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USA +++SURVIVAL

*FM 3-05.70
Field Manual Headquarters
No. 3-05.70 Department of the Army
Washington, DC, 17 May 2002
SURVIVAL
Contents
Page
PREFACE...................................................................... vii
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 1-1
Survival Actions ........................................................... 1-1
Pattern for Survival ...................................................... 1-5
Chapter 2 PSYCHOLOGY OF SURVIVAL .................................. 2-1
A Look at Stress .......................................................... 2-2
Natural Reactions ........................................................ 2-6
Preparing Yourself ....................................................... 2-9
Chapter 3 SURVIVAL PLANNING AND SURVIVAL KITS.......... 3-1
Importance of Planning................................................ 3-2
Survival Kits ................................................................. 3-3
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Distribution authorized to U.S. Government
agencies and their contractors only to protect technical or operational
information from automatic dissemination under the International Exchange
Program or by other means. This determination was made on 5 December 2003.
Other requests for this document must be referred to Commander, United States
Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School, ATTN: AOJK-DTSF,
Fort Bragg, North Carolina 28310-5000.
DESTRUCTION NOTICE: Destroy by any method that must prevent disclosure
of contents or reconstruction of the document.
______________
* This publication supersedes FM 21-76, June 1992.
FM 3-05.70
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Page
Chapter 4 BASIC SURVIVAL MEDICINE....................................4-1
Requirements for Maintenance of Health ....................4-1
Medical Emergencies...................................................4-8
Lifesaving Steps...........................................................4-9
Bone and Joint Injury .................................................4-18
Bites and Stings .........................................................4-21
Wounds..................................................................... 4-27
Environmental Injuries ...............................................4-32
Herbal Medicines .......................................................4-35
Chapter 5 SHELTERS..................................................................5-1
Primary Shelter—Uniform............................................5-1
Shelter Site Selection...................................................5-1
Types of Shelters .........................................................5-3
Chapter 6 WATER PROCUREMENT ..........................................6-1
Water Sources .............................................................6-1
Still Construction ..........................................................6-8
Water Purification.......................................................6-13
Water Filtration Devices.............................................6-15
Chapter 7 FIRECRAFT.................................................................7-1
Basic Fire Principles ....................................................7-1
Site Selection and Preparation ....................................7-2
Fire Material Selection .................................................7-5
How to Build a Fire.......................................................7-6
How to Light a Fire.......................................................7-8
Chapter 8 FOOD PROCUREMENT .............................................8-1
Animals for Food..........................................................8-1
Traps and Snares ......................................................8-11
Killing Devices............................................................8-25
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Fishing Devices..........................................................8-27
Cooking and Storage of Fish and Game ...................8-35
Chapter 9 SURVIVAL USE OF PLANTS.....................................9-1
Edibility of Plants..........................................................9-1
Plants for Medicine ....................................................9-12
Miscellaneous Uses of Plants....................................9-16
Chapter 10 POISONOUS PLANTS..............................................10-1
How Plants Poison.....................................................10-1
All About Plants..........................................................10-2
Rules for Avoiding Poisonous Plants.........................10-2
Contact Dermatitis .....................................................10-3
Ingestion Poisoning....................................................10-4
Chapter 11 DANGEROUS ANIMALS..........................................11-1
Insects and Arachnids ...............................................11-2
Leeches .....................................................................11-4
Bats ............................................................................11-5
Venomous Snakes.....................................................11-5
Snake-Free Areas......................................................11-6
Dangerous Lizards.....................................................11-7
Dangers in Rivers ......................................................11-8
Dangers in Bays and Estuaries .................................11-9
Saltwater Dangers .....................................................11-9
Other Dangerous Sea Creatures.............................11-12
Chapter 12 FIELD-EXPEDIENT WEAPONS, TOOLS, AND
EQUIPMENT..............................................................12-1
Staffs ..........................................................................12-1
Clubs..........................................................................12-2
Edged Weapons ........................................................12-4
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Other Expedient Weapons.........................................12-8
Cordage and Lashing ..............................................12-10
Rucksack Construction ............................................12-12
Clothing and Insulation ............................................12-13
Cooking and Eating Utensils....................................12-14
Chapter 13 DESERT SURVIVAL .................................................13-1
Terrain........................................................................13-1
Environmental Factors ...............................................13-3
Need for Water...........................................................13-7
Heat Casualties........................................................13-10
Precautions ..............................................................13-11
Desert Hazards ........................................................13-12
Chapter 14 TROPICAL SURVIVAL .............................................14-1
Tropical Weather........................................................14-1
Jungle Types..............................................................14-2
Travel Through Jungle Areas ....................................14-6
Immediate Considerations .........................................14-7
Water Procurement....................................................14-7
Food...........................................................................14-9
Poisonous Plants .....................................................14-10
Chapter 15 COLD WEATHER SURVIVAL ..................................15-1
Cold Regions and Locations......................................15-1
Windchill.....................................................................15-2
Basic Principles of Cold Weather Survival ................15-4
Hygiene......................................................................15-6
Medical Aspects.........................................................15-7
Cold Injuries ...............................................................15-7
Shelters ....................................................................15-13
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Fire ...........................................................................15-17
Water........................................................................15-20
Food.........................................................................15-22
Travel .......................................................................15-25
Weather Signs .........................................................15-26
Chapter 16 SEA SURVIVAL ........................................................16-1
The Open Sea............................................................16-1
Seashores................................................................16-35
Chapter 17 EXPEDIENT WATER CROSSINGS..........................17-1
Rivers and Streams ...................................................17-1
Rapids........................................................................17-2
Rafts...........................................................................17-5
Flotation Devices .....................................................17-10
Other Water Obstacles ............................................17-12
Vegetation Obstacles...............................................17-12
Chapter 18 FIELD-EXPEDIENT DIRECTION FINDING ..............18-1
Using the Sun and Shadows .....................................18-1
Using the Moon..........................................................18-5
Using the Stars ..........................................................18-5
Making Improvised Compasses.................................18-8
Other Means of Determining Direction ......................18-8
Chapter 19 SIGNALING TECHNIQUES ......................................19-1
Application .................................................................19-1
Means for Signaling ...................................................19-2
Codes and Signals...................................................19-12
Aircraft Vectoring Procedures..................................19-16
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Chapter 20 SURVIVAL MOVEMENT IN HOSTILE AREAS........20-1
Phases of Planning ....................................................20-1
Execution ...................................................................20-4
Return to Friendly Control..........................................20-9
Chapter 21 CAMOUFLAGE .........................................................21-1
Personal Camouflage ................................................21-1
Methods of Stalking ...................................................21-5
Chapter 22 CONTACT WITH PEOPLE .......................................22-1
Contact With Local People ........................................22-1
Survival Behavior .......................................................22-2
Changes to Political Allegiance .................................22-3
Chapter 23 SURVIVAL IN MAN-MADE HAZARDS ....................23-1
The Nuclear Environment ..........................................23-1
Biological Environments...........................................23-17
Chemical Environments...........................................23-22
Appendix A SURVIVAL KITS......................................................... A-1
Appendix B EDIBLE AND MEDICINAL PLANTS ......................... B-1
Appendix C POISONOUS PLANTS............................................... C-1
Appendix D DANGEROUS INSECTS AND ARACHNIDS ............ D-1
Appendix E VENOMOUS SNAKES AND LIZARDS ..................... E-1
Appendix F DANGEROUS FISH AND MOLLUSKS ......................F-1
Appendix G ROPES AND KNOTS.................................................G-1
Appendix H CLOUDS: FORETELLERS OF WEATHER............... H-1
Appendix I EVASION PLAN OF ACTION FORMAT......................I-1
GLOSSARY.................................................... Glossary-1
BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................Bibliography-1
INDEX ................................................................... Index-1

Preface

As a soldier, you can be sent to any area of the world.
It may be in a temperate, tropical, arctic, or subarctic
region. You expect to have all your personal
equipment and your unit members with you wherever
you go. However, there is no guarantee it will be so.
You could find yourself alone in a remote area—
possibly enemy territory—with little or no personal
gear. This manual provides information and describes
basic techniques that will enable you to survive and
return alive should you find yourself in such a
situation.

If you are a trainer, use this information as a base on
which to build survival training. You know the areas
to which your unit is likely to deploy, the means by
which it will travel, and the territory through which it
will travel. Read what this manual says about
survival in those particular areas and find out all you
can about those areas. Read other books on survival.
Develop a survival-training program that will enable
your unit members to meet any survival situation
they may face. It can make the difference between life
and death.

The proponent of this publication is the United States
Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and
School (USAJFKSWCS). Submit comments and
recommended changes to Commander, USAJFKSWCS,
ATTN: AOJK-DT-SF, Fort Bragg, NC 28310-5000.

Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine
nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusively to men.


Introduction

This manual is based entirely on the keyword
SURVIVAL. The letters in this word can help
guide your actions in any survival situation.
Learn what each letter represents and practice
applying these guidelines when conducting
survival training. Remember the word
SURVIVAL.

SURVIVAL ACTIONS

The following paragraphs expand on the meaning of each
letter of the word survival. Study and remember what each letter
signifies because some day you may have to make the word work
for you.

S—SIZE UP THE SITUATION

If you are in a combat situation, find a place where you can
conceal yourself from the enemy. Remember, security takes
priority. Use your senses of hearing, smell, and sight to get a feel
for the battlespace. Determine if the enemy is attacking,
defending, or withdrawing. You will have to consider what is
developing on the battlespace when you make your survival plan.

Surroundings

Determine the pattern of the area. Get a feel for what is
going on around you. Every environment, whether forest, jungle,
or desert, has a rhythm or pattern. This tempo includes animal
and bird noises and movements and insect sounds. It may also
include enemy traffic and civilian movements.

Physical Condition

The pressure of the battle you were in or the trauma of
being in a survival situation may have caused you to overlook
wounds you received. Check your wounds and give yourself first
aid. Take care to prevent further bodily harm. For instance, in
any climate, drink plenty of water to prevent dehydration. If you


are in a cold or wet climate, put on additional clothing to prevent
hypothermia.

Equipment

Perhaps in the heat of battle, you lost or damaged some of
your equipment. Check to see what equipment you have and what
condition it is in.

Now that you have sized up your situation, surroundings,
physical condition, and equipment, you are ready to make your
survival plan. In doing so, keep in mind your basic physical
needs—water, food, and shelter.

U—USE ALL YOUR SENSES, UNDUE HASTE MAKES WASTE

You may make a wrong move when you react quickly without
thinking or planning. That move may result in your capture or
death. Don’t move just for the sake of taking action. Consider all
aspects of your situation before you make a decision and a move. If
you act in haste, you may forget or lose some of your equipment. In
your haste you may also become disoriented so that you don’t know
which way to go. Plan your moves. Be ready to move out quickly
without endangering yourself if the enemy is near you. Use all your
senses to evaluate the situation. Note sounds and smells. Be
sensitive to temperature changes. Always be observant.

R—REMEMBER WHERE YOU ARE

Spot your location on your map and relate it to the
surrounding terrain. This basic principle is one that you must
always follow. If there are other persons with you, make sure
they also know their location. Always know who in your group,
vehicle, or aircraft has a map and compass. If that person is
killed, you will have to get the map and compass from him. Pay
close attention to where you are and where you are going. Do not
rely on others in the group to keep track of the route. Constantly
orient yourself. Always try to determine, as a minimum, how
your location relates to the location of—

Enemy units and controlled areas.

Friendly units and controlled areas.

Local water sources (especially important in the desert).

Areas that will provide good cover and concealment.


This information will allow you to make intelligent
decisions when you are in a survival and evasion situation.

V—VANQUISH FEAR AND PANIC

The greatest enemies in a combat survival and evasion
situation are fear and panic. If uncontrolled, they can destroy
your ability to make an intelligent decision. They may cause you
to react to your feelings and imagination rather than to your
situation. These emotions can drain your energy and thereby
cause other negative emotions. Previous survival and evasion
training and self-confidence will enable you to vanquish fear and
panic.

I—IMPROVISE

In the United States (U.S.), we have items available for all
our needs. Many of these items are cheap to replace when
damaged. Our easy-come, easy-go, easy-to-replace culture makes
it unnecessary for us to improvise. This inexperience in “making
do” can be an enemy in a survival situation. Learn to improvise.
Take a tool designed for a specific purpose and see how many
other uses you can make of it.

Learn to use natural objects around you for different needs.
An example is using a rock for a hammer. No matter how
complete a survival kit you have with you, it will run out or wear
out after a while. Your imagination must take over when your kit
wears out.

V—VALUE LIVING

All of us were born kicking and fighting to live, but we have
become used to the soft life. We have become creatures of comfort.
We dislike inconveniences and discomforts. What happens when
we are faced with a survival situation with its stresses,
inconveniences, and discomforts? This is when the will to live—
placing a high value on living—is vital. The experience and
knowledge you have gained through life and your Army training
will have a bearing on your will to live. Stubbornness, a refusal to
give in to problems and obstacles that face you, will give you the
mental and physical strength to endure.


A—ACT LIKE THE NATIVES

The natives and animals of a region have adapted to their
environment. To get a feel of the area, watch how the people go
about their daily routine. When and what do they eat? When,
where, and how do they get their food? When and where do they
go for water? What time do they usually go to bed and get up?
These actions are important to you when you are trying to avoid
capture.

Animal life in the area can also give you clues on how to
survive. Animals also require food, water, and shelter. By
watching them, you can find sources of water and food.

Keep in mind that the reaction of animals can reveal your
presence to the enemy.

If in a friendly area, one way you can gain rapport with the
natives is to show interest in their tools and how they get food
and water. By studying the people, you learn to respect them, you
often make valuable friends, and, most important, you learn how
to adapt to their environment and increase your chances of
survival.

L—LIVE BY YOUR WITS, BUT FOR NOW, LEARN BASIC
SKILLS

Without training in basic skills for surviving and evading
on the battlespace, your chances of living through a combat
survival and evasion situation are slight.

Learn these basic skills now—not when you are headed for
or are in the battle. How you decide to equip yourself before
deployment will affect whether or not you survive. You need to
know about the environment to which you are going, and you must
practice basic skills geared to that environment. For instance, if
you are going to a desert, you need to know how to get water.


Practice basic survival skills during all training programs
and exercises. Survival training reduces fear of the unknown and
gives you self-confidence. It teaches you to live by your wits.

PATTERN FOR SURVIVAL

Develop a survival pattern that lets you beat the enemies of
survival. This survival pattern must include food, water, shelter,
fire, first aid, and signals placed in order of importance. For
example, in a cold environment, you would need a fire to get
warm; a shelter to protect you from the cold, wind, and rain or
snow; traps or snares to get food; a means to signal friendly
aircraft; and first aid to maintain health. If you are injured, first
aid has top priority no matter what climate you are in.

Change your survival pattern to meet your immediate
physical needs as the environment changes. As you read the rest
of this manual, keep in mind the keyword SURVIVAL, what each
letter signifies (Figure 1-1), and the need for a survival pattern.

Figure 1-1. Guidelines for Survival


Psychology of Survival

It takes much more than the knowledge and
skills to build shelters, get food, make fires, and
travel without the aid of standard navigational
devices to live successfully through a survival
situation. Some people with little or no survival
training have managed to survive lifethreatening
circumstances. Some people with
survival training have not used their skills and
died. A key ingredient in any survival situation
is the mental attitude of the individual involved.
Having survival skills is important; having the
will to survive is essential. Without a desire to
survive, acquired skills serve little purpose and
invaluable knowledge goes to waste.

There is a psychology to survival. You will face
many stressors in a survival environment that
ultimately will affect your mind. These stressors
can produce thoughts and emotions that, if
poorly understood, can transform a confident,
well-trained person into an indecisive, ineffective
individual with questionable ability to survive.
Thus, you must be aware of and be able to
recognize those stressors commonly associated
with survival. It is also imperative that you be
aware of your reactions to the wide variety of
stressors associated with survival. This chapter
identifies and explains the nature of stress, the
stressors of survival, and those internal reactions
that you will naturally experience when faced
with the stressors of a real-world survival
situation. The knowledge you gain from this
chapter and the remainder of this manual, will
prepare you to come through the toughest times
alive.


A LOOK AT STRESS

Before we can understand our psychological reactions in a
survival setting, it is helpful to first know a little bit about stress
and its effects. Stress is not a disease that you cure and eliminate.
Instead, it is a condition we all experience. Stress can be
described as our reaction to pressure. It is the name given to the
experience we have as we physically, mentally, emotionally, and
spiritually respond to life’s tensions.

NEED FOR STRESS

We need stress because it has many positive benefits. Stress
provides us with challenges; it gives us chances to learn about our
values and strengths. Stress can show our ability to handle
pressure without breaking. It tests our adaptability and
flexibility, and can stimulate us to do our best. Because we
usually do not consider unimportant events stressful, stress can
also be an excellent indicator of the significance we attach to an
event—in other words, it highlights what is important to us.

We need to have some stress in our lives, but too much of
anything can be bad. The goal is to have stress, but not an excess
of it. Too much stress can take its toll on people and
organizations. Too much stress leads to distress. Distress causes
an uncomfortable tension that we try to escape or, preferably,
avoid. Listed below are a few of the common signs of distress that
you may encounter when faced with too much stress:

Difficulty making decisions.

Angry outbursts.

Forgetfulness.

Low energy level.

Constant worrying.

Propensity for mistakes.

Thoughts about death or suicide.

Trouble getting along with others.

Withdrawing from others.

Hiding from responsibilities.

Carelessness.


As you can see, stress can be constructive or destructive. It
can encourage or discourage, move us along or stop us dead in our
tracks, and make life meaningful or seemingly meaningless.
Stress can inspire you to operate successfully and perform at your
maximum efficiency in a survival situation. It can also cause you
to panic and forget all your training. Your key to survival is your
ability to manage the inevitable stresses you will encounter. The
person that survives is one who works with his stresses instead of
letting his stresses work on him.

SURVIVAL STRESSORS

Any event can lead to stress and, as everyone has
experienced, events don’t always come one at a time. Often,
stressful events occur simultaneously. These events are not
stress, but they produce it and are called “stressors.” Stressors
are the obvious cause while stress is the response. Once the body
recognizes the presence of a stressor, it then begins to act to
protect itself.

In response to a stressor, the body prepares either to “fight
or flee.” This preparation involves an internal SOS sent
throughout the body. As the body responds to this SOS, the
following actions take place:

The body releases stored fuels (sugar and fats) to provide
quick energy.

Breathing rate increases to supply more oxygen to the
blood.

Muscle tension increases to prepare for action.

Blood clotting mechanisms are activated to reduce bleeding
from cuts.

Senses become more acute (hearing becomes more
sensitive, pupils dilate, smell becomes sharper) so that you
are more aware of your surroundings.

Heart rate and blood pressure rise to provide more blood to
the muscles.

This protective posture lets you cope with potential dangers.
However, you cannot maintain this level of alertness indefinitely.

Stressors are not courteous; one stressor does not leave
because another one arrives. Stressors add up. The cumulative


effect of minor stressors can be a major distress if they all happen
too close together. As the body’s resistance to stress wears down
and the sources of stress continue (or increase), eventually a state
of exhaustion arrives. At this point, the ability to resist stress or
use it in a positive way gives out and signs of distress appear.
Anticipating stressors and developing strategies to cope with
them are two ingredients in the effective management of stress.
Therefore, it is essential that you be aware of the types of
stressors that you will encounter. The following paragraphs
explain a few of these.

Injury, Illness, or Death

Injury, illness, and death are real possibilities that you
have to face. Perhaps nothing is more stressful than being alone
in an unfamiliar environment where you could die from hostile
action, an accident, or from eating something lethal. Illness and
injury can also add to stress by limiting your ability to maneuver,
get food and drink, find shelter, and defend yourself. Even if
illness and injury don’t lead to death, they add to stress through
the pain and discomfort they generate. It is only by controlling
the stress associated with the vulnerability to injury, illness, and
death that you can have the courage to take the risks associated
with survival tasks.

Uncertainty and Lack of Control

Some people have trouble operating in settings where
everything is not clear-cut. The only guarantee in a survival
situation is that nothing is guaranteed. It can be extremely
stressful operating on limited information in a setting where you
have limited control of your surroundings. This uncertainty and
lack of control also add to the stress of being ill, injured, or killed.

