oonrhnt vd* k
maintained acnru tha oomblnrtion, and tk
potentlvl drop rrw tlm d e t e r Ir neonled
wlth an uacllloreopr $nun thk marummtnt
the realtance of the aYIphu~tr aaaducer h detormlned,
and is related to pttuurr! by wing a
aulphur remidam mua pruurr ullbWon
cum
Fig.4-144karhamtkdLpNnofth.tut
&up lued to meuun th t r i u b s prrrrrrr
p u l r o l n p o K d b ~ t h r ~ d r ; tXrm ma
24ST alumlnum plate L Mven by am wpbdvr
to pmduaplu~~in~prd.o~!UST.lumhum
~ t b L itn e m t a c t r l t h t i m ~ r
uwmbly. In the tmb, 1/18Jnrh and l/Wn&
where p,, p,, and Ds are e x p r e d in condotent
unlb.
Dlrect olwrvatlon from deaaitomctrlc menuuremrnb
on radioanphr of the angle *., a t
whlch no rarefaction occun, k rubjrt to the
..IM diUIcultiea u k tL ahcwation of the
dedty. Elomwr, un k dstrrmined another
my. A compmrlm rhock propqptcr
with a vrlodty nonotonirrlly increuinu u a.
At lvpr d u r of ., beyond e, k w behind tlu
\
Trtlan, o.n In. w.
I .8TS In. Db.
1/16 In. Ok.
fipun 4-143. Hauvw Eapor kwn~At rmng~nmtlo r
Odumining Pro;rwo.Tirno Dada, Sch.motic Diagram
thick driven.plabs w m wed, and taryvt IWC
thicknrsa WM variecl.
Fig. 4-146 shown :he wcilkope wrlatclncetime
rmrrda, torrttter with tlr corresponding
prra#urc.tin~e pruALva Fur boa 1/16" and lfi"
thick driven phtea, Hnt-topped. preuurt-tlme
curves am obtninnl wlth a 1/16" thick target
over the transducer. Small preuure varintlon:,
along the top are attribukd to impdance mi#-
match rtill prcwnt in the tranaduar nynkm.
k the t.q@ thieknm IJ Incrmncd, the p m -
num p u k Ir reduced to a rplke. The nplke p e
lure Ir reduced by further lneroore in t.mt
UIiJm&r
The ht-topped pulm are not u wide u prr
dlcted by UIE thcOry if the hydrod)mmlc m n d
velocity Ir uml. Ah, the p u b in red& to
A rpike mwr than axpc-. Muctinn of the
drfwn-plate thidtaeu by vaporidon at the
expbrive-mdnl inl~rfucc w u considered, but
war rejwknl, l nw~rwn reduced thlclurean could
not account fur kt:. thc olurrved p u k width
and the h u r t trsvcl ~wquired for the rarefactiun
tu rcrlucc the pl~lae to a rpike. However.
by rwminu that ill* prensure relief wave
travrlr will1 a vt.lwty of approximately ten
n~illimctera p r mic~uucmnd, the obrerved
~~rw.n~~rc.limc uc!r w we explaind. In r recent
pcapcr, hltrrlnt~d hi~v prwlicierl that n velocity
11iuhw t111u1 tile I~~~l rc~lynnnnwdncd velocity
xl1c11111t Iw ~wawiatdw ith preuure relief (Ref.
12'3). The' plr~tci m p d t~aalra re Interpreted to
nhocv t11:tl 1111. ~llllrhurt rnnuducer Iulluwe prcl- *
nure c l ~ t r aw~irth good accurrc~.
A ~ I - I W I I V prollc for detonating Raratul uw
c.nlnrl:~tctl f n m the tint portion td the intcrf
i ~ wpr 'saure-time curvr, which ia thc portlon
interpret4 to wpremt the reaction zone. The
following iaterfncc equation (Ref. 135)
war uwl. In this cuuation, P, r. and Dare PMIaurc,
denrity, and rhock (detomtim) velociry,
rpertively, In eonriatent unih. Suheriptr z
and r refer to the explonive and aulphur. Fig.
4-146 ir a plot of the p r r r r u c ~ t l ncu rve.
The preaauirtime curve lndiuta the von
Neumann spike fullowed by the Taylor wave.
The indi-M prrwre of 190 kilobars k wt
tha actual maximum. Thla IcitfPl prcnrure h
limited by the rim? time of the coductnnce circuit,
and by artenturtion during pasrrpr
throud, the thicknorr of Tefion hetwwn the explosive
and the sulphur. For mcnrurlng the
initial portion of the pmure-time curve,
0.008-inch thlck Tetlon l~ulat iunw a ~ unl.A
6mil Tellon front has ccmnrlrtently indicated a
prcrsum from 6 to 10 kllobon higher than th+t
memml with a 10-mil Imnt. The curve Indlcab
a Chapmwndoupet prcaaurc of oppmxlmaCly
1liO kiloban, although thin p i n t ir nut
aharply deflnd. The accuracy of thme pmaaure
valuer clepentb upun the accuracy with which
the interface prrarure wnr eatlmatcd when the
aulptrur w u cdlbratnl. Thc Juminum prerrure
u Ltemlned by fne nlrface meuurcmenb
and the quation of rtrtc Ir not In doubt, but
at pment there is loma doubt aa to tlre exwt
p i t l o n d the Hulroniotr for the mbrirl In
Uu rulphur-Tallon rystrm.
Thr u r of rulphur rr b p r u u n traducer
& not In a rWe of prluctbn, but thn c l L n i ~ -
tion of rporlour euatribuliolu to the d u e t
awe aipal, httcr impeduue match throughout
the nyrtem, and modifkd coafi((uratioluf or we
at hiher prcuurer ahould rhirrve greater raeurecy
and urofulncu.
Suitnble mcthocir for th detpnnilutim of
tho temvcraiura In the h e t i o n front ir one
uf the maat urwnt ncedr in the flcld of wlid
e x p l ~ l vA~lth ough the mewurnment of thir
pwrumebr has been of active inkreat for r m e
time, the experimental datcmioatiw of &Adtive
temperaturea har not bea very ruacuful.
O r methnd untlrr eumtnatba (%f. 131),
alth~ughI t introclucu b farrim material into
thc cxpltuive powder, pmvWa an Intorvd of
Urn conductive tu rsmplin~b y one-memcycle
circuitry and view8 the dctolutlOn rrdi.tlon at
the core of the charge In d i d exploriva.
The novel fcaturm of UIL methud for wnpliny
the ndlailon, which ir to be evaluabd for
qudity, Ir the uu of a trbanpuent plutle md
Imbedded u i r l l y in tho cxpbrivc cham during
frbricatlon of thc teat pd& Th. d..Ue
rod (methyl meth.crylb) pmtrudm lrom the
end of the cyllnder opporlts to ths end Uut L to
be Inltlattxl. In thlr way tha mdhtkm & tnrmc
mltted along the p W md . Durlap the d e b
tutlon tim (8 pw.. or aar) l ~ t y ~
neMdraren@edth.LrbdddpL.tlcrd
Fiom them? record4 Uu diatbJl crmlmgtlu
ua detcnnlncd, In order b opaapute tJu bperaturn,

view by the mnterid given off by the jet. In
additioh opticri picturca often required interpretnliun;
but flash diouraphr give a direct
picture of the material i n f m t of the Nm. The
low-vnltnge, X-ray mcthoc' (24 kv, compand
to 1 0 kv) thut htw h e n develop4 pnduccs
softer S-myr (Ref. 1.12). The xyrirm ronnista
of a simplilied low-vcdtage. S-my. p u l ~ - . ~ n -
cmtur circuit, mi r methud of pratcctiny the
X-ray t u h and film.
Particular ulvnninwr accrue from the ulur
of law voltngc. Of prime importance is the
ability to get greater detuil f ~ u nob jects of
s m l l size or btv ~knnitg. The brcnkup of n jet,
for inrkncc. trrkcn with Itigh-voltage X-rays,
mny be hcking in drtnil due to the t r r ~ u -
prrrtlncy of the amulkr pnrticlc~ 111 the jet tu
the S-rnyr. Likewitus. mnterinla of kiw etcmic
number 3~chP I aluminum, rhich ruuld be
almcut transparent to high voltngc X-rays,
~ h ourp quite well when the valtngc is miuced.
The Itnwultnge, Hwh, X-ray equipment is
li~thtwciuhmt d relatively simple.
The l~w-~dtage,f luh ndiopnphy war
originally developed t s iwestiplte the jet8
fmm I(lfi-mm, steel& munclr. To reduce the
penumbrs eRcd (to f4mn a sharp I m g a~nd
improve definition) the Ulm-tn-jet diatnnce
mud be nude aa mall cu poaaiblc. Mnking thc
tube-bjet distance iarge will dm improve
drflnitiun, but the X-ray inteluity will fall off
u the h v e w quare of the dktmce. I n pr.c
tin, the film-bjet dinhnce is of the order of
6 inchem. and the tube-tcbjct distance la of the
order of 74 incha.
4-16. INITIATION AN0 O~ONATION
la p m d l n g pmmgrapha. htnnntion hrr
been diruaned without defining the phenomenon
It eonrirtr of a telf-8~1toIningv,e ry-rapid
chemical ~ c t i r wwh ich, on proper initiatitidn,
pmpoptcs through m explosive, converting it
to largely gnneau prodwb and liberating a
cotuiderablc mount of energy. The pmcens of
Inltiatlon of detonatlm ir of cauirlerabie interest.
mince mort explorivclr cm react to externs1
stlmulur In other ways than by detomt-
Ing. LC.. they u n doflugrate or bum, with theae
pmccues occurring at much lower rator thm
dctonatinn. Datanation of a military explosive
cannot be nnnnnlly e a u d b,' merely lighting
i t with a match. while debnation run be cnurwd
by a ault\ciently i n t c ~ i rrh oek. A wmewhat
more teehnicnl disculleion of initintion and detolmtion
fullown.
A detonation wave, rF it pnsrcn through an
explonivc, must initiate the cxyloaive reaction
in ever,. Iryer of unexp~cddm nterinl that it
travcrws (Ref. 133). Scvernl thmries have
k a set forth as to the mrthcd of initiation of
the rcactioa. Thew include hypothem such as
the def~~rnuttioonf molecular gmapinga, high
pressures, and dinrrt action by the reaction
products which mc~rar long with the p a a tream
vcltrity.
The mtuit widely acrcpt~uvl iew is that initintion
of the reachon ut the nhwk front is nui~tly
due to heating. In dcgwifwd liquids and
hnmogeneoun ~ ~ l iwdhaic h detonate nt velocitica
which ue higher than the lclul apeed uf round,
the shock front, no doubt, pnwluna a them1
rise st the tietondun front sumcient to sustain
detoiutlon.
Work hm alm been perfonned on the origin
and pmpagcltiun of explodoaa initiated by
mcchanicnl meniu in small quantitiur of material
(Ref. 133). These studie~h ave demonrtnted
that initiation in a d by the formation
ot hot apots of dnite dze i n the explosive
material. Effmtive.hot rpob may be produced
either by boundary frictlon between rolidr of
high melting point, whether the wlids om ex.
plorhte or contami~nt, or by adivhatic cam.
p d o n of minute g u or ga8 vapor pocket8
trapped i n thc explosive durlnu manuf*ctum
Extremely hlgh temperatures can be achlevrd
i n the gar pnckets by such mnpmalon.
4-16.2, mmd c.rlLdlon (W. 1361
The eonditbnr tor Initiation of detanatirm
murt eruae detonation when it in wantd and
prevent It when It t not wanted. a n y
method8 have been dm!aned for the ltudy of
thaw canditiolu. Among them are tmb of
m r l t i v i t y to impact, irietion, he&, and
other f o r m of ekctriwl dlcharno, boaten
of v&wu types, sympmthetic debnutlon
through condensed media and sir, and lhock
and heat rndtlvity u a funetIcn of imp\uiW
content, grit, etc
.' The initidon of daLanation ir a complex
beat hlanw pmblcm, although for rimplidty
it may be c x p d u the quation :
whew F weounb for heat Iw C for accumub
tion of heat in the explosive mixture, and H fur
chemical energy generated by deeompusltion of
the explorive.
Even this approximate equtlon mn only be
wived for the degeuerate csier; i.e., hothcmnl
and adlnbstic decomporition. Although thew
cum are trcltcd in conrlderable detail in Ref.
136, their i a k m t lics chiefly In their diRewncv
frnm hiph order initiation, therefun, they will
not be further dlreuued here.
The fdlowing analysir of detonution t h c o ~
la bwd on a onc-rt~ensionaid, etonation wave,
to min a c b r insight to the mechanlmr of
detonation, and to predict the p-urn, spcclflc
volun~m, wn 3w rlfC, and detonation vckity.
(Ref. 13'0.
I t & urullrcd tht the detonntion wave
mom a c m thr exploaiw in the direction of
the negative X axis. The explosive ir confined
by romr cylindrif.1 bounduy w h i i ir assumed
to k abrolutely unyblding. (Thlr nuy even k
rppllubla to m unconfined rtkk .of cxpbive,
b u m the peat VIJdty of tha detoaatinn
wwe, I& the b d t y of the avdhble tima
Interval, maka the Inertla of tlu mlid expldvo
IWf act u r co&emeuL)
kuming tlm dctoartlon wave ham reached
tlu rt.p. of eonrt.nt wkelty D, the origin of
Uux~~~rdlluteattmymonia8WctI ea.t
Uu datoMtloa fmat
1&drtoacltionnw&urumedtokat
raf in thlr cumph Thlr mcuu that the in.
tact explorlw hr the veloclty D wlth rcr&
to. .od dimkd bwud, tlu llud datonation
front. Therefom, for
XCO
tlu wbdty of nutter & D, md for
X>O
the velocity uf mnttcr & u=u(X). The frPetioa
expreuing to what extent tb r h s a i u l reaction
h.r bkcn place a t X>O ir r=n(.U);
12n.!xj>o. (At X>o, a uuit mur containr
n pa& of burnt g u and I-n park of intact
rxplurivc.) During the tinc It. the n u t k r in
thig region mova by dXmudf. So if the
nrrtion velocity L ~ = R ( X ) ,
Finally, a t every p i n t X<O. the mne phyaC
u l condltlona nut, for aunpk, prrvum y.
and rpedfic volume V., hrr bribe the intact
explmive. At every d n t X>O. thon
e&b a pmrure p=p(X) .nd a &lle
volume V = V ( X I .
The natum of the chanld r e d o n la up&
by a functloarl nlrbbruhip
m=A(~.v) (4-166)
The nrtum of thc wlarlva and Ib mixturn
wlth Lhc burnt gu will b up- by itm
aloric equation for rrh n: Osnsl. The k ! c -
t l o d rehtlanrbip it8 Luknd
e n e r g y p r d t m u r b
w h m E ( w , V ) L uwmd to k r immm
function.
and for c ~ t r ~ ,
F.q& &La,4 -169, and 4-170, t ~ ~ c t hwci th
Eqs. C1M and 4-166. debmine d l of the
p ~mc t e nw. here u k the ~ O U ofI m~att er
crorring the debrution front por urond (i.e.,
the amount of matter debnutinc per reeond).
Eqs. 4-168, 4-168. and 4-170 are trn~fonned
into
plotting Eq. 4-171 for mme n. rerub in the
UinaHugoniot curve &own in Fig. 4-148,
together with the pnint p*V,
Thlr ir .bo d i d for the caw n-0, in whl&
uro the equtiona dualb a .condition under
which r dlrontlnuity cm ukt ia tho rub.
rtane, without mJdng r u r of ally dunid
d o n at dl. Thir 0h.nomenon L partleu-
Lrly hImporturt In ULI1 LI Uquidh It la
known an L rho& wavt. and ir an euenti.l
component in the thorn of L debantion WSW.
Wlth the tangent drawn u &own h Fig. 4-
148. (p>p..V<V, hence #<Dl, theburnt pua
ur cvrial .)one with the dabnatlon wave,
ths f d l y of curvm n; Osnsl, the Chapman-
Joupuet hypothesis is Lme.
However, for families of curves of n; OSn<l,
u ahom in Fig. 4-160, the tangent from
(p.,Y.), muvt be drawn to the envelope instead
ot the curve n= 1.
Further dinl s~ion.w ith more dctnil, on the
understanding PI the elcmenhry U.eory of the
rkudy phne detonation wave is given by Taylor
(Ref. 133). More riyornus nnalywr are
given by Courant and Fricdrichs (Ref. 138).
Wave shaping is of m a t importance in many
modern explosive-actuatnl devices, u well as
in bndament~l studies of explo~sivc phenomena
and impulae londing (Ref. 139). Shaping
the front of the detonatlon wave to impact the
target in a predetermined way is one important
pmllem for 8u~~cryfwual ve &ping. A factor
of at kaat u mat importance, because v w e
Juping ir urcd prDaciwlly in the impulle Inading
of trrgeu. ir that of regulating and controlling
the Integrated pprruurc-tiimo puke or
total impukc lmding upon the target, at &I
element of ita surface.
The J u p e of the wave front a n h euily
obrcrved by mtreak phobpraphy or pin technfpua,
but the detaminrtion of the nature of
tho prururetlme pulu b a far more diMeult
p d a u The uparlnentrl mvthod for it8
atudy. at prment, is the direct o&ervatlan of
The sl~npe of the wave fmnt may LK. regulated
by a vnriety of mean% including the npplication
of one or more wmbinutionr; a2 the
following:
1. Wnw interruptera, which q u i r e the
wave tcl go nround the ~nterrupkr. In
mncrnl, thew are inert fdlen uf such
thicknew that the shock wrva emerdng
from the dllcr is too low in intensity to
reform tile detonation wave.
2. Two explosives of appreciitldy dillvr~nt
drtunation vclocitiea.
3. Low order delonatloa
4. Density and comporitio:! variations in
the explosive. '
5. T r a ~ f e lre nses.
6. Air and/or inert 1Ulcn 02 nu& thidrncu
u to merely dehy the wavc, h t n ~wtm -
pletely destro~ it. (Actually, this type
will .Lac act as a w-ve intempter m a t
of the time, but the lhadr wave emcrging
from the inert medium is of weh interuity
ss to cauae eventual reformation of the
debnation wave, after a time lag.)
Perhapr the moat mtiafrtory and uraful
method of wave Anping u the hat typc d c
rribed. This type (Ref. 140) h u been U.Cd in
a "cylindrical-wave" initiator (Fig. 4-161).
h e i nitlator e~~l i rotfr a double-tap& &el
core, loaded wftn c u t W 6 0 Pentolib, and
fitted with an M36 detonator, an aIr gap, and
(P cylindrical 61ST aluminum Ikaw A 1/2 tach
layer of Tetryl aurroundr the dceve. Thir initirtor
hu been wed with utirlrctory m&,
pmducing cylindrical Qcbrvtioa w a v q in tat.
ing both dupedchrrgc and eontinwur-rod
warhends.
617.3. QI.l.rMc oy(la
The duping of d e t o d o n r a m by alow uploliver.
ah& media and trunler plates ern
k analyzed by the uw o t geometric optiu (Ref.
141). The simplest nnalogy rould be that of an
optic lena A dabnation in a fast cxplusive
could pas* after ram diatnnee of travel, acmrrs
a plano-convex or douWec~nvex lena made of
.low explosive, onct could then ppar back to the
high velocity exl~lorivet o pive a wave which ir
phne, convergent, or divergent (Fig. 4 4 2 ) .
All lens hw ~roulda pply na long u the proper
index of refrrtion k used. In uring a bnr for
hrping debnation waves, it b deairable that
A minimum amount of explomive be urecl in the
unshaped region. Thh is the ume aa saying
that knaen of very mall f numberr are molt
dcrired (f numbers, as in optics, ntn be defined
AS the focal l e d divided by the dirmetcr).
The amount of explosive in the unrhnped region
can be minimized by reducing the boundary
from a spherical surface to a conical rutf
a . The center of initiation then must be the
apex of the cone (Fig. 4-1w.
If it ir dealred Uut the center of idtistion
bc removed A mull distance from tha boundary,
the intetface bmmu~a hyperbola. A podbh
variation ir to pLw tho pluu rudace of the
slow explosive at the detonator side, .nd to
rhape n leeond boundary where the detonation
prxscs back from the #low explosive to the fut
explosive, u &own in Ng. 4-154.
The h p t indicated by Fig. ClGS hu a
lower height of rlow e~cl,)orive thn the rhrp
&own by Fig. 4-164 therefore, it la more acitnt.
In the cone model, the heigi~t of d o ~
expldve in given by
$;we 4-154. Hypwbdic W a n Shop!rg
V,=the pmpngation velocity in the rlow
nrcdium,
V,= the propagation velocity in the f u t
medium,
and #=the index of refractio~~.
in the trnmfer or air leu, the equivalent of
the ainde line boundary can be a,pproximrted
u a flat metal plate of constant thicknorr. If
the metal plate ir ht, like the flrrt boundary
of Fig. 4-154, md the detonator in removed a
mall dlrtance ftom the h n h r y , the rccond
surface beearner approximately poraholic. If
the wcond rurface la a t , u in Flu. 4-163. the
truuEer plate of conatant thicknem approxinub
a hyperboln. In the limit for very hue
a, the heidit, I , approrcher t/r The ratio h/r
for a B~ n t oCl ompoailon B letu b about 0.8,
w h e w the ntio for a mtirf.ctoiy NOL typr
bwrter lr .bout 0.12 r rizeabk reduction.
Cornbution b e n and pwour detoortioru
cuntain ion a d f ras e M m c~apa ble of influtnclng
the propqptlun of the detonation
WAWth rough exknul magnetic and electrical
(klda. Exprimentr have rhown. for inahme,
Uut rpinning detonation wave8 tnvening
bngitudld mr(lnctic ficI& ern be d p i f l d y
d u d m d even w r a y l q~ue nched (ME.
136 and 142). Trnnrwm &I&, on the othor
bad, have littk or no influence on the propagatioa
ol the detonntion wave.
T)M pltch of the rpinning deto~tlonC AII be
increawd dfghtly by Furfng fmm pdtive to
negative in a mg&h ItrId. However, in mirig
from negative b pdtive. the rpia can bs canpktely
inkrmptul, avring the wave apead to
drop rbxptly. but to rise again beyond the
pdtive terminal of tbe electrid Ikld. Inumuch
u a flrme in a uniform electrtd fldd
always bends toward the negative electrode
(Ref. 14.7), it con k concluded that the particle
mot~on, W , b reec!erarcci toward the negative
eleeCrode and away from the poaitive electrode.
There deflnite experimental multa m u d
with explosiva at the detonation thmhold,
where small InCuenees are believed to have on
~rppreciablee f f e If the debuting p ayatem
ir not a throrhold one, the external applied
flelda hrve lltUe influence on the detonation
veloeity.
4-1a.2 C..ml TbNry .
Significant investigstiona of the mechanism
of electrical conductivity in purr ionized by
explorloru have been performed by Birk, et PI
(Ref. 144), who M with geneml principlcu
and later, by checlrlng the rrcultr, declded
whlch facton were important and which uaumptiuru
were jurtihblr
To begin with, the cumnt flowing Mmen
two eketrodm in an ionixed medium Ir
I=j.r (1-179)
when,inawluirhntaatofunit*
j-the current &ad@,
*=theuarvdbulAnu,
and
j-r=thererhrpmdoct
The eurrmt denrlty vector. j, Ir dw in itr
general form r
J'=a8. i. (1-180)
where
a.=the nwaberof~cup.krroftypor,
per unit vdupw,
a. = the carrier &AAnd
hethe d e r vdodty.
The f&r o ir to the durge of thr
electron, beeawe J the tenpcntuw involved,
the pcuibility of double ioniytion L rmrU The
rtate of the dekrdna the nuanber of
charm anicn. n.. Auuming a atate of aqui

e,-Ule ratio of ionized particles to the -1
number of particla.
k= Boltzmann'r conrturt,
T=the absolute +mpenture,
pmthe preaaure,
==the mpsr of the electron,
A= Plonck's constant,
and
Ul = the ionization enerpy.
The values of p and T can k calc~lPted from
the memared wloeltiea of detonatiol~ and of
3hodc wave&
Uaing &enper's h r y (Ref. 144), the energy
from the detonation wave & at drrr tronrftrrtd
to the undirturbed ppr an r uniform
tranalatioml e n e ~ . Within the Rmt ten
mokrular cotluioru, the average molecular
velocity ia equal to the truurlational velocity.
The moleculu with a kinetic energy equal to or
higher than their ionhation energy beeom
ionized, and their number & given by the expression
:
s, =thr number of tolu per cu em,
&=the number of molecules per cu em.
q-the average d x i t y eorreaponding to
the energy of imiizption.
and
epthe avenge trrulational velocity.
~It~ h m ort dilscult to crUmrtr z,, which h the velocity of the charge urriurr. Tho
fa* -i. &pe& on numcrwa ~ ~ ~ t l t i .s.uach,
u the nmu velocity of the gas, the tkld
strength, the mun of the pactkk and the
gradienb of pmure, tempemtun, and concentration.
Thlr vebdty may k divided Into
two componentr. the mcrn mur wlodty of th
~ , ~ m d t & t a r u a v e l o c i t Y o f t h r ~
~ r r ~ t i v e t o t h e p . l N, ~Fg.k ctlnpm
dienta of pressure, hpcr.hua, and EwuaPitntton
for rimplilatlon.
Z=K.E (4-1891
where
&=the mobility of the charge ePrr*rs,
and
E = the Held 8tmngth.
Neglecting the effect of mur flow, Eq. 4-180
may be written
j=n.eK,E (&la)
where
&=the mobility of electmna,
%=the number of electronr per cu m.
and
r =tile ekctror! charge.
The aobility of the eleetrona ia piwn by the
expnuion
K.=0.921 ~ \ l % [ k T +[& -F
where
~=themccmfmprthofthetktroa,
M=the man of the gaa mokeuk
and
X=the Lld shmpth.
Eq. 4-185 d v e t~he lwbUity of the h e n
In the detonation zone of the order d 1P
an/- per V/m. In air, the mobility in- /
For mall drpr#r of blJntion the
given (Rbi. 145) by the exprarrioa /
p=the density of p,
and
q,=the Ilnt bnhtlon potential oi,
Robe arpnrhrlclita indicate Uut a t a g h t
Initkl M t y the iadic~hd md&vlt~, 8,
varied exponentially with temyrf.tun for
a d 1 degmm d iontzrtloa HOW&?, the indlatdmductivityhubeenllwuufedulowu
l/l,oOo of thcomtlcrl *.lur. ,
Theorier of electrid 'conductivity in g w
have been developed for two extreme curs. One
cue Ir concerned with a very .slightly ionized
p.r, where the ( h e encounten between the
electmnr and the neutral atoma decide the electron
mobility. (Refer to Par. 4-18.3, folluwing.)
The other case is concerned with a completely
ionized pos, where the dbtant encounten
between the ionr pdominrrte. (Refer to
Par. 4-18.4, following.)
For an intermediate ease, the following o p
pmximation ia used,
In Eq. 4-18?', 118. denotes the electrical resbtivity
entirely due to clore encounten b
tween e l e e t r o ~an d the mu mo l a ! ~ ran d porltive
ions; l / l r denoh thc mistivity due to d i e
tant encounten betwean clectrona and poaitiw
bar; and a denotes the multant conductivity
of the gar.
Electrical r a u t i v i t i r (i.a, the m d p d of
conductivity) an given for several erpbrivea
in Table 4-31.
The electrical fonductivity of r rlightly ionksd
pu auuming rigid e h t i c apherieol mole
c u b ir
.=s/nr., whlch is tbr drpne of ioniPti00.
.=thadccrronicehrrz
m,=themaudurdcclrw.
and
Q,=tbe electmn-otom collirion crou section.
For a dightly ionized monatomic pps the ds
gree of ionization u at quilibrium k
Eqs. 4-188 and 4-189 .how that. when the
degree of ionivtion u bw, the electrical conductivity
varies exponenUly with temperatun,
while its dependme on prwrure (or
deruity) is mall. The wadactivftt. is wry mrltive
to thora impurities which have lower
iol3izatlon potential than t& giu.
The electrical amdurtivity of e completely
rfngly ionized g a (~in .. weh gas atom hU kslr
ionized once) is given by
where, k IJ the Debye lhlrldiag diutum in the
phima, and ir dvea by
PEW 0.91
RDX 1.0
T-1 1.0
EDNA 0.98
Flar TNT 0.m
Cans Ti 19s
80@ AN-TNT 1.0
h t TNT 1.67
Camdtion B 169
0.096
0.06 .
0.07
0.036
0.042
028
0.041 (AN) --
tive ion deflects a mean-energy electron by 90
degrees, is defined 8s r"' kT.
The above theories show that for a completely
ionized gxs, the electrical conductivity
is approximately proportional to the 3/2 power
of the temperature, and that it channes very
slowly with ion concentration density (through
the logarithmic term). Moreover, it is independent
of the nature of the grcs.
4-19. RAREFACTION WAVES
A rarefaction wave is defined as a simple
wave in which the pressure and density decrease
upon crossing the wave; if the pressure
and density increase, the wave is called a compression
or condensation wave (Ref. 138). In
the following discussion, the analogy of a piston
moving in a gas which is initially a t
is used to describe the rarefaction wavc
If the kpeeifled piston either r cedes from
or advances into the pas, not all parts of the
gas are affected instantaneously. A "wave"
prcceeds from the piston into the gas, and only
the particles which have been reached by the
wavc front are disturbed from their initial
state of rest. If this wave represenb a continuous
motion, as is always the case if thc piston
recedes from the m, the wave front progresses
with the speed of sound, e, of the undisturbed
gas. If the piston moves into the gas,
the situation may become more complicated
throuh the emergence of a supenonic discontinuous
shock wave. In this ditcwsion the
concrni is with continuous wwe motion
produced by a piston; such a wave motion is
always a simple wave (Fig. 4-165).
Distinguishing between expansive (rarefac-
' tion) and compressive (condensation) mntion, consideration is Ant given to the expansive
action of a d i n g piston, assuming that the
medium is a gas originally a t rest with wnstant
density p, and .sound s p e d c Furthermore,
it is assumed that the pistc.?. originally
a t rest, is withdrawn with increasing speed,
until ultimately the constant particle velocity
UI<O is attained. Then the "pnth" P in the
(I, t)-planc, which repl-esenb the piston motion.
bends backward from the origin O to a
point B, where the slope Us with respect to the
t axis is reached, and then continue3 aa a
straight line in the same direction as shown in
Figs. 4-155, 4-156, and 4-157,
4-19.2, tscap Spnd, C m p l k and
Iacompl.lr, RarhcUon Wows
The above construction' is to be mod~fied if
the final piston speed exceeds a certain limit.
The reason is that the law d rarefaction expressed
by u=I-I. becomes meaninqless ria
soon as IU,I<L, hecause 120. The quantity L
is, thexfore, called the escape speed of the gru
originally at rest. For polytropic gasea
where 7 is tile ratio of specific heats.
If -u, reaches the escape speed, the mrefaction
thins the gas down to density zero;
pressure and snund speed are likewise de

auvd b urn. If a n n f d o n wave extend
to thh rtrpa it u called a complete n r e f d o n
wave k r a w i t ends in a vacu~m.
G e n e ~ r. &ton racsdiag .t ewrtant
rprd fmm a gu a t mt erurcr a rwefaction
wave of partidcr moving towud the piaton at
the hud of the wave. Thk n r e f d o n wave
mom Into the p at mund speed; the wlocity
of the gas ir mu Through the waw, the p
tm mkrrkd If the piaton rperd. - U., ia below
tb escape #peed, L, the g u exp.ndr until
tt hu ruehud the ruead - U, of the pirtnn, and
then continua with c o ~ t uv~elot c ity. dendty.
d pruu11. If, however, thr ~WOII rued exodr
tlu ampa &. the uprwion ir ariap
~ u U l t h e w . v e c m d r L o . r o ~ s o f c . ~
batmen the tail d the mw uul the piaton. In
rrry cue, the wave mow lab the undirturbed
gu whUe the gu putiebr move a t inrrwlng
rpwdfromthe wave handtothet.il:i.a,fmm
LOP^ of higher pravun urd dodty to wnr
o f h p r u ~ n . n d d u u i t y .
me dLhnbrncr In tk gM rrulunp frwn
tho adion oi tb ptton il pm.o.tted
into the UndLtUrkd gas 4th round vclodty,
&-porrdinptothsd.b(*~.)oithe
undLTurbod gas. Thin follorr irom the fundrmental
fact tht the danuin of dependmcr of
Uulolur>yLtheporitl*eputr>oof thu
r u L , m t l u t t h a r e t & h i t i r l ~ o i n r t
Of putlcut.r intamat Ir the cue ia wNch
tbr .ecoLrJion of the pirton from re& t~ r
c o d a n t terminal velocity UI taku pliree in an
inRnitrly rnull time interval; i a . instnabbe
owly. Under them cundltionr, the fvmily of
chrrcterirtla C+ forming the nimpb wave
degenenta Into a p n c U of lines through the
orlgln 0: 8-0, t=o (Flp. 4-168). In dhar
womb, the rim* wave haa degenera+M into r
centered simple wave. It b clear that ruch A
centered rimpk wave ia r nrofaction waw, for
N decmnea on d n g th e wrvc if It is forwud-
facing. a d inc- if i t k hdrwadfacing.
In both ruvr p and p demiw rethe
wave: therefore, it ir a ruelacti011 wave.
At the center 0, the qwotitler u, h p as 8
function of r and t ur dlreontinuow, but tbfr
dLconUnulty h lnrmedkb rmwthed out in
tha hohrpwnt Iwtlon.
u+e, .nd tb\u In brmr of r/t. For u pdytropic
gas, tha rJItlonr
whem
give the dirtributionr of U and e in a centered
umple wave explicitly.
The rolutioaa ot the diflercntlrl q&
given in Courant and Friedrichr (Ref. 138)
for the cnrrehrre(crfrtier, where t. the
time at which the puUcle path or the emu.
c h r r r eM~ t i ck piw at the line x = d .
graued under the action of the high pressure
of the explosive. Thir compwsion may be rr
much u SO pw cent Second, on the sudden
rekm of the p r e ~ u r et he surtece will, of
courae, eventually return to a stmu-flus: condition.
The d l , however. may have nuRered
aevere permanent deformation. Third. a disturbunce
will be set up in the bndy. The duration
of the distutuzbance will be r few micmsecon&
ao that the bngth of the pulses in the
common meWs will be a few inches. The disturbance
of the metal will appecr na a sharp
fronted, tnnaient wave who& propaption can
be deacrilmt approximately by known Iawr.
Experimental work b described in the following
puagraph.
Phncwave ex,hive systems are employed
to determine the equetionwf-st~te of
vuicur homogenepw metab at hlgher p w -
sure& An explorive ia d e t o n ~ t da t one end
of a metal specimen. and the hock wave ir
truumitbd through the specimen to a pl.te
at the other end, giving the plate m e in itial
velocity. A photographic method ir uaed to
menrum the veloeiti~ auachtad with the
lhoek wave in e ~ sp~ecimhen .
Preuure and specific volume dab can be
obtained by the equations of wruervation from
' the murumd velocltisu. From the experibientrl
curves, a more complete high pmrum aqua- 1 tlon of atate can be computed. The Mie-
C n u ~ h tnhe ory and the thennodynamic vsri-
I
' I an ured in exkndlng the sgurtion of stab by
I wlving tho Dugdde-HacDonald rehtion (Ref.
I 149).
A typlcrl shof lumnbly wed by McQueea
.nd Mad (Ref. 149') to dctennine the aqua-
-Am inihtd -w Uu n f m n n a , hmw.i 3.M hu
.rarplrd tmrn thm d of EL Q. McQmm and 8. P.
Yurh UIQumtiorr of IUW for Ninrtrn M(.lllc W k
nmt. from Shock Wan Mammmmt to Twe
bu*" Jon& o/ Appfid Phy.icl, Vol 81, No. 7, July
low.
tiona of rkte of the metallic cbmenb b &own
In FIE. 4-159. In such a wtua M.n td a#cC
m e i a n mounted on the fG a w f m ~i the
b n u bwt plate, urd the &ock wave vclodty
for each specimen a d the rhodt rb*lgth in the
h n u are meuured. Thae data detennim the
(P. V, E) state behind the hock wave In creh
qmimen.
To avoid ermn c a d by rarefaction ~ v e r
oridnating at the expldvedriven interface.
the mnximum ratio, R, of tu& thick- (including
the specimen) to drive plate thickitem
L expreraed M
#=the wund velodtv behind the rho&
wave,
&the ratlo of L ~ ~ ~ Ua cC wI tha
shock front,
and
U.= the Ihock wave vcmly.
The subreripb, 1, and t, mfer to the driver and
t.rpet plrtu, cupcctivrly.
The t n ~ f o n n aHo nol nwuumd veldria to
preawe-complwrion polnb t roaompluud by
m o h d ~ud ng the Ranki~~)Hupoalorte l n t i o ~
for the cmmatlm d mur ud momentum
rmualhodrfront.
and
Pn=p, U. U,+Pw (4-208)
when
Pu,,=prrsrun of undlrturbed mtate ohud
of tho diock front,
V,,,,=rppeific volume of undimturbed rtab
ahead of tha nhock front,
P,,=pmaure for the at& behind the
shock front,
V~mpecific volume for the state behlnd
the mhuck frunt,
mnd
U,= in t b ahad particle velocity.
One lranmformntbn method nuonm Uut
md
Upthe partide wbcity, due to the wnbred
nrrfaction wave rellvitig the
prywpo.
Eqm. de0( nnd 4-206 ue combined with
Ec(r 4402 a d 4-205, .nd W U ~valu er of
U, urd Ul. then detennln tho preuurevdum.*
p i n t s of thr Hupanid,curve. Tlta exporimtrl
btr k plortd and nthd by tho quation
u.=c+s up (4-m)
Tlu upcrlmentd nrulta tmufd by the
W m - H u p l J o t kcDmr
whom Ph and E,, tue, mpectively, the p-re
ood intern1 energy on the Hullonlot, d C
and S are eo111)tantr. The Cruneirca rvtio 7 b
where the rnbacript 1 pertaim to the properties
on an hentrope, and is obtrined by uinp tb
Dugdale-MacDonai! relotiu~hlp
Fmm known mprdHc hmt and thermal expanmlon
data, a a~niplete( P,V . E) quation of
state can be obtvind with y (V) and Eg.
4-209. McQueun and Mvnh (Ref. 149) 1U
experlmmtal data of valuer of C and S for
nineteem motrllic elwwntr. from which qutlom
of m t r k of tho elements can k crlcul~tnl.