Environment

Even under the most ideal circumstances, nature is quite
formidable. In survival, you will have to contend with the
stressors of weather, terrain, and the variety of creatures
inhabiting an area. Heat, cold, rain, winds, mountains, swamps,
deserts, insects, dangerous reptiles, and other animals are just a
few of the challenges that you will encounter while working to
survive. Depending on how you handle the stress of your
environment, your surroundings can be either a source of food


and protection or can be a cause of extreme discomfort leading to
injury, illness, or death.

Hunger and Thirst

Without food and water you will weaken and eventually die.
Thus, getting and preserving food and water takes on increasing
importance as the length of time in a survival setting increases.
Foraging can also be a big source of stress since you are used to
having your provisions issued.

Fatigue

Forcing yourself to continue surviving is not easy as you
grow more tired. It is possible to become so fatigued that the act
of just staying awake is stressful in itself.

Isolation

There are some advantages to facing adversity with others.
As a soldier you learn individual skills, but you train to function
as part of a team. Although we complain about higher
headquarters, we become used to the information and guidance it
provides, especially during times of confusion. Being in contact
with others also provides a greater sense of security and a feeling
someone is available to help if problems occur. A significant
stressor in survival situations is that often you have to rely solely
on your own resources.

The survival stressors mentioned in this section are by no
means the only ones you may face. Remember, what is stressful
to one person may not be stressful to another. Your experiences,
training, personal outlook on life, physical and mental
conditioning, and level of self-confidence contribute to what you
will find stressful in a survival environment. The object is not to
avoid stress, but rather to manage the stressors of survival and
make them work for you.

We now have a general knowledge of stress and the
stressors common to survival. The next step is to examine your
reactions to the stressors you may face.


NATURAL REACTIONS

Man has been able to survive many shifts in his
environment throughout the centuries. His ability to adapt
physically and mentally to a changing world kept him alive while
other species around him gradually died off. The same survival
mechanisms that kept our forefathers alive can help keep you
alive as well! However, the survival mechanisms that can help
you can also work against you if you do not understand and
anticipate their presence.

It is not surprising that the average person will have some
psychological reactions in a survival situation. The following
paragraphs explain some of the major internal reactions that you
or anyone with you might experience with the previously stated
survival stressors.

FEAR

Fear is our emotional response to dangerous circumstances
that we believe have the potential to cause death, injury, or
illness. This harm is not just limited to physical damage; the
threat to your emotional and mental well-being can generate fear
as well. If you are trying to survive, fear can have a positive
function if it encourages you to be cautious in situations where
recklessness could result in injury. Unfortunately, fear can also
immobilize you. It can cause you to become so frightened that you
fail to perform activities essential for survival. Most people will
have some degree of fear when placed in unfamiliar surroundings
under adverse conditions. There is no shame in this! You must
train yourself not to be overcome by your fears. Ideally, through
realistic training, you can acquire the knowledge and skills
needed to increase your confidence and thereby manage your
fears.

ANXIETY

Associated with fear is anxiety. Because it is natural for you
to be afraid, it is also natural for you to experience anxiety.
Anxiety can be an uneasy, apprehensive feeling you get when
faced with dangerous situations (physical, mental, and
emotional). When used in a healthy way, anxiety can urge you to
act to end, or at least master, the dangers that threaten your


existence. If you were never anxious, there would be little
motivation to make changes in your life. In a survival setting you
can reduce your anxiety by performing those tasks that will
ensure you come through the ordeal alive. As you reduce your
anxiety, you also bring under control the source of that anxiety—
your fears. In this form, anxiety is good; however, anxiety can
also have a devastating impact. Anxiety can overwhelm you to the
point where you become easily confused and have difficulty
thinking. Once this happens, it will become increasingly difficult
for you to make good judgments and sound decisions. To survive,
you must learn techniques to calm your anxieties and keep them
in the range where they help, not hurt.

ANGER AND FRUSTRATION

Frustration arises when you are continually thwarted in
your attempts to reach a goal. The goal of survival is to stay alive
until you can reach help or until help can reach you. To achieve
this goal, you must complete some tasks with minimal resources.
It is inevitable, in trying to do these tasks, that something will go
wrong; that something will happen beyond your control; and that
with your life at stake, every mistake is magnified in terms of its
importance. Thus, eventually, you will have to cope with
frustration when a few of your plans run into trouble. One
outgrowth of this frustration is anger. There are many events in a
survival situation that can frustrate or anger you. Getting lost,
damaged or forgotten equipment, the weather, inhospitable
terrain, enemy patrols, and physical limitations are just a few
sources of frustration and anger. Frustration and anger generate
impulsive reactions, irrational behavior, poorly thought-out
decisions, and, in some instances, an “I quit” attitude (people
sometimes avoid doing something they can’t master). If you can
harness and properly channel the emotional intensity associated
with anger and frustration, you can productively act as you
answer the challenges of survival. If you do not properly focus
your angry feelings, you can waste much energy in activities that
do little to further either your chances of survival or the chances
of those around you.

DEPRESSION

You would be a rare person indeed if you did not get sad, at
least momentarily, when faced with the hardships of survival. As


this sadness deepens, it becomes “depression.” Depression is
closely linked with frustration and anger. Frustration will cause
you to become increasingly angry as you fail to reach your goals.
If the anger does not help you succeed, then the frustration level
goes even higher. A destructive cycle between anger and
frustration will continue until you become worn down—
physically, emotionally, and mentally. When you reach this point,
you start to give up, and your focus shifts from “What can I do” to
“There is nothing I can do.” Depression is an expression of this
hopeless, helpless feeling. There is nothing wrong with being sad
as you temporarily think about your loved ones and remember
what life is like back in “civilization” or “the world.” Such
thoughts, in fact, can give you the desire to try harder and live
one more day. On the other hand, if you allow yourself to sink
into a depressed state, then it can sap all your energy and, more
important, your will to survive. It is imperative that you resist
succumbing to depression.

LONELINESS AND BOREDOM

Man is a social animal. Human beings enjoy the company of
others. Very few people want to be alone all the time! There is a
distinct chance of isolation in a survival setting. Isolation is not
bad. Loneliness and boredom can bring to the surface qualities
you thought only others had. The extent of your imagination and
creativity may surprise you. When required to do so, you may
discover some hidden talents and abilities. Most of all, you may
tap into a reservoir of inner strength and fortitude you never
knew you had. Conversely, loneliness and boredom can be
another source of depression. If you are surviving alone, or with
others, you must find ways to keep your mind productively
occupied. Additionally, you must develop a degree of selfsufficiency.
You must have faith in your capability to “go it alone.”

GUILT

The circumstances leading to your being in a survival
setting are sometimes dramatic and tragic. It may be the result of
an accident or military mission where there was a loss of life.
Perhaps you were the only survivor or one of a few survivors.
While naturally relieved to be alive, you simultaneously may be
mourning the deaths of others who were less fortunate. It is not
uncommon for survivors to feel guilty about being spared from


death while others were not. This feeling, when used in a positive
way, has encouraged people to try harder to survive with the
belief they were allowed to live for some greater purpose in life.
Sometimes, survivors tried to stay alive so that they could carry
on the work of those killed. Whatever reason you give yourself, do
not let guilt feelings prevent you from living. The living who
abandon their chance to survive accomplish nothing. Such an act
would be the greatest tragedy.

PREPARING YOURSELF

Your mission in a survival situation is to stay alive. The
assortment of thoughts and emotions you will experience in a
survival situation can work for you, or they can work to your
downfall. Fear, anxiety, anger, frustration, guilt, depression, and
loneliness are all possible reactions to the many stressors
common to survival. These reactions, when controlled in a
healthy way, help to increase your likelihood of surviving. They
prompt you to pay more attention in training, to fight back when
scared, to take actions that ensure sustenance and security, to
keep faith with your fellow team members, and to strive against
large odds. When you cannot control these reactions in a healthy
way, they can bring you to a standstill. Instead of rallying your
internal resources, you listen to your internal fears. These fears
will cause you to experience psychological defeat long before you
physically succumb. Remember, survival is natural to everyone;
being unexpectedly thrust into the life-or-death struggle of
survival is not. Do not be afraid of your “natural reactions to this
unnatural situation.” Prepare yourself to rule over these reactions
so they serve your ultimate interest—staying alive with honor
and dignity.

Being prepared involves knowing that your reactions in a
survival setting are productive, not destructive. The challenge of
survival has produced countless examples of heroism, courage,
and self-sacrifice. These are the qualities a survival situation can
bring out in you if you have prepared yourself. Below are a few
tips to help prepare yourself psychologically for survival. Through
studying this manual and attending survival training you can
develop the “survival attitude.”


KNOW YOURSELF

You should take the time through training, family, and
friends to discover who you are on the inside. Strengthen your
stronger qualities and develop the areas that you know are
necessary to survive.

ANTICIPATE FEARS

Don’t pretend that you will have no fears. Begin thinking
about what would frighten you the most if forced to survive alone.
Train in those areas of concern to you. The goal is not to eliminate
the fear, but to build confidence in your ability to function despite
your fears.

BE REALISTIC

Don’t be afraid to make an honest appraisal of situations.
See circumstances as they are, not as you want them to be. Keep
your hopes and expectations within the estimate of the situation.
When you go into a survival setting with unrealistic expectations,
you may be laying the groundwork for bitter disappointment.
Follow the adage, “Hope for the best, prepare for the worst.” It is
much easier to adjust to pleasant surprises about your
unexpected good fortunes than to be upset by your unexpected
harsh circumstances.

ADOPT A POSITIVE ATTITUDE

Learn to see the potential good in everything. Looking for
the good not only boosts morale, it also is excellent for exercising
your imagination and creativity.

REMIND YOURSELF WHAT IS AT STAKE

Failure to prepare yourself psychologically to cope with
survival leads to reactions such as depression, carelessness,
inattention, loss of confidence, poor decision making, and giving
up before the body gives in. Remember that your life and the lives
of others who depend on you are at stake.

TRAIN

Through military training and life experiences, begin today
to prepare yourself to cope with the rigors of survival.
Demonstrating your skills in training will give you the confidence


to call upon them should the need arise. Remember, the more
realistic the training, the less overwhelming an actual survival
setting will be.

LEARN STRESS MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

People under stress have a potential to panic if they are not
well-trained and not prepared psychologically to face whatever
the circumstances may be. While you often cannot control the
survival circumstances in which you find yourself, it is within
your ability to control your response to those circumstances.
Learning stress management techniques can significantly
enhance your capability to remain calm and focused as you work
to keep yourself and others alive. A few good techniques to
develop include relaxation skills, time management skills,
assertiveness skills, and cognitive restructuring skills (the ability
to control how you view a situation). Remember, “the will to
survive” can also be considered “the refusal to give up.”


 Survival Planning and Survival Kits

A survival plan is dependent on three separate
but intertwined parts to be successful: planning,
preparation, and practice.

Survival planning is nothing more than realizing
something could happen that would put you in a
survival situation and, with that in mind, taking
steps to increase your chances of survival. It can
happen to anyone, anywhere, anytime, so
remember: failure to plan is a plan to fail.
Plans are based on evasion and recovery (E&R)
considerations and the availability of resupply or
emergency bundles. You must take into
consideration the mission duration and the
distance to friendly lines; the environment, to
include the terrain and weather and possible
changes in the weather during a protracted
mission; and the platform you will be operating
with, such as an aircraft, a multipurpose vehicle,
or perhaps just a rucksack. Planning also entails
looking at those E&R routes and knowing by
memory the major geographical features in case
your map and compass are lost. You can use
classified and unclassified sources such as the
Internet, encyclopedias, and geographic
magazines to assist you in planning.

Preparation means preparing yourself and your
survival kit for those contingencies that you have
in your plan. A plan without any preparation is
just a piece of paper. It will not keep you alive.
Prepare yourself by making sure your
immunizations and dental work are up-to-date.
Prepare your uniform by having the newest
uniform for emergencies. It will have the most


infrared-defeating capabilities possible. You can
have signal devices and snare wire sewn into it
ahead of time. Break in your boots and make
sure that the boots have good soles and waterrepellent
properties. Study the area, climate,
terrain, and indigenous methods of food and
water procurement. You should continuously
assess data, even after the plan is made, to
update the plan as necessary and give you the
greatest possible chance of survival. Another
example of preparation is finding the emergency
exits on an aircraft when you board it for a flight.
Practice those things that you have planned with
the items in your survival kit. Checking ensures
that items work and that you know how to use
them. Build a fire in the rain so you know that
when it is critical to get warm, you can do it.
Review the medical items in your kit and have
instructions printed on their use so that even in
times of stress, you will not make lifethreatening
errors.

IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING

Detailed prior planning is essential in potential survival
situations. Including survival considerations in mission planning
will enhance your chances of survival if an emergency occurs. For
example, if your job requires that you work in a small, enclosed
area that limits what you can carry on your person, plan where
you can put your rucksack or your load-bearing equipment (LBE).
Put it where it will not prevent you from getting out of the area
quickly, yet where it is readily accessible.

One important aspect of prior planning is preventive
medicine. Ensuring that you have no dental problems and that
your immunizations are current will help you avoid potential
dental or health problems. Some dental problems can progress to
the point that you may not be able to eat enough to survive.
Failure to keep your shots current may mean your body is not
immune to diseases that are prevalent in the area.


Preparing and carrying a survival kit is as important as the
considerations mentioned above. All Army aircraft have survival
kits on board for the type of area over which they will fly. There
are kits for over-water, hot climate, and cold climate survival.
Each crewmember will also be wearing an aviator survival vest
(Appendix A describes these survival kits). Know the location of
these kits on the aircraft and what they contain in case of crash
or ditching. There are also soldier kits for tropical and temperate
survival. These kits are expensive and not always available to
every soldier. However, if you know what these kits contain, and
on what basis they are built, you will be able to plan and to
prepare your own survival kit that may be better suited to you
than an off-the-shelf one.

Even the smallest survival kit, if properly prepared, is
invaluable when faced with a survival problem. However, before
making your survival kit, consider your unit’s mission, the
operational environment, and the equipment and vehicles
assigned to your unit.

SURVIVAL KITS

The environment is the key to the types of items you will
need in your survival kit. How much equipment you put in your
kit depends on how you will carry the kit. A kit carried on your
body will have to be smaller than one carried in a vehicle. Always
layer your survival kit—body, load-bearing vest or equipment,
and platform (rucksack, vehicle, or aircraft). Keep the most
important items on your body. For example, your map and
compass should always be on your body, as should your basic lifesustaining
items (knife, lighter). Carry less important items on
your LBE. Place bulky items in the rucksack.

In preparing your survival kit, select items that are
multipurpose, compact, lightweight, durable, and most
importantly, functional. An item is not good if it looks great but
doesn’t do what it was designed for. Items should complement
each other from layer to layer. A signal mirror in your pocket can
be backed up by pen flares in your LBE and a signal panel in your
rucksack. A lighter in your uniform can be augmented by a
magnesium bar in your LBE and additional dry tinder in your
rucksack.


Your survival kit need not be elaborate. You need only
functional items that will meet your needs and a case to hold the
items. For the case, you might want to use a bandage box, soap
dish, tobacco tin, first-aid case, ammunition pouch, or another
suitable case. This case should be—

Water-repellent or waterproof.

Easy to carry or attach to your body.

Suitable to accept various-sized components.

Durable.

Your survival kit should be broken down into the following
categories:

Water.

Fire.

Shelter.

Food.

Medical.

Signal.

Miscellaneous.

Each category should contain items that allow you to
sustain your basic needs. For example, water—you should have
items that allow you to scoop up, draw up, soak up, or suck up
water; something to gather rainwater, condensation, or
perspiration; something to transport water; and something to
purify or filter water. Some examples of each category are as
follows:

Water—purification tablets, non-lubricated condoms for
carrying water, bleach, povidone-iodine drops, cravats,
sponges, small plastic or rubber tubing, collapsible
canteens or water bags.

Fire—lighter, metal match, waterproof matches,
magnesium bar, candle, magnifying lens.

Shelter—550 parachute cord, large knife, machete or
hatchet, poncho, space blanket, hammock, mosquito net,
wire saw.


Food—knife, snare wire, fishhooks, fish and snare line,
bouillon cubes or soup packets, high-energy food bars,
granola bars, gill or yeti net, aluminum foil, freezer bags.

Medical—oxytetracycline tablets (to treat diarrhea or
infection), surgical blades or surgical preparation knife,
butterfly sutures, lip balm, safety pins, sutures,
antidiarrheal medication (imodium), antimalarial
medication (doxycycline), broad-spectrum antibiotics
(rocephin and zithromax) and broad spectrum topical
ophthalmic (eye) antibiotic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory
(ibuprofen), petrolatum gauze, and soap. Medical items
may make up approximately 50 percent of your survival
kit.

Signal—signaling mirror, strobe, pen flares, whistle, U.S.
flag, pilot scarf or other bright orange silk scarf, glint tape,
flashlight, laser pointer, solar blanket.

Miscellaneous—wrist compass, needle and thread, money,
extra eyeglasses, knife sharpener, cork, camouflage stick,
and survival manual.

Include a weapon only if the situation so dictates.
Ambassadors and theater commanders may prohibit weapons even
in extreme circumstances. Read and practice the survival
techniques in this manual and apply these basic concepts to those
you read about in other civilian publications. Consider your
mission and the environment in which you will operate. Then
prepare your survival kit with items that are durable,
multipurpose, and lightweight. Imagination may be the largest
part of your kit. It can replace many of the items in a kit.
Combined with the will to live, it can mean the difference between
surviving to return home with honor or not returning at all.


Basic Survival Medicine

Foremost among the many problems that can
compromise your survival ability are medical
problems resulting from unplanned events, such
as a forced landing or crash, extreme climates,
ground combat, evasion, and illnesses contracted
in captivity.

Many evaders and survivors have reported
difficulty in treating injuries and illness due to
the lack of training and medical supplies. For
some, this led to capture or surrender.

Survivors have related feelings of apathy and
helplessness because they could not treat
themselves in this environment. The ability to
treat yourself increases your morale and aids in
your survival and eventual return to friendly
forces.

One man with a fair amount of basic medical
knowledge can make a difference in the lives of
many. Without qualified medical personnel
available, it is you who must know what to do to
stay alive.

REQUIREMENTS FOR
MAINTENANCE OF HEALTH

To survive, you need water and food. You must also have
and apply high personal hygiene standards.

WATER

Your body loses water through normal body processes
(sweating, urinating, and defecating). During average daily
exertion when the atmospheric temperature is 20 degrees Celsius
(C) (68 degrees Fahrenheit [F]), the average adult loses and
therefore requires 2 to 3 liters of water daily. Other factors, such


as heat exposure, cold exposure, intense activity, high altitude,
burns, or illness, can cause your body to lose more water. You
must replace this water.

Dehydration results from inadequate replacement of lost
body fluids. It decreases your efficiency and, if you are injured, it
increases your susceptibility to severe shock. Consider the
following results of body fluid loss:

A 5-percent loss results in thirst, irritability, nausea, and
weakness.

A 10-percent loss results in dizziness, headache, inability
to walk, and a tingling sensation in the limbs.

A 15-percent loss results in dim vision, painful urination,
swollen tongue, deafness, and a numb feeling in the skin.

A loss greater than 15 percent may result in death.

The most common signs and symptoms of dehydration are—

Dark urine with a very strong odor.

Low urine output.

Dark, sunken eyes.

Fatigue.

Emotional instability.

Loss of skin elasticity.

Delayed capillary refill in fingernail beds.

Trench line down center of tongue.

Thirst. (Last on the list because you are already 2-percent
dehydrated by the time you crave fluids.)

You should replace the water as you lose it. Trying to make
up a deficit is difficult in a survival situation, and thirst is not a
sign of how much water you need.

Most people cannot comfortably drink more than 1 liter of
water at a time. So, even when not thirsty, drink small amounts
of water at regular intervals each hour to prevent dehydration.

If you are under physical and mental stress or subject to
severe conditions, increase your water intake. Drink enough
liquids to maintain a urine output of at least 0.5 liters every 24
hours.


In any situation where food intake is low, drink 6 to 8 liters
of water per day. In an extreme climate, especially an arid one,
the average person can lose 2.5 to 3.5 liters of water per hour. In
this type of climate, you should drink 8 to 12 ounces of water
every 30 minutes. It is better to regulate water loss through work
or rest cycles because overhydration can occur if water intake
exceed 1 1/2 quarts per hour. Overhydration can cause low serum
sodium levels resulting in cerebral and pulmonary edema, which
can lead to death.