WnLk, et rl (ReL 331, reprodm dmilrr experlment.
l data for 27 metab by nndytlrol
nt of the f o m
P , , =A~ + B ~ * + C ~ ~(4 -211)
where
,,=,/,#-IP (V.,,/V) -1. ( 6 2 1 ~ )
The cotulonta A. B. and C M Mod in tabular
fonn, And flwn the cowrvatlon of elmtrY
1
RN-E~N*-(PM+P~)( Vw-V)
2
HWO, EW.M I. ME,.n d MISw, i e thr
tabb., provide all the thermodvnunlc d.t. ob
tunable by ttm rho& wave meuuremeak
M m V ( U L l h t e l S p b k b h n r c r r , and Bib#ogmphy
4-21. LIST OC ZIMD0l.S d d ~ r o f n h e ldl n x (in.)
a fnpmant dimmion betweon d horltonbl anwe; depth (ft ~ d )
planem of ruptun ( l a ) 4 a r d o r cbw
a vdoclt~ f order function
PtPnrk'~c onstant
height of bunt (ft)
cumnt dennity
Bottorunn'a comtant
may
wave length (millimicro~)
expunant
Index of refraction
number of elcctron~p er cu c n ~
number of iunn per cu em
number of moleculea per cu cm
n~~mbnetr charge enrrien of type a per
unlt volume
number of fragmento per given intcrval
of e
preuure
ambient fluid prcuure before
bkrt (pail
heat of explwion retained by the grscl
after the work p m a r
R n t ionization potential of the pu
roentgen
ndiur (ft)
e m u Mctionrl o m
time ( r . )
thlckneua (in.
wloclty W r . )
weight of explorlve (Ib, ton, KT, MT)
thiclrncrr t noted
dhtmer (ft)
velocity ( R f r . )
coahnt (M noted)
CIWI rcctlond area (w ia., w fi)
Arrheniur conrtrab
w a n lenpU1 (Anmtr-)
d m u m m*tdrl a t n u
before ruptu~m ( b / q in.)
d U i o n build-up factor
k t c rvwity
mru of ucpldm eh.rp (dw)
eoartant ( u MM)
d weo dndnnt
r p d of round ( f i b . )
l k a t m (-I
d n ~ (lb)
velocity of drtonatlon waw (fi/y.)
d W b r of appannt W&P (fi)
diameter of amCr Ilp (fi)
diameter d pllstie =om (it)
dumtlon of politiw phur (wc, mln)
D; duration of mg&w phur (nc.m, in)
D. diameter of ruytum zone (ft)
D. tlruue d m (-1
D, diameter of tawcratw (ft)
E
E
E.
E A s,,
A.4'
H
H.1
HI.
Hr
An
I
1,'
1,-
I.'
1.-
K
K,
K.
KE
K'
t
M
M.
N
N
N.
Nt
N.
Nxr
Nru
N"
P
P
P
Pm
0
Q
0.
R
s d i u s o i Areball (ft)
tnrget resistance tn penetration (Ib)
distance irom blast center (ft)
tensile strength (Ib/sq in.)
entropy of activation
absolute temperature (OK)
total kinetic energy (ft-lb)
atmospheric transmissivity
velocity (ft/See.)
ionization energy
specific volume
velocity (ft/sec.)
volume of apparent crater (CU f t )
e n e r ~yie ld (KT)
energy per unit area (ft-lb/sq in.)
field strength
wave length (X-units)
ratio of ionized particles to the total
nmber of particles
ratio of specific heat
electmn charge
4-22, REFERENCES
1. S. Glasatone. The Effects of Nuclmr
Weapons. United States Atomic E n e w
Commission, June 1957, (Unclassified).
2. L. Pmndtl and 0. Tietjens, Fundamentab
of Hydro- and Aeromechanics, McGz%w-
Hill. New York. 1934. (Unclassified). .
3. K. Owsatitsch, G R ~D ytamics, Academic
Press. New York. 1956, (Unclassified).
4. Sir Horace Lamb, Hydrodynamics, Dover.
New York, 1945, (Unclassified).
5. R Cole. Undmuater EtpIo8iona. Princeton
University Press, Princeton, 1948,
(Uncbified) .
6. C. Lampson, Reacmc of the Theorg of
Pbne Shock and Adiabatic Waves with
Applications to the Theoty of the Shock
Tuba, BRL Technical Notice No. 13%
BRL, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland,
March 1950, (Unclassified).
7. H. Bethe, K. Fuchs, J. von Neumann, et
' al. Bhst Wave, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory Report No. LA2000, Los Ahmos,
New Mexico, August 1947. (Unclassified).
8. J. Kirkwood and S. Brinkley, Thcory of
expansion ratio
angle of obliquity between projectile
and tar& at impact (deg)
ambient tanpernture of fluid before
blast
static angle of fragment ejection (deg)
thermnl conductivity
wave length (noted)
wave length for max energy
density (noted)
amount of matter detonating per second
one-half the mean fragment
mass (dugs, gram)
wave length (microns)
linear ahsorption coefficient
density
electrical conductivity
fragment ejection angle idea)
radiant enerm dux (noted)
mascropic cross section
ignition time
the Propngatfon of Shoek Wazw from6xplosive
Sources in Air and Watrr, NDRC
Report A 318, OSRD Report 4814, Office
of Scientific Research and Development.
March 1945, (Unclaasjfied) .
J. von Neumann and R. Richtmyer. "A
Method for the Numerical Salculation of
Shocks," Journal of Applied Physics, Vol.
21, March 1950 (Unclassified).
W. Weibull, Ezploaion of Spherical
Charges in Air: Tmvel Time, Velocity of
Fwnt, and Dumtim of SQck Waves,
BRL Report No. X-12'7, BRL, Aberdeen
Proving Ground, Maryland. F e b r i r y
1950. (Unclassified).
Cord Rayleigh. Pwc. Roy. Soc., A 84, pge
247. 1910, (Unclassified).
G. T. Taylor, Proc. Roy. Soc., A 84,,pge
S71, 1910, (Unclauified) .
R. Becker, Zeifs. F. Phyuik, Vol. 8, bage
321, 1922, (Unclassified).
L H. Thomas. Journal of Chemistry cutd
Physics, Vol. 12, page 449, 1944, (Unclauified).
H. Brode, "Numerics1 Solutions of Spherical
Blast Waves," Journal of Applied
17. k El.ehr, TAr Dcgcndrccce of B l u t a
Ambirnt Prtwurc ard Temprrature, BRL
Rtport No. 466. BRL Akrdeen Proving
Ground, Maryluul, May 1944, (Unehi-
M).
18. H. knglurr, D i w i o n a l A d y t i r and
T k o y of Yodels, Wllg Book Ca. New
York, 1961, (Unekuitkd).
19. D. I~MI IU, db, Dirnrwimr. owl Dimeurionlrrr
Numbrrr, McCnw-HI11 Book Q.,
New Sork, 1960, (UncLullkd).
20. J. h w y and J. Sprrruu, The Effrct of
Ahoeph& Pru!mre a d Tempemtun
on Air Shock, BUL Repolt No. 721. BRI.
Abrsdnn Rovlng Ground, Maryland,
y.r 1QS0, (Uodudlkd).
21. - Capabilith o/ Atomic I'cnpau,
DopnrBrmt of the Anny Manual, TM
25300, Novemlmr 1B67, (ConRdentM).
22 C. Lurpilon, Final Rrport a Effrctr of
U-mud E r p h i o u , NDRC Report
N a A479, OSRD Na WC,
O W , IM6, (Uadwilkd).
25. U p F MO, M 4 W f or C~)~)puthDoat a
at t b Trmind Bdutia of B o d # , If
~r~ of Air Bbrt, BRL Report
! No. 624. BIU, Abodmn M n g Ground,
Uyl& 7 hbnury 1916, (ConAdan-
26. A, J. HoUaun, 5. D. Behluebr and J.
Spemzza. Cmpamtirrc B&t Te& ot
Thin and TAkk Wdl Blut-(ypr We*
hem&. T-8 for F r l c a C M MbriL,
BRL Mcmorurdwn Report Na 867, BRL
Aberdrn Proving Crouad, WuyLnd,
A W 196 1. (ConbdcBU).
27. E. M. FLher, The Effect of tlb Steel Carr
on the Alr Blad f r o s HigA E+ploriuer,
NAVORD 2763. U. 5. Naval Ord~nee
LLborabry, White 0 4 h r y h d , 19
February 19U, (Confldcntlrl). ASTlA
No. AD-8708.
W. J. C. Klrkwood ud S. R Brinkley. Tabkr
and Omph of t k Thewerial Peak h e r -
area. Ewrgirr, d Porih'w lmpvlrrr of
B h t Waurr is Air, NDRCAJn, May
1945, (UncUlkd).
29. B. Smith and C. Wanpda. Sonr M m G
cury Rerdtr om tkc EflKt o/ a Strd
on tha Bhrt /TORI Poc(dita Cylindem,
BRL Memorandum Report No. 863, BRL
Akrdeon Proving Cmmnd, Huyhd, Aupurr
1864, (-).
SO. S. sldo usd F. C. Uug, Single Wd
Probability of an "Aw KU en the 8-
Tvpe B m k of NIKE I, BRL IIanonadurn
Report Na SM. BRL Abmlnn
Proving Ground, &ryhQ July 1961.
(CoafidcatW).
51. R C. Hlppcmhl, at 4 Air Blut Mumr
m n a t r o ~ r N w S d a oCf. luln3inul
Air Fom a d N . y B.lbr, BRL Ylmo
r r a a u n R e u o r t N a 1 ~ B I L L * ~
Roving Crooad, Hull.ll& J W 1 s 1 ,
(COnMmtW),
SC W. D. gcnacdy, The Onier 01 Tffectivenem
of ~ ~ v in cAir 8Bkrt , N D W
Wrt N a A m , Much lB56, (Unclu.
am).
85. R C. Hippanateel, Air Rhrt M e m w -
rrcntr about 8 P d Sp reiol Charger of
Five Diecrmt High Erploriver, BRL
Memorandum Report No. 1062, BRL,
Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryknd,
h m b e r 1956, ( Conildentinl) .
3S. J. D. Pattenon and J. Wnnig, Air Bhrt
MconrmnrL;, Around Moving Ezplorive
Ckarurr, BRL Memorandum Report No.
767, BRL, Akrdeen Proving Ground,
Maryland, March 1964, (Confidential).
37. B. F. Anendt, Air Blort Mcorvrnnentr
Around Moving Erplm'oe Chcrgrr. Part
11, BRL Memorandum Report No. 300,
BRL, Abetdean Proving Ground, Maryk
d . May 1966, (Confldentid).
38. B. F. Armendt and J. Spetrusl, Air
Bkut Mwumnmt Around Moving Ezplwive
Chaprr, Part Ill, BRL Memonndum
Report No. 1010, BRI, Aberdeen
Pmvlng Ground. Muylnd, July 1956.
(Confidential).
39. B. F. Annendt, Qualitative Tcstr of Dvmic
Strength of V a h w Plutie-Boruled
and Fiber-Reinforced Ezplotivcr, BRL
b¶emorondum Report No. 977. RRL, Aberdean
Proving Ground, Maryland. Februu
y 1966, (Unchified).
40. c. &. Thoanhill md K Hothadnuton,
Some Ndcr n E p M m of Moving
Ckrger, ARE Memo 6169. Aprll 1952,
( U a e l l ( h d ) .
41. J. J. M c u u a , Target Rupauc Inittrumr*
tr3h. BIU, A u m t 1957, BBL,
Aberdeen Proving Ground. Maryland,
(UaeLumfled).
42. C. W. Lnmpron and 3. J. Maznm, Bhrt
, f n r t ~ ~ ~ ~ ( ( tBdRbL,n A, berdnn Roving
Ground, Marylud, Aupwt 1957. (Uneluifkd).
4& W.E.BakwmdJ.D.Pattmoa,II,BW
6dwk Tsrb of a ~~t Saab
Model of the A+ Force N d u r Ergins+
iav Teat Reactor, BRL Rcport No. 1011.
BRL, Akrdwn Pmving Gmund. Huyknd,
March 1967. (Unckmifkd).
44. R G. Hippcrutd, k J. HoRman and W.
E. Baker, Safrty Tcrb of NIKE-HERCULES
Miuik Sitcr, BRL Report NO.
1086, Br& Aberdeen Proving Ground,
Maryland, November 1969, (Secret).
45. T. K. Groves. A PhotoQplid Syntta of
Recording S h r k Pmfilrr From Chemical
Erploriona, SulReld Experimentid Station,
Ilolatan, Alberta, Cnnadn, (Unclassified).
46. R E. Rider. Thr hlvchaniral Self-He.
eordinp Prtsrurr-Time G'aur, BRL. Aberdeen
Proving Cmund, Mnryland, (VncIaMifkd).
47. B. F. Annendt, et .I, Thp .4ir Bloat
from Simultanrowly Dctoncltrd L'rplouiir
SpLrro. W L Memorandum Rcpurt N3.
1294. BRL, Aberdeen Pmvinp Gmund,
Matylwd, August 1980. (Seerrt).
48. W. E. Fotaythe. Mraaumrnt of Rudiant
Euroy. McCnw-Hill Bwk Company,
Inc.. New York, 19.77. (Unclnraifinl).
49. - Radktion. A Tool for I n d ~ t , bA. L
162, U. S. Atomic Enerws. Commiuion.
January 1969. (Unchifird) .
50. - ABC Warfare & / m u , Naty Training
Course, NAVPERS lW99. Bureau of
Naval Pewanel, 1W. (Unclwrified) .
61. W. A. Biggem, L J. Brown and K. C.
Kohr, Spnce, Encr~y. and Tinu Dutribution
a t the Ground-Air Intrrface, LA-
2390. h ALma ScienUAc kboratory.
Januuy 1960. t Cnclauifid) .
62. E r t r - I Ntutrm Y*arurnrmtr--
1058 through 1958, CWU 2977, U. S.
Anny Clumial Warfare Lbnntoriq
Army Chwniul Center, Maryland, (Secrrt-
RD) .
89. R. H. Rirhie and G. S. Hunt. "Pcnetntion
of Waponr," Hmlth Pkyricr. Volume
1, No. 4, March 1969, (Uncluuifiii). . J. E. Roran. st d, .Vuc&ar Wwpmu Miation
Dorrr in .trmowd Vehi*, NR-8!2,
. W h d Aircraft Carporation, July
I&%, (Secret -RD).
MI. N. F. Mott mnd E. H. Linioot, A Theow
of Fmgmmtatfon. Report 8948, Advhry
Courrell on Sdmtiflc Research md
W o p n u n t , Minktry of Supply, inndon,
January 1943. (Confidential).
67. N. E Mott, A Thcwy on thr Fzagntmtnt
h of Skrlh and Bonrbe, Report 4096,
Mvtory Council on Scientific Rerearch
and Devebpmmt, Miniltry of Supply,
Iondon, a Aupurt 1943.
I. N.F. Mott, Fmgmcntdior of HE Shrlb:
A Tlumticd Fonnuh for the Diettibution
of Wrir.WI of F~aumate, Report
3812, Adv i ~ r yC ouncil on Scientii Rer
arch .nd Development, Minirtry of
Supply, London, March 1943, (Secret).
68, R W. Gurney md J. N. Sumo-&
The Mar Dutn'bution of Fmomentr
from 6ocnbr, Shells, and Grcxcdrr, BRL
lkport No. 448, BRL Abcrdeen Pmving
Gmund, Muylmd, Febnrvy 1W, (Conilddd).
60. A. D, Sokm, N. Shaplro and B. M. Single
bn, Jr.. kkplariwe CofirprrirOn for Fmgm
i o n Effcctiumcu, NAVORD R
2958, U. 9. Naval Ordwnw WrrtorY,
August INS, (ConfidcntM).
61. F. A. Wajnmuth, The Effect of M e t a h -
Ptoprrliu of Steel upon Fmgmm-
Miac Chmcteriath of She4 BRL
M~~~loruPduRme port No. SSS, BRL,
Abdmn Proving Claurd. arUrlPnd,
April 18W
Q I: A. Woymouth. ~ m ~ m m Ckhahr-
.ctr*ttia of Three Orodsr of h t i k
C d 1- BRL T&ld NoCb 60%
BRL, Abdeea Provlnp Ground, M u y -
hd, Juar Is62 (Conndrntlrl).
a. -F i n s- Ft d w W w
bad, Ensinbedng Report 188, AIrcrrit
Armunentn, Inc., March 13, 1866, (Con- n m w .
64. - Dcvrb&uwut of SO0 P d TJ
Fmgmdation Warbodr, Report WBOS,
Arthur 0. Uttk k,Jr arvry 16, 1866,
(ConMcnLtl).
G6. J. E. 8hrr. Ri.ciplu of Contdkn
Fm& Manm Sy th C m d Rirq
Metbod, BRL Ibport Na 888, BRL,
Abcrdeen Proving Ground. Lduylurd,
February 1919. (Unduriffcd).
66. J. E. Shrw, T b E ffed of C I U A i~n
C~ S t t ~ l&Fd* crpccntotion Shell, BRL
Report Nn. 7S2, BEL, Abardeen Proving
Ground, Idrryluul, Auport 1860, (Con-
Meatid).
67. C. L Cnhrrk. M a , Slraeid, d V e h -
iry Dutributmw of Fuguntr from
MX-YOI(T7) Warha&, Wire Wmppcd
Typcr, BRL Yanonmdw Report No.
660, 884 Akrdsan Rovlnc! round,
Bhryhd, Junr 1861. (Confklrntid).
68, W. N. WWurB, Fmgmentotion Tuk of
Spcrrrow WuLadr EX S .Mod 0, U. 9.
Naval h v h g Ground Ikport 1370, pd.y
1966, (ConMatW).
69. - Fngurt.tirn T u b of CBS Steel
and Forw C.npry W w M . U. S.
Naval M n g Oroond Bcport 122% Db
wmber 1&196& (Coalkknti.ll.
71. J.W.Oornua,A~ofPhrtieLirsn
for F m C d of P/SO
Projcctibr MK W. U. S N d Proving
C r o u D d ~ ~ Y 4 Y l & 1 =(C, o nfldmtll).
72. C. L Ombmk, CorCltJio. F*.gtio*
Ted4 of s w a d Multi-WW
Cylhddd W M , BB E Report Na
g Z % B R L ~ ~ C r o u a d .
YVIM. J.UUI lss6, (-1.
78. H.N.Bhpim,ARnpzLorAJyri,of
tk DldrikJir of P.rfon3irM kclgauub
for th M NR, MT1, F d TT 4E6,
BunW c b s m, mna,
Univurltr of New Madah (.bout 1844).
76. - ordwrr Proof X d 70 -80,
(Vd. I), U. S. Army, JUM 24, 195B.
~UIIJurlllcd).
76 W. FL h a , The Boric Mttkod of C&
arhLinfl U s LctW Area of a W a r M ,
TIchniul Report 2044, Picatinny Anead,
October 1964, (Confidential).
TI. T. E. Steme, A Note on the initid Velocith
of Fragment8 from Warhmds, BRL
Report No. 648, BRL Aberdeen Proving
Ground, Maryland, September 1947,
(Confidential).
78. T. E. k c , Tk Fmgmcnt Vebcily of a
Sph& Shell Containing an Inert C m ,
BRL Report No. 7 1 , BRL, Aberdc~n
Pmving Gmuad, Maryland, March 1951,
(Conndential).
81. C. L Orabmk, C M C r i r t i c r of Fmp
-ion of MX mb War- B&ut
with FIvtrd Liner, C a p B, HBX a d
Ttitocul kulrd, BBL Mmnonndm Re.
port Na 700, BE& Aberdcln Roving
Gr~lmd, Yuyluwl, July ISM, (hbkntid).
.. 82 W. C. F. Bbcpmd d R T o y , Frpp
,I wlmlwon of Cmudu, VIf, Vebaitia of th FIDQllUILl fw tj. No. 74 MX It,
No. JIM ul No. 71 Greqde, Report
SOS, Ad* Council on Scicntlilc Bewuch
md Tcchnierl Dwbpnmt, Mln.
irtrV 02 supply, Landon, A P l~sllL
~ConIkfrrrttPl).
s a - F f i l q n r n t V ~ ~ P l o p o r * ,
I MA PwW B&, U. 9. Naval Rovtng
C d Rep ort 681, Jane ISAiO.
84. - Fmmd VabolLy Low for 0-
l h d m , Cow, ad Cmporite Sh5wr. lrt
Portid Report, U. 5. Naval
Om* bport 904, JUIW 1962. .
86. R. W. Gurney, Frrgnmtdio* of BonlC~,
Shdh, a d ~ * a u d r 8 ,B U R eport No.
686, BR4 Abordwn Provlap Ground,
bWylurd, Much 1947.
1. L H . Thomu. Theory of the Etplorion
of C a d Chargra of Sinrpk Skapc, BRL
Report No. 475, BRL+ Akrdern Proving
Ground. Muylnnd, July 1964.
87. - Vul~mbility of Manned Aimuft
to Guided Yhilrr, Midtry of Supply,
Landon, Enghd, Au@ 19W (Secret-
DiJcml) .
90. - T k UJG o t U;r Robtino Drum
Corrrm fw the M w r m c r t of tk
Ve&aitisr of S U w Bomb FmOnnJI,
Report SSOO, tMka of Sdentidc Reass&
d Devdopmenf July 1944.
93. S. Tiambka .ad D. H. Youag, Advrnod
e i c r , Yd:mw-Hill Book
Comp14y, Inc.. 1948
81. D. J. Dunn, Jr. and W. B Porter, Air
Dmg M s ~ m n c n L o, f Fmamenb, BRL
Hemoruulum hport Na 915, BRL
Abrdrcn Proving Gnuad. bhyLad,
A w t 1966, (Confidentkl).
I. J. E. 9b.w. A Mc~(renunt of the Drag
C o r m t a t of High Vclon'b Fngrnentr
and Apyrruliz, BBL Report No. 744,
BRL Aberdwn Provlng Ground, ?damknd,
Oetokr 1960.
98. W. R Porbr, J. L h h r m e r , and W. 0.
Ewfng, Elrctro-Optic lcwahedm Goof,
BRL Report No. 877. BRL, Atmrdnn
Proving Ground, Maryland. September
191.
@7. - Three Station Fra~mmt Retardation
Apporatw at Bnccrton. Report 6619,
O W of Scientific Beaeareh and Develop
mat. December 1946.
98. A. G. Walbm and L ROKnhcul, The
P*tehotion and Perfomtion of Tarpek
C Bonk. She&, and l m g u h r F w -
mmh. Ueport 4994. Mvlron Coundl on
,9Eientitk Rarurch and Technlcrrl Ikvelopmmt,
Minktry d Supply, W o n , Oa
bkr 184, (Srua).
88. A. G. W.lbn and J. Tkvlor, Ths Pnchding
and Perfomting Power of F w
nurtr a d Projsdtikr, Report 9146, Advicory
Coundl on Sciuntlflc Ruearch and
TacWd Dewlopmsnt, Minimtry of S u p
pLI; 'MANI. JYBI lsl& (CQnMdW.
100, - in^^ of Vadabbr fleetho
tk Porfonnnnm o! Lightwei~k t Armor,
Midwut Rrurch Imtitub Fl .ul Ibport
for Whrtown Armnrl. Juwry 9,194S,
(CoDfldrntlrt).
101. D. J. Dunn, Jr, A Tarprt for an EbHB
F W , BRL TIchnial Not. 1112 BRL
AbenSm Pmvtw Grwnd, MwLnd.
J.ouu7 1968, (s6mt).
102 B. L We& N o h om the Compurbive
Prrfonla101 qlatut Thin nu Skc(
Plrb of ImoVry Frrgrrrntr and S W
Raqdw Prejretilu, Report: 8110, AC
8110, Advbry Cwndl on Wmtlllc Bad
d Dmlopmmnt, Yinlrtry d
Supply, London, Aprfl28,1946, (-1.
103. T. W. Taylor, Tk Prtfotutbr of DMkG
m& P W u by &hidF m at
N d and Wiqu AIoQ of Attuck,
lbport ARCWUD IhM/IW. Amununt
ResmrcJl .ch F&wy 1966,
(Contlbntw).
104. J. H. M c M i ~ct .I.,& J1Ltia of tht
Pmtmtion of IIy1un SIdf by S d
Spherer, Mllb CuurltIa Report Na
11,1946.
105. T. E. Sternt, Provuiald Vatwr af the
Vulnrmbili& of Pmmnwl to Fm~nvntr,
BRL Report No. 7M, BRL Akrdcra
Proving CroM VrvrLad. May 1861.
( U t J mU).
106. A. J. Ihlemian. The Pmtmtion of Steel
Sphcrer into 7'bw YndrIr. Army Chemlcal
Canter hpott ACC/CWCR 2226,
Army Chemical Conk, MuyLnd, Augurt
1968.
107. R L J u ~ o nan d J. S. Willinrq V r b
ity Lourr of Cvlindrisol Strel Projrctilu
Perlomling Mild Phkr. BRL Report
Na 1019, BEI+ Abudw Roving
GrounG lduylud July 19117.
108. R. J. EL- et at, "Sominu on
Hypervelocity Impact," BBL Report No.
1101, BRL, Abmba Pmviag Ground,
M a m u FebNuy lO(r0, &Cmt-alr).
110. - Fourth S y ~ p o hm01 H e
ity Impact, APCC!TRd0-89 (Vok 1-4).
Alr Proving Cmund CIIltor. M l n Air
F o m B w , Raridr, 9rgtarbrr. 1W.
1U. J. & KiarLvKiaJrrL., v. "An ExperlmenW
Study of CJ . .'a,. Fonrutlon hl Lead," Proa
d h g 8 of :'*id Symporiun on HyperwbclCy
Impnet, h m u r Rcwuch Foun-
&ti00 of IUlnot I d t u t r d TcehndogJ,
Chlugo. XIliaoL. ocblmr 191, (UncLul-
Ibd). (Soa .Ira : "Some Ihuitr of Hyperwbeib.
E x p l a t h Clurge InrerUgation,"
E. N. Clrrk and A, bircKenrie; a d "A
Criticd Study of the Air Cavity TechnIqua
for Projecting Intact Hyperveloeity
Frrgmcnb," L Zcrnow. K. N. Kreyenhgen,
P. G. McliI.ajgd, and A. W. H9.1
114. J. W. Mrlng, Jr. "An A d y r i r of'
Micro-Particle Cratering,'* Promedinar
oj Tlurd Sympdum on Hyprn~rlocity
Inpoet, Annour BeM.rch Foondation d
Illinoir lnrtltub of Technology, Chicago,
Illinoh, Ortokr 1968. (UnrlruiW).
117. - A Cmpdmi of the Pwf-8
of F w of Fou r Mate* Impacting
tm VQCiOUI Phtm (U), Thor
TodmId R.gorL No. 41, Bdllrtlc Andyr
L L.bon,tory, IdItutr for Coopcratiw
ILrwd, TIM Johw Hopldlu Uniwnily.
Ldry 1959, (ConMcatlol).
11% T. J. Boyd, Jr. uut P. F m . *A Mia'+
waw T a J d q w for Xasurlnl Dctosutlon
vekcity.l' socoad om Sylnporirvn
no Detonrtlon, F a b ~ u 1y% (Undurlnod).
110. 8. B14wr. "A Hlrh Speed Mfrror
F r m C unem" J O Uof ~the *
eiety of Motlon Pictun and Tetcvfrion
Endneon, Hlgh Sprsd &tomphy, Val.
6,1964. ~Unclwrirird).
121. M. Sultanoff, "Phobgr~phic I n r t r u ~ -
tation in the Study of Explorive
tinar," Journal of the Society of Motion
Picture and Telnvirion Englnem, Hi&
Sped Photography, Vol. 6, 1,964, (Unc
l d f i a ) .
122. 1. Sultu~olT, An UltreHi#h Spcrd Cammu,
BRL Report No. 714. BRL Akrdnn
Proving Ground, ~wyhad, Dawrnkr
1MB. (U~1.uificd).
12% I. S. Bowan, The C.I.T. Rotating Mirror
Ccmviu, Model P. Ollke of Sckntific Remrch
ud Dedgn, Contrrct OE MAR-
418, Cslifornlm lnrtltutr of Technolon,
1946, (Unel.lli(kd).
1'24. H. E. Edpcrton a d C. W. Wychd "A
h p i d Action Shutter with No rg
Paltr," J o u W of the Sociaty ot Y; .I
Picture md Tolevhion En(linrrn, Hi&
Sped Photqpphy, VoL 4, 1962 (Unclurtfkd).
1%. R. B. Colllna (Editor), "fIiph Spyd Photogmphy:'
Proceeding8 of the Thlrd
lntenutionrl Cbfum~, BuUmwrtb
&hUk hbliutknu, laadoll, 1967.
(VncLullkd).
126. 3. W. Gehrlng. Jr. a d Ikway. As Expetiwnrtal
Debmindion of &tonotiom
PWI~YWin T w S olid High E q d o d ~ ,
BRL R.port Na 9% BRL, Abmhn
P d n g Cmnd, Muyknd, April 1966
fundurilkd).
121. C. I. Uuwr, "Prrwure Pro8ea in 1Monrtlal:
Wld Bplollve," Third Symposium
on DetoarUon, ONR Symgaium
Report, ACWZ, VoL I. J u w Forratrl
Brwreh Center, Princeton Uniwnity,
(CoJgomOred by N a d OrdnMca Lab
m a n b h r a P a S b o c L W l w ~ b b
hro Memlumn JwmI oi Applid
Phydq Vd 81. Na 7, July 1960, (Un-
-).
160. J. Y wau, 3 ri, "shock callpnuiolu
of Ttmbr-Scvrn W W 1 UEquationr of
Stat4 of Metab," Phyliul Review, VoL
108, No. 2, Oc-r 1967, (UnWlied).
1. H. Goodman, Carnpilcd Frte A i r Bhrt
Data on Bum Sphrriml Pentdite, BRL
Report 1092 BRL Aberdeen Proving
Ground, Ibuylmd, Februuy 1860, (Unduritbd).
2. A HolYam and S. Xlh. Air B b t Mrarwemat8
about Ezpbaive Cbzgw at Side-
On and N O W I d dmc e , BRL Repx i No.
986, BRL, Aberdeen Proving Cmund,
Maryland, July 1066. (UncIauiEd).
3. J. Deway, Note a, the 'Detmnindior of
the F m n of A i r &a& from the Demy
Cwvc, BBt Memomdurn R e p t No. 598,
BRL, Akrdea Pmviug Ground, Maryland,
F r b n u y 1955 (UnchdM).
4. 8. Amundt, '& 4 Th *eI D e w of
PnuYrs Behind a Shock Front: Conbpar*
on of Erperincmld and Cdcvhtcd
RenJLI, BRL M e m ~ ~ dRe~pomrt NO.
997, SBL, Akdeen Pmving Cmund,
-land, April 1966, (Uncloulfied).
a P. Bri-'DimnuiolJ ArclEy.ir, Yak
Univorrlty PNII, New Haven, 1981, (Uac
k r r i n 4 .
7. W. L Dunll .nd T. C. Atehlbn, Rock
B-t Etplo~iwerB, ureau of Minm
tkpo*L of Inw~tigntio~6u3% . 1967, (Unckuibcd)
.
0. Xiao and Kilpuo, U ~ W f oof aBoc k
hwgh Bhth&" Journrl of IadlutrLI
Erplorivea Society, Vol. 17, No. 1. 1956,
(UnduriAcd).
10. L Obert and W. 1. DuvdI. Gage a d Red
i n g Equipneat for Meuuring &-
namie Stmn in Rock, Bureau of Xnea
Report of hwtigntiolll 4681. 1949, (Uneksirfkd).
11. - caneration e*d Pcopooolb of
S t e n Wavu in Rock, Part I, Bumau o t
Minea Report of Inwtig&onr 4663,1W,
(Unclrrrined) .
12. T. C. Atchiron snd W. .L Tournay, Cowparative
Skdh of Erplodver in G r a d e .
Bureau of Miner Beport of Inwrtitionn
660% 1980. (Unelurificd).
13. J. von NW~MILO~h. fiqw Rrfhcliac of
Shocka, Explosive Rclruch Report No. 12,
Navy Dept., BuORD, 1948.
14. G. H. L u a E-men& on the Relkabn
of Indoad Shock WWCI. AC 6% Phyr/
Ex 601, AdvLoy Council on 8cientiflc Research
and Techak.1 Dcvalopmmt, Great
Britain, 1943.
15. W. Doering and C. Burkhardt, Coatnbut
h to the Tkory of Detonation, (EM.
Tnnr. by Bmm Univ.) , Technid Roport
NO. F-TS-lm-1A (GDAM-A-9-746).
Headquarten, Air Matde1 Canunmd,
Wright-Pattenon Air Forw Buo. Dayton,
Ohio, Y4y 1W9.
.I?. Courant ud P'riedrich, SYpcnoria Fbw
a d Shock Wava, I n t m e i t m , 1948.
16. H. B. Morton and N. de A.E. Approfine
t w AplJicablc to tht Shdv of High Er.
Wartiti& -ad Tcrgef D3tncgs Lg
B U . CF-PaOl, Applied PttY8ic.a Labom.
tory, The Johm Hopkiru Univonity, Ikamber
1964, (Confklentki).
19. - find Report of Atmnie Bomb Tub,
Vd. IV, United Stater Deputment of Dcfenw,
27 Jmuuy to 90 September 1946,
(secnt).
20. - Rqmt of T a t Ez&u D w t
Rod N and III, Heulqwrbm, Camp
Dercrt Rock, 16 December 1951, (Secret',.
21. - A Rrport on tbe Prediction of B b t
Eflreta m Ordnance YaLwkl a t Errreue
Drwrt Rock, BRL Memorandum Report
No. 697. BRL Aberdeen Proving Ground.
Maryland, (Seent-RD).
29. E. J. Bryant, st rl, Statutical Estimation
of Damage to Ordwuee Eqnipmrxt Ezpored
to Nuclwt Blaals, fVT-733, Project
5.21, Operation Upshot/Knothole, Februmy
lss, (secret-RD).
23. E J. Bryant, et 4 Rt~powro f the DMO
Type Equipmrnf Tor& is the Prrcurwr
Zone, Preliminary Report, ITR-1123, Operation
Teapot, lMPy 1955, (SePrt).
24. W. W. Berninp, ?'rediclim of the Edutr
of Atomic Wmponr on Ordmnce Equip
d, BRL Report No. 847, BRL Aberdeen
Proving Ground. Mayland, bhy 196%
(-t).
1. - Analyrir of Atomic Weapon8 Efmtr
Upon Army Crowd Ovedioiu Equip
mad, Fint Quarterly Report, 06LDS80.
Amour Rewreh I"wnd.Uon, Fint Quartrdy
Report, 27 Dceanber 1960.
26. - Adyrir of Atomio Weapon# Eda&
Upon Amy Gmud OpcrdiDIl Equip
In&. Sceoaa Quut4rig &Port, OICDS-
. 81, Annour Ibwch Foundation. 19 January
1961. I
27. - Andy& of Atmie Weapon# E d ~ b
Upon Anny Ground Owdiow Equip
meat, Thlrd Phue Report, ORD-S200,
Armour Rcwrch Foundation, 18 June
1951.
B, -A *& of A t d c W m Ef f d
Upon Amy Gwud Oprrdiau Epuip
meat, Fourth Phue Report. ORD-UbS,
Anwur Reaearch Foundation, 20 Novcmk
r 1951.
29. - A d y # u of Atomic Weapou Ed&
Upor Ann# C w d OpchotPrv Equip
mcnl, Fifth Phue Report, ORO, Amour
aaurdr lopnd.ttolg 1 July 1862.
SO. - The EfeeSr of A M Bb r t of MiUtaw
Equipment. AEF N a M041. Find
R e p o i L , A m ~ ~ w M F ~ 2 8
Fcbnuy 1966.
31. E. 1. Bryant. et 4 Buie B U Mronabm~
nln for Pmjrd8 1.1& 3.l. a d 3.10,
WT 7 155, Operation Tapot. ( S a d ) .
S2. Ii. De..;wn. "Muclunical Anslyah of Surrirnl
in t-da fmm Heighb of Fity to One
Uundrrd Fifty Feet," War Mcdiciv, 1942,
(Ilnclwitled).
33. W. J. Whito. Accelrdion and VLiOlL.
WADC Technical Report 484%. Nova-.
ber 1958. (UncWbd).
34. - "The EUecb of Nuclear Ruliatior~,"
(A rerier ~f report, concerning nuclear
radiation cffectr on variou. mater'alu),
Rulioti.m Effects l a t o r d o n Cuabr,
Battelle Memorial W t u t e , Cwtrd No.
AF 33(616)4664, (Cantinuatioa nf AF
33(616)4171) Tnsk No. 800U1. Project
No. 2198.
56. -N U* W00pa~E m-, h
pnrtment of the Army Pamphlet No. SS-l,
M.y 1969, (UneLullhl).
36. William J. Prioc, NwIrv Rdiutbn D c k -
Lion. McGraw-Hill Bodr Coarpuly. lac.,
New Yo&, 1W. (UocLuiRed).
37. L K. C&, F r a ~ r v n tR nnoe Yodifiocrtiona
for Symhmdrd Smrar Picburr#,
SRI Technful Bcport No. 1, Stanford Bb
vuch iwtitut.. Oetobrr 1969.
3R. A. D. Solom. The NOL Fmgnmt Velon'tv
Range, NAVORD 83766, Fcbnury lBb3.
39. - Pkob-lo DctcnniulZac of
Frapwnt Vrloeitira a d Remwrv of
Velocity ldentij%d Frcgu*tr of Cac
twUtd FwmnJlJian ShJt. Cwoued
Rino Typr. Aberdus PnAw GmPnd
Photopnpbfe Ldmnby Beport 80. Abcrdew
b v i y C m d , Uarylurd, L p h -
k r 1848
40. L D. Hepner, A*.lytid Laboatory Re-
;mZ on a Fmpnrmktiox Tut tu fm~rovc
Fmonrmt Vaoci(y Data &port Na Dm/
APG M m, DLPS. Mndccn Rmrhg
Ground, Maryland, June 1959, (Confidential).
41. D. J. Dunn, Jr. "Some Notes on the Determination
of Initial Fragment Velocity by
the Mnving Picture Cmera Method," BRL
Memorandum Report No. 658, BRL, Aberdeen
Proving Gmund. Maryland, March
1953, (Unclassified).
42. G. M. Caydos and S. Stein, Non-Nuelcar
Warh~ad Design Guide for FABMDS,
Tech Memo No. DW 329. Warhead and
Special Projects Lsbratory, Picatinny
Arsenal, Dover, New Jersey, &rch 1961,
(Secret).
43. - "Explosion Effects Data Sheets."
U. S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory, White
Oak. Maryland. June 1955, (Confidential).
44. - Tint Partial Report on Fragmentation
Tests of Experimental Warheads with
Small Length/Diameter Ratios, NPG Report
339, July 1948. U. S. Naval Proving
Growd, Dahlgren, Virginia.