With the loss of water there is also a loss of electrolytes
(body salts). The average diet can usually keep up with these
losses but in an extreme situation or illness, additional sources
need to be provided. You should maintain an intake of
carbohydrates and other necessary electrolytes.

Of all the physical problems encountered in a survival
situation, the loss of water is the most preventable. The following
are basic guidelines for the prevention of dehydration:

Always drink water when eating. Water is used and
consumed as a part of the digestion process and can lead to
dehydration.

Acclimatize. The body performs more efficiently in extreme
conditions when acclimatized.

Conserve sweat, not water. Limit sweat-producing activities
but drink water.

Ration water. Until you find a suitable source, ration your
sweat, not your water. Limit activity and heat gain or loss.

You can estimate fluid loss by several means. A field
dressing holds about 0.25 liters (1/4 canteen) of fluid. A soaked
T-shirt holds 0.5 to 0.75 liters.

You can also use the pulse and breathing rate to estimate
fluid loss. Use the following as a guide:

With a 0.75-liter loss the wrist pulse rate will be under 100
beats per minute and the breathing rate 12 to 20 breaths
per minute.

With a 0.75- to 1.5-liter loss the pulse rate will be 100 to
120 beats per minute and 20 to 30 breaths per minute.


With a 1.5- to 2-liter loss the pulse rate will be 120 to 140
beats per minute and 30 to 40 breaths per minute. Vital
signs above these rates require more advanced care.

FOOD

Although you can live several weeks without food, you need
an adequate amount to stay healthy. Without food your mental
and physical capabilities will deteriorate rapidly and you will
become weak. Food provides energy and replenishes the
substances that your body burns. Food provides vitamins,
minerals, salts, and other elements essential to good health.
Possibly more important, it helps morale.

The three basic sources of food are plants, animals
(including fish), and issued rations. In varying degrees, both
provide the calories, carbohydrates, fats, and proteins needed for
normal daily body functions. You should use rations to augment
plant and animal foods, which will extend and help maintain a
balanced diet.

Calories are a measure of heat and potential energy. The
average person needs 2,000 calories per day to function at a
minimum level. An adequate amount of carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins without an adequate caloric intake will lead to starvation
and cannibalism of the body’s own tissue for energy.

Plants

Plant foods provide carbohydrates—the main source of
energy. Many plants provide enough protein to keep the body at
normal efficiency. Although plants may not provide a balanced
diet, they will sustain you even in the arctic, where meat’s heatproducing
qualities are normally essential. Many plant foods such
as nuts and seeds will give you enough protein and oils for normal
efficiency. Roots, green vegetables, and plant foods containing
natural sugar will provide calories and carbohydrates that give
the body natural energy.

The food value of plants becomes more and more important
if you are eluding the enemy or if you are in an area where
wildlife is scarce. For instance—

You can dry plants by wind, air, sun, or fire. This retards
spoilage so that you can store or carry the plant food with
you to use when needed.


You can obtain plants more easily and more quietly than
meat. This is extremely important when the enemy is near.

Animals

Meat is more nourishing than plant food. In fact, it may
even be more readily available in some places. However, to get
meat, you need to know the habits of and how to capture the
various wildlife.

To satisfy your immediate food needs, first seek the more
abundant and more easily obtained wildlife, such as insects,
crustaceans, mollusks, fish, and reptiles. These can satisfy your
immediate hunger while you are preparing traps and snares for
larger game.

PERSONAL HYGIENE

In any situation, cleanliness is an important factor in
preventing infection and disease. It becomes even more important
in a survival situation. Poor hygiene can reduce your chances of
survival.

A daily shower with hot water and soap is ideal, but you can
stay clean without this luxury. Use a cloth and soapy water to
wash yourself. Pay special attention to the feet, armpits, crotch,
hands, and hair as these are prime areas for infestation and
infection. If water is scarce, take an “air” bath. Remove as much
of your clothing as practical and expose your body to the sun and
air for at least 1 hour. Be careful not to sunburn.

If you don’t have soap, use ashes or sand, or make soap
from animal fat and wood ashes if your situation allows. To make
soap—

Extract grease from animal fat by cutting the fat into
small pieces and cooking it in a pot.

Add enough water to the pot to keep the fat from sticking
as it cooks.

Cook the fat slowly, stirring frequently.

After the fat is rendered, pour the grease into a container
to harden.

Place ashes in a container with a spout near the bottom.


Pour water over the ashes and collect the liquid that drips
out of the spout in a separate container. This liquid is the
potash or lye.

Another way to get the lye is to pour the slurry (the mixture
of ashes and water) through a straining cloth.

In a cooking pot, mix two parts grease to one part lye.

Place this mixture over a fire and boil it until it thickens.

After the mixture (the soap) cools, you can use it in the semiliquid
state directly from the pot. You can also pour it into a pan, allow
it to harden, and cut it into bars for later use.

Keep Your Hands Clean

Germs on your hands can infect food and wounds. Wash
your hands after handling any material that is likely to carry
germs, after urinating or defecating, after caring for the sick, and
before handling any food, food utensils, or drinking water. Keep
your fingernails closely trimmed and clean, and keep your fingers
out of your mouth.

Keep Your Hair Clean

Your hair can become a haven for bacteria or fleas, lice, and
other parasites. Keeping your hair clean, combed, and trimmed
helps you avoid this danger.

Keep Your Clothing Clean

Keep your clothing and bedding as clean as possible to
reduce the chances of skin infection or parasitic infestation. Clean
your outer clothing whenever it becomes soiled. Wear clean
underclothing and socks each day. If water is scarce, “air” clean
your clothing by shaking, airing, and sunning it for 2 hours. If you
are using a sleeping bag, turn it inside out after each use, fluff it,
and air it.

Keep Your Teeth Clean

Thoroughly clean your mouth and teeth with a toothbrush
at least once each day. If you don’t have a toothbrush, make a
chewing stick. Find a twig about 20 centimeters (cm) (8 inches)
long and 1 centimeter (1/3 inch) wide. Chew one end of the stick


to separate the fibers. Then brush your teeth thoroughly. Another
way is to wrap a clean strip of cloth around your fingers and rub
your teeth with it to wipe away food particles. You can also brush
your teeth with small amounts of sand, baking soda, salt, or soap.
Rinse your mouth with water, salt water, or willow bark tea. Also,
flossing your teeth with string or fiber helps oral hygiene.

If you have cavities, you can make temporary fillings by
placing candle wax, tobacco, hot pepper, toothpaste or powder, or
portions of a gingerroot into the cavity. Make sure you clean the
cavity by rinsing or picking the particles out of the cavity before
placing a filling in the cavity.

Take Care of Your Feet

To prevent serious foot problems, break in your shoes before
wearing them on any mission. Wash and massage your feet daily.
Trim your toenails straight across. Wear an insole and the proper
size of dry socks. Powder and check your feet daily for blisters.

If you get a small blister, do not open it. An intact blister is
safe from infection. Apply a padding material around the blister
to relieve pressure and reduce friction. If the blister bursts, treat
it as an open wound. Clean and dress it daily and pad around it.
Leave large blisters intact. To avoid having the blister burst or
tear under pressure and cause a painful and open sore, do the
following:

Obtain a sewing-type needle and a clean or sterilized
thread.

Run the needle and thread through the blister after
cleaning the blister.

Detach the needle and leave both ends of the thread
hanging out of the blister. The thread will absorb the
liquid inside. This reduces the size of the hole and ensures
that the hole does not close up.

Pad around the blister.

Get Sufficient Rest

You need a certain amount of rest to keep going. Plan for
regular rest periods of at least 10 minutes per hour during your
daily activities. Learn to make yourself comfortable under lessthan-
ideal conditions. A change from mental to physical activity


or vice versa can be refreshing when time or situation does not
permit total relaxation.

Keep Campsite Clean

Do not soil the ground in the campsite area with urine or
feces. Use latrines, if available. When latrines are not available,
dig “cat holes” and cover the waste. Collect drinking water
upstream from the campsite. Purify all water.

MEDICAL EMERGENCIES

Medical problems and emergencies you may face include
breathing problems, severe bleeding, and shock. The following
paragraphs explain each of these problems and what you can
expect if they occur.

BREATHING PROBLEMS

Any one of the following can cause airway obstruction,
resulting in stopped breathing:

Foreign matter in mouth of throat that obstructs the
opening to the trachea.

Face or neck injuries.

Inflammation and swelling of mouth and throat caused by
inhaling smoke, flames, and irritating vapors or by an
allergic reaction.

“Kink” in the throat (caused by the neck bent forward so
that the chin rests upon the chest).

Tongue blocks passage of air to the lungs upon
unconsciousness. When an individual is unconscious, the
muscles of the lower jaw and tongue relax as the neck
drops forward, causing the lower jaw to sag and the tongue
to drop back and block the passage of air.

SEVERE BLEEDING

Severe bleeding from any major blood vessel in the body is
extremely dangerous. The loss of 1 liter of blood will produce
moderate symptoms of shock. The loss of 2 liters will produce a
severe state of shock that places the body in extreme danger. The
loss of 3 liters is usually fatal.


SHOCK

Shock (acute stress reaction) is not a disease in itself. It is a
clinical condition characterized by symptoms that arise when
cardiac output is insufficient to fill the arteries with blood under
enough pressure to provide an adequate blood supply to the
organs and tissues.

LIFESAVING STEPS

Control panic, both your own and the victim’s. Reassure
him and try to keep him quiet. Perform a rapid physical exam.
Look for the cause of the injury and follow the ABCs of first aid.
Start with the airway and breathing, but be discerning. In some
cases, a person may die from arterial bleeding more quickly than
from an airway obstruction. The following paragraphs describe
how to treat airway, bleeding, and shock emergencies.

OPEN AIRWAY AND MAINTAIN

You can open an airway and maintain it by using the
following steps:

Step 1. You should check to see if the victim has a partial
or complete airway obstruction. If he can cough or speak,
allow him to clear the obstruction naturally. Stand by,
reassure the victim, and be ready to clear his airway and
perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation should he become
unconscious. If his airway is completely obstructed,
administer abdominal thrusts until the obstruction is
cleared.

Step 2. Using a finger, quickly sweep the victim’s mouth
clear of any foreign objects, broken teeth, dentures, and
sand.

Step 3. Using the jaw thrust method, grasp the angles of
the victim’s lower jaw and lift with both hands, one on
each side, moving the jaw forward. For stability, rest your
elbows on the surface on which the victim is lying. If his
lips are closed, gently open the lower lip with your thumb
(Figure 4-1, page 4-10).


Figure 4-1. Jaw Thrust Method

Step 4. With the victim’s airway open, pinch his nose
closed with your thumb and forefinger and blow two
complete breaths into his lungs. Allow the lungs to deflate
after the second inflation and perform the following:

Look for his chest to rise and fall.

Listen for escaping air during exhalation.

Feel for flow of air on your cheek.

Step 5. If the forced breaths do not stimulate spontaneous
breathing, maintain the victim’s breathing by performing
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.

Step 6. There is danger of the victim vomiting during
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Check the victim’s mouth
periodically for vomit and clear as needed.

NOTE: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) may be necessary
after cleaning the airway, but only after major bleeding is under
control. See FM 21-20, Physical Fitness Training, the American
Heart Association manual, the Red Cross manual, or most other
first aid books for detailed instructions on CPR.

CONTROL BLEEDING

In a survival situation, you must control serious bleeding
immediately because replacement fluids normally are not
available and the victim can die within a matter of minutes.


External bleeding falls into the following classifications
(according to its source):

Arterial. Blood vessels called arteries carry blood away
from the heart and through the body. A cut artery issues
bright red blood from the wound in distinct spurts or pulses
that correspond to the rhythm of the heartbeat. Because
the blood in the arteries is under high pressure, an
individual can lose a large volume of blood in a short
period when damage to an artery of significant size occurs.
Therefore, arterial bleeding is the most serious type of
bleeding. If not controlled promptly, it can be fatal.

Venous. Venous blood is blood that is returning to the
heart through blood vessels called veins. A steady flow of
dark red, maroon, or bluish blood characterizes bleeding
from a vein. You can usually control venous bleeding more
easily than arterial bleeding.

Capillary. The capillaries are the extremely small vessels
that connect the arteries with the veins. Capillary bleeding
most commonly occurs in minor cuts and scrapes. This
type of bleeding is not difficult to control.

You can control external bleeding by direct pressure,
indirect (pressure points) pressure, elevation, digital ligation, or
tourniquet. Each method is explained below.

Direct Pressure

The most effective way to control external bleeding is by
applying pressure directly over the wound. This pressure must
not only be firm enough to stop the bleeding, but it must also be
maintained long enough to “seal off” the damaged surface.

If bleeding continues after having applied direct pressure
for 30 minutes, apply a pressure dressing. This dressing consists
of a thick dressing of gauze or other suitable material applied
directly over the wound and held in place with a tightly wrapped
bandage (Figure 4-2, page 4-12). It should be tighter than an
ordinary compression bandage but not so tight that it impairs
circulation to the rest of the limb. Once you apply the dressing,
do not remove it, even when the dressing becomes blood soaked.


Figure 4-2. Application of a Pressure Dressing

Leave the pressure dressing in place for 1 or 2 days, after
which you can remove and replace it with a smaller dressing. In
the long-term survival environment, make fresh, daily dressing
changes and inspect for signs of infection.


Elevation

Raising an injured extremity as high as possible above the
heart’s level slows blood loss by aiding the return of blood to the
heart and lowering the blood pressure at the wound. However,
elevation alone will not control bleeding entirely; you must also
apply direct pressure over the wound. When treating a snakebite,
be sure to keep the extremity lower than the heart.

Pressure Points

A pressure point is a location where the main artery to the
wound lies near the surface of the skin or where the artery passes
directly over a bony prominence (Figure 4-3). You can use digital
pressure on a pressure point to slow arterial bleeding until the
application of a pressure dressing. Pressure point control is not as
effective for controlling bleeding as direct pressure exerted on the
wound. It is rare when a single major compressible artery
supplies a damaged vessel.

Figure 4-3. Pressure Points


If you cannot remember the exact location of the pressure
points, follow this rule: Apply pressure at the end of the joint just
above the injured area. On hands, feet, and head, this will be the
wrist, ankle, and neck, respectively.

Maintain pressure points by placing a round stick in the
joint, bending the joint over the stick, and then keeping it tightly
bent by lashing. By using this method to maintain pressure, it
frees your hands to work in other areas.

Digital Ligation

You can stop major bleeding immediately or slow it down by
applying pressure with a finger or two on the bleeding end of the
vein or artery. Maintain the pressure until the bleeding stops or
slows down enough to apply a pressure bandage, elevation, and so
forth.

Tourniquet

Use a tourniquet only when direct pressure over the
bleeding point and all other methods did not control the bleeding.
If you leave a tourniquet in place too long, the damage to the
tissues can progress to gangrene, with a loss of the limb later. An
improperly applied tourniquet can also cause permanent damage
to nerves and other tissues at the site of the constriction. If you
must use a tourniquet, place it around the extremity, between the
wound and the heart, 5 to 10 centimeters (2 to 4 inches) above the
wound site. Never place it directly over the wound or a fracture.
Figure 4-4, page 4-15, explains how to apply a tourniquet.

After you secure the tourniquet, clean and bandage the
wound. A lone survivor does not remove or release an applied
tourniquet. However, in a buddy system, the buddy can release
the tourniquet pressure every 10 to 15 minutes for 1 or 2 minutes
to let blood flow to the rest of the extremity to prevent limb loss.


Figure 4-4. Application of Tourniquet


PREVENT AND TREAT SHOCK

Anticipate shock in all injured personnel. Treat all injured
persons as follows, regardless of what symptoms appear (Figure
4-5, page 4-17):

If the victim is conscious, place him on a level surface with
the lower extremities elevated 15 to 20 centimeters (6 to 8
inches).

If the victim is unconscious, place him on his side or
abdomen with his head turned to one side to prevent
choking on vomit, blood, or other fluids.

If you are unsure of the best position, place the victim
perfectly flat. Once the victim is in a shock position, do not
move him.

Maintain body heat by insulating the victim from the
surroundings and, in some instances, applying external
heat.

If wet, remove all the victim’s wet clothing as soon as
possible and replace with dry clothing.

Improvise a shelter to insulate the victim from the
weather.

Use warm liquids or foods, a prewarmed sleeping bag,
another person, warmed water in canteens, hot rocks
wrapped in clothing, or fires on either side of the victim to
provide external warmth.

If the victim is conscious, slowly administer small doses of
a warm salt or sugar solution, if available.

If the victim is unconscious or has abdominal wounds, do
not give fluids by mouth.

Have the victim rest for at least 24 hours.

If you are a lone survivor, lie in a depression in the ground,
behind a tree, or any other place out of the weather, with
your head lower than your feet.

If you are with a buddy, reassess your patient constantly.


Figure 4-5. Treatment for Shock


BONE AND JOINT INJURY

You could face bone and joint injuries that include
fractures, dislocations, and sprains. Follow the steps explained
below for each injury.

FRACTURES

There are basically two types of fractures: open and closed.
With an open (or compound) fracture, the bone protrudes through
the skin and complicates the actual fracture with an open wound.
Any bone protruding from the wound should be cleaned with an
antiseptic and kept moist. You should splint the injured area and
continually monitor blood flow past the injury. Only reposition the
break if there is no blood flow.

The closed fracture has no open wounds. Follow the
guidelines for immobilization and splint the fracture.

The signs and symptoms of a fracture are pain, tenderness,
discoloration, swelling deformity, loss of function, and grating (a
sound or feeling that occurs when broken bone ends rub together).

The dangers with a fracture are the severing or the
compression of a nerve or blood vessel at the site of fracture. For
this reason minimum manipulation should be done, and only very
cautiously. If you notice the area below the break becoming numb,
swollen, cool to the touch, or turning pale, and the victim showing
signs of shock, a major vessel may have been severed. You must
control this internal bleeding. Reset the fracture and treat the
victim for shock and replace lost fluids.

Often you must maintain traction during the splinting and
healing process. You can effectively pull smaller bones such as the
arm or lower leg by hand. You can create traction by wedging a
hand or foot in the V-notch of a tree and pushing against the tree
with the other extremity. You can then splint the break.

Very strong muscles hold a broken thighbone (femur) in
place making it difficult to maintain traction during healing. You
can make an improvised traction splint using natural material
(Figure 4-6, page 4-19) as explained below.


Figure 4-6. Improvised Traction Splint

Get two forked branches or saplings at least 5 centimeters
(2 inches) in diameter. Measure one from the patient’s
armpit to 20 to 30 centimeters (8 to 12 inches) past his
unbroken leg. Measure the other from the groin to 20 to 30
centimeters (8 to 12 inches) past the unbroken leg. Ensure
that both extend an equal distance beyond the end of the
leg.

Pad the two splints. Notch the ends without forks and lash a
20- to 30-centimeter (8- to 12-inch) cross member made from
a 5-centimeter (2-inch) diameter branch between them.

Using available material (vines, cloth, rawhide), tie the
splint around the upper portion of the body and down the
length of the broken leg. Follow the splinting guidelines.

With available material, fashion a wrap that will extend
around the ankle, with the two free ends tied to the cross
member.


Place a 10- by 2.5-centimeter (4- by 1-inch) stick in the
middle of the free ends of the ankle wrap between the cross
member and the foot. Using the stick, twist the material to
make the traction easier.

Continue twisting until the broken leg is as long or slightly
longer than the unbroken leg.

Lash the stick to maintain traction.

NOTE: Over time, you may lose traction because the material
weakened. Check the traction periodically. If you must change or
repair the splint, maintain the traction manually for a short time.

DISLOCATIONS

Dislocations are the separations of bone joints causing the
bones to go out of proper alignment. These misalignments can be
extremely painful and can cause an impairment of nerve or
circulatory function below the area affected. You must place these
joints back into alignment as quickly as possible.

Signs and symptoms of dislocations are joint pain,
tenderness, swelling, discoloration, limited range of motion, and
deformity of the joint. You treat dislocations by reduction,
immobilization, and rehabilitation.

Reduction or “setting” is placing the bones back into their
proper alignment. You can use several methods, but manual
traction or the use of weights to pull the bones are the safest and
easiest. Once performed, reduction decreases the victim’s pain
and allows for normal function and circulation. Without an X ray,
you can judge proper alignment by the look and feel of the joint
and by comparing it to the joint on the opposite side.