~ ~ A ~ t e o l u t U n p d . ~ ~ . r ~ ~
d u an Catlro munltlosu factory,
rather *lun a Jnob bulldtng or rWW
point
urclr. 1, Aay pwcsil prdrtivr ewulnp,
r u c h u ~ l , r u c d o n ~ r i d m c l ,
ek, or on pama* d n r t pmjedilu or
fr~pmcnts. sm: armor, My, fNgmaI.
t r t h pmtodlve; r t u l uror pkta 2
Annored units or force* 8. In a weapon
system, that component that giver p m
tcction to the vehicle or the weapon on
Ib wry to thr brgot. Ia a o m 1, eonvm-
Soml ateel amor is cludled according
to its phyalenl a d metdlurpicrl rtructue.
an face hardened or homogeneous.
It ir .Lo cbdlled accordlay to i b method
of fabrimtion, rs wt or rolled. In re-
3, the umw may conrut of armor (rmro
1) or ury 0 t h protective device or tachniqw,
rwh as "cluff," diveraionvy attrd4a&
cte.
amor, W'. r.-tIU mkeuvc
Armor fspcrklly ddgned to pmvldc trrpmentation
protection to vital nrar of the
body. Usually pmvldd In tha form of
oprmwtr which nuy eonWn rteel, nylon,
or other laktsnt mtori.k
uw dllur. A type of annor froquently
uaed when complicated rhopea are i d
v d d Such c~t I n g aar e Mdc high
rlloy W m d ~ w h e n t t m t e d u t o
bve Uu, ~lupc&iaof snnor pLts May
be either the homgellnw or f.06.h.rd.
d rrLLrtr A w h r L d or ~ne~-L;vrpp
VJIklr raountia(l ulaor pLtc rusd for
combat nacarily or cwga A d whleler
inelude tmL* perrollnel eurlem,
umold un, rail-pmpalkd Artaery .nd
ts@ou r p u U purpow vchidcr
Monl vrhlclr luqc' See: dmaga at+
oortcs.
umor-pknia): (AP) Of mmunilion, bomb.
bullets, projectile* or the like: Designed
to penetrab annor and other d b n t
targets.
' ~oc.okrC(~, (APC) of MIOT.
piercing projectilea: Having M MMTplemlng
u p over the non. Scs: up.
rmr.plrrelng.
mar. #paced. See: weed UIIOC.
Army ce~plrtap mdntba. Penetration in
which it u m i & to .eel light through
the hole medo by i910 projectile, OP in
which It II pouibba to we r portion of the
pmjectik in Uw pinto *r&o viewed from
the nu.
arrow pmJrr(llr. Scs: ~* . j uUl~u, ror.
u#ct uwk. Thr uule fonad htwm jhr
longitudinal ut of a pmjretik in Right
and t h e u i r o f a n d r r knm.
rknk sir b t . Tbe aplolion of an atomic
weapon in thr air, st a hdght -tor Uurn
' theauxlmmdurdtbefirshU
atomk &vim Any uphIva dwh tht
mSsl urs of d w nuclear moterhi to
uum r chain rcucCion upon ddonr3ioa ~~~ Wrvr h a d Atomic mivilr bunt
at an e h & rudl thrt the llnhn
twchu th4 prutnd.
r(rlculalroulbvrrt'l'haeqrloviaa0f
.n stomlr mrgon w t h itr mltu bonrt4
the ulrfaw or thr grouud.
r b d e u 8 & r u . ( u b m t . T h a ~ d
an rtonrk weapon with its mntcr benut4
the surface of the water.
r t t i t d r Tho upcct that an rkait or art
ille wseato st any given mawsic u
cbknnlwd by I b hc!Inatioru .bout L
t h u a
B
LP mumillre Nonannor-picrclny rmnl
.nnr rr~~aunitkoinn which the p W W e
I k .did It k intended for uw &rut
peramel, light mu+erl.l targets, c r for
tnininOpu-
WUr. Pertaining to ballktiw (which 4
nr the motion of missiles.
hULtlc coclsckrL Thc numerleal menmure
of the ability of a mirrile to overcome air
mbtutce. I t u dependont upon the m,
the ddkmeter, and the form factor Iwhirh
m).
Lrllrlk UPlL The minimum velocity a t
which a pnNeuLr armor-piercing pmjfftile
b expected Lo conrlbntly, wmpleLcb,
pmchte umor plate of &en thickneaa
md phpicrl propartiem, at a rwified
angle of obliquity. Bauure of the erwnr,
of (Iring tutr and the tmpouibiity of
controlling rMking velodty pnelwly, plur
the eStence of a xone of dxed w l t r
in which a projectile may wmpklely penetnb
or only prrtklly penetrate under
a p y m t l y identical conditionr, ItotWiul
rpprorrha uo ascurrry, bolod upon
limltad firings. Certain uppnwhw lead
to approxinrtion of the Vr Point, that L,
the vdocity a t which complete penekp-
Uon and innmpleb prnetrPtion ue
aqWy likely to occur. Other methodm
W p t to a p p d b the V. Pdnt;
I Uut is, t h e maximum wlocity at
whlch no CanDIeta p m t n t i o ~w ill m r .
o t k mauloda aLbmpt to .ppmxthe
V,,, Point; that LI, the minimum
mlocity at which all projectikr will wm

whlch oome level of Buargc See:
to thr rtructun would o a r ,
from dwgw of a eert.in weight, and in.
a given orientation. A given blut contour
applies to only one tar& rtructure.
blut wave. See: shock wave. The rhock
wave truumitted thm& the air DY the
mul t of an expbiin. Th, ~ g uhwp , the
term rhoek wave oflun is refer. d to M a
U t wave, or air bLvt
body umr. See: unor, kdy. f n m m h -
UOO P d r d l ~ ~
boab. 1. In a braad raw, ur ax&alve or
other I& agent, tagether with ita con-
Wna or holder, which u planted or
thrown by hmd, dropped from an sircmfl,
or projected by wme other rluwrped de
vim (u by lobbing it from a mortar), md
la d to dentmy, damage, injum or kill.
2. Anythlng rlmh to t h t objrt in a p
pearum, operation, or etT& PI a leaflet
bomb, rm~ l ub omb, pbotofkrh bomb, a
bomb-lh mntaiaer or -, de.
bomb r h l c (A.bomb) xulliw fommIv
limited to u bomb in whlch the axDlolive
cowiatr of a nuclear.Rilrionable, ~ P ~ ~ c P E .
tive materid, u urdum 296 or plutonfum
239. Now accepted an aynoaymour with
the term bomb, nudear.
bomb, roLlt A t h m W abmlc or byd
m bom b e& in eobrlt, Ule bolt
of wlrldr would b tnnc- md into desAb
d h c t i v e durt upon utim
bosh hydra(a. (H-bomb) A fuvion bolnb
in which an irotope uf hydrowan t nude
b fuae under i n b w heat, with a IWU~-
ant ION of weight and ralaur of enerpl.
bmb .rdrr. A bmb that rJuwr s x p b
dn rmury &her through nu- Moo.
or n w k v furton. ThL tam L awls
dtlrcr tn the atomic bomb or the hybomb.
krta. krmbb of aww prtr and sxpl*
rim provided to augment the expldveeclmgonentoiahur,
tocwrdrb
DItlon of the main axplodve charge of the
munition. May be an Integral put of the
f w . The axplmive in tha boorter m w
b rulllclently mruitive to be actuated by
tha undl u p l d v e aluncak in r fm, and
powerful enough to caw detonation of
tlu maln upkriw filling.
briuncc. The ability of m exploriw to rhatk
r the medium which confines it: tlw rhattering
effect of the explhve. (Adjective:
brirmt.)
bullet, Inceadkry. A bullet having an incendiary
charge, u d orpecially a p a l ~ t
flummPble targets.
ubrlrtrk imt. A; sppUed to interior balliutiu,
the urn of a wlorimeter to deter
mine the thennochemical eharrctorirtica
of propellants and explo8iver. The pmpertier
mnnally deterininad arc heat of
combulon, heat of explodon, heat of
f-mation, and heat of reaction.
d t y yat. A toxic ar Lthal chemkd
ageat that can be. used dYcctlvcly in the
fkld
d y dtor ia. StondPnlr by meuu of
which may bc clu3ifbd the ability of MImunltlon
item, or f r wmn t ~th erefrom, to
indlct dlubliag worn& on psnoDncL
CUYlty g u War g u caprble of produciw
r s r b injury or duth when used in effective
alneeahrtioru.
CEP (abbr.) Clreular prdvbk mor. The
oripid exprcuion rppeur to have been
drcukr e m pm babllib.
ckll, COUBI~A~ tUhla,M ht., p b of
metal foll. plain or W, rpreiflcally drrigned
to act u a eountenaeuum a m i d
enemy radar when mkwd into t& atmarph='.
cbpmamJoll~~p,tla ne. For a hlpothotiul,
iaflnite-plmne detonation wave: A movine
reference plane, behind the initial hock
front, In which ft Ir variowly ulumed
that: (a) reaction ( a d enemy r e l ~ )
hu b 1ectlvely completed; (b) ramtlon
product g a w have reached thennodynamic
oguilibrium; (c) &ion gam
rtrguning backward a ~oft t he detonation,
have redud rueh a condition that a
forward-moving wndwave located at thiu
precise plane would remain a fixed diatpnce
behind tile initial shock
charge. 1. A given quantity of explorive
either by itelf, or contained in a bomb,
prujectile, mine, or t f e like, or usad M the
propellant for a bullet or projectile. 2
That with wh~cho lxmb, projectlie. mine.
or the like is Alld, u a char@ of explct
sive, thermite, etc. A h called the "flll,"
"Aller," or 'Wlinu." 3. In rmull a r m , a
cartrldm or round of ammunition. 4. To
fill with a churge. 5. To place a charge
in n gun chamkr.
cLtge. hre. An exploriva charge without
wmu, prepred for ure in determining
exploeite b h t characteriatiu.
cbarge, bnmling. lh main exdorive charge
in a mine, bomb, projdile, or the like
that breuka the enring and praducca f r o p
mentation or demolition.
charge, 4.1. P ropeUing charge within a
artridge axw. Z Any explor've charge
within a EUB, u o p p d 10 a bare charge.
charge, r&pd (SC) An uplorive charge
with a duped cavity. 5ometim called
uvity charge. Called hollow charge in
Cwat Britain. Use of the term shaped
charge genen1l.v implies the presence of a
lined mvity.
chmlerrl y*sl mildmy. h chemical item
either mlid, liquid, or qau dir'iecl into
throe prfncipd dagoriu: war g u u ,
I ~lll~kaarn,d incendlriu. I t u developed
1 for the puqmae of conducting defedvr
and/or durulva w d a m Through Ite
chemical propartier It p d u c u : kthal, in- i jwloun, or Lrrltrrrt dcctr multing in
cuudtkr: a mmniag or colored unh;
0 r . c t r ~ U l I r r e M d L r y ~ t . j CLnUmph. 1. *mL I. b ( n n r t
i for msolurfng time. 2. k applied to brllirtfu,
an btn11w0t for d r t r n n i n b wlodty
by mrrurinp tbr time required for
I a pmjctih to trawl a known dintmm
1 tirw furnirhing t k &t for Lunnilution
i of the vdoclty. A completa chronogmph
I urlvlly c0nai.t~o f two main ayrtenu: o m
I for d e t r t h g tbr pmjctlle u It puru
twu (or mom) gohl whow dirt.nn a@ I
and distance fnm~ Uw munlr .n known
accuratdy; d a =ad aymtom for re+
1
. cordiao thu purpv om a time r&, t h u rupplykU irdonnr.tIon tb.t L rrdily
converted into vebcity. Tb velocity obtained
in thir mmer in the awmge v e
lodty between the rscoW point?. Thin
ir converted to muzzle veloeity by adding
to it the wlaity k t , wMch is o b W d I from tablu or ehrtr which take into pc.
count the fonn kctor (ohape) of the pro.
jcMe and the dirunf. which It hur
tnvded.
circular rrror. 1. A bomhinp urw larsluml
by the rrdlrl dlrtsnrr of a point of bomb I
impact, or meun-point of impact, from the I
center of +.ha W t , ududing rnwr
e m . E With an drbnmt atomic bomb,
thb in the bombing uror munured fmm
the point on tbe orwnd, immediately below
tha bombbbunt, tcr tha desired m u n d
mra Sw: gmmd rrro.
& c u b pmb.bk uror. (CEP) 1. The p m b
abk W i n g uror in trrnu of
the d u r ; o f b c k d r m L u r d o n t h o d e
a i d meat pdnt improt (DMPI) ai i
bombfrll, ud mt.inlnP half of the apatad
bombfa& excluding mu erron;
.Lo raactiPur applid b the actual bombing
amr. 2. w h rlrbumt lkimlc
bomb, tblr b tbe pobbb bombing error
-mad in tanu of the d u n of a cirelr
mntmd upom the hired ground mm
(DGZ), tha ndlm iroaP that polat bedng
pmjoctad harLootdy to th point brim
the bomb b u n t Grou arrosr ur .Ira adud&
In atomic bombingbom5b ioWp ith rdue
n m t o ~ 1 l d s d ~ t b k L a p m b b k
erroraqwumdhtamaoftherdlluofa
drd. with111 which p ~ b r l iof a given
nlllllkrofmi..llranb.rprcbdtof.IL
C m r won an ulvlly ucelPdd. See:
CEP. I
spb.llIr). s~:bnb,cobU. I
wmdsie -1~- :. X i i AFmy kdnolopV,
oautntlollobDII#dwhathaprojeetils
In thr tug& or llsht tbrouph tbr
~ f o r n t I m w n i r o l n t b n u o f t h r
target. 2 L Navy -, #art -

pobutld 02 .IIIIDuplitloa Thr (Lrrt ckvC
(lutim. &id to &craft, rmployr tbr
f0Ilowk dunaga mlurtlolr trroy:
Ic-ruebthattbr*
auft will fall out d rootral iamdhwU
rfbr t h r & ~ a e c t m .
KK rPch t h t th8 .k'
cnft will di8iukJnb lnrmvllrWv afW
tbr drlmure oeeum
A ~ w e h t h . t t h r . I r -
enit W~ I Ii . O~U ~ oi -trd n ~ 4
dautrr aitu dunam occur&
B ~ r u e h t h t t b r . i r .
a u f t w i U b u n r b l r b ~ b i t . b W .
C t&t rill pmnnt
the &craft from eompbtiag ib mluion.
Th. wcond durlik.Uopq applied b Arm
Md vet~ldulr nrploya the fdlarlw d.p3.
yr wrhlhr t a M :
I C W W t r i t l u w t h e
vrNebtokdrtroy&
F a- complrG or
pUIisl bn8 of thr &ity oi the vdlicla
t o l l r s i t r ~ ~ d ~
pl-
Mdunrpllc--durullucwbgdC
rrtlon of thr vrhlclc
damngo rdlru. 1. The diahnca at which, in
term oi expadam or thaorrticd dm-
~ c a r t . i ( L t y p e m o f d r m r p r u a b
upactad fmm a rpdtid typ. d
t- 2 Atomic di8hcr
i r o l l r ~ ~ r t w h h h t & n L a ~
~ t p l l 0 b a W t u f h t . t u l r t - t
~ t i b l r b t l I a r m # o d ~ ~
rlllkdunyd.
&uy.T& rpontrrwwr dWnhmtiDo oi
ndlorccfvanucldtoalam~fornq
~ a u r l l v . c c o ~ p ~ p l L b c d b Y t b . ~ ~ ~
puUebud/mpmmrrdl.Uoa. Ikery
. ~roslrm to tb &ream in i uWt y of
ndiorclvUy with p.upa of time.
QIcV Wtu. A c m b t which in muWplld
bytlIav.lueO2Qrntr.tonrhour,b
~ t h r ~ J r o l p r ~ t f m L
M e n m iDG Z) F a a -
bud, tba pdnt an thr d 8 d .01
r t w n . t o m i c ~ I r d v i n d F o r
an air burrt or underground bunt, the
point b on the wrthOrs urface directly below
or directly above tha dwiml point of
drtoll.llor ~~ An exothermic c h d d ruetion
that propapta with much rapidity, that
Ihs nb of advance of the r a t i o n zune
into the unreacted material excccrb the
velocity of mund in the unmcted nub
rirl; that k, the advancing reaction zone
b p d e d by a at.& wave. A dubnation
b c h d u an explodon. The rate of
advance of Che d u n zone la t e n d
dcbnrtlon rate or detomtion velocity.
When thL rate of advance attaiiu ruch a
value that it will contlnue without dlmlnution
through the unrclrted material, it k
termed the rtable debnatlon velocity. The
, exact valw of thh bnn L depndcnt upon
a number of factom, principally the &emlcrl
a d ;*wrical prop.rtlw of the mrts
?hi. 'idhen the detonation rote L equal tu
cr greater than the # W e detonation vrlority
of the explarivc, the reaction Ir termed
a hlph-oder detonation. When the deto-
&ton rate i lower than the r b b h deb
cutton velaeiW of the expldve, the m c -
tion L t e d a loworder detolrrtlon.
+ ~ ~ ~ U a t m'rhaetm.n cuoamofadotoartion
ddmnUoa wavo. The .hoelr wave whlch prrada~
ad~.aeiPurwdiollvo~h.
hish-ordu datoMuOn.
Wulor. An uOlorive M a ~ O S ~ P O I Y ~ ~
which f.n k .etlvrtod by either a now
explosive hpabe, or the .etlon of a
primor, md k capable of mliably lnitht-
Ing hiphordRr detonation in a ruLwquent,
hish4xpldve Component of tnia. When
d v d & r nolrupbrlw hpulu, a
d.kuular W u d n the function of 8
prlmu. In genml, debnatmn am elPui-
M la record.acs with the mathod of
InltWon, ruch u prcuuion, mhb, e l r
Me,-&
D62 (dibr.) Mrd gmuud mm.
Yarlh PULA puC al r d k d h g
rrbot in wMch the vbot b comparsl of.
hw and rttached picrsr extending from
it. ThclapieK!l,dldpsWI..~ound
thenk~pabdcuudmc0nkifUp.l
andrsrodyaunieforor.Iducdhrdsd
jurtinfroatdbgunlnrnlr
dhadimg w)rC Sw: rhC
dorc The total omouut of nudoe rdWlon
received by an WviduJ nprcrrad in
nmntgm. UIurlly uul b mean totol
dome. A h w p w d u BAD (which me).
downlc A m u r ~ t a l ~ l n t u U i t y a f
pnirtcnt or WIUI radi01c.Civity exp
d in t ern* of twntpnr per hour.
ALo e x p d .I IUD.
drag tom or ca#ut (rtrma u u l y r l )
Aforceorcompoaent,IntJmdngdIrrP
tion; Le., pardld to the d t i v e wind
dynamic pruur. See: ~rruwd, y d c
d y l u r l a . AbrrnehaillruurilrUI.ttruta
of thamotlonofbodir,.rdofthcfow
a c t i n g u p o a b o d i r h ~ o r i n p m e r u
of chanpinp motloa
d y r u l k A uh uqsii*h., COMMofW
nitroglycerin and/or Idtmghol and/or
\amman* n h b and o t b r nutdab
' w i t h o r w i t h o u t . a f n u t b r y . ~ l a
cylindrlul pqmr eutddgm or la brpk
ItirntoRbyaddoubraadudirOIlwntly
oredtobrukroeio,movedi&,ordrnolLh
bulldlnpl.
dK(rrk - (WU)Iwll g
pl. A n y o f ~ o d v l v r o r Q i . r J w
t a c t i a u m h p d ~ ~ ~ v i c c r b r r d u o t b r a J I U u y ~ * ~ ~ ~
of enemy cgullmlant. or t=tkJ, elnuwu
o r . R e C t a d b y ~ r d l t b o l .
~ ~ k ~ h v d v w l l e l ~ p w ~ ~ t e - b r b l u u ~
d k t l o n a r n u d i d m d ~
wrvea to LnO.LtbsuoCa-wp
a w z t o f t l n n d b r y c t m n r U J d I y
.horhd b U-.*
-m,---htlnlofrlr-
~ w . w r - m w I n i r u r d ,
rdlo,udrdu.
(ado) L A c b a i d m c t h
or change of At., drt in UI .IPowd

Ingly rhort of time, wlth tha gens
mtlon of a high temperatun and,
genanUv, a lam quantity of gu. An
aplaslon p d u w a chock wrve in the
rurroundi~ medium. 2 Now .Ira wed
with referanca to the explmive tfleeh of
nuclear mponr. 3. In general -nee, any
violent bunting or up.nrion, with n&.
idlowing a adden production of great
pnuum or a release o! great preuum.
upb.lolr, e&dof. See: oxpkuioa, mu 1.
upbdrr. (rrplo) 1. A s u b t a m or muhire
of urhturess which m y be made lo
undergo a r r ~ i dch emical change, without
an outside aupply of oxygen, with the
liberation d largt qunntitia of energy,
mdy urompaniad by the evolution of
hot g u e ~ .E xploriver ara div~dcdin to two
ekucl, high uplorivu, and b w explarim
according to their rate of reactiun
in normal m. Certain mWuw of fuelr
and oxidhem that can ba mu& to explode
ua d d e r e d to be explodvea. However,
r rubtance ruch u P fuel which requires
an rovm of oxidhr b explode, or
an oxidizer which requinr an ouhide
M U ~ R of fuel b explode, Ir not eonaidered
an rxplorive. 2. Now uaed loorsly wit5
reference to nuclear wupoar.
L . U k k That put ai tb. fMtuU curlwl
lato the J r by an rtomtc explodon that
uttlprrkb dmr back b the urth, or
water, a t tha rib of the explorbn.
lribvi am. The uu on which chrdlarrtlw
mohrklr have mitied out, a the arm on
&ch It Ir predicted irom weather amd
l t l o ~th at ndlorctive MhrLls puy
aeUe out.
h badge. A photqmpbic illm packet to
b b s c a r r i c d b y pnannel, h t b f o m
of a badge, for mcuuring and gennrncntly
recording ~luuully)_glllrmir my
dorPpc.
ih .(.biUulbr. Method of rtabUlring a pre
jectile, u a rocket bomb or mluile, during
W t , by the wrodynunlc ure of
pmtrudlng flru
Won. Of radionctive material: To rpUt
a p r t within the atomic nucleu, u in,
"cobalt would noither -!on nor fura"
&rlocubk. Of a nutrrW rurh .r c d u m :
Subject b nuclear h i o n .
Buloa boah A bomb intendud to derive itr
a p b i v e force from nuclnr !Won. Scc: w .(art*
Ibrlol. nurku. The rplitting of an atomic
nuelw. u by mutroll bo-L
Scc: bomb, a(orle.
brh ndbgmply. Mothod of hkh-mprd. Xray
photography. U d h .rrrlVair of ammunition
funcloninp.
a d d l e . 1. An aerial dart. 2. A mall finatabil'ied
mirdle, a large number of which
ern b loaded In artillery cdder.
Iluttrr. A vibrating and dllaUng movement
d r wing, conM adace, or the
like, CAUMd by f0- d l l g
upon m airfoil or r u r b having &tic
md inertid q d t h r . '
f u r f.r(.r. mbr lntmdued into Uu hE
lLUc codleient of a projectile, band on
Uls dupe of the projectik Sametlma
tdbd " m t d form." Sac b.lll.L
~ m c i m i .
f r r r r . ( f w ) 1. A ukod an arplodw
or txptodd bomb, projdk, or the Ilh.
!A To break lab fmgmmtr.
fruar(.Ur. ( f ~ A) tam applied b
anunuaition, Indicating that the item ir
prlmorily inhndd b pmduca a fmgment.
tioa laat,
I r y p ~ l lUoMn . TUt eonduckd to &trc
mine the number md weipht dttrlbution,
and when the methad used penlb, the
f l x p e n t s produced by a projectile or
o&er munition upon detonation. Recovery
of fragments, without determination of
vebcib or sprthl dttribution, cnu be accamplWIed
by fragmenting in aand or
uwdut, or over water, Determination of
velocity and spatial distribution requires
elaborate recovery means and instrumentation.
fragment c b d t y dbkihtim. The number
of fnpmente per unit solid angb (atera-
-) -
fngloenl IMM dhtributioa. Spectrum of
fragment weights produced by a rhell or
* wuhud.
f u r . (not to k confwd with the term
fuze) 1. An h l t i n g or explomive device
in the form of a cord, conristing of r
Lxlble fabdc tuba and a core of low nr
high explaive. UIod in blnrtint and dernolitlon
work, and in certain munitions.
Fure with black powder or other low erplorlvv
core k called: f w , b t l n g , time.
F w wlth PETN or other high expldve
con tr callad: cord, detonating. 2 An
Jectxical fure.
f-. Tho M y , of epproximrtely dramline
form, of M alrcraft ok mbrile. It b
tbs part b which the tall unit and winp
(it included) u e attached. '
idea. 1. atomio enerw. Furlon, nuclur.
2, optiu. Tho mmt.1 blending of &ha
r@t .nd left eye image8 ink, a rl~ple,
c l w bmge by ntemwopic action.
lu~locrn, uclur. The furlng or unitinn of tho
atomic nuckl of an hotope, M t h w of
cbut.rium, to form other nuelel under the
influme of Intanre held. Sre: bomb,
4-
tam 1. A device wlth arplorive componentr
darlgasd to initlute a t r n h of fin or
detonation in m i h of amniunitlon, by
an d o n ruth u hydr~tatic prsuu:2,
rlccttlerl energy, d o n , imprct.
mechanical time, or a comblnatii of
th*. F,xcluden: frw (u modified). 2 A
no~ld.plolive device daigaed ta actuate
mother component by ntmorpherlc pnsaure
&/or temperrbur ehmgc. Wrld
energy, chBrmcPl action, phyatrl irnprct
wcclcmtiaa &or de&mthr forcu*
e l e e t r omp ~ Lw ava a p S r , and axternal
to- $. To -pip an item of ammunition
with a fuze.
G
pin. 1 d o In an ampUfylng 8-
the inenore uf output power, vela, or
current over the inprt power, vol-, or
current, exprwcd in torma of a ratio. 2
d a r . The differaw, up& u a
ratio, between the power radiated by l
dimtionrl ant en^ and the power radiated
by m htrople mbnnaa, when both
have an equal power output
guhlia bluek. A block of t rmp o ~gt J Itin,
the candstacy of wMch m rpprodmstely
r l m i b to hlmun t l v u r It ir Iwd
to compare the lethality of Wb, fwnrenb,
and Pnchottm.
Gennra Conv.nuol. An iatu~tlonrl
mont dealing wlth thr hulmna trutn#nt
of cambetanb .ad n d t u r t r in time
of war. Tho ortdnrl Comnntion. JlrPrd
at Geneva in 1881. ~ollanwd wo~pdrd
ddlem uwl p&oaon of w u . kbr
anundmsntr and mvhimu &edd tho
provlriom b victims of nvrllimr .f(iolu
and to civilian In 1949 ulrting
pmviriom w s u into b u r
m v e n t i w far thr pmtdon of v u virtinu.
The U. & hr b m 6 rilrvtory of
the rucceulva cmlmHm.- d 3pq l664
tho Coavuatlon hrr lam tha durtP of ,
thr Intanvtknul Bd Csor.
~ . . A l m r l l ~ * ( ~ a r ~ n J I -
dl@, origlarlly d&wd to br thmm by
had, b u t a o r r L o d d l # l t o k p m -
jacw from rprcLl m l d a hundun,
uu~.Uy t l t t d to d h or &nr Om-
& n u y b r c I d M i n a b r o d w u l u :
prend6, h a d ; urd mmda, rilk )kay
vuletiarudwLthwdUuwhvrkm
uwd, including 6 nmbw of lmpmvIwd
onu.
ground mm (GZ). T& poinC a0 tha r r i h ' o
ruriace at which, .bwr which, or brbw
which, UI atomic Atonrtbn hu actuuUy
d.
&&d mid.. &I Unm8nmd df-proPJLCd
vehicle, with or without a wuhud dorlpard
b mow in a tmjctwy .G rupht
path d or partially above tho eutn'a surface,
a d whore trajectory or wurae, whlle
in ilight. is capable of being contmlled rer'ote1.
v. or by homing system, or by ins
l i . 1 &/or pl.opnmined guidance fmm
within. Erclder dmres, torpedm, and
mckh end other \rehielea whcsc Weetory
or courae cannot k mntmlled whrle
in ljpha .
Gurney muLolt A frnfm fnv u# in Gumy
Connuha, which b ~~nmtofaotr wphl or..
plasJvr, but whkh v d e a with dlLrent
o r p l o%i ~I~t i.r apNs& h feot p r 8 Ecoad.
Sze: Gamey f ~ ~ o l u .
Gomy lotmubr A vriw of fornub. sri.
formula compondlng to r plytiCUlpmm&
y of the container, which rarblar
quit4 .OCIIC.& predietbsl of tbs MtW
fragment tnkcity. The vdodty is d m d -
ant on the promaby, the explosive wd,
md the ntio of tha ezpiodw chuta and
autd wolght*.
(abbt:). Gmnd Z ~ M
us (ebb.). Hlgb uglodve.
HEAT, BE, AT (mbbr.). (oftan pronwncal
OE 5 wril Orlglr& 00 sbbr;..hth f a
hldr oxpbiw dtmL. A term uecd to
ddgnntr high e-pboiw 8aununitina mu-
HEP (abbr.). (often prommced iu a word)
An abbvWIon for h i g h a p h i w plutic.
romcumar c8ueda ''8qUUh ehups". A
t u m wed to designate ammunition (usually
uaed againat tanlu and r r l n i o d atructurn)
which rarcllll5lor m ordinary IiE
rhell, but the explosive component ir n
plastic explosive. This plutk defom on
impact. rsrulting in an intimate contact
of the exphive with the target autfw,
thenby c u i n g much greater shock wow
thur other typa of erpbriw, lardtiap
in npslling of the o p p d b surface.
high explor.rr (HE) An explorive which.
when used in its no;mrl manner, d e t a u b
nther than drRPp.ttnp or burning; that
is. *he rate of d v a m of the reaction zow
into the ummcbd m W exceeds the
Vaoei& of d in the unreacbd nub*
Whether m a p l d v a raactr u a
h i h uDloriva or u a low doparb
on the manner in which lt h initiatcd
.ad confined. For exunpk, a double
hw propellant when 1nitht.d In tha u r d
n u n w ia a bw erpldva However, this
mclteri.luabeMdebdetomteifthe
propall.nt h ipithbd by UI @hw #hock.
Convedy, a high rtplorive Uka TNT,
u a d w c e ~ d t i o m , c m k i p n i t e d b y
hm. M d wW1 bum Witlmt d.tOlllt&g.
High explaiwr .I. cHvidd Into hr,
clwe8:DDiPlinhIlhu.tg&lnroad~
oPaur b i p h a r g & i ~ v y ~ t o t h d r
d v i t y 30 h u t .rd rhoek
FWrnV~~4"R".~P-r R
wllw aAnJeyr o l ~ *a ws '(PP m- ow wwpatd -!=Dl
OW P P- O W 4 W F W r! mJ
-an' ',Yt.m O W u.J .)Je!V P= - a)
-wP r)l 'tlOnFW PPWJ 03 1rrrlu=
PI ~~P~lOJ~lnpmllrqyl~
-m aq3 u! paawne tbu mum p u '~.)q .
WdP 9Ul pm W.qd?ro =I3 io Im)rm
011% +m go u a ~ pcl ~ur mma pm mcrr)
ow =P~IT %)I =nn.lpu qnpom
-m! ! n q q wqnw.r o v uwj pqq!uro
pm uop~dxa agmp M au!.~ummm
-J. UO!1"!pu -0 ou ronw Fnm
wnnmd
Jo WV! wm aw al v a I u ,*alndq,,
' = Am lr(r19 o) )~edmw !m ' L I ~ W S
"3 o, 9 r p w IUN~WI oy) raj
9 r
Mach #lea. A hock wave or front fonwd
&ova the r u r f a of the w t h by the fusion
of & i t md r e k t e d hock waves
nrultiag from an airburst bomb. A h
ulW "Mach wave" and "Mpch front."
-tom. (MT) Refem to the energy releasn
of a mil'don tom of TNT (101' c a h h ) .
llrr (abbr.) . Million electron-voltr Sometimm
abbr. MEV.
d. 1. An d -ive or chemhd
d m h d to ba placed in yorition
lo that it dctoolltmm when itr target
buehu f. or mow it, or .when
touchad& by lab contml. &nerd
typrr ur: Lad mine, and undernab
dm 2 An exflo~ivec harge in a
rubtrrrrwus tunnel under r fortihtlan.
Z To plam mine# or prepared cbar8ea,
rirslr (ad). L Any object that ir, or b
dmimud to k, throm dmppod, ~ojectad.
or Woprlld, for the purpou of nuking it
r W u a ~ 2 A ~ m i u l l e ( w h i c h
an). L A b.IlLtieminile (whichno).
mmy-&budiurlcct Th.aadenti~~~d
r d i d d-Plpb ( w d y mrta~jf rom the
i . n o f . n ~ ~ p b . i ~ 1 C h ~ ~ * & t 4 M .
Uoa, ruch that thu ad-plate mcuh A
d l d . n d i a u d k u r m i u i i
u u s o p c w . A t y p o f ~ r ~ ~ l t n l c ~
h w b & h t h a . k i o o f t h a ~ b u r a
th. primvy r t a u r ui&g in the f u w
ttr
N.rb. (NP) 1. Alumirurm lorp la ponder
~ ~ t o l r L d o l t r d l o r ~ a r f o r
uuInN.pLDbodqorhmmthmwem,
t T b o ~ t . l c W i n M l u b . h n r r
ueluurff. Eaupyhrldwithinthanlldauofm.
tom.nlrvdinputinca*
t r inoth uJuuntvbyth. I raouof fluiM. In tb rrtrlctlr, wnu.
t h t p u t o f t h L ~ t h a t L l r l u v d
bdvionoriubn InnuclvrnuloG.th0
nkud eom from the atomic
nucleu Wag rplit, d t b g in the o d e
alon of nucku puttrkh aurh u neutronr,
tho alpha putick or the beta pPrtWa. In
nudur fwiaa. tho EombIniag atomic
nuclei fail to utiliu their entire atomic
muu in tomring the new nudeur, the unuwd
mur being c o n v in~to eaargy.
nuclear mon. See: Ilwbo, DIldar.
n u d w furion. See: fusion, nudur.
nudcrr weapon. A bomb, projectile, mfrrile.
or the like that carria A nuclear wubud.
Abo, the warhead ibclf.
aelve The curved or tapered fmnt of a projectile.
h a gaometrlul body, a convex
m!id of revolution in which the generaring
arm h boundd by an ue of a clrele, the
center of which l i u on t k i aide of th. uL
of revda5on opposite to tha arc. Whon
~ p p l i dto r projactih contour, tha ndiw
of the ue ia uprurd in erlibm, auch u
A Yuukr *VL " With r buht, bomb,
or other projcotilr having a flne forming
tho rime, tho d v e t indudad bhmv r
pint whem :he ppolactib b o g h to cum.
or bpw, and A point on tho Um where
fuze w! body maat. In othor tppea uf
proirtilrr, tha noan of tha pmjactile t
fucludd u s put of the cgive.
Ond.urr Rool abrrL (Om) A r m v l d
whom purporr ia to simplify, d y , and
atududhprooiUIILIque~ldtopwide
a puldr fur thow who pln, wmte, or
~ p m o C r w k o a ~ n u t u i d .
Tho m m d fncludw a dlruubn, In CWI,
clurr or typr of adPurcr nukrlrl:
prooatrhnipwLPclvditha&woprr-
.tion of pmof WUu; the moth* oi
ductbnv of prmf dnk alcJIUonr puformd,
tIu wdluth of tab, d inrtnruolrr
for ~ t bof pnmot -
o v o r m a w pmjecllk. A projectile whose
dlPmcler ueeeda the thickness of the
annor plate.
rrtid pcwllr(ioa Ponetrotion obtained
when a projectile fail8 to pur through the
far e ~ w fhor either the projectile
IWf, or lght from its pmtration, to L
men from the bnek of the target; Anny
pnrtfPl penetration. See: complete pne
hlba, proloelion complet~p~r aolratloa.
p u l v e amor. A protective device againat
ahaped charge ammunition. Dedgned to
.bolb tho energy nf a ahaped chuge. Exm
p k : a-4 annor, hornogenaw mate.
riaL, plutic rrmora, eompoaitc designs.
penk overpressure. The higheat overpmrurs
teaultinp from the h t wavo. Peak
oven- near tho BrebaU of m
vtamlc rrplorlon .la very high, but drop
OIT rapidly an the blsst wave h v r L along
tho muad outwud Imm gmnd
lwllombn The oprrr of pvtlol illumination,
u In m OCKW, betwwn tho umbra (perf&
rhudow) and the lull Uht.
p d n b~L.1~ M ark tho^ injuriu inc
u d M a direct rorult of tha preaouran
of the bkrt or aback wave.
r n j (p~oi) ~L G~aw d. A body pmjected
by extsriar for- and continuing in
motion by itr own inuti.. 2 Spmf. A
misrile (which m) for use in m y type of
gun (which me). In the general rcnre, the
tenn k mmetimw applied to rock& and
guided mirsilar. dthough they m y not
fall within the stated dohition. h uew
Z the tern projectile b p d u r d ovor
ahell, ahot, and the like, in dReiPl nomenclature.
pmjrrtilr, urow. A r o l ~ w l lyon g pmjrtilo
which la d e ~&~ ~toe bde Bml fmm a pun
of u caliber conrldornbly lerger thm tho
dinmetar of tho projectile body. It L r(.-
bilircd by IIMhav ing a o m approximrtoly
that of a dibr of the.pua Th*
design k mnde for the purpore of i~crwti
ing the velocity, to d e a e a ~th~e Umc of
flight, d / o r incruw the atrikhg energy
of the projretilc
pohctioa m p M e uenotra(ba Pewbtioa
in which a f q m d or fmgmmtr of
eithor the pmj& or the pLb
am thrown b the rau of the *to wtth
adfReirnt aurly to mrfwato a .oz!o&ch
d~mia~m-.1k2y4,S T. ht,o r itr quiw
lent, when placed m u to rrdw thore
fropmet.to purl& from tho m u of the
*to. Tho "Pmtectlon Crftuioa" W b
it ia pauiblr to obwlT. that t&um dltioluamklwmrtrlthouttho~
14offh.
rhmt, u in h a v k plUI tufhy, the r h d
moybomittd.