Immobilization is nothing more than splinting the
dislocation after reduction. You can use any field-expedient
material for a splint or you can splint an extremity to the body.
The basic guidelines for splinting are as follows:

Splint above and below the fracture site.

Pad splints to reduce discomfort.

Check circulation below the fracture after making each tie
on the splint.


To rehabilitate the dislocation, remove the splints after 7 to
14 days. Gradually use the injured joint until fully healed.

SPRAINS

The accidental overstretching of a tendon or ligament
causes sprains. The signs and symptoms are pain, swelling,
tenderness, and discoloration (black and blue).

When treating sprains, you should follow the letters in
RICE as defined below:

R–Rest injured area.

 I–Ice for 24 to 48 hours.

C–Compression-wrap or splint to help stabilize. If possible,
leave the boot on a sprained ankle unless circulation is
compromised.

E–Elevate the affected area.

NOTE: Ice is preferred for a sprain but cold spring water may be
more easily obtained in a survival situation.

BITES AND STINGS

Insects and related pests are hazards in a survival
situation. They not only cause irritations, but they are often
carriers of diseases that cause severe allergic reactions in some
individuals. In many parts of the world you will be exposed to
serious, even fatal, diseases not encountered in the United States.

Ticks can carry and transmit diseases, such as Rocky
Mountain spotted fever common in many parts of the
United States. Ticks also transmit Lyme disease.

Mosquitoes may carry malaria, dengue, and many other
diseases.

Flies can spread disease from contact with infectious
sources. They are causes of sleeping sickness, typhoid,
cholera, and dysentery.

Fleas can transmit plague.

Lice can transmit typhus and relapsing fever.


The best way to avoid the complications of insect bites and
stings is to keep immunizations (including booster shots) up-todate,
avoid insect-infested areas, use netting and insect repellent,
and wear all clothing properly.

If you are bitten or stung, do not scratch the bite or sting; it
might become infected. Inspect your body at least once a day to
ensure there are no insects attached to you. If you find ticks
attached to your body, cover them with a substance (such as
petroleum jelly, heavy oil, or tree sap) that will cut off their air
supply. Without air, the tick releases its hold, and you can remove
it. Take care to remove the whole tick. Use tweezers if you have
them. Grasp the tick where the mouthparts are attached to the
skin. Do not squeeze the tick’s body. Wash your hands after
touching the tick. Clean the tick wound daily until healed.

TREATMENT

It is impossible to list the treatment of all the different
types of bites and stings. However, you can generally treat bites
and stings as follows:

If antibiotics are available for your use, become familiar
with them before deployment and use them.

Predeployment immunizations can prevent most of the
common diseases carried by mosquitoes and some carried
by flies.

The common fly-borne diseases are usually treatable with
penicillins or erythromycin.

Most tick-, flea-, louse-, and mite-borne diseases are
treatable with tetracycline.

Most antibiotics come in 250 milligram (mg) or 500 mg
tablets. If you cannot remember the exact dose rate to
treat a disease, 2 tablets, 4 times a day, for 10 to 14 days
will usually kill any bacteria.

BEE AND WASP STINGS

If stung by a bee, immediately remove the stinger and
venom sac, if attached, by scraping with a fingernail or a knife
blade. Do not squeeze or grasp the stinger or venom sac, as
squeezing will force more venom into the wound. Wash the sting


site thoroughly with soap and water to lessen the chance of a
secondary infection.

If you know or suspect that you are allergic to insect stings,
always carry an insect sting kit with you.

Relieve the itching and discomfort caused by insect bites by
applying—

Cold compresses.

A cooling paste of mud and ashes.

Sap from dandelions.

Coconut meat.

Crushed cloves of garlic.

Onion.

SPIDER BITES AND SCORPION STINGS

The black widow spider is identified by a red hourglass on
its abdomen. Only the female bites, and it has a neurotoxic
venom. The initial pain is not severe, but severe local pain rapidly
develops. The pain gradually spreads over the entire body and
settles in the abdomen and legs. Abdominal cramps and
progressive nausea, vomiting, and a rash may occur. Weakness,
tremors, sweating, and salivation may occur. Anaphylactic
reactions can occur. Symptoms may worsen for the next three
days and then begin to subside for the next week. Treat for shock.
Be ready to perform CPR. Clean and dress the bite area to reduce
the risk of infection. An antivenin is available.

The funnelweb spider is a large brown or gray spider found
in Australia. The symptoms and the treatment for its bite are as
for the black widow spider.

The brown house spider or brown recluse spider is a small,
light brown spider identified by a dark brown violin on its back.
There is no pain, or so little pain, that usually a victim is not
aware of the bite. Within a few hours a painful red area with a
mottled cyanotic center appears. Necrosis does not occur in all
bites, but usually in 3 to 4 days, a star-shaped, firm area of deep
purple discoloration appears at the bite site. The area turns dark
and mummified in a week or two. The margins separate and the
scab falls off, leaving an open ulcer. Secondary infection and


regional swollen lymph glands usually become visible at this
stage. The outstanding characteristic of the brown recluse bite is
an ulcer that does not heal but persists for weeks or months. In
addition to the ulcer, there is often a systemic reaction that is
serious and may lead to death. Reactions (fever, chills, joint pain,
vomiting, and a generalized rash) occur chiefly in children or
debilitated persons.

Tarantulas are large, hairy spiders found mainly in the
tropics. Most do not inject venom, but some South American
species do. They have large fangs. If bitten, pain and bleeding are
certain, and infection is likely. Treat a tarantula bite as for any
open wound, and try to prevent infection. If symptoms of
poisoning appear, treat as for the bite of the black widow spider.

Scorpions are all poisonous to a greater or lesser degree.
There are two different reactions, depending on the species:

Severe local reaction only, with pain and swelling around
the area of the sting. Possible prickly sensation around the
mouth and a thick-feeling tongue.

Severe systemic reaction, with little or no visible local
reaction. Local pain may be present. Systemic reaction
includes respiratory difficulties, thick-feeling tongue, body
spasms, drooling, gastric distention, double vision,
blindness, involuntary rapid movement of the eyeballs,
involuntary urination and defecation, and heart failure.
Death is rare, occurring mainly in children and adults with
high blood pressure or illnesses.

Treat scorpion stings as you would a black widow bite.

SNAKEBITES

The chance of a snakebite in a survival situation is rather
small, if you are familiar with the various types of snakes and
their habitats. However, it could happen and you should know
how to treat a snakebite. Deaths from snakebites are rare. More
than one-half of the snakebite victims have little or no poisoning,
and only about one-quarter develop serious systemic poisoning.
However, the chance of a snakebite in a survival situation can
affect morale, and failure to take preventive measures or failure
to treat a snakebite properly can result in needless tragedy.


The primary concern in the treatment of snakebite is to
limit the amount of eventual tissue destruction around the bite
area.

A bite wound, regardless of the type of animal that inflicted
it, can become infected from bacteria in the animal’s mouth. With
nonpoisonous as well as poisonous snakebites, this local infection
is responsible for a large part of the residual damage that results.

Snake venoms not only contain poisons that attack the
victim’s central nervous system (neurotoxins) and blood
circulation (hemotoxins), but also digestive enzymes (cytotoxins)
to aid in digesting their prey. These poisons can cause a very
large area of tissue death, leaving a large open wound. This
condition could lead to the need for eventual amputation if not
treated.

Shock and panic in a person bitten by a snake can also affect
the person’s recovery. Excitement, hysteria, and panic can speed up
the circulation, causing the body to absorb the toxin quickly. Signs
of shock occur within the first 30 minutes after the bite.

Before you start treating a snakebite, determine whether
the snake was poisonous or nonpoisonous. Bites from a
nonpoisonous snake will show rows of teeth. Bites from a
poisonous snake may have rows of teeth showing, but will have
one or more distinctive puncture marks caused by fang
penetration. Symptoms of a poisonous bite may be spontaneous
bleeding from the nose and anus, blood in the urine, pain at the
site of the bite, and swelling at the site of the bite within a few
minutes or up to 2 hours later.

Breathing difficulty, paralysis, weakness, twitching, and
numbness are also signs of neurotoxic venoms. These signs
usually appear 1.5 to 2 hours after the bite.

If you determine that a poisonous snake bit an individual,
take the following steps:

Reassure the victim and keep him still.

Set up for shock and force fluids or give by intravenous
(IV) means.

Remove watches, rings, bracelets, or other constricting
items.


Clean the bite area.

Maintain an airway (especially if bitten near the face or
neck) and be prepared to administer mouth-to-mouth
resuscitation or CPR.

Use a constricting band between the wound and the heart.

Immobilize the site.

Remove the poison as soon as possible by using a
mechanical suction device. Do not squeeze the site of
the bite.

You should also remember four very important guidelines
during the treatment of snakebites. Do not—

Give the victim alcoholic beverages or tobacco products.
Never give atropine! Give morphine or other central
nervous system (CNS) depressors.

Make any deep cuts at the bite site. Cutting opens
capillaries that in turn open a direct route into the blood
stream for venom and infection.

NOTE: If medical treatment is over 1 hour away, make an
incision (no longer than 6 millimeters [1/4 inch] and no deeper
than 3 millimeters [1/8 inch]) over each puncture, cutting just
deep enough to enlarge the fang opening, but only through the
first or second layer of skin. Place a suction cup over the bite so
that you have a good vacuum seal. Suction the bite site 3 to 4
times. Suction for a MINIMUM of 30 MINUTES. Use mouth
suction only as a last resort and only if you do not have open
sores in your mouth. Spit the envenomed blood out and rinse your
mouth with water. This method will draw out 25 to 30 percent of
the venom.

Put your hands on your face or rub your eyes, as venom
may be on your hands. Venom may cause blindness.

Break open the large blisters that form around the bite
site.

After caring for the victim as described above, take the
following actions to minimize local effects:

If infection appears, keep the wound open and clean.


Use heat after 24 to 48 hours to help prevent the spread of
local infection. Heat also helps to draw out an infection.

Keep the wound covered with a dry, sterile dressing.

Have the victim drink large amounts of fluids until the
infection is gone.

WOUNDS

An interruption of the skin’s integrity characterizes
wounds. These wounds could be open wounds, skin diseases,
frostbite, trench foot, or burns.

OPEN WOUNDS

Open wounds are serious in a survival situation, not only
because of tissue damage and blood loss, but also because they
may become infected. Bacteria on the object that made the
wound, on the individual’s skin and clothing, or on other foreign
material or dirt that touches the wound may cause infection.

By taking proper care of the wound you can reduce further
contamination and promote healing. Clean the wound as soon as
possible after it occurs by—

Removing or cutting clothing away from the wound.

Always looking for an exit wound if a sharp object,
gunshot, or projectile caused a wound.

Thoroughly cleaning the skin around the wound.

Rinsing (not scrubbing) the wound with large amounts of
water under pressure. You can use fresh urine if water is
not available.

The “open treatment” method is the safest way to manage
wounds in survival situations. Do not try to close any wound by
suturing or similar procedures. Leave the wound open to allow
the drainage of any pus resulting from infection. As long as the
wound can drain, it generally will not become life-threatening,
regardless of how unpleasant it looks or smells.

Cover the wound with a clean dressing. Place a bandage on
the dressing to hold it in place. Change the dressing daily to
check for infection.


If a wound is gaping, you can bring the edges together with
adhesive tape cut in the form of a “butterfly” or “dumbbell”
(Figure 4-7). Use this method with extreme caution in the absence
of antibiotics. You must always allow for proper drainage of the
wound to avoid infection.

Figure 4-7. Butterfly Closure

In a survival situation, some degree of wound infection is
almost inevitable. Pain, swelling, and redness around the wound,
increased temperature, and pus in the wound or on the dressing
indicate infection is present.

If the wound becomes infected, you should treat as follows:

Place a warm, moist compress directly on the infected
wound. Change the compress when it cools, keeping a
warm compress on the wound for a total of 30 minutes.
Apply the compresses three or four times daily.

Drain the wound. Open and gently probe the infected
wound with a sterile instrument.

Dress and bandage the wound.

Drink a lot of water.

In the event of gunshot or other serious wounds, it may be
better to rinse the wound out vigorously every day with the


cleanest water available. If drinking water or methods to
purify drinking water are limited, do not use your drinking
water. Flush the wound forcefully daily until the wound is
healed over. Your scar may be larger but your chances of
infection are greatly reduced.

Continue this treatment daily until all signs of infection
have disappeared.

If you do not have antibiotics and the wound has become
severely infected, does not heal, and ordinary debridement is
impossible, consider maggot therapy as stated below, despite its
hazards:

Expose the wound to flies for one day and then cover it.

Check daily for maggots.

Once maggots develop, keep wound covered but check
daily.

Remove all maggots when they have cleaned out all dead
tissue and before they start on healthy tissue. Increased
pain and bright red blood in the wound indicate that the
maggots have reached healthy tissue.

Flush the wound repeatedly with sterile water or fresh
urine to remove the maggots.

Check the wound every 4 hours for several days to ensure
all maggots have been removed.

Bandage the wound and treat it as any other wound. It
should heal normally.

SKIN DISEASES AND AILMENTS

Boils, fungal infections, and rashes rarely develop into a
serious health problem. They cause discomfort and you should
treat them as follows:

Boils

Apply warm compresses to bring the boil to a head. Another
method that can be used to bring a boil to a head is the bottle
suction method. Use an empty bottle that has been boiled in
water. Place the opening of the bottle over the boil and seal the
skin forming an airtight environment that will create a vacuum.
This method will draw the pus to the skin surface when applied


correctly. Then open the boil using a sterile knife, wire, needle, or
similar item. Thoroughly clean out the pus using soap and water.
Cover the boil site, checking it periodically to ensure no further
infection develops.

Fungal Infections

Keep the skin clean and dry, and expose the infected area
to as much sunlight as possible. Do not scratch the affected
area. During the Southeast Asian conflict, soldiers used
antifungal powders, lye soap, chlorine bleach, alcohol, vinegar,
concentrated salt water, and iodine to treat fungal infections with
varying degrees of success. As with any “unorthodox” method of
treatment, use these with caution.

Rashes

To treat a skin rash effectively, first determine what is
causing it. This determination may be difficult even in the best of
situations. Observe the following rules to treat rashes:

If it is moist, keep it dry.

If it is dry, keep it moist.

Do not scratch it.

Use a compress of vinegar or tannic acid derived from tea
or from boiling acorns or the bark of a hardwood tree to dry
weeping rashes. Keep dry rashes moist by rubbing a small
amount of rendered animal fat or grease on the affected area.

Remember, treat rashes as open wounds; clean and dress
them daily. There are many substances available to survivors in
the wild or in captivity for use as antiseptics to treat wounds.
Follow the recommended guidance below:

Iodine tablets. Use 5 to 15 tablets in a liter of water to
produce a good rinse for wounds during healing.

Garlic. Rub it on a wound or boil it to extract the oils and
use the water to rinse the affected area.

Salt water. Use 2 to 3 tablespoons per liter of water to kill
bacteria.

Bee honey. Use it straight or dissolved in water.


Sphagnum moss. Found in boggy areas worldwide, it is a
natural source of iodine. Use as a dressing.

Sugar. Place directly on wound and remove thoroughly
when it turns into a glazed and runny substance. Then
reapply.

Syrup. In extreme circumstances, some of the same
benefits of honey and sugar can be realized with any highsugar-
content item.

NOTE: Again, use noncommercially prepared materials with
caution.

BURNS

The following field treatment for burns relieves the pain
somewhat, seems to help speed healing, and offers some
protection against infection:

First, stop the burning process. Put out the fire by removing
clothing, dousing with water or sand, or by rolling on the
ground. Cool the burning skin with ice or water. For burns
caused by white phosphorous, pick out the white
phosphorous with tweezers; do not douse with water.

Soak dressings or clean rags for 10 minutes in a boiling
tannic acid solution (obtained from tea, inner bark of
hardwood trees, or acorns boiled in water).

Cool the dressings or clean rags and apply over burns.
Sugar and honey also work for burns with honey being
especially effective at promoting new skin growth and
stopping infections. Use both as you would in an open
wound above.

Treat as an open wound.

Replace fluid loss. Fluid replacement can be achieved through
oral (preferred) and intravenous routes (when resources are


available). One alternate method through which rehydration
can be achieved is through the rectal route. Fluids do not
need to be sterile, only purified. A person can effectively
absorb approximately 1 to 1.5 liters per hour by using a tube
to deliver fluids into the rectal vault.

Maintain airway.

Treat for shock.

Consider using morphine, unless the burns are near the
face.

ENVIRONMENTAL INJURIES

Heatstroke, hypothermia, diarrhea, and intestinal parasites
are environmental injuries you could face in a survival situation.
Read and follow the guidance provided below.

HEATSTROKE

The breakdown of the body’s heat regulatory system (body
temperature more than 40.5 degrees C [105 degrees F]) causes a
heatstroke. Other heat injuries, such as cramps or dehydration,
do not always precede a heatstroke. Signs and symptoms of
heatstroke are—

Swollen, beet-red face.

Reddened whites of eyes.

Victim not sweating.

Unconsciousness or delirium, which can cause pallor, a
bluish color to lips and nail beds (cyanosis), and cool skin.

NOTE: By this time, the victim is in severe shock. Cool the victim
as rapidly as possible. Cool him by dipping him in a cool stream.
If one is not available, douse the victim with urine, water, or at
the very least, apply cool wet compresses to all the joints,
especially the neck, armpits, and crotch. Be sure to wet the
victim’s head. Heat loss through the scalp is great. Administer
IVs and provide drinking fluids. You may fan the individual.

You can expect the following symptoms during cooling:

Vomiting.

Diarrhea.


Struggling.

Shivering.

Shouting.

Prolonged unconsciousness.

Rebound heatstroke within 48 hours.

Cardiac arrest; be ready to perform CPR.

NOTE: Treat for dehydration with lightly salted water.

CHILBLAINS

Frostnip begins as firm, cold and white or gray areas on the
face, ears, and extremities that can blister or peel just like sunburn
as late as 2 to 3 days after the injury. Frostnip, or chilblains as it is
sometimes called, is the result of tissue exposure to freezing
temperatures and is the beginning of frostbite. The water in and
around the cells freezes, rupturing cell walls and thus damaging
the tissue. Warming the affected area with hands or a warm object
treats this injury. Wind chill plays a factor in this injury;
preventative measures include layers of dry clothing and protection
against wetness and wind.

TRENCH FOOT

Immersion or trench foot results from many hours or days
of exposure to wet or damp conditions at a temperature just above
freezing. The nerves and muscles sustain the main damage, but
gangrene can occur. In extreme cases the flesh dies and it may
become necessary to have the foot or leg amputated. The best
prevention is to keep your feet dry. Carry extra socks with you in
a waterproof packet. Dry wet socks against your body. Wash your
feet daily and put on dry socks.

FROSTBITE

This injury results from frozen tissues. Frostbite extends
to a depth below the skin. The tissues become solid and
immovable. Your feet, hands, and exposed facial areas are
particularly vulnerable to frostbite.

When with others, prevent frostbite by using the buddy
system. Check your buddy’s face often and make sure that he


checks yours. If you are alone, periodically cover your nose and
lower part of your face with your mittens.

Do not try to thaw the affected areas by placing them close
to an open flame. Frostbitten tissue may be immersed in 37 to 42
degrees C (99 to 109 degrees F) water until thawed. (Water
temperature can be determined with the inside wrist or baby
formula method.) Dry the part and place it next to your skin to
warm it at body temperature.

HYPOTHERMIA

It is defined as the body’s failure to maintain an inner core
temperature of 36 degrees C (97 degrees F). Exposure to cool or
cold temperature over a short or long time can cause
hypothermia. Dehydration and lack of food and rest predispose
the survivor to hypothermia.

Immediate treatment is the key. Move the victim to the best
shelter possible away from the wind, rain, and cold. Remove all wet
clothes and get the victim into dry clothing. Replace lost fluids with
warm fluids, and warm him in a sleeping bag using two people (if
possible) providing skin-to-skin contact. If the victim is unable to
drink warm fluids, rectal rehydration may be used.

DIARRHEA

A common, debilitating ailment caused by changing water
and food, drinking contaminated water, eating spoiled food,
becoming fatigued, and using dirty dishes. You can avoid most of
these causes by practicing preventive medicine. However, if you
get diarrhea and do not have antidiarrheal medicine, one of the
following treatments may be effective:

Limit your intake of fluids for 24 hours.