Smlrcuoa pu(kl mtrrth.. M i o n
w h i c h ~ b u t d # n o t f u i ~ U I t b
rrpu-to f=mt.cth P,
rtrrtloa
through r p c e m the form of dectm&
wva. t N ~ a k r ~ - A- dew (dougr). (BAD)
Tha tom q W t y of baking rdktion
.brow by m individual or any maw of
materid axpond to ndlotioa. If tha dlrUon
ia X, or gunma, and the mus ir
ftw d r , the unit of mewre io the roentgca
lUsbUM doroe. Total qurn~ityof radiation
to which a paslon ia e x w over a priod
Of time. I t ia mmrorumd in ruentge~.
ndWM &ne rate. The ndiotion d o r (dorrp)
aborbed per unit tfink The common
unit of mauure for X or p n m r~uJ~hU on
u rotrrtgm or milllrocntgen per hour.
dir(im l a t d t ~ .T he amnunt of rrdicu~'
energy, per unit time, w i n g through a
unit ama pupendiculu to tho UM of prop
rg.*hn. a t the point in quation Thlr
bnn L often turd intorrcctly when dore
rAbB h intondad.
nithnphy. Nodemtruetiva axadnation of
mttu by mauw of X-nyr or gamma
nyr. The w r ur pomitted to impinge
on A llwreacent aman for bmponry
work, or photographic flhn for permanat
record. U#d in metal indurtry, rsleueh,
a d a d y d r , for purpow rwh u &tarmining
the m d of e~utfnm ~and
welded jolntr.
rddn&d w a r t u l Tk emyloymmt of
Agoat8 or wapolu to produce d u d
mdki&ttw eantumlnr.tioa. u dirSLa-
&hd from tha 1niti.l atlecb of A nurlwr
&oaion (blast, Uurmri, and initid
nuJvr rdktion).
lwdm 8mle. (R! A thcrmoauta rulr
rhteh uwr Frhrolrheit damam, rrfth urn
u .bolltr rcro of the F a h m M t rerle.
ll10 fmdng pdnt of water is 491.69 dg.
m.
NMIL~. la an stomlo bomb uplmkm A
&Lion d U a g .t the crnk of tha
upbha, In which tho pnmur, A
I&O kducod by tho uplodon, dmpe blow
tht which d .M prior to the rrplorion.
I U I I w~are~. A~ p rouurr WAW, or rruh
of d r or wakr, inducad by rarefwttoa. Th.
nrairction m v r (.Lo cllld A r~~tloll
wave) travrk in the opporlta direction to
that of Uu rhock wwo dirretly f d h h g
tha uplurion.
raster. A ayllhm of lumiae~uentl i ~ wtm cd
on the pholphor of a uthode-my tuba by
motion of tho cathode-ny beau. The
changea of brightness h the linea prodm
a picture u a bkvlion plctum or a RdPr
map. Thia word L of Cenmn origin and
u wd pvticllMy in trlrvkion.
REM (abbr.). 80011tgon oquivolmt msmmd.
d u a l tdi8U011. Nuclur radiation emittd
by thr rndiolictiw nuterid W t e d dter
an atomic burnt, or after m attack with
r~did0gir:rl w u t w mta. FoUowinp m
atomic bunt. the n d t d v e d d w L in
*,.a form of 6 4 0 ~pm duct4 udmhad
nuclear nutuw, and m0M.l. uleh M
ur th, watar, And a p s d q u i ~ t i.n
which ruliorctivity m y hrve km indued
by nr~t ronb oahdmat.
&el An ulunmna lrli+rwlld NhlJI
with or without a warhd, de8ignd b
tmvol .bow the aurfm of ttie urth. and
w h w trajectory or cow& wkib In &ht,
curnot b mntrolld Excludu guided mi,
rilr uul o t h u vehlchr whorc tr4ectory
or ewnr, while in Wt. a n b cddd
nmo(.ly, or by homing ayrtsnu, or by
hrsrUPl ~rmrcrmmrd Ipid.on
fmm witbta
w.torp A ansum of ionk.ffon rawdud
by X-my or gamma ~~WOTIluL W t
of~tofrdLtlalintvrmd
it.rllctmhllm=bolnp. ThLIrtwhnlc
l P l l y ~ u t h o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l l t o i X r l ~ u n n v
odl.tbnwldchualuultofbnrL.tim
will prod- in 1 cublc cmtlmebr d d l ~
dr a t at&d wnditiwr d t.mpmtUrr
a n d ~ u r u r ~ . I o p r ~ l d s c t r o r t o t l e
unit of dmtddty d d t k d#n.
~ ~ r r k r l r u r v(BILEY) T&
q ~ o f w t m o iof n fdwrrdth
~ h i C h , ~ b v n . b r a r k d b j r . ~ . l , ~
d w a m &~UTOe ~ d v d mQt UIO ab
wrption by the mamad of me rocmtgen
of X or gamma ndintion
reU An ongulu dhpluvment h u t an axis
pmdel to the longitudinal urlr d an air
hynr or a miuile.
s
d o t . Lightweight carrier in which a rubcaliber
projectile Q centered to pennit
firing the projectile in the hrger caliber
weapon. The mbot diameter fflls the bore
of the weapon from whieh the projectile
Ir flmd. One type of ~ b o t d, i scarded a
- ohort distance from the muzzle, in known
or a "dircprdinp aabot" A d o t Ir used
with r high velocity umw-piercing p m
jeetila having r tungaten carbide eon; in
thu cue, the con nuy k asnridved u
the subculiber projectile.
Snch'm tboory. An alternate theory to Kirkw&
d-~rinklefr theory, embodying 4-
ing laws by whkh the effect of blast at
high ultitudu may k Inferred from the
ruultr a t ground level.
asling law. A formulP whieh permit# the
calculation d oome pmprty for r given
article baud on data obtained from a dmilor,
but dinerent &a, article; eg., crater
rize, nuclear ndLtbn, ate, for a nuclear
warhead of any ykM. from the known
v l l u u for another yield
b l u l injurirrc Thole injuria ow-
Wmcd from the indimt effect# of a blut:
ruch w failing rubble from r collapsed
krlldtrp, or O r e s (dabria or ohjrct)
which have been picked up by the blrrt
wimb pnuatod and hurled against an
individual. Alro includes lnjuriu resulting
iwn U v i d w i r klnp hurled ngainut rhtlolvry
o b j c b
rh.eL miohw. Amor. Tlut pmppSy
whlch pmvwnt. crrcldnp or gemeral rug.
turr when im3.ctsd by fngmmtr, impu-
Lr projrtllr, or gLncing bbwr from
avaiaA&5k- f ofdh. SeJ: dwk :a&
rbclr tat. Armor plate. The trrt b dotor-
~ i f t h e u m o r w l l l f J 1 l m d e r L n ~ t r
of overmatching pro]ectllea Also died
balliutic rhock M.
shock wwr The stoep, frontul complaarion,
or prusuru, d h n t i n i t y , tapidly advancing
through a medium u the coosequence
of a rudden applicatioa of pnuun to tho
medium. Ilu form dewndr an the &-
tude of the preuun, and the displucunent
of the medium, u the wave prolrellsa.
l a mil, the rhock wave ia ammonly mforred
ad as the growd rhock; in water,
the water shock; and in air, the air blast
or b h d wava
*lock wave, reflrctul A dock wave ruulting
from an sxplcrlon, a p d d y fmm the
explosion of an airbunt bomb. which i a
reflected from a rurface or object,
dot. la A rolld projrctllo for mum, without
a biurting charge. k A mur or load
of numemu, dativrly mull, bad pehtr
lued in r shotgun, u birdhot or buehhot.
2. Thai which L fmm r gun u Y L
fint ahor w u over the tVpbt" In m m
la., the tm "projectiw L p r e f d for
uniformity In nom.nektum
rlde o m . Fragmmtr of r kvrtiap projectih
thrown ridewho from Uu Uw of fright,
in contnrt with brs r p n l ' throw0 to the
rar, and uon #pray, thrwm to t& frorrt.
aklrUng *LC A tbln pk4 which + qwcd
r conriderable didma In fmat of tho
main m o r @to ud wbkh .etr u r
p u i v r form of nrlrt.no to tha jot of
&aped charge ammdtioe
I@ nrlrtmm. ' h a t proparty of umor
which prever~k'i hu mor from projecting
r& into tl* umored vehicle when
rtruck by a p?oj,u'!!!:.
apu. Any prii.ciprl rtructurnl member in on
airfoil; up. in a wing, rurrniny from tip
to tip or frmn root to tip.
Wmcopa. An optical instrument designed
to b ~ !i the light from a murce
into ita conatitu I I w~ e ve lengths for the
obrervntlon of rpectro. thus providing a
m w u of qualitative or quantitrtive study
of tho rpectrum formed. The imtrument
eumtidly conrirts of a slit, a lens syatem,
a diapealon syutam, and an o h ~ a t i o n
ryetern.
win rhblllutioa Method of stabilizing a
projectile Curing flight by causing it to
rotate about ilr own longitudinal nxL
dablbu. Any aiiioil, or m y combiwtlon
of airfoil8 conaidered an a aingk unit, the
p m a r y functlua of which 1. to give at.-
W t y to an d d t or miulh.
SLudud Aiaorphm. Since the rubtame
of the air to a projectih depend8 upon the
wind, the donaity, and the tempraturn,
i t iJ convenient to . s l u e , u a p i n t of
departure in computing Mng tabkr. a
wind, denalty and tempernturu structure
for thir purpore. A sort of average or
repmentutlre rlr rtructum M ierivrd L
d i d "a rtaadud atmorphere." The
a b d u d atmaphen for the Unitod
S t a b A d Fr* Nifw la the U. 8. Stmdud
Atmorphom, wl?!ch is t l u t of the hkrnationrl
Clvii Aviation Organisation
(ICAO). T h t rt.ndud a h p h e r c .G
8- a pro'& prruUn of 760 d l &
meter- of mercury .nd u ground tempamtm
of lUO C. The tamparatam t h g h -
out the hpomphm, that Ir, the *.on
w h tu rbubnt mixing takas glace, ukndina
up to 11 Libmator, l a given by
Uu fonnul.
lrbroluk tampmature T (O K) =
28&16 - 6.6 H
whur H ir the hoight above ror. level
mmmmd in kilomotan. In tha rtnto
rpha*, extending from 11 Mlomrtur
to 26 kilo^ the tcmpmmtw L
wumed to b a 6onrt.nt 216.66O K
Above the atratmphere, other kwr are
wumed. Although the ICAO rtmoapbm
make8 no nmumptjons about wind 8tr
ture, for firing table purposa~ i t ir &-
w e d that them is no wind.
abndard devhtlon. In the fleld of Wing, a
meorure of the deviation of the individual
valueo of a m i e r from their mean value.
The atandud deviation ir expresrod a196
braically by the fonnuh 47
where r (rigma) m m th e sum of, x
e q d r the deviation from the man, and
N equrb the number of room or fndividulr
in the dirtribution. For aumple, let
ru wume a dirtriburlon of 6, with ronr
of 2, 4. 6, 8, md 10. The m u a of them
u 6, the d s v h t i o ~-4 , -20, +2.
and +4. E.ch, quucd, given 16, 1. 0, 4,
urd la. The rum of th.u h 40. which
divided by 6 makw 8. Ths q~ mot of
8 & 282. Thir ir the rtandard doriation.
Other metl;odr of uriving a t the atondud
deviation are d, but they go back to
tho formuh shown.
.luubK dlt.ncr. Thr dhtance between the
be of a Apsd charge liner and the
aurfaca of a tugat.
terminal b.1ILtkr The study of brminrl
, bdliltia ir concerned with developing an
underatanding of the fundnmentrl prind
p l a underlying the dertnrctive effects of
Wmponr M Know- 80 pined
la applied, oflendvely, to the impruvment
of v d o u wrspono ryrtemr, ranging from
rifler md hand grenades carried by
roldien to nucle~r warhudr carried by
ICBMk and defdvaly, to the improvement
ot pmtective devlrer, auch = body
a m o r for roldiem, protective annor for
ground, air-borne and 8p.cs vehicla, and
ground structures, pcnnanent and tom

ponry. Both experimental an3 thearetleal
investigations are carried out in the fields
of blest, dotorution phenomena, penetra-
Uon of fmgmmtr and bullets into variou
media under atudy. and gmund Jlclelr,
combustion, and nucleu radihtion.
thermonurlear. Of or pertaining to nuclenr
reactions or procwes c a u d by heat, esp.
to nuclear fwion caused by the intense
heat of an atomic bomb explosion (See:
fuaion, nuclear.)
TNT. (abbr). Trinitrotoluene (trinitrob
luol). Thla wxplnsive better known by
ita abhrevlntion than by its chemical
name. Src: trl.icm(olucw.
llnltrotoluene. (TNT) High explosive
widely uMd am wxplonive ffller in munition8
pnd by enginwen: trinitrotoluol; TNT.
lugsten carbide core. The hmvy, hard con
wad in h&h-velocity umor-piercing tm
projectile@.
twklcnn. A condition in the airflow . . iout
r wine. or other airfoil, In whiuh diRmnt
apucd and time. In a general renae, it
includer the payloul plu the mirrile reetion
m u n d i y the payload, and itd
related aupnunta. In a apacifie uw,
it rwferr to the psyload ely; in which
the complete mianile ps)load u6embly
18 called a warhead d o n . Warhedm
may bc categorized or high hplorive,
chemical, nuclear, ballast, ek. In the ure
of nuclear warhead8 (lometimer refurred
to an spccid warheads), the term wuhead
refem to the nuclear wunpon proper. Thia,
along with the kit which adapts the nuclear
weapon prnper to the mMlc warhead
avplication, and the bile warhead
wmpartment, makes up the complete warhead
lleetion.
mvr Immrlh. Thr dktPnee $ruwlwl in one
period or cycle by a perlodic diaturbanw.
s of two consecutive wave of a
divided by frequency.
vilible light. The oppnite of "infiikd"
Said oi Ilght, ryn, f m q u d a ; haw,
'Utnviolet light"
vuhmblw M. The product oi: (1) the
pmhbility that a projectile atriking a
tugat wi!l caw dkPbling damage; and
(2) the p-tad are^ of the brpet.
mr ~uT.o xlc or Irritant chwmicd m n t
rcpudlev of Itr phyntcal rtate, whae
properUts m y be eRectively exploited in
tha flrld of war.
u d m d . Rockat and guided miufk: That
portion which k the p.yloul the vehicle
Ia tn deliver to a predetermined polnt In
tion wave.
yaw. I. Tha -19 betwcan the &ectlon of
motion of a projectile and tha axh of the
pmjectik rwfermd to e l h u "yuwp
or, Inom oompletely, u ''Angle of yaw."
Tho angle of yaw i n c r a m with tima of
fllght In in d i e pr ojectile, md drcream
to A coolt.nt value called the 'YAW
of repors," w the "mpm angle of YAW."
InAltrbbproIrcUL. 2. Anguiardlplres
mentrboutmuLpuPllcltothellomul
axb of in Pirenit guided miulle or ~IIW
lib.
yield. Allo kwwn u energy yield. The to@l
d b d v r a u e r~&m~ d in A nuclear (or thmul &tion, and rhodr (or b U )
.toloic) apldon. It t usually upmad energy; the &url &tribution bcins dmin
tumr of thr equivalent tonnage of TNT pdmt upon tlw mdum in whirh tha
n p u h d ~ p & u e a t b r ~ ~ ~ ~ a r l y r~a o c a u r ( ~ ) , a d r L o
La m expbian. The.totd up011 the typr of ww Pnd tha th
yield t mrnifrscd M n w radi ation, rite c&to&h
n--ruur).
INDEX
Pwa
ACwbrAtOrS. hrpvvalodw .......... 4-2U
Air h u
Currmt program ............... M
Damwe clurilhtion ............. 8-12
Cage .......................... 440
Iarding. rutface rhctuw ....... 8-8
I k r p o ~ es,u rface rtrueforrr ...... 5-10
Undupround rtructum .......... 5-18
Air bunt
Blut wave description ........... 4-1
N u c h radiation ..........,4 418, 4-140
Aircraft vulnerability
Basic eoaridentionr ............. S-14
W v e , componentr ............. 8-18
TVpe and W o n ............... 5-18
Angle track brtnker, d u .......... 2-50
Armored vehicle, vulnerability
ArWety ........................ 8-7 FqJhting ........................ 86
~niu~.w.. ..................... a 7
we
Biolooicrl mtr .................. 240
B.etcrk ........................ 2-84
Diucminr*oory.tcPr.rrd
rnunitwnr ..................... 2-36
Fungi ................... ,... ... 244
General typa ................... 244
Non-humu~ hrpctr .............. 24%
. Perronnel v u l d l i t y ........... S-I
P- ...........;. ........... 2-36
R W ...... ................ 2-51
Toxiar ......................... 246
Vinusv ......................... 2-84
B h t ............................. 2 1 7
Air bunt ....................... 4-1
Compu*on, convcllw uld
nuelarr ........................ 4-3
Dyiumic pmisura ................ 2 1 8
Inrtrumcnt.tloll ................. 448
Nueku,drtrprasnt.tloll ........ 4-88
Ovuprcarula wrvr formr ......... 230
Perk prruum ................... 2-18
Panonnel v ~ h m b u y.. ......... 3-1
SallnpLwc,dductbad ........ 4-27
wave parto* .............. 2-1s
B U wave, air kud
Dacrlptloll ..................... 4-1
Pammder .......... 4-8
lkffcctloll ....................... 4-6
Blut wave purmetur, ollect of
m s c h v l l i o J f ~ n
Chuprol(lu ................... 4-76 Ch u p e o l l l p o l i ~. ............. &TI
Charge motbn .................. 4-78
&pa .................... 4-76
Prediction mth& modlEd ....... 4-76
RcdM1011aaakarllPuoOurnoy.. 4-76
BlLbr @
Draikd ....................... 2 a
HDay&nm.ndlnudtlmr ........ 2 4
Put
Buckin-hm'r theorem .............. 4-24
B u k
Gaeiwl......................... 26 P-rsunnel vuheraMlfty ........... 8-2
Br.r:t. air ..................... .Ll, 4-114
Bunt, underground Con~ntionaei xplosion ........... 4-41 Nuclear e rpbion ............ 4-44. 4-120
Bunt, underwater
Chrventloml expiadon ........... 4-55
Nuckrr explodon ................ 4-69
Colorimetry. thermal radiation maruremcnt .................. 4-96
Cantileve~b eam gage ............... 4-91
Coringa, controlled fragmentation
Multi-wall ...................... 4-179 Notched mlid .................... 4178
cham: effect of c h l e a t r
thing ......................... 4-76
Composition ..................... 4-77
Motion ......................... 4-78
Slupr .......................... 4-76 Chemlcrl m n t r ...................
A m cowrage uUmrt.r ..........
B W r w n t a ...................
CS myatema and munitionr .........
Dfruminrtlon ryrt+mr ............
EA 1276 ryrtrov and munitionr ...
Expmditun mtm ............... GB qrlhnr uui auaitlona ........
HD ry.taru and muniuolrr ........
H L t w ......................... Nem w n b . ...................
NoaHhl mta .................
Pommlul *duty ...........
Phy8k4l *rLUcr ..........
Blot coatml agent# ...............
VX ryrtuar nad munitbar ........
Comporlte repeater, rdu
c o u n t c ~ ~ .r..a.. ....., .. ...
Comoorlte rpot jammer, rd;u
countenneuura ...............
Contamination
Cloud ..........................
Doaerate contour pammetern ......
Radioll~tive, air bunt ............
Radioactive, surface buret .........
Continuous rod fragmenb ..........
Controlled fr~nmantr;w e a h n un^
distribution, frrpmcnbtion)
Advaniagw .....................
Darcription .....................
Conventimnal explorlou, compared
with nuclear ...................
Convmion facton, penblib and
nuclear b l u b
Dewbpmmt Inckgmuad ..........