Drink one cup of a strong tea solution every 2 hours until
the diarrhea slows or stops. The tannic acid in the tea
helps to control the diarrhea. Boil the inner bark of a
hardwood tree for 2 hours or more to release the tannic
acid.

Make a solution of one handful of ground chalk, charcoal,
or dried bones and treated water. If you have some apple
pomace or the rinds of citrus fruit, add an equal portion to
the mixture to make it more effective. Take 2 tablespoons


of the solution every 2 hours until the diarrhea slows or
stops.

INTESTINAL PARASITES

You can usually avoid worm infestations and other
intestinal parasites if you take preventive measures. For
example, never go barefoot. The most effective way to prevent
intestinal parasites is to avoid uncooked meat, never eat raw
vegetables contaminated by raw sewage, and try not to use
human waste as a fertilizer. However, should you become infested
and lack proper medicine, you can use home remedies. Keep in
mind that these home remedies work on the principle of changing
the environment of the gastrointestinal tract. The following are
home remedies you could use:

Salt water. Dissolve 4 tablespoons of salt in 1 liter of water
and drink. Do not repeat this treatment.

Tobacco. Eat 1 to 1 1/2 cigarettes or approximately 1
teaspoon (pinch) of smokeless tobacco. The nicotine in the
tobacco will kill or stun the worms long enough for your
system to pass them. If the infestation is severe, repeat the
treatment in 24 to 48 hours, but no sooner.

Kerosene. Drink 2 tablespoons of kerosene, but no more.
If necessary, you can repeat this treatment in 24 to 48
hours. Be careful not to inhale the fumes. They may cause
lung irritation.

NOTE: Tobacco and kerosene treatment techniques are very
dangerous, be careful.

Hot peppers. Peppers are effective only if they are a steady
part of your diet. You can eat them raw or put them in
soups or rice and meat dishes. They create an environment
that is prohibitive to parasitic attachment.

Garlic. Chop or crush 4 cloves, mix with 1 glass of liquid,
and drink daily for 3 weeks.

HERBAL MEDICINES

Our modern wonder drugs, laboratories, and equipment
have obscured more primitive types of medicine involving
determination, common sense, and a few simple treatments.
However, in many areas of the world the people still depend on


local “witch doctors” or healers to cure their ailments. Many of the
herbs (plants) and treatments they use are as effective as the
most modern medications available. In fact, many modern
medications come from refined herbs.


Shelters

A shelter can protect you from the sun, insects,
wind, rain, snow, hot or cold temperatures, and
enemy observation. It can give you a feeling of wellbeing
and help you maintain your will to survive.

In some areas, your need for shelter may take
precedence over your need for food and possibly
even your need for water. For example, prolonged
exposure to cold can cause excessive fatigue and
weakness (exhaustion). An exhausted person
may develop a “passive” outlook, thereby losing
the will to survive.

Seek natural shelters or alter them to meet your
needs, therefore, saving energy. A common error
in making a shelter is to make it too large. A
shelter must be large enough to protect you and
small enough to contain your body heat,
especially in cold climates.

PRIMARY SHELTER—UNIFORM

Your primary shelter in a survival situation will be your
uniform. This point is true regardless of whether you are in a hot,
cold, tropical, desert, or arctic situation. For your uniform to
protect you, it must be in as good of a condition as possible and be
worn properly. We use the term COLDER which is addressed in
Chapter 15 to remind us of what to do.

SHELTER SITE SELECTION

When you are in a survival situation and realize that
shelter is a high priority, start looking for shelter as soon as
possible. As you do so, remember what you will need at the site.
Two requisites for shelter are that it must—

Contain material to make the type of shelter you need.


Be large enough and level enough for you to lie down
comfortably.

You should focus on your tactical situation and your safety
when considering these requisites. You must also consider
whether the site—

Provides concealment from enemy observation.

Has camouflaged escape routes.

Is suitable for signaling, if necessary.

Provides protection against wild animals and rocks and
dead trees that might fall.

Is free from insects, reptiles, and poisonous plants.

You must remember the problems that could arise in your
environment. For instance, avoid—

Flash flood areas in foothills.

Avalanche or rockslide areas in mountainous terrain.

Sites near bodies of water that are below the high-water
mark.

In some areas, the season of the year has a strong bearing
on the site you select. Ideal sites for a shelter differ in winter and
summer. During cold winter months you will want a site that will
protect you from the cold and wind, but will have a source of fuel
and water. During summer months in the same area you will
want a source of water, but you will also want the site to be
almost insect free.

When you are considering shelter site selection, remember
the word BLISS and the following guidelines:

B–Blend in with the surroundings.

L–Low silhouette.

I–Irregular shape.

S–Small.

S–Secluded location.


TYPES OF SHELTERS

When looking for a shelter site, keep in mind the type
of shelter you need. However, you must also consider the
questions below:

How much time and effort will you need to build the
shelter?

Will the shelter adequately protect you from the elements
(sun, wind, rain, snow)?

Do you have the tools to build it? If not, can you make
improvised tools?

Do you have the type and amount of materials needed to
build it?

To answer these questions, you need to know how to
make various types of shelters and what materials you need to
make them.

PONCHO LEAN-TO

It takes only a short time and minimal equipment to build
this lean-to (Figure 5-1). You need a poncho, 2 to 3 meters (7 to 10
feet) of rope or parachute suspension line, three stakes about 30
centimeters (1 foot) long, and two trees or two poles 2 to 3 meters
(7 to 10 feet) apart. Before selecting the trees you will use or the
location of your poles, check the wind direction. Ensure that the
back of your lean-to will be into the wind.

Figure 5-1. Poncho Lean-to


To make the lean-to, you should—

Tie off the hood of the poncho. Pull the drawstring tight,
roll the hood longways, fold it into thirds, and tie it off with
the drawstring.

Cut the rope in half. On one long side of the poncho, tie
half of the rope to the corner grommet. Tie the other half to
the other corner grommet.

Attach a drip stick (about a 10-centimeter [4-inch] stick) to
each rope about 2.5 centimeters (about 1 inch) from the
grommet. These drip sticks will keep rainwater from
running down the ropes into the lean-to. Tying strings
(about 10 centimeters [4 inches] long) to each grommet
along the poncho’s top edge will allow the water to run to
and down the line without dripping into the shelter.

Tie the ropes about waist high on the trees. Use a round
turn and two half hitches with a quick-release knot.

Spread the poncho and anchor it to the ground, putting
sharpened sticks through the grommets and into the
ground.

If you plan to use the lean-to for more than one night, or
you expect rain, make a center support for the lean-to. Make this
support with a line. Attach one end of the line to the poncho hood
and the other end to an overhanging branch. Make sure there is
no slack in the line.

Another method is to place a stick upright under the center
of the lean-to. However, this method will restrict your space and
movements in the shelter.

For additional protection from wind and rain, place some
brush, your rucksack, or other equipment at the sides of the lean-to.

To reduce heat loss to the ground, place some type of
insulating material, such as leaves or pine needles, inside your
lean-to.

NOTE: When at rest, you lose as much as 80 percent of your body
heat to the ground.

To increase your security from enemy observation, lower
the lean-to’s silhouette by making two changes. First, secure the


support lines to the trees at knee height (not at waist height)
using two knee-high sticks in the two center grommets (sides of
lean-to). Second, angle the poncho to the ground, securing it with
sharpened sticks, as above.

PONCHO TENT

This tent (Figure 5-2) provides a low silhouette. It also
protects you from the elements on two sides. It has, however, less
usable space and observation area than a lean-to, decreasing your
reaction time to enemy detection. To make this tent, you need a
poncho, two 1.5- to 2.5-meter (5- to 8-foot) ropes, six sharpened
sticks about 30 centimeters (1 foot) long, and two trees 2 to 3
meters (7 to 10 feet) apart.

Figure 5-2. Poncho Tent Using Overhanging Branch

To make the tent, you should—

Tie off the poncho hood in the same way as the poncho
lean-to.

Tie a 1.5- to 2.5-meter (5- to 8-foot) rope to the center
grommet on each side of the poncho.

Tie the other ends of these ropes at about knee height to
two trees 2 to 3 meters (7 to 10 feet) apart and stretch the
poncho tight.

Draw one side of the poncho tight and secure it to the
ground pushing sharpened sticks through the grommets.

Follow the same procedure on the other side.


If you need a center support, use the same methods as for
the poncho lean-to. Another center support is an A-frame set
outside but over the center of the tent (Figure 5-3). Use two 90- to
120-centimeter-long (12- to 16-foot-long) sticks, one with a forked
end, to form the A-frame. Tie the hood’s drawstring to the Aframe
to support the center of the tent.

Figure 5-3. Poncho Tent With A-Frame

THREE-POLE PARACHUTE TEPEE

If you have a parachute and three poles and the tactical
situation allows, make a parachute tepee. It is easy and takes
very little time to make this tepee. It provides protection from the
elements and can act as a signaling device by enhancing a small
amount of light from a fire or candle. It is large enough to hold
several people and their equipment and to allow sleeping,
cooking, and storing firewood.

You can make this tepee (Figure 5-4, page 5-7) using parts
of or a whole personnel main or reserve parachute canopy. If
using a standard personnel parachute, you need three poles 3.5 to
4.5 meters (12 to 15 feet) long and about 5 centimeters (2 inches)
in diameter.


Figure 5-4. Three-Pole Parachute Tepee


To make this tepee, you should—

Lay the poles on the ground and lash them together at one
end.

Stand the framework up and spread the poles to form a
tripod.

For more support, place additional poles against the tripod.
Five or six additional poles work best, but do not lash them
to the tripod.

Determine the wind direction and locate the entrance 90
degrees or more from the mean wind direction.

Lay out the parachute on the “backside” of the tripod and
locate the bridle loop (nylon web loop) at the top (apex) of
the canopy.

Place the bridle loop over the top of a freestanding pole.
Then place the pole back up against the tripod so that the
canopy’s apex is at the same height as the lashing on the
three poles.

Wrap the canopy around one side of the tripod. The canopy
should be of double thickness, as you are wrapping an
entire parachute. You need only wrap half of the tripod, as
the remainder of the canopy will encircle the tripod in the
opposite direction.

Construct the entrance by wrapping the folded edges of the
canopy around two free-standing poles. You can then place
the poles side by side to close the tepee’s entrance.

Place all extra canopy underneath the tepee poles and
inside to create a floor for the shelter.

Leave a 30- to 50-centimeter (12- to 20-inch) opening at the
top for ventilation if you intend to have a fire inside the
tepee.

You need a 14-gore section (normally) of canopy, stakes, a
stout center pole, and an inner core and needle to construct this
tepee (Figure 5-5, page 5-9). You cut the suspension lines except
for 40- to 45-centimeter (16- to 18-inch) lengths at the canopy’s
lower lateral band.


Figure 5-5. One-Pole Parachute Tepee

To make this tepee, you should—

Select a shelter site and scribe a circle about 4 meters
(13 feet) in diameter on the ground.

Stake the parachute material to the ground using the lines
remaining at the lower lateral band.

After deciding where to place the shelter door, emplace a
stake and tie the first line (from the lower lateral band)
securely to it.

Stretch the parachute material taut to the next line,
emplace a stake on the scribed line, and tie the line to it.

Continue the staking process until you have tied all the
lines.

Loosely attach the top of the parachute material to the
center pole with a suspension line you previously cut and,
through trial and error, determine the point at which the
parachute material will be pulled tight once the center pole
is upright.

Securely attach the material to the pole.

Using a suspension line (or inner core), sew the end gores
together leaving 1 to 1.2 meters (3 to 4 feet) for a door.


NO-POLE PARACHUTE TEPEE

Except for the center pole, you use the same materials for a
no-pole parachute tepee (Figure 5-6), as for the one-pole
parachute tepee.

To make this tepee, you should—

Tie a line to the top of parachute material with a
previously cut suspension line.

Throw the line over a tree limb, and tie it to the tree trunk.

Starting at the opposite side from the door, emplace a
stake on the scribed 3.5- to 4.3-meter (12- to 14-foot) circle.

Tie the first line on the lower lateral band.

Continue emplacing the stakes and tying the lines to them.

After staking down the material, unfasten the line tied to
the tree trunk, tighten the tepee material by pulling on this line,
and tie it securely to the tree trunk.

Figure 5-6. No-Pole Parachute Tepee

ONE-MAN SHELTER

A one-man shelter (Figure 5-7, page 5-11) you can easily
make using a parachute requires a tree and three poles. One pole
should be about 4.5 meters (15 feet) long and the other two about
3 meters (10 feet) long.


Figure 5-7. One-Man Shelter

To make this shelter, you should—

Secure the 4.5-meter (15-foot) pole to the tree at about
waist height.

Lay the two 3-meter (10-foot) poles on the ground on either
side of and in the same direction as the 4.5-meter (15-foot)
pole.

Lay the folded canopy over the 4.5-meter (15-foot) pole so
that about the same amount of material hangs on both
sides.

Tuck the excess material under the 3-meter (10-foot) poles
and spread it on the ground inside to serve as a floor.

Stake down or put a spreader between the two 3-meter (10-
foot) poles at the shelter’s entrance so they will not slide
inward.

Use any excess material to cover the entrance.

The parachute cloth makes this shelter wind-resistant, and
the shelter is small enough that it is easily warmed. A candle,
used carefully, can keep the inside temperature comfortable.
However, this shelter is unsatisfactory when snow is falling, as
even a light snowfall will cave it in.


PARACHUTE HAMMOCK

You can make a hammock using six to eight gores of
parachute canopy and two trees about 4.5 meters (15 feet) apart
(Figure 5-8, page 5-13).

FIELD-EXPEDIENT LEAN-TO

If you are in a wooded area and have enough natural
materials, you can make a field-expedient lean-to (Figure 5-9,
page 5-14) without the aid of tools or with only a knife. It takes
longer to make this type of shelter than it does to make other
types, but it will protect you from the elements.

You will need two trees (or upright poles) about 2 meters (7
feet) apart; one pole about 2 meters (7 feet) long and 2.5
centimeters (1 inch) in diameter; five to eight poles about 3
meters (10 feet) long and 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) in diameter for
beams; cord or vines for securing the horizontal support to the
trees; and other poles, saplings, or vines to crisscross the beams.

To make this lean-to, you should—

Tie the 2-meter (7-foot) pole to the two trees at waist to
chest height. This is the horizontal support. If a standing
tree is not available, construct a bipod using Y-shaped
sticks or two tripods.

Place one end of the beams (3-meter [10-foot] poles) on one
side of the horizontal support. As with all lean-to type
shelters, be sure to place the lean-to’s backside into the
wind.

Crisscross saplings or vines on the beams.

Cover the framework with brush, leaves, pine needles, or
grass, starting at the bottom and working your way up like
shingling.

Place straw, leaves, pine needles, or grass inside the
shelter for bedding.


Figure 5-8. Parachute Hammock


Figure 5-9. Field-Expedient Lean-to and Fire Reflector

In cold weather, add to your lean-to’s comfort by building a
fire reflector wall (Figure 5-9). Drive four 1.5-meter-long (5-footlong)
stakes into the ground to support the wall. Stack green logs
on top of one another between the support stakes. Form two rows
of stacked logs to create an inner space within the wall that you
can fill with dirt. This action not only strengthens the wall but
makes it more heat reflective. Bind the top of the support stakes
so that the green logs and dirt will stay in place.

With just a little more effort you can have a drying rack.
Cut a few 2-centimeter-diameter (3/4-inch-diameter) poles long
enough to span the distance between the lean-to’s horizontal
support and the top of the fire reflector wall. Lay one end of the
poles on the lean-to support and the other end on top of the
reflector wall. Place and tie smaller sticks across these poles. You
now have a place to dry clothes, meat, or fish.

SWAMP BED

In a marsh or swamp, or any area with standing water or
continually wet ground, the swamp bed (Figure 5-10, page 5-15)
keeps you out of the water. When selecting such a site, consider
the weather, wind, tides, and available materials.


Figure 5-10. Swamp Bed

To make a swamp bed, you should—

Look for four trees clustered in a rectangle, or cut four
poles (bamboo is ideal) and drive them firmly into the
ground so they form a rectangle. They should be far
enough apart and strong enough to support your height
and weight, to include equipment.

Cut two poles that span the width of the rectangle. They,
too, must be strong enough to support your weight.

Secure these two poles to the trees (or poles). Be sure they
are high enough above the ground or water to allow for
tides and high water.

Cut additional poles that span the rectangle’s length. Lay
them across the two side poles and secure them.

Cover the top of the bed frame with broad leaves or grass
to form a soft sleeping surface.

Build a fire pad by laying clay, silt, or mud on one corner of
the swamp bed and allow it to dry.

Another shelter designed to get you above and out of the
water or wet ground uses the same rectangular configuration as
the swamp bed. You simply lay sticks and branches lengthwise on
the inside of the trees (or poles) until there is enough material to
raise the sleeping surface above the water level.


NATURAL SHELTERS

Do not overlook natural formations that provide shelter.
Examples are caves, rocky crevices, clumps of bushes, small
depressions, large rocks on leeward sides of hills, large trees with
low-hanging limbs, and fallen trees with thick branches.
However, when selecting a natural formation—

Stay away from low ground such as ravines, narrow
valleys, or creek beds. Low areas collect the heavy cold air
at night and are therefore colder than the surrounding
high ground. Thick, brushy, low ground also harbors more
insects.

Check for poisonous snakes, ticks, mites, scorpions, and
stinging ants.

Look for loose rocks, dead limbs, coconuts, or other natural
growth than could fall on your shelter.

DEBRIS HUT

For warmth and ease of construction, the debris hut (Figure
5-11, page 5-17) is one of the best. When shelter is essential to
survival, build this shelter.

To make a debris hut, you should—

Build it by making a tripod with two short stakes and a
long ridgepole or by placing one end of a long ridgepole on
top of a sturdy base.

Secure the ridgepole (pole running the length of the
shelter) using the tripod method or by anchoring it to a
tree at about waist height.

Prop large sticks along both sides of the ridgepole to create
a wedge-shaped ribbing effect. Ensure the ribbing is wide
enough to accommodate your body and steep enough to
shed moisture.

Place finer sticks and brush crosswise on the ribbing.
These form a latticework that will keep the insulating
material (grass, pine needles, leaves) from falling through
the ribbing into the sleeping area.

Add light, dry, if possible, soft debris over the ribbing until
the insulating material is at least 1 meter (3 feet) thick—
the thicker the better.


Figure 5-11. Debris Hut

Place a 30-centimeter (1-foot) layer of insulating material
inside the shelter.

At the entrance, pile insulating material that you can drag
to you once inside the shelter to close the entrance or build
a door.

As a final step in constructing this shelter, add shingling
material or branches on top of the debris layer to prevent
the insulating material from blowing away in a storm.

TREE-PIT SNOW SHELTER

If you are in a cold, snow-covered area where evergreen
trees grow and you have a digging tool, you can make a tree-pit
shelter (Figure 5-12, page 5-18).

To make this shelter, you should—

Find a tree with bushy branches that provides overhead
cover.


Dig out the snow around the tree trunk until you reach the
depth and diameter you desire, or until you reach the
ground.

Pack the snow around the top and the inside of the hole to
provide support.

Find and cut other evergreen boughs. Place them over the
top of the pit to give you additional overhead cover. Place
evergreen boughs in the bottom of the pit for insulation.

See Chapter 15 for other arctic or cold weather shelters.

Figure 5-12. Tree-Pit Snow Shelter

BEACH SHADE SHELTER

The beach shade shelter (Figure 5-13, page 5-19) protects
you from the sun, wind, rain, and heat. It is easy to make using
natural materials.

To make this shelter, you should—

Find and collect driftwood or other natural material to use
as support beams and as a digging tool.

Select a site that is above the high water mark.


Scrape or dig out a trench running north to south so that it
receives the least amount of sunlight. Make the trench
long and wide enough for you to lie down comfortably.

Mound soil on three sides of the trench. The higher the
mound, the more space inside the shelter.

Lay support beams (driftwood or other natural material)
that span the trench on top of the mound to form the
framework for a roof.

Enlarge the shelter’s entrance by digging out more sand in
front of it.

Use natural materials such as grass or leaves to form a bed
inside the shelter.

Figure 5-13. Beach Shade Shelter

DESERT SHELTERS

In an arid environment, consider the time, effort, and
material needed to make a shelter. If you have material such as a
poncho, canvas, or a parachute, use it along with such terrain
features as rock outcroppings, mounds of sand, or depressions
between dunes or rocks to make your shelter.