Method of detennlnhg ...........
-rnlLblce wwc* eompvLM
Cmr formrtba model, lyl#rvelocity
fnnmantr ....................
Cratedug
Underpmund nuclear bur& .......
Undenrakr nucku bur& ........
Cr ~ t c nn, u d w Mut
Apparent &pth vr yield ...........
Apparent diameter n yield .......
Scaling prowdute, depth vr bunt
poaitiou ......................
scaling prcudure, ndiw rr bud
porluoa ......................
CS chemlul agent
Drmibrd ......................
sydrmr d muDftiolu ...........
Curl. (we mdimWUI1 Pnitr, DUCLU)
Cumnt pc-r in tumid bdiatlu
Alr blut ........................
DaopI.uw ......................
Gmnd Iock ...................
Hy#rwbdty impact .............
P e mof a q u i mi n I,
nvelur mi-t ...........
Rttasrurlrrbunt.watu .....
htta-q t ~ d t i o n rrl n bunt ...
Patha undvpround bunt ......
R t t m undwwater burnt .......
biM nueb.r radiation .......
Shielding ......................
Total radiation doae, wnbnio.trd
are8 ........................
Total dktion d o ~p,m und zero ...
Mm ..............................
Dunrpc typm ...................
PcMIuLel vuhranbility .......,...
Fluion produeta, nuclear W o n
cberul .........................
B.dktion dolr ntr ..............
Totrl miiath don ..............
Ftt chum, fragmat velocity
Flat undwkh ehrpr ............
Sternda ht pLb formula ........
Flrohrtk
Dauiption ..................;. .
pwsomal vuhrvrblllty ...........
Flutod b a n , c d d b d WpnenWw
Fdl method (re* ~~t
t a c h d p ~n~u*c lur rdldon)
~ t r t i m u l d ~ t i o n d J I . .
~ niniomutloa l....... ~
D A b ~ . p d n d ~
twbrplour ....................
RttM prdhtIol ............................. sp8tw dt$.ihutbn
I M g m d ....................
DLtrlbution, 001)trdLd irymmtb
ttoD ..........................
DLMbutioZ Mtuml fmmm*
Clolr ..........................
pkroluatj ........................ 21
c&imlow md .................. 2 4
Caatrokd .......a,............. w
Bor#rmbdty knpd .............. 26
Pmanna vuinelnbilitg ...........
Pratonntd .................... UI,4 470 F'rincipL of operatian ........... 2-1
Secondary ...................... 2-43 Uneontnllrd ..................... 2 4
Fragments. h~wmloeib-(w e
hyperwlocity fragments)
Fragment velocity ................. 4-179
Decay .......................... 4-186 FLt chrpc .................... 4479 Initkl .......................... M 7 U FS mixture, moka went ............ 2-88
Fungi (IN bb&gicd -ti)
Fuau, +aped h r g a ............... !&I4
Poor Poor
Cum, hypa~d.0.c.k..yf.r .r.g.m..e.n.ta.. ...... Impuh, ovup..r.u.u.r.r. .m..d ..d.y..n.u.l.~.k.. . Expndable 4-211 prarrun 4-4 Light g u ....................... 4-208 Inoruadtrtion aikrir. pmmd .... s 1 Rrpt ed pulu .................................. -1 Inccnduiar .......... ....?.. ...... w T n v d ~ e h u O r 4-211 ~ n i t un u c b d b h n ............ MU
b u v e r method, detonation . Air b u d ....................... 6-111) prrsrure measurement .......... 4-217
HC mixture, amoke agent ........... 248
HD murtPrd, chemical agent
Dcr:ription ..................... 227
Smtema and munitions ........... 2-29
High uplnrlve plutlc (HEP) ....... 2-7
Httory of termid bdlttics
Cumnt prog~una ............... 1 4
Nineteenth century .............. 1-1
Port World Wu 11 through IS60 ... 1 4
Prc.aineteaath cc .y ........... 1-1
Twentieth thntutuq lhrouph World War I1 ....................... 1-2 Hydromanic quatiom, brsk ... :... . 4-8 : Hypervcldb, fragment impact DcrclSption ..................... 2-9
Ed& .......................... U
St4ler of crater formation ........ 2 4
Hrpuvelodty fmmentn ............ 4-202
Cnter f o r ~ ~ t l ormnd el .......... 4-204
Datebra, a b c t n m i c d
photographic .................. e20
Ekdmwwk d .kehpItrtic rabnbn ................... 4-218
I Expandable gunr ............... H I 1 I Ex p eWn t r l techniqucr ......... C208
Hlghupbrive h i c a ........... 4-W f Ught-gU *N ................. 4-m
I Rojodon rad oburvati*.. nucroi
an2 miawplrtlclr ............ 4406
Raps*ubpulsa and travel-
#&UU ......................... 4-211
ShPdeh.rlr aceelemuon of mkmplriieir
......................
IIypervelodty @tact, epmnt "\:
p r g n n u .am. 14
IPPpkmrobUoop. n&r j.nrmin# ..... 2-60
Altitude ma bunt type, OR& .......
Delivery rate ....................
Gamma Nihtioa ................
Cpmnu raya .................... Camnu my rhlelding .............
Neutron d i a t i o a ...............
Neutron ndirtion dome, fiJoll
wc.poru ......................
Neutron radiation Qy furioa
W ~ p o I U ......................
Neutrom .......................
Neutmn rhielding ............... ,
Shielding ..................... - ..
surface bunt ...................
TlrrrJtion zon, bunt ............
UndcplFwnd hunS ..............
Initial vdodty, fr-tr
Cyllndem md rpheras, ugWw . Expldve type, dect .............
h t 3 urlg ................................ BE rrmflmnont, &act High aplorive wd. pre- ..... Mrrunarat Uuzipucr ..........
T h u d i c d .xprdon ............
Warhead hgth/d*llwtcr, drect ...
Inithtlon (me datonatbn .ad
InltLtion)
xmwnment tecwquw. t h e m 1
&tion
Buic COnriQratio~ ..............
Calibration of inrtrumanb ........
Thermul puke ...................
Thmul d i n g .................
T h e m l yield ...................
T i e s caling .................... Unib of measurement ............
Micro-particles
Projection and observation (also.
macro-particlea) .:............. Shoped&rge a l e r a t i o n ........
Mine clearing devicea ..............
Xulti-wall casing& controlled
fragmentation .................
Munitiona (lee d i i i n a t i o n
wkm)
Mu tad, chemical agent (HD) ......
Napaim, incendiary agent ...........
N a m band junming (me rrdrr
junming . narrow band)
Nerve agtab
Daedption .....................
CB ry'ler~ and munitim ........
VX systems and munitions ........
Neutmna
Initial nuelrar radiation ..........
RdLtioo .......................
Whtion *.fb* on we~pona. ...
Rndiation dore, fusion w e a p u ~. ...
shielding .......................
Neutron-inductd pamm activity
Air burst .......................
Decay facton ...................
Surface and rubrurfaee bur& .....
TOW dora ......................
Transition zone bunt ............
N o h pub# npeattr. radar jmmlng .
K o n - W agtnta
Darrlptfon v....................
EA 2276 ayrtemv and muaitionr ....
Notehd rhp. eontro11cd
faaanmntation .................
Notched d i d . frlgmantrtion .................
Notched wire, ponbdloj
Nlrclur bkrt data C o n d o n factor !ram pentelite ... Peak dynamic prsrrun ...........
Peak overpressure ...............
Positive pressure phnre, duration . .
Presentation ....................
Nuclear e x p l ~ i a n Compared with conventional ......
Products ........................
Nuclear rsdiation (re8 radiation.
nuclear)
Oil
incendiary agenb ................
Smoke q p n t r ...................
Optics. geometric. detO~ti0n ........
Overpresrurt
Dtep underwater buuntr ..........
Resulting from air burnt ..........
Wave f o ...~..... .............
Pamutter computrrion, bhrt
Blolrt wave. air bunt .............
Effectu of environment ...........
Scaling and dunagu ..............
Pwive jamming. uwthod~ ...........
Pattern. prediction
Dynamic fnpmcnt ...............
Static fragment .................
Peak plw8urc
Dcrcrtption .....................
Photographic mawmutat ........
Penetration and perforation, ahgh
flmgnlent .....................
Aluminum doya ................
Annor phb . ...................
Experimentd tachnique~. .........
Mild rtecl ......................
Ru1du.l velocity dab ............
Soft trrgcb ....................
Tneoly .................... .. ..
Tlurrium d l o ~ n .................
n*;-[-
M
Pe n b t o n , m d r a r g e jet Radar jamming ...................
Fuze action ..................... 2-14
Liner lumnlebra ................ 2-10 R0t .h ........................ 2-11
Stando!? distance ................ ,214
F'enetmtion, shaped charge jet ...... 2-9
Pentolite and nuclear bhh,
mnvelrion factors ............. 4-88
Perforation damage, ahaped chargea . . 2 4 6
Personnel vulnerability
Composite rapester ..............
Comporite spot junmcr ...........
Impiu~ntation. .................
Methoda ........................
Nobe p u b reperter .............
Pwive .........................
Swapt barrage jammer ...........
SweN frequency tramponder ......
Unifonn barrage jammer .........
Bioloyieol and chemical agents .....
B h t ...........................
Fire and & e n d radiation .......
Frogmen& bulleh, fiechettea ......
Incapacitation criteria ............
Nuclear radiation ................
Photographic measurement, peak pressurea ..................... . Phylical &acts, nuclear ndiation ....
Physiological decb, nudear radiation.
Radar jamming, active
. Methoda, bit ...................
N m w band ....................
Wide bond ......................
B.du jamming, deception mpeatan Angle track breaker ..............
Range gxk stealer ...............
Techniques, h r l c ................
valoelrv g4b 5teder ..............
hdar jamming, narrow band
Preformed frapmntr .............. 2-3
Fnrrure meuuremcnt, debustion ... 4-Zl6
Preuure-time gage .............. .; 448
Repeatem, deception ..............
Taehnipua, bade ................
Radiant exporum va d.nt range
Air and surface bumta ............
Atmaapheric tnmrmiuivity .......
Calculation ......................
Relle.ct&n .......................
Spcctnl cbrackriatics ...........
Principled of operation
F m n t r ...................... 2 1
shaped charge5 .................. 2-8
RojcetUea
Armor piercing .................. 2-7
Arrnws ......................... 2-7 Radiation, tnltlrl nPckv (ace initial
Bukb ......................... 2-6 nu+ r&iiationl u t i o n , nuclear ................. Cbud cont.mlnrtion .............
Ikery faton, ~ t r o a - i n d u a d
pamum activity ................
Dow contoula, EmaJ ...........
Dou-nta conbur parameten .....
b n t c contours, harbor bunt ...
Doteratea ground zero ..........
Dau a d h g factor, 48-hour .......
Bocntgen quivalent physical
(8ec radiation unit& nuclear)
Suling
Thermal ........................
Time ...........................
Scaling and damage pnrameten .....
S d i n g laws ......................
Blast deduction .................
Buckin&am's theorem ............
Scaling parmeter computiitir r. ......
Scaling pentdite, HE, and nuc.mr blast yielda ...................
Scaling pmedure
Base surge radius, underground
burnt .........................
Bane .urge rrd!ua, underwater burnt
Crater depth vs burst position .....
Crater radius va burnt porition ....
CMurur radiation d w , underpround
bunt .........................
Maximum wave height. undeiwater
burnt .........................
~cutron-inducedp ornma activity ...
Neutron radiation dora fusion
WeapoM ......................
P d o verpre~ure.d eep underwater
burnt .........................
Rsdinnt expollurn air .nd rube
bunt .........................
Screening mokea
F9 mixture s.................... HC mixtun ..................... Oil u n o h ...................... White p h ~ p h o n u. ............... ! 9.urhlightr. tar@ Ulumlnatlon :. ...
! Sceo~hryf ragmen6 ...............
Sh.&Charga .kcelention of micro-particlea .... Current program ...............
Damage mechanirrrna .............
3Xects. flash radiogz-aphy .........
Explwive C h a m ...............
1 Fuze action .....................
i
UNCLASSIFIED
Jet penetration daerikd .........
Jet penetration f&n ...........
Link ..........................
Perforation darnage ..............
Principles of operation ...........
Standoff distance ................
VaporiAc effects .................
Shielding
Fallout .........................
Canma rays ....................
xwtmm .......................
Shock-velocity gage ................
Soft targeb, penetration and
perforation ...................
Solid projectilea ...................
Armor piercing ..................
Arrows .........................
Bayonets .......................
Bullets .........................
Flechettca ......................
High explosive plastic (HEP)
rounds .......................
Knivoa .........................
Spatii diatribution, fragment
Ceuerd ........................
Pattern. dynamic fnpmcnt.
prcdictioa ...................
Pattern, static fragment,
pmliction ....................
Spherical wave equations, boric ......
Standoff dbtance. shaped ch.rgw ....
Sterne'n fib plate fonnvk .........
Structures, ground, vulnerability .....
Suri.00 ........................
Underground ....................
Stmeddiaphropm gage ...........
Subaurim burnt ..................
Surface burat ........... . U O , 4-1 16,
Swept jammer, rulm .......
Symbois, iW, m l i i o n and
.r.alya& of data, kill
nwchurirmr ...................
I
I
I
Neutron-induced rCtivi&, rurface and rul sur f r e c lunb ... 4 4 4 6
Meuwemmt bchnipuc. .......... 4-108
Nentron-induced gamm activity,
dr bunt ..................... 4-14
Neutron-induced gamma activity,
tramition lone bunt ...........
Pemnnel vulnetability ...........
Physical effecb .................. Phydolopicd effecta .............
Radioactive euntunination, fallout
pattanu, air burat .............
Wiooetive contnmirution, fallout ' pattern, bunt in tmnaition zone .
B.dionctive contomination, falbut pattern, land~uripeab urat .....
Wiaretive contamination, fallout
patterm, underground bunt .....
B.diorctive contamination, fallout pattenu, underwrter bunt ......
Rdio&lve wntaminatlon, fallout
pattcnu, water-aarface bwst . . , .
Rmidual and fallout ..............
. Rtlgidual ndwion. ahieldhg ......
TOW dou ......................
Totd rrdirrtion do#* contaminated
uc. .........................
Total distion dore, ground aem . .
Unftr ...........................
hiidon, midud (me fallout)
Radiation, thermal (me thermal
radhtlw)
RuWon ucib, nuclear ............
Curie ..........................
Bnd ...........................
W v a biological effectiwne~
(RBE) .......................
RaIl, dunrp dpniflcrnca .........
Roan* .......................
Roentgen e q u i w h t munmrl (rn)
Roaltgen quivrlnrt phyrid (Rep).
ToW d m .. ..................
B.diorettve con-klbot
PAir
bunt .......................
BWSt in tnn*tioo r O M ......-...
Lrad-aurZoee burst .............. Underground burat ..............
Underwater bunt ...............
Watersurface bunt ..............
Radiogm~hI~k,r h, *pod W .. - .
Radiometer, t h e n ~dl i r t i o n meaaument ..................
Range gate stealer, radar jamming ...
Rarefaction waves detonstioa ....... Centered rnrefactioa w r m .......
Empa rpeed, complete and ineomplete
wrvcr ...................
Referencea
Collection and a mof d ab, kill mech.nh ...............
Current promama md WQ.
terminal brlliatiu .............
KiU mcch.niama ............................. . Twwt vulnenbility
Reflection Blut wave, air burst ......... ,. ..
Radiant expolure va JIIlt range ...
Bcm (nee radiation nnita, nudear)
Reputed pulrv pn* hlrpavQbtitu ...
Bsp~~terr,d u jrmmint
Ccmpolite ......................
Nohe pulv .....................
mdwl nuclear radiation (rcc
d:~!ion,n uclear)
RickaWm (ace b i d o p l l amaid
lwP.mWlcd,mfnpmcntrtioa
.................
R&t control rpnb
CS ayatema and muntliom ........
Daeription .....................
Roentgen (re0 r d a t h Uab,
nu*)
hntgmn equivrlmt
( w e rdkLion unit& audur)
Target illumhdon
Dmcriptioa ..................... u s Ekctranfc decrieu ............... U 6
Pyrotechnic devices .............. 2-46 Seuchlights .................... 2-06
Targeta, non-human ( w e biological
w n t s )
Terminal bbdliatiu Current programs ............... 1-3 History of ...................... 1-1
T h em1 and nuclear radiation ...... 4-91
Thermal pulse ..................... 4-98
Thermal radiation .............,2 49. 4-81 Attenuation ..................... 2 4 0
Damage effects .................. 2 4 1
Dbtribution .................... 2-40
Emhion ....................... 2-39 Mrrsurernent techniques .......... 4-96
Nuclear explosion pmduct ........ 2-30 PenonEcl vslnenbility ........... 3-1 Propagation, influence8 on ........ 4-107
Radiant expomre vr slant range .... C l O a Thermal pulse .................. 4-98
Thermal ncaling ................. 4-97 Thermal yield ................... 4-lirO
Time d i n g .................... 4-99
T h : d mling ................... 4-97 Thermal yield ..................... 4lOC
T q e waling ...................... 4-99
T&M (18 biological wen&)
Tnnsition zone burat ......... .4-118, 4-162 Trannponder. swept frequency ....... 2-52
Traveling charge guns, hypewelocity . 4411 Unumoml vehicle, vulnerability ..... 3-7
Uncontrolled fragmentn ............. 22
Underyround bunts Bam w m r adon ............... 4-65 Conventionul .................... 441 Nucleat ..................... 44,4 120
Undew&t 'r~lk'8ts
Convantionrl .................... 448
Nuclear ........................ 4 4 9
Peak overprennure ...............
Wave formation .................
Unitom hmge jammer, radar .....
Vaporific effects, &aped chugea .....
Vehicle, armored, vulnerability ......
Vehicl~,p round
Annored .......................
Armored artillery ...............
Amlored fighting ................
Armored infantry ...............
Unarmored .....................
Vulnerability ....................
Vehicle, unarmored, vulnerability ....
Velocity decay, fragment
leanurement techniquu ..........
Theory .........................
Velocity, fragment (ace fragment,
velocity)
Velocity gate ateder ...............
Velocity measurement. detonathn ...
Viruwn (ace biological agents)
Vulnerability
Aircraft ........................
Annored vehicle ................. Empiri-4 approvch .............. Cmund vebicle ..................
P e rmn d ...................................... U?unnorcd vehicle
VX chemical ugent
Dcscribed ................................. Syskms and munitiom
Water nhock
Description and uulynh ..........
Peak overprerrun, deep uademabr
b u n k ........................
Wave fornution, underwater bumb
&re urge ................................ W u i u m wave height
Surface wawl ..................
Wave fmza
Dyuunic pnurun ...............
Overpwaure ....................
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCIASSIFIED
h o e
Wave front shaping, detonation ...... 4-223
Wave perturbations
Blut ........................... 2-19
Dynamic prrvure ................ 2-21 Overpraum ................... 2-20
Wave shaping. detonation Geometric optics ................ 4-225
Introduction .................... 4-223 Wave front ahaping .............. A+ ' N'hitm phorphow ................. 2-88
Pwe
Wide band jmmhg, ndar lacthodr . . 2-48
Wire, notched, c01).M..L.d.. ........... ftagmentrtioll 4-178
Wound bpllutim, currcllt propr~11. .. 14
Yield ' I
T h e 1 4 ........................ 4-100 I
VI apparent enter depth ......... 4-40 -1
Vaapparent erntord'Metu....... 4 4 6 ;
Ys underwater crater diameter .... 4-68 I
UNCLASSIFIED