When using rock outcroppings, you should—

Anchor one end of your poncho (canvas, parachute, or other
material) on the edge of the outcrop using rocks or other
weights.


Extend and anchor the other end of the poncho so it
provides the best possible shade.

In a sandy area, you should—

Build a mound of sand or use the side of a sand dune for
one side of the shelter.

Anchor one end of the material on top of the mound using
sand or other weights.

Extend and anchor the other end of the material so it
provides the best possible shade.

NOTE: If you have enough material, fold it in half and form a 30-
to 45-centimeter (12- to 18-inch) airspace between the two halves.
This airspace will reduce the temperature under the shelter.

A belowground shelter (Figure 5-14, page 5-21) can reduce
the midday heat as much as 16 to 22 degrees C (30 to 40 degrees
F). However, building it requires more time and effort than for
other shelters. Since your physical effort will make you sweat more
and increase dehydration, construct it before the heat of the day.

To make this shelter, you should—

Find a low spot or depression between dunes or rocks. If
necessary, dig a trench 45 to 60 centimeters (18 to 24
inches) deep, and long and wide enough for you to lie in
comfortably.

Pile the sand you take from the trench to form a mound
around three sides.

On the open end of the trench, dig out more sand so you
can get in and out of your shelter easily.

Cover the trench with your material.

Secure the material in place using sand, rocks, or other
weights.

If you have extra material, you can further decrease the
midday temperature in the trench by securing the material 30 to
45 centimeters (12 to 18 inches) above the other cover. This
layering of the material will reduce the inside temperature 11 to
22 degrees C (20 to 40 degrees F).


Figure 5-14. Belowground Desert Shelter

The open desert shelter is of similar construction, except all
sides are open to air currents and circulation. For maximum
protection, you need a minimum of two layers of parachute
material (Figure 5-15). White is the best color to reflect heat; the
innermost layer should be of darker material.

Figure 5-15. Open Desert Shelter


 Water Procurement

Water is one of your most urgent needs in a
survival situation. You can’t live long without it,
especially in hot areas where you lose water
rapidly through perspiration. Even in cold areas,
you need a minimum of 2 liters of water each day
to maintain efficiency.

More than three-fourths of your body is
composed of fluids. Your body loses fluid because
of heat, cold, stress, and exertion. To function
effectively, you must replace the fluid your body
loses. So, one of your first goals is to obtain an
adequate supply of water.

WATER SOURCES

Almost any environment has water present to some degree.
Figure 6-1, pages 6-2 and 6-3, lists possible sources of water in
various environments. It also provides information on how to
make the water potable.

NOTE: If you do not have a canteen, cup, can, or other type of
container, improvise one from plastic or water-resistant cloth.
Shape the plastic or cloth into a bowl by pleating it. Use pins or
other suitable items—even your hands—to hold the pleats.


Environment

Sources of
Water

Means of
Obtaining and/or
Making Potable

Remarks

Frigid areas

Snow and ice

Melt and purify.

Do not eat without melting! Eating
snow or ice can reduce body
temperature and lead to more
dehydration.

Snow or ice are no purer than the
water from which they come.

Sea ice that is gray in color or
opaque is salty. Do not use it without
desalting it. Sea ice that is crystalline
with a bluish cast has little salt in it.

At sea

Sea

Use desalinator.

Do not drink seawater without
desalting.

Rain

Catch rain in
tarps or in other
water-holding
containers.

If tarp or water-holding material is
coated with salt, wash it in the sea
before using (very little salt will
remain on it).

Sea ice

See previous remarks for frigid
areas.

Beach

Ground

Fresh

Dig hole deep
enough to allow
water to seep in;
obtain rocks, build
fire, and heat
rocks; drop hot
rocks in water;
hold cloth over
hole to absorb
steam; wring
water from cloth.

Dig behind first
group of sand
dunes. This will
allow the
collection of fresh
water.

Alternate method if a container or
bark pot is available: Fill container or
pot with seawater; build fire and boil
water to produce steam; hold cloth
over container to absorb steam;
wring water from cloth.

Desert

Ground

In valleys and
low areas

At foot of concave
banks of dry rivers

At foot of cliffs
or rock outcrops

At first depression
behind first sand
dune of dry lakes

Wherever you find
damp surface
sand

Wherever you find
green vegetation

Dig holes deep
enough to allow
water to seep in.

In a sand dune belt, any available
water will be found beneath the
original valley floor at the edge of
dunes.



Figure 6-1. Water Sources in Different Environments


Environment

Sources of
Water

Means of
Obtaining and/or
Making Potable

Remarks

Desert (cont)

Cacti

Cut off the top of
a barrel cactus
and mash or
squeeze the pulp.

CAUTION: Do
not eat pulp.
Place pulp in
mouth, suck out
juice, and
discard pulp.

Without a machete, cutting into a
cactus is difficult and takes time
since you must get past the long,
strong spines and cut through the
tough rind.

Depressions or
holes in rocks

Periodic rainfall may collect in pools,
seep into fissures, or collect in holes
in rocks.

Fissures in rock

Insert flexible
tubing and siphon
water. If fissure is
large enough, you
can lower a
container into it.

Porous rock

Insert flexible
tubing and siphon
water.

Condensation on
metal

Use cloth to
absorb water,
then wring water
from cloth.

Extreme temperature variations
between night and day may cause
condensation on metal surfaces.

Following are signs to watch for in
the desert to help you find water:

All trails lead to water. You
should follow in the direction in
which the trails converge. Signs of
camps, campfire ashes,
animal droppings, and trampled
terrain may mark trails.

Flocks of birds will circle over
water holes. Some birds fly to
water holes at dawn and sunset.
Their flight at these times is
usually fast and close to the
ground. Bird tracks or chirping
sounds in the evening or early
morning sometimes indicate that
water is nearby.



Figure 6-1. Water Sources in Different Environments (Continued)

If you do not have a reliable source to replenish your water
supply, stay alert for ways in which your environment can help you.


NOTE: DO NOT substitute the fluids listed in Figure 6-2 for water.

Fluid

Remarks

Alcoholic beverages

Dehydrate the body and cloud judgment.

Urine

Contains harmful body wastes. Is about 2
percent salt.

Blood

Is salty and considered a food; therefore,
requires additional body fluids to digest.
May transmit disease.

Seawater

Is about 4 percent salt. It takes about 2
liters of body fluids to rid the body of
waste from 1 liter of seawater. Therefore,
by drinking seawater you deplete your
body’s water supply, which can cause
death.



Figure 6-2. The Effects of Substitute Fluids

Heavy dew can provide water. Tie rags or tufts of fine grass
around your ankles and walk through dew-covered grass before
sunrise. As the rags or grass tufts absorb the dew, wring the
water into a container. Repeat the process until you have a supply
of water or until the dew is gone. Australian natives sometimes
mop up as much as 1 liter an hour this way.

Bees or ants going into a hole in a tree may point to a
water-filled hole. Siphon the water with plastic tubing or scoop it
up with an improvised dipper. You can also stuff cloth in the hole
to absorb the water and then wring it from the cloth.

Water sometimes gathers in tree crotches or rock crevices.
Use the above procedures to get the water. In arid areas, bird
droppings around a crack in the rocks may indicate water in or
near the crack.

Green bamboo thickets are an excellent source of fresh
water. Water from green bamboo is clear and odorless. To get the
water, bend a green bamboo stalk, tie it down, and cut off the top
(Figure 6-3, page 6-5). The water will drip freely during the night.
Old, cracked bamboo may also contain water.


Figure 6-3. Water From Green Bamboo

Wherever you find banana trees, plantain trees, or
sugarcane, you can get water. Cut down the tree, leaving about a
30-centimeter (12-inch) stump, and scoop out the center of the
stump so that the hollow is bowl-shaped. Water from the roots
will immediately start to fill the hollow. The first three fillings of
water will be bitter, but succeeding fillings will be palatable. The
stump (Figure 6-4, page 6-6) will supply water for up to 4 days.
Be sure to cover it to keep out insects.


Figure 6-4. Water From Plantain or Banana Tree Stump

Some tropical vines can give you water. Cut a notch in the
vine as high as you can reach, then cut the vine off close to the
ground. Catch the dropping liquid in a container or in your mouth
(Figure 6-5, page 6-7).


Figure 6-5. Water From a Vine

The milk from young, green (unripe) coconuts is a good
thirst quencher. However, the milk from mature, brown, coconuts
contains an oil that acts as a laxative. Drink in moderation only.

In the American tropics you may find large trees whose
branches support air plants. These air plants may hold a
considerable amount of rainwater in their overlapping, thickly
growing leaves. Strain the water through a cloth to remove
insects and debris.

You can get water from plants with moist pulpy centers.
Cut off a section of the plant and squeeze or smash the pulp so
that the moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container.

Plant roots may provide water. Dig or pry the roots out of
the ground, cut them into short pieces, and smash the pulp so
that the moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container.


Fleshy leaves, stems, or stalks, such as bamboo, contain
water. Cut or notch the stalks at the base of a joint to drain out
the liquid.

The following trees can also provide water:

Palms. The buri, coconut, sugar, rattan, and nips contain
liquid. Bruise a lower frond and pull it down so the tree
will “bleed” at the injury.

Traveler’s tree. Found in Madagascar, this tree has a
cuplike sheath at the base of its leaves in which water
collects.

Umbrella tree. The leaf bases and roots of this tree of
western tropical Africa can provide water.

Baobab tree. This tree of the sandy plains of northern
Australia and Africa collects water in its bottlelike trunk
during the wet season. Frequently, you can find clear,
fresh water in these trees after weeks of dry weather.

STILL CONSTRUCTION

You can use stills in various areas of the world. They draw
moisture from the ground and from plant material. You need
certain materials to build a still, and you need time to let it collect
the water. It takes about 24 hours to get 0.5 to 1 liter of water.

ABOVEGROUND STILLS

You can construct two types of aboveground stills. To make
the vegetation bag still, you need a sunny slope on which to
place the still, a clear plastic bag, green leafy vegetation, and a
small rock (Figure 6-6, page 6-9).


Figure 6-6. Vegetation Bag Still

To make the still, you should—

Fill the bag with air by turning the opening into the breeze
or by “scooping” air into the bag.

Fill the plastic bag one-half to three-fourths full of green
leafy vegetation. Be sure to remove all hard sticks or sharp
spines that might puncture the bag.

Place a small rock or similar item in the bag.

Close the bag and tie the mouth securely as close to the
end of the bag as possible to keep the maximum amount of
air space. If you have a piece of tubing, a small straw, or a
hollow reed, insert one end in the mouth of the bag before
you tie it securely. Then tie off or plug the tubing so that


air will not escape. This tubing will allow you to drain out
condensed water without untying the bag.

Place the bag, mouth downhill, on a slope in full sunlight.
Position the mouth of the bag slightly higher than the low
point in the bag.

Settle the bag in place so that the rock works itself into the
low point in the bag.

To get the condensed water from the still, loosen the tie
around the bag’s mouth and tip the bag so that the water
collected around the rock will drain out. Then retie the mouth
securely and reposition the still to allow further condensation.

Change the vegetation in the bag after extracting most of
the water from it. This will ensure maximum output of water.

Making a transpiration bag still is similar to the
vegetation bag, only easier. Simply tie the plastic bag over a leafy
tree limb with a tube inserted, and tie the mouth of the bag off
tightly around the branch to form an airtight seal. Tie the end of
the limb so that it hangs below the level of the mouth of the bag.
The water will collect there (Figure 6-7).

The same limb may be used for 3 to 5 days without causing
long-term harm to the limb. It will heal itself within a few hours
of removing the bag.

Figure 6-7. Water Transpiration Bag


BELOWGROUND STILL

To make a belowground still, you need a digging tool, a
container, a clear plastic sheet, a drinking tube, and a rock
(Figure 6-8).

Figure 6-8. Belowground Still

Select a site where you believe the soil will contain moisture
(such as a dry streambed or a low spot where rainwater has
collected). The soil at this site should be easy to dig, and sunlight
must hit the site most of the day.

To construct the still, you should—

Dig a bowl-shaped hole about 1 meter (3 feet) across and
60 centimeters (24 inches) deep.

Dig a sump in the center of the hole. The sump’s depth and
perimeter will depend on the size of the container that you
have to place in it. The bottom of the sump should allow
the container to stand upright.

Anchor the tubing to the container’s bottom by forming a
loose overhand knot in the tubing.

Place the container upright in the sump.


Extend the unanchored end of the tubing up, over, and
beyond the lip of the hole.

Place the plastic sheet over the hole, covering its edges
with soil to hold it in place.

Place a rock in the center of the plastic sheet.

Lower the plastic sheet into the hole until it is about 40
centimeters (16 inches) below ground level. It now forms
an inverted cone with the rock at its apex. Make sure that
the cone’s apex is directly over your container. Also make
sure the plastic cone does not touch the sides of the hole
because the earth will absorb the condensed water.

Put more soil on the edges of the plastic to hold it securely
in place and to prevent the loss of moisture.

Plug the tube when not in use to keep the moisture from
evaporating and to keep insects out.

You can drink water without disturbing the still by using
the tube as a straw. By opening the still, you release the moist,
warm air that has accumulated.

You may want to use plants in the hole as a moisture
source. If so, dig out additional soil from the sides of the hole to
form a slope on which to place the plants. Then proceed as above.

If polluted water is your only moisture source, dig a small
trough outside the hole about 25 centimeters (10 inches) from the
still’s lip (Figure 6-9, page 6-13). Dig the trough about 25
centimeters (10 inches) deep and 8 centimeters (3 inches) wide.
Pour the polluted water in the trough. Be sure you do not spill
any polluted water around the rim of the hole where the plastic
sheet touches the soil. The trough holds the polluted water and
the soil filters it as the still draws it. The water then condenses
on the plastic and drains into the container. This process works
extremely well when your only water source is salt water.

You will need at least three stills to meet your individual
daily water intake needs. In comparison to the belowground still
and the water transpiration bag still, the vegetation bag produces
the best yield of water.


Figure 6-9. Belowground Still to Get Potable Water
From Polluted Water

WATER PURIFICATION

Rainwater collected in clean containers or in plants is
usually safe for drinking. However, purify water from lakes,
ponds, swamps, springs, or streams, especially the water near
human settlements or in the tropics.

When possible, purify all water you get from vegetation or
from the ground by boiling or using iodine or chlorine. After
purifying a canteen of water, you must partially unscrew the cap
and turn the canteen upside down to rinse unpurified water from
the threads of the canteen where your mouth touches.

Purify water by the following methods:

Use water purification tablets. (Follow the directions
provided.)

Place 5 drops of 2 percent tincture of iodine in a canteen
full of clear water. If the canteen is full of cloudy or cold
water, use 10 drops. (Let the canteen of water stand for 30
minutes before drinking.)

Use 2 drops of 10 percent (military strength) povidoneiodine
or 1 percent titrated povidone-iodine. The civilian


equivalent is usually 2 percent strength, so 10 drops will
be needed. Let stand for 30 minutes. If the water is cold
and clear, wait 60 minutes. If it’s very cold or cloudy, add 4
drops and wait 60 minutes.

Place 2 drops of chlorine bleach (5.25 percent sodium
hypochlorite) in a canteen of water. Let stand 30 minutes.
If the water is cold or cloudy, wait 60 minutes. Remember
that not all bleach is the same around the world; check the
available level of sodium hypochlorite.

Use potassium permanganate, commonly marketed as
Condy’s Crystals, for a number of applications, including
emergency disinfection of water. The crystals are of a
nonuniform size, so you must judge the actual dosage by
the color of the water after adding the crystals. Add three
small crystals to 1 liter (1 quart) of water. If the water
turns a bright pink after waiting 30 minutes, the water is
considered purified. If the water turns a dark pink, there is
too much potassium permanganate to drink safely. Either
add more water to dilute the mixture or save it for use as
an antiseptic solution. If the water becomes a full red, like
the color of cranberry juice, the solution may be used as an
antifungal solution.

Boil your drinking water. This is the safest method of
purifying your drinking water. By achieving a rolling boil,
you can ensure that you are destroying all living
waterborne pathogens.

By drinking nonpotable water you may contract diseases or
swallow organisms that can harm you and may easily lead to
potentially fatal waterborne illnesses.

Two of the most prevalent pathogens found in most water
sources throughout the world are—

Giardia, which causes Giardiasis (beaver fever). It is
characterized by an explosive, watery diarrhea
accompanied by severe cramps lasting 7 to 14 days.

Cryptosporidium, which causes Cryptosporidiosis. It is
much like Giardiasis, only more severe and prolonged, and
there is no known cure but time. Diarrhea may be mild
and can last from 3 days to 2 weeks.


NOTE: The only effective means of neutralizing Cryptosporidium
is by boiling or by using a commercial microfilter or reverseosmosis
filtration system. Chemical disinfectants such as iodine
tablets or bleach have not shown to be 100 percent effective in
eliminating Cryptosporidium.

Examples of other diseases or organisms are—

Dysentery. You may experience severe, prolonged diarrhea
with bloody stools, fever, and weakness.

Cholera and typhoid. You may be susceptible to these
diseases regardless of inoculations. Cholera can cause
profuse, watery diarrhea, vomiting, and leg cramps.
Typhoid symptoms include fever, headache, loss of
appetite, constipation, and bleeding in the bowel.

Hepatitis A. Symptoms include diarrhea, abdominal pain,
jaundice, and dark urine. This infection can spread
through close person-to-person contact or ingestion of
contaminated water or food.

Flukes. Stagnant, polluted water—especially in tropical
areas—often contains blood flukes. If you swallow flukes,
they will bore into the bloodstream, live as parasites, and
cause disease.

Leeches. If you swallow a leech, it can hook onto the throat
passage or inside the nose. It will suck blood, create a
wound, and move to another area. Each bleeding wound
may become infected.

WATER FILTRATION DEVICES

If the water you find is also muddy, stagnant, and foulsmelling,
you can clear the water—

By placing it in a container and letting it stand for 12
hours.

By pouring it through a filtering system.

NOTE: These procedures only clear the water and make it more
palatable. You will have to purify it.

To make a filtering system, place several centimeters or
layers of filtering material such as sand, crushed rock, charcoal,


or cloth in bamboo, a hollow log, or an article of clothing
(Figure 6-10).

Figure 6-10. Water Filtering Systems

Remove the odor from water by adding charcoal from your
fire. Charcoal is also helpful in absorbing some agricultural and
industrial chemicals. Let the water stand for 45 minutes before
drinking it.


Firecraft

In many survival situations, the ability to start a
fire can make the difference between living and
dying. Fire can fulfill many needs. It can provide
warmth and comfort. It not only cooks and
preserves food, it also provides warmth in the
form of heated food that saves calories our body
normally uses to produce body heat. You can use
fire to purify water, sterilize bandages, signal for
rescue, and provide protection from animals. It
can be a psychological boost by providing peace of
mind and companionship. You can also use fire to
produce tools and weapons.

Fire can cause problems, as well. The enemy can
detect the smoke and light it produces. It can
cause forest fires or destroy essential equipment.
Fire can also cause burns and carbon monoxide
poisoning when used in shelters.

Weigh your need for fire against your need to
avoid enemy detection.

BASIC FIRE PRINCIPLES

To build a fire, it helps to understand the basic principles of
a fire. Fuel (in a nongaseous state) does not burn directly. When
you apply heat to a fuel, it produces a gas. This gas, combined
with oxygen in the air, burns.

Understanding the concept of the fire triangle is very
important in correctly constructing and maintaining a fire. The
three sides of the triangle represent air, heat, and fuel. If you
remove any of these, the fire will go out. The correct ratio of these
components is very important for a fire to burn at its greatest
capability. The only way to learn this ratio is to practice.


SITE SELECTION AND PREPARATION

You will have to decide what site and arrangement to use.
Before building a fire consider—

The area (terrain and climate) in which you are operating.

The materials and tools available.

Time; how much time do you have?

Need; why do you need a fire?

Security; how close is the enemy?

Look for a dry spot that—

Is protected from the wind.

Is suitably placed in relation to your shelter (if any).

Will concentrate the heat in the direction you desire.

Has a supply of wood or other fuel available. (Figure 7-4,
pages 7-5 and 7-6, lists types of material you can use.)

If you are in a wooded or brush-covered area, clear the
brush and scrape the surface soil from the spot you have selected.
Clear a circle at least 1 meter (3 feet) in diameter so there is little
chance of the fire spreading.

If time allows, construct a fire wall using logs or rocks. This
wall will help to reflect or direct the heat where you want it
(Figure 7-1, page 7-3). It will also reduce flying sparks and cut
down on the amount of wind blowing into the fire. However, you
will need enough wind to keep the fire burning.


Figure 7-1. Types of Fire Walls

In some situations, you may find that an underground
fireplace will best meet your needs. It conceals the fire and serves
well for cooking food. To make an underground fireplace or
Dakota fire hole (Figure 7-2, page 7-4)—

Dig a hole in the ground.

On the upwind side of this hole, poke or dig a large
connecting hole for ventilation.

Build your fire in the hole as illustrated.


Figure 7-2. Dakota Fire Hole

If you are in a snow-covered area, use green logs to make a
dry base for your fire (Figure 7-3). Trees with wrist-sized trunks
are easily broken in extreme cold. Cut or break several green logs
and lay them side by side on top of the snow. Add one or two more
layers. Lay the top layer of logs opposite those below it.

Figure 7-3. Base for Fire in Snow-covered Area


FIRE MATERIAL SELECTION

You need three types of materials (Figure 7-4, pages 7-5 and
7-6) to build a fire.

Tinder is dry material that ignites with little heat—a spark
starts a fire. The tinder must be absolutely dry to be sure just a
spark will ignite it. If you have a device that generates only
sparks, charred cloth will be almost essential. It holds a spark for
long periods, allowing you to put tinder on the hot area to
generate a small flame. You can make charred cloth by heating
cotton cloth until it turns black, but does not burn. Once it is
black, you must keep it in an airtight container to keep it dry.
Prepare this cloth well in advance of any survival situation. Add
it to your individual survival kit. Other impromptu items could be
alcohol pads or petroleum jelly gauze.

Kindling is readily combustible material that you add to the
burning tinder. Again, this material should be absolutely dry to
ensure rapid burning. Kindling increases the fire’s temperature
so that it will ignite less combustible material.

Fuel is less combustible material that burns slowly and
steadily once ignited.

Tinder

Kindling

Fuel

Birch bark.

Shredded inner bark from
cedar, chestnut, red elm
trees.

Fine wood shavings.

Dead grass, ferns, moss,
fungi.

Straw.

Sawdust.

Very fine pitchwood
scrapings.

Dead evergreen needles.

Small twigs.

Small strips of wood.

Lighter knot from pine tree
stumps with a heavy
concentration of resin.

Heavy cardboard.

Pieces of wood removed from
the inside of larger pieces.

Wood that has been doused
with highly flammable
materials, such as gasoline,
oil, or wax.

Dry, standing
wood and dry,
dead branches.

Dry inside (heart)
of fallen tree
trunks and large
branches.

Green wood that
is finely split.

Dry grasses
twisted into
bunches.



Figure 7-4. Materials for Building Fires


Tinder

Kindling

Fuel

Punk (the completely
rotted portions of dead
logs or trees).

Evergreen tree knots.

Bird down (fine feathers).

Down seed heads
(milkweed, dry cattails,
bulrush, or thistle).

Fine, dried vegetable
fibers.

Spongy threads of dead
puffball.

Dead palm leaves.

Skinlike membrane lining
bamboo.

Lint from pockets and
seams.

Charred cloth.

Waxed paper.

Other bamboo shavings.

Gunpowder.

Cotton.

Peat dry enough
to burn (this may
be found at the
top of undercut
banks).

Dried animal
dung.

Animal fats.

Coal, oil shale, or
oil lying on the
surface.



Figure 7-4. Materials for Building Fires (Continued)

HOW TO BUILD A FIRE

There are several methods for laying a fire and each one
has advantages. The situation you are in will determine which of
the following fires to use.

TEPEE

To make a tepee fire (Figure 7-5, page 7-7), arrange the
tinder and a few sticks of kindling in the shape of a tepee or cone.
Light the center. As the tepee burns, the outside logs will fall
inward, feeding the fire. This type of fire burns well even with
wet wood.


LEAN-TO

To lay a lean-to fire (Figure 7-5), push a green stick into the
ground at a 30-degree angle. Point the end of the stick in the direction
of the wind. Place some tinder deep under this lean-to stick. Lean
pieces of kindling against the lean-to stick. Light the tinder. As the
kindling catches fire from the tinder, add more kindling.

CROSS-DITCH

To use the cross-ditch method (Figure 7-5), scratch a cross
about 30 centimeters (12 inches) in size in the ground. Dig the
cross 7.5 centimeters (about 3 inches) deep. Put a large wad of
tinder in the middle of the cross. Build a kindling pyramid above
the tinder. The shallow ditch allows air to sweep under the tinder
to provide a draft.

PYRAMID

To lay the pyramid fire (Figure 7-5), place two small logs or
branches parallel on the ground. Place a solid layer of small logs
across the parallel logs. Add three or four more layers of logs,
each layer smaller than and at a right angle to the layer below it.
Make a starter fire on top of the pyramid. As the starter fire
burns, it will ignite the logs below it. This gives you a fire that
burns downward, requiring no attention during the night.

Figure 7-5. Methods for Laying Fires


There are several other ways to lay a fire that are quite
effective. Your situation and the material available in the area
may make another method more suitable.

HOW TO LIGHT A FIRE

Always light your fire from the upwind side. Make sure you
lay the tinder, kindling, and fuel so that your fire will burn as
long as you need it. Igniters provide the initial heat required to
start the tinder burning. They fall into two categories: modern
methods and primitive methods.

MODERN METHODS

Modern igniters use modern devices. These are items that
we normally think of to start a fire.

Matches

Make sure these matches are waterproof. Also, store them
in a waterproof container along with a dependable striker pad.

Convex Lens

Use this method (Figure 7-6) only on bright, sunny days.
The lens can come from binoculars, a camera, telescopic sights, or
magnifying glasses. Angle the lens to concentrate the sun’s rays
on the tinder. Hold the lens over the same spot until the tinder
begins to smolder. Gently blow or fan the tinder into a flame and
apply it to the fire lay.

Figure 7-6. Lens Method


Metal Match

Place a flat, dry leaf under your tinder with a portion
exposed. Place the tip of the metal match on the dry leaf, holding
the metal match in one hand and a knife in the other. Scrape your
knife against the metal match to produce sparks. The sparks will
hit the tinder. When the tinder starts to smolder, proceed as
above.

Battery

Use a battery to generate a spark. Use of this method
depends on the type of battery available. Attach a wire to each
terminal. Touch the ends of the bare wires together next to the
tinder so the sparks will ignite it.

Gunpowder

Often, you will have ammunition with your equipment. If
so, carefully extract the bullet from the shell casing by moving the
bullet back and forth. Use the gunpowder as tinder. Discard the
casing and primers. A spark will ignite the powder.

NOTE: Be extremely careful during this operation as the primers
are still sensitive and even a small pile of gunpowder can give
surprising results.

PRIMITIVE METHODS

Primitive igniters are those attributed to our early
ancestors. They can be time-consuming, which requires you to be
patient and persistent.

Flint and Steel

The direct spark method is the easiest of the primitive
methods to use. The flint and steel method is the most reliable of
the direct spark methods. Strike a flint or other hard, sharpedged
rock with a piece of carbon steel (stainless steel will not
produce a good spark). This method requires a loose-jointed wrist
and practice. When the tinder catches a spark, blow on it. The
spark will spread and burst into flames.


Fire-Plow

The fire-plow (Figure 7-7) is a friction method of ignition. To
use this method, cut a straight groove in a softwood base and
plow the blunt tip of a hardwood shaft up and down the groove.
The plowing action of the shaft pushes out small particles of wood
fibers. Then, as you apply more pressure on each stroke, the
friction ignites the wood particles.

Figure 7-7. Fire-Plow

Bow and Drill

The technique of starting a fire with a bow and drill (Figure
7-8, page 7-11) is simple, but you must exert much effort and be
persistent to produce a fire. You need the following items to use
this method:

Socket. The socket is an easily grasped stone or piece of
hardwood with a slight depression in one side. Use it to
hold the drill in place and to apply downward pressure.

Drill. The drill should be a straight, seasoned hardwood
stick about 2 centimeters (3/4 inch) in diameter and 25
centimeters (10 inches) long. The top end is round and the
low end blunt (to produce more friction).


Fire board. Although any board may be used, a seasoned
softwood board about 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) thick and 10
centimeters (4 inches) wide is preferable. Cut a depression
about 2 centimeters (3/4 inch) from the edge on one side of
the board. On the underside, make a V-shaped cut from
the edge of the board to the depression.

Bow. The bow is a resilient, green stick about 2.5
centimeters (3/4 inch) in diameter with a bowstring. The
type of wood is not important. The bowstring can be any
type of cordage. Tie the bowstring from one end of the bow
to the other, without any slack.

Figure 7-8. Bow and Drill

To use the bow and drill, first prepare the fire lay. Then
place a bundle of tinder under the V-shaped cut in the fire board.
Place one foot on the fire board. Loop the bowstring over the drill
and place the drill in the precut depression on the fire board.
Place the socket, held in one hand, on the top of the drill to hold it
in position. Press down on the drill and saw the bow back and
forth to twirl the drill (Figure 7-8). Once you have established a


smooth motion, apply more downward pressure and work the bow
faster. This action will grind hot black powder into the tinder,
causing a spark to catch. Blow on the tinder until it ignites.

Primitive fire-building methods are exhausting and require
practice to ensure success. If your survival situation requires the
use of primitive methods, remember the following hints to help
you construct and maintain the fire:

If possible, use nonaromatic seasoned hardwood for fuel.

Collect kindling and tinder along the trail.

Add insect repellent to the tinder.

Keep the firewood dry.

Dry damp firewood near the fire.

Bank the fire to keep the coals alive overnight.

Carry lighted punk, when possible.

Be sure the fire is out before leaving camp.

Do not select wood lying on the ground. It may appear to
be dry but generally doesn’t provide enough friction.


Food Procurement

One of man’s most urgent requirements is food.
In contemplating virtually any hypothetical
survival situation, the mind immediately turns
to thoughts of food. Unless the situation occurs in
an arid environment, even water, which is more
important to maintaining body functions, will
usually follow food in our initial thoughts. The
survivor must remember that the three
essentials of survival—water, food, and shelter—
are prioritized according to the estimate of the
actual situation. This estimate must not only be
timely but accurate as well. We can live for
weeks without food but it may take days or
weeks to determine what is safe to eat and to
trap animals in the area. Therefore, you need to
begin food gathering in the earliest stages of
survival as your endurance will decrease daily.
Some situations may well dictate that shelter
precede both food and water.

ANIMALS FOR FOOD

Unless you have the chance to take large game, concentrate
your efforts on the smaller animals. They are more abundant and
easier to prepare. You need not know all the animal species that
are suitable as food; relatively few are poisonous, and they make
a smaller list to remember. However, it is important to learn the
habits and behavioral patterns of classes of animals. For example,
animals that are excellent choices for trapping, those that inhabit
a particular range and occupy a den or nest, those that have
somewhat fixed feeding areas, and those that have trails leading
from one area to another. Larger, herding animals, such as elk or
caribou, roam vast areas and are somewhat more difficult to trap.
Also, you must understand the food choices of a particular species
to select the proper bait.


You can, with relatively few exceptions, eat anything that
crawls, swims, walks, or flies. You must first overcome your
natural aversion to a particular food source. Historically, people
in starvation situations have resorted to eating everything
imaginable for nourishment. A person who ignores an otherwise
healthy food source due to a personal bias, or because he feels it is
unappetizing, is risking his own survival. Although it may prove
difficult at first, you must eat what is available to maintain your
health. Some classes of animals and insects may be eaten raw if
necessary, but you should, if possible, thoroughly cook all food
sources whenever possible to avoid illness.

INSECTS

The most abundant and easily caught life-form on earth are
insects. Many insects provide 65 to 80 percent protein compared
to 20 percent for beef. This fact makes insects an important, if not
overly appetizing, food source. Insects to avoid include all adults
that sting or bite, hairy or brightly colored insects, and
caterpillars and insects that have a pungent odor. Also avoid
spiders and common disease carriers such as ticks, flies, and
mosquitoes.

Rotting logs lying on the ground are excellent places to look
for a variety of insects including ants, termites, beetles, and
grubs, which are beetle larvae. Do not overlook insect nests on or
in the ground. Grassy areas, such as fields, are good areas to
search because the insects are easily seen. Stones, boards, or
other materials lying on the ground provide the insects with good
nesting sites. Check these sites. Insect larvae are also edible.
Insects that have a hard outer shell such as beetles and
grasshoppers will have parasites. Cook them before eating.
Remove any wings and barbed legs also. You can eat most softshelled
insects raw. The taste varies from one species to another.
Wood grubs are bland, but some species of ants store honey in
their bodies, giving them a sweet taste. You can grind a collection
of insects into a paste. You can mix them with edible vegetation.
You can cook them to improve their taste.

WORMS

Worms (Annelidea) are an excellent protein source. Dig for
them in damp humus soil and in the rootball of grass clumps, or
watch for them on the ground after a rain. After capturing them,


drop them into clean, potable water for about 15 minutes. The
worms will naturally purge or wash themselves out, after which
you can eat them raw.

CRUSTACEANS

Freshwater shrimp range in size from 0.25 centimeter (1/16
inch) up to 2.5 centimeters (1 inch). They can form rather large
colonies in mats of floating algae or in mud bottoms of ponds and
lakes.

Crayfish are akin to marine lobsters and crabs. You can
distinguish them by their hard exoskeleton and five pairs of legs,
the front pair having oversized pincers. Crayfish are active at
night, but you can locate them in the daytime by looking under
and around stones in streams. You can also find them by looking
in the soft mud near the chimney-like breathing holes of their
nests. You can catch crayfish by tying bits of offal or internal
organs to a string. When the crayfish grabs the bait, pull it to
shore before it has a chance to release the bait.

You can find saltwater lobsters, crabs, and shrimp from the
surf’s edge out to water 10 meters (33 feet) deep. Shrimp may
come to a light at night where you can scoop them up with a net.
You can catch lobsters and crabs with a baited trap or a baited
hook. Crabs will come to bait placed at the edge of the surf, where
you can trap or net them. Lobsters and crabs are nocturnal and
caught best at night.

NOTE: You must cook all freshwater crustaceans, mollusks, and
fish. Fresh water tends to harbor many dangerous organisms (see
Chapter 6), animal and human contaminants, and possibly
agricultural and industrial pollutants.

MOLLUSKS

This class includes octopuses and freshwater and saltwater
shellfish such as snails, clams, mussels, bivalves, barnacles,
periwinkles, chitons, and sea urchins (Figure 8-1, page 8-4). You
find bivalves similar to our freshwater mussel and terrestrial and
aquatic snails worldwide under all water conditions.


Figure 8-1. Edible Mollusks

River snails or freshwater periwinkles are plentiful in
rivers, streams, and lakes of northern coniferous forests. These
snails may be pencil point or globular in shape.


In fresh water, look for mollusks in the shallows, especially
in water with a sandy or muddy bottom. Look for the narrow
trails they leave in the mud or for the dark elliptical slit of their
open valves.

Near the sea, look in the tidal pools and the wet sand. Rocks
along beaches or extending as reefs into deeper water often bear
clinging shellfish. Snails and limpets cling to rocks and seaweed
from the low water mark upward. Large snails, called chitons,
adhere tightly to rocks above the surf line.

Mussels usually form dense colonies in rock pools, on logs,
or at the base of boulders.

Steam, boil, or bake mollusks in the shell. They make
excellent stews in combination with greens and tubers.

FISH

Fish represent a good source of protein and fat. They offer
some distinct advantages to the survivor or evader. They are
usually more abundant than mammal wildlife, and the ways to
get them are silent. To be successful at catching fish, you must
know their habits. For instance, fish tend to feed heavily before a
storm. Fish are not likely to feed after a storm when the water is
muddy and swollen. Light often attracts fish at night. When there
is a heavy current, fish will rest in places where there is an eddy,
such as near rocks. Fish will also gather where there are deep


pools, under overhanging brush, and in and around submerged
foliage, logs, or other objects that offer them shelter.

There are no poisonous freshwater fish. However, the
catfish species has sharp, needlelike protrusions on its dorsal fins
and barbels. These can inflict painful puncture wounds that
quickly become infected.

Cook all freshwater fish to kill parasites. As a precaution,
also cook saltwater fish caught within a reef or within the
influence of a freshwater source. Any marine life obtained farther
out in the sea will not contain parasites because of the saltwater
environment. You can eat these raw.

Most fish encountered are edible. The organs of some species
are always poisonous to man; other fish can become toxic because
of elements in their diets. Ciguatera is a form of human poisoning
caused by the consumption of subtropical and tropical marine fish
which have accumulated naturally occurring toxins through their
diet. These toxins build up in the fish’s tissues. The toxins are
known to originate from several algae species that are common to
ciguatera endemic regions in the lower latitudes. Cooking does not
eliminate the toxins; neither does drying, smoking, or marinating.
Marine fish most commonly implicated in ciguatera poisoning
include the barracudas, jacks, mackerel, triggerfish, snappers, and
groupers. Many other species of warm water fishes harbor
ciguatera toxins. The occurrence of toxic fish is sporadic, and not
all fish of a given species or from a given locality will be toxic. This
explains why red snapper and grouper are a coveted fish off the
shores of Florida and the East Coast. While they are a restaurant
and fisherman’s favorite, and a common fish market choice, they
can also be associated with 100 cases of food poisonings in May
1988, Palm Beach County, Florida. The poisonings resulted in a
statewide warning against eating hogfish, grouper, red snapper,
amberjack, and barracuda caught at the Dry Tortuga Bank. A
major outbreak of ciguatera occurred in Puerto Rico between April
and June 1981 prompting a ban on the sale of barracuda,
amberjack, and blackjack. Other examples of poisonous saltwater
fish are the porcupine fish, cowfish, thorn fish, oilfish, and puffer
(Figure 8-2, page 8-7).


Figure 8-2. Fish With Poisonous Flesh


AMPHIBIANS

Frogs are easily found around bodies of fresh water.
Frogs seldom move from the safety of the water’s edge. At the
first sign of danger, they plunge into the water and bury
themselves in the mud and debris. Frogs are characterized by
smooth, moist skin. There are few poisonous species of frogs.
Avoid any brightly colored frog or one that has a distinct “X”
mark on its back as well as all tree frogs. Do not confuse toads
with frogs. Toads may be recognized by their dry, “warty” or
bumpy skin. They are usually found on land in drier
environments. Several species of toads secrete a poisonous
substance through their skin as a defense against attack.
Therefore, to avoid poisoning, do not handle or eat toads.

Do not eat salamanders; only about 25 percent of all
salamanders are edible, so it is not worth the risk of selecting a
poisonous variety. Salamanders are found around the water. They
are characterized by smooth, moist skin and have only four toes
on each foot.

REPTILES

Reptiles are a good protein source and relatively easy to
catch. Thorough cooking and hand washing is imperative with
reptiles. All reptiles are considered to be carriers of salmonella,
which exists naturally on their skin. Turtles and snakes are
especially known to infect man. If you are in an undernourished
state and your immune system is weak, salmonella can be deadly.
Cook food thoroughly and be especially fastidious washing your
hands after handling any reptile. Lizards are plentiful in most
parts of the world. They may be recognized by their dry, scaly
skin. They have five toes on each foot. The only poisonous ones
are the Gila monster and the Mexican beaded lizard. Care must
be taken when handling and preparing the iguana and the
monitor lizard, as they commonly harbor the salmonellal virus in
their mouth and teeth. The tail meat is the best tasting and
easiest to prepare.

Turtles are a very good source of meat. There are actually
seven different flavors of meat in each snapping turtle. Most of
the meat will come from the front and rear shoulder area,
although a large turtle may have some on its neck. The box turtle
(Figure 8-3, page 8-9) is a commonly encountered turtle that you


should not eat. It feeds on poisonous mushrooms and may build
up a highly toxic poison in its flesh. Cooking does not destroy this
toxin. Also avoid the hawksbill turtle (Figure 8-3), found in the
Atlantic Ocean, because of its poisonous thorax gland. Poisonous
snakes, alligators, crocodiles, and large sea turtles present
obvious hazards to the survivor.

Figure 8-3. Turtles With Poisonous Flesh

BIRDS

All species of birds are edible, although the flavor will vary
considerably. The only poisonous bird is the Pitohui, native only
to New Guinea. You may skin fish-eating birds to improve their
taste. As with any wild animal, you must understand birds’
common habits to have a realistic chance of capturing them. You
can take pigeons, as well as some other species, from their roost
at night by hand. During the nesting season, some species will
not leave the nest even when approached. Knowing where and
when the birds nest makes catching them easier (Figure 8-4, page
8-10). Birds tend to have regular flyways going from the roost to a
feeding area, to water, and so forth. Careful observation should
reveal where these flyways are and indicate good areas for
catching birds in nets stretched across the flyways (Figure 8-5,
page 8-11). Roosting sites and waterholes are some of the most
promising areas for trapping or snaring.


Nesting birds present another food source—eggs. Remove
all but two or three eggs from the clutch, marking the ones that
you leave. The bird will continue to lay more eggs to fill the
clutch. Continue removing the fresh eggs, leaving the ones you
marked.

Types of Birds

Frequent Nesting Places

Nesting Periods

Inland birds.

Tree, woods, or fields.

Spring and early summer
in temperate and arctic
regions; year-round in the
tropics.

Cranes and
herons.

Mangrove swamps or high
trees near water.

Spring and early summer.

Some species of
owls.

High trees.

Late December through
March.

Ducks, geese, and
swans.

Tundra areas near ponds,
rivers, or lakes.

Spring and early summer
in arctic regions.

Some sea birds.

Sandbars or low sand
islands.

Spring and early summer
in temperate and arctic
regions.

Gulls, auks,
murres, and
cormorants.

Steep rocky coasts.

Spring and early summer
in temperate and arctic
regions.



Figure 8-4. Birds’ Nesting Places

MAMMALS

Mammals are excellent protein sources and, for Americans,
the tastiest food source. There are some drawbacks to obtaining
mammals. In a hostile environment, the enemy may detect any
traps or snares placed on land. The amount of injury an animal
can inflict is in direct proportion to its size. All mammals have
teeth and nearly all will bite in self-defense. Even a squirrel can
inflict a serious wound and any bite presents a serious risk of
infection. Also, any mother can be extremely aggressive in
defense of her young. Any animal with no route of escape will
fight when cornered.


Figure 8-5. Catching Birds in a Net

All mammals are edible; however, the polar bear and
bearded seal have toxic levels of vitamin A in their livers. The
platypus, native to Australia and Tasmania, is an egg-laying,
semiaquatic mammal that has poisonous claws on its hind legs.
Scavenging mammals, such as the opossum, may carry diseases.

TRAPS AND SNARES

For an unarmed survivor or evader, or when the sound of a
rifle shot could be a problem, trapping or snaring wild game is a
good alternative. Several well-placed traps have the potential to
catch much more game than a man with a rifle is likely to shoot.
To be effective with any type of trap or snare, you must—

Be familiar with the species of animal you intend to catch.

Be capable of constructing a proper trap and properly
masking your scent.

Not alarm the prey by leaving signs of your presence.


There are no catchall traps you can set for all animals. You
must determine what species are in the area and set your traps
specifically with those animals in mind. Look for the following:

Runs and trails.

Tracks.

Droppings.

Chewed or rubbed vegetation.

Nesting or roosting sites.

Feeding and watering areas.

Position your traps and snares where there is proof that
animals pass through. You must determine if it is a “run” or a
“trail.” A trail will show signs of use by several species and will be
rather distinct. A run is usually smaller and less distinct and will
only contain signs of one species. You may construct a perfect
snare, but it will not catch anything if haphazardly placed in the
woods. Animals have bedding areas, water holes, and feeding
areas with trails leading from one to another. You must place
snares and traps around these areas to be effective.

If you are in a hostile environment, trap and snare
concealment is important. However, it is equally important not to
create a disturbance that will alarm the animal and cause it to
avoid the trap. Therefore, if you must dig, remove all fresh dirt
from the area. Most animals will instinctively avoid a pitfall-type
trap. Prepare the various parts of a trap or snare away from the
site, carry them in, and set them up. Such actions make it easier
to avoid disturbing the local vegetation, thereby alerting the prey.
Do not use freshly cut, live vegetation to construct a trap or
snare. Freshly cut vegetation will “bleed” sap that has an odor the
prey will be able to smell. It is an alarm signal to the animal.

You must remove or mask the human scent on and around
the trap you set. Although birds do not have a developed sense of
smell, nearly all mammals depend on smell even more than on
sight. Even the slightest human scent on a trap will alarm the
prey and cause it to avoid the area. Actually removing the scent
from a trap is difficult but masking it is relatively easy. Use the
fluid from the gall and urine bladders of previous kills. Do not use
human urine. Mud, particularly from an area with plenty of
rotting vegetation, is also good. Use it to coat your hands when


handling the trap and to coat the trap when setting it. In nearly
all parts of the world, animals know the smell of burned
vegetation and smoke. It is only when a fire is actually burning
that they become alarmed. Therefore, smoking the trap parts is
an effective means to mask your scent. If one of the above
techniques is not practical, and if time permits, allow a trap to
weather for a few days and then set it. Do not handle a trap while
it is weathering. When you position the trap, camouflage it as
naturally as possible to prevent detection by the enemy and to
avoid alarming the prey.

Traps or snares placed on a trail or run should use
funneling or channelization. To build a channel, construct a
funnel-shaped barrier extending from the sides of the trail toward
the trap, with the narrowest part nearest the trap.
Channelization should be inconspicuous to avoid alerting the
prey. As the animal gets to the trap, it cannot turn left or right
and continues into the trap. Few wild animals will back up,
preferring to face the direction of travel. Channelization does not
have to be an impassable barrier. You only have to make it
inconvenient for the animal to go over or through the barrier. For
best effect, the channelization should reduce the trail’s width to
just slightly wider than the targeted animal’s body. Maintain this
constriction at least as far back from the trap as the animal’s
body length, then begin the widening toward the mouth of the
funnel.

USE OF BAIT

Baiting a trap or snare increases your chances of catching
an animal. When catching fish, you must bait nearly all the
devices. Success with an unbaited trap depends on its placement
in a good location. A baited trap can actually draw animals to it.
The bait should be something the animal knows. However, this
bait should not be so readily available in the immediate area that
the animal can get it close by. For example, baiting a trap with
corn in the middle of a cornfield would not be likely to work.
Likewise, if corn is not grown in the region, a corn-baited trap
may arouse an animal’s curiosity and keep it alerted while it
ponders the strange food. Under such circumstances it may not go
for the bait. One bait that works well on small mammals is the


peanut butter from a meal, ready-to-eat (MRE) ration. Salt is also
a good bait. When using such baits, scatter bits of it around the
trap to give the prey a chance to sample it and develop a craving
for it. The animal will then overcome some of its caution before it
gets to the trap.

If you set and bait a trap for one species but another species
takes the bait without being caught, try to determine what the
animal was. Then set a proper trap for that animal, using the
same bait.

NOTE: Once you have successfully trapped an animal, you will
not only gain confidence in your ability, you will also have
resupplied yourself with bait for several more traps.

CONSTRUCTION

Traps and snares crush, choke, hang, or entangle the prey.
A single trap or snare will commonly incorporate two or more of
these principles. The mechanisms that provide power to the trap
are usually very simple. The struggling victim, the force of
gravity, or a bent sapling’s tension provides the power.

The heart of any trap or snare is the trigger. When planning a
trap or snare, ask yourself how it should affect the prey, what is the
source of power, and what will be the most efficient trigger. Your
answers will help you devise a specific trap for a specific species.
Traps are designed to catch and hold or to catch and kill. Snares are
traps that incorporate a noose to accomplish either function.

Simple Snare

A simple snare (Figure 8-6, page 8-15) consists of a noose
placed over a trail or den hole and attached to a firmly planted
stake. If the noose is some type of cordage placed upright on a
game trail, use small twigs or blades of grass to hold it up.
Filaments from spider webs are excellent for holding nooses open.
Make sure the noose is large enough to pass freely over the
animal’s head. As the animal continues to move, the noose
tightens around its neck. The more the animal struggles, the
tighter the noose gets. This type of snare usually does not kill the
animal. If you use cordage, it may loosen enough to slip off the
animal’s neck. Wire is therefore the best choice for a simple snare.


Figure 8-6. Simple Snare

Drag Noose

Use a drag noose on an animal run (Figure 8-7, page 8-16).
Place forked sticks on either side of the run and lay a sturdy
crossmember across them. Tie the noose to the crossmember and
hang it at a height above the animal’s head. (Nooses designed to
catch by the head should never be low enough for the prey to step
into with a foot.) As the noose tightens around the animal’s neck,
the animal pulls the crossmember from the forked sticks and
drags it along. The surrounding vegetation quickly catches the
crossmember and the animal becomes entangled.

Twitch-Up

A twitch-up is a supple sapling that, when bent over and
secured with a triggering device, will provide power to a variety of
snares. Select a hickory or other hardwood sapling along the trail.
A twitch-up will work much faster and with more force if you
remove all the branches and foliage.


Figure 8-7. Drag Noose

Twitch-Up Snare

A simple twitch-up snare uses two forked sticks, each with
a long and short leg (Figure 8-8, page 8-17). Bend the twitch-up
and mark the trail below it. Drive the long leg of one forked stick
firmly into the ground at that point. Ensure the cut on the short
leg of this stick is parallel to the ground. Tie the long leg of the
remaining forked stick to a piece of cordage secured to the twitchup.
Cut the short leg so that it catches on the short leg of the
other forked stick. Extend a noose over the trail. Set the trap by
bending the twitch-up and engaging the short legs of the forked
sticks. When an animal catches its head in the noose, it pulls the
forked sticks apart, allowing the twitch-up to spring up and hang
the prey.

NOTE: Do not use green sticks for the trigger. The sap that oozes
out could glue them together.


Figure 8-8. Twitch-Up Snare

Squirrel Pole

A squirrel pole is a long pole placed against a tree in an
area showing a lot of squirrel activity (Figure 8-9, page 8-18).
Place several wire nooses along the top and sides of the pole so
that a squirrel trying to go up or down the pole will have to pass
through one or more of them. Position the nooses (5 to 6
centimeters [2 to 2 1/4-inches] in diameter) about 2.5 centimeters
(1 inch) off the pole. Place the top and bottom wire nooses 45
centimeters (18 inches) from the top and bottom of the pole to
prevent the squirrel from getting its feet on a solid surface. If this
happens, the squirrel will chew through the wire. Squirrels are
naturally curious. After an initial period of caution, they will try
to go up or down the pole and will be caught in the noose. The
struggling animal will soon fall from the pole and strangle. Other
squirrels will soon be drawn to the commotion. In this way, you
can catch several squirrels. You can emplace multiple poles to
increase the catch.


Figure. 8-9. Squirrel Pole

Ojibwa Bird Pole

An Ojibwa bird pole is a snare that has been used by Native
Americans for centuries (Figure 8-10, page 8-19). To be effective,
it should be placed in a relatively open area away from tall trees.
For best results, pick a spot near feeding areas, dusting areas, or
watering holes. Cut a pole 1.8 to 2.1 meters (6 to 7 feet) long and
trim away all limbs and foliage. Do not use resinous wood such as
pine. Sharpen the upper end to a point, then drill a smalldiameter
hole 5 to 7.5 centimeters (2 to 3 inches) down from the
top. Cut a small stick 10 to 15 centimeters (4 to 6 inches) long and
shape one end so that it will almost fit into the hole. This is the
perch. Plant the long pole in the ground with the pointed end up.
Tie a small weight, about equal to the weight of the targeted
species, to a length of cordage. Pass the free end of the cordage
through the hole, and tie a slip noose that covers the perch. Tie a
single overhand knot in the cordage and place the perch against
the hole. Allow the cordage to slip through the hole until the
overhand knot rests against the pole and the top of the perch. The
tension of the overhand knot against the pole and perch will hold
the perch in position. Spread the noose over the perch, ensuring it
covers the perch and drapes over on both sides. Most birds prefer
to rest on something above ground and will land on the perch. As
soon as the bird lands, the perch will fall, releasing the overhand


knot and allowing the weight to drop. The noose will tighten
around the bird’s feet, capturing it. If the weight is too heavy, it
will cut off the bird’s feet, allowing it to escape. Another variation
would be to use spring tension such as a tree branch in place of
the weight.

Figure 8-10. Ojibwa Bird Pole

Noosing Wand

A noose stick or “noosing wand” is useful for capturing
roosting birds or small mammals (Figure 8-11). It requires a
patient operator. This wand is more a weapon than a trap. It
consists of a pole (as long as you can effectively handle) with a
slip noose of wire or stiff cordage at the small end. To catch an
animal, you slip the noose over the neck of a roosting bird and
pull it tight. You can also place it over a den hole and hide in a
nearby blind. When the animal emerges from the den, you jerk
the pole to tighten the noose and thus capture the animal. Carry
a stout club to kill the prey.

Figure 8-11. Noosing Wand


Treadle Spring Snare

Use a treadle snare against small game on a trail (Figure
8-12, page 8-21). Dig a shallow hole in the trail. Then drive a
forked stick (fork down) into the ground on each side of the hole
on the same side of the trail. Select two fairly straight sticks that
span the two forks. Position these two sticks so that their ends
engage the forks. Place several sticks over the hole in the trail by
positioning one end over the lower horizontal stick and the other
on the ground on the other side of the hole. Cover the hole with
enough sticks so that the prey must step on at least one of them
to set off the snare. Tie one end of a piece of cordage to a twitchup
or to a weight suspended over a tree limb. Bend the twitch-up
or raise the suspended weight to determine where you will tie the
trigger. The trigger should be about 5 centimeters (2 inches) long.
Form a noose with the other end of the cordage. Route and spread
the noose over the top of the sticks over the hole. Place the trigger
stick against the horizontal sticks and route the cordage behind
the sticks so that the tension of the power source will hold it in
place. Adjust the bottom horizontal stick so that it will barely
hold against the trigger. As the animal places its foot on a stick
across the hole, the bottom horizontal stick moves down, releasing
the trigger and allowing the noose to catch the animal by the foot.
Because of the disturbance on the trail, an animal will be wary.
You must therefore use channelization. To increase the
effectiveness of this trap, a small bait well may be dug into the
bottom of the hole. Place some bait in the bottom of the hole to
lure the animal to the snare.

Figure 4 Deadfall

The figure 4 deadfall is a trigger used to drop a weight onto
a prey and crush it (Figure 8-13, page 8-22). The type of weight
used may vary, but it should be heavy enough to kill or
incapacitate the prey immediately. Construct the figure 4 using
three notched sticks. These notches hold the sticks together in a
figure 4 pattern when under tension. Practice making this trigger
beforehand; it requires close tolerances and precise angles in its
construction.


Figure 8-12. Treadle Spring Snare


Figure 8-13. Figure 4 Deadfall

Paiute Deadfall

The Paiute deadfall is similar to the figure 4 but uses a
piece of cordage and a catch stick (Figure 8-14, page 8-23). It has
the advantage of being easier to set than the figure 4. Tie one end
of a piece of cordage to the lower end of the diagonal stick. Tie the
other end of the cordage to another stick about 5 centimeters
(2 inches) long. This stick is the catch stick. Bring the cord
halfway around the vertical stick with the catch stick at a 90-
degree angle. Place the bait stick with one end against the drop
weight, or a peg driven into the ground, and the other against the
catch stick. When a prey disturbs the bait stick, it falls free,
releasing the catch stick. As the diagonal stick flies up, the weight
falls, crushing the prey. To increase the effectiveness of this trap,
a small bait well may be dug into the bottom of the hole. Place
some bait in the bottom of the hole to lure the animals to the
snare.


Figure 8-14. Paiute Deadfall

Bow Trap

A bow trap is one of the deadliest traps (Figure 8-15). It is
dangerous to man as well as animals. To construct this trap, build
a bow and anchor it to the ground with pegs. Adjust the aiming
point as you anchor the bow. Lash a toggle stick to the trigger
stick. Two upright sticks driven into the ground hold the trigger
stick in place at a point where the toggle stick will engage the
pulled bowstring. Place a catch stick between the toggle stick and
a stake driven into the ground. Tie a trip wire or cordage to the
catch stick and route it around stakes and across the game trail
where you tie it off (as in Figure 8-15). When the prey trips the
trip wire, the bow looses an arrow into it. A notch in the bow
serves to help aim the arrow.

Figure 8-15. Bow Trap


Pig Spear Shaft

To construct the pig spear shaft, select a stout pole about 2.5
meters (8 feet) long (Figure 8-16). At the smaller end, firmly lash
several small stakes. Lash the large end tightly to a tree along the
game trail. Tie a length of cordage to another tree across the trail.
Tie a sturdy, smooth stick to the other end of the cord. From the
first tree, tie a trip wire or cord low to the ground, stretch it across
the trail, and tie it to a catch stick. Make a slip ring from vines or
other suitable material. Encircle the trip wire and the smooth stick
with the slip ring. Emplace one end of another smooth stick within
the slip ring and its other end against the second tree. Pull the
smaller end of the spear shaft across the trail and position it
between the short cord and the smooth stick. As the animal trips
the trip wire, the catch stick pulls the slip ring off the smooth
sticks, releasing the spear shaft that springs across the trail and
impales the prey against the tree.

Figure 8-16. Pig Spear Shaft


Bottle Trap

A bottle trap is a simple trap for mice and voles (Figure 8-17).
Dig a hole 30 to 45 centimeters (12 to 18 inches) deep that is wider
at the bottom than at the top. Make the top of the hole as small as
possible. Place a piece of bark or wood over the hole with small
stones under it to hold it up 2.5 to 5 centimeters (1 to 2 inches) off
the ground. Mice or voles will hide under the cover to escape
danger and fall into the hole. They cannot climb out because of the
wall’s backward slope. Use caution when checking this trap; it is an
excellent hiding place for snakes.

Figure 8-17. Bottle Trap

KILLING DEVICES

There are several killing devices that you can construct to
help you obtain small game to help you survive. The rabbit stick,
the spear, the bow and arrow, and the sling are such devices.


RABBIT STICK

One of the simplest and most effective killing devices is a
stout stick as long as your arm, from fingertip to shoulder, called
a “rabbit stick.” You can throw it either overhand or sidearm and
with considerable force. It is best thrown so that it flies sideways,
increasing the chance of hitting the target. It is very effective
against small game that stops and freezes as a defense.

SPEAR

You can make a spear to kill small game and to fish. Jab
with the spear—do not throw it. Paragraph 8-67, page 8-32,
explains spearfishing.

BOW AND ARROW

A good bow is the result of many hours of work. You can
construct a suitable short-term bow fairly easily. When it loses its
spring or breaks, you can replace it. Select a hardwood stick about
1 meter (3 feet) long that is free of knots or limbs. Carefully
scrape the large end down until it has the same pull as the small
end. Careful examination will show the natural curve of the stick.
Always scrape from the side that faces you, or the bow will break
the first time you pull it. Dead, dry wood is preferable to green
wood. To increase the pull, lash a second bow to the first, front to
front, forming an “X” when viewed from the side. Attach the tips
of the bows with cordage and only use a bowstring on one bow.

Select arrows from the straightest dry sticks available. The
arrows should be about half as long as the bow. Scrape each shaft
smooth all around. You will probably have to straighten the shaft.
You can bend an arrow straight by heating the shaft over hot
coals. Do not allow the shaft to scorch or burn. Hold the shaft
straight until it cools.

You can make arrowheads from bone, glass, metal, or pieces
of rock. You can also sharpen and fire-harden the end of the shaft.
Fire hardening is actually a misnomer. To fire-harden wood, hold
it over hot coals or plunge it deep under the coals in the ashes,
being careful not to burn or scorch the wood. The purpose of fire
hardening is to harden the wood by drying the moisture out of it.

You must notch the ends of the arrows for the bowstring.
Cut or file the notch; do not split it. Fletching (adding feathers to


the notched end of an arrow) improves the arrow’s flight
characteristics. Fletching is recommended but not necessary on a
field-expedient arrow.

SLING

You can make a sling by tying two pieces of cordage, each
about 60 centimeters (24 inches) long, at opposite ends of a palmsized
piece of leather or cloth. Place a rock in the cloth and wrap
one cord around your middle finger and hold in your palm. Hold
the other cord between your forefinger and thumb. To throw the
rock, spin the sling several times in a circle and release the cord
between your thumb and forefinger. Practice to gain proficiency.
The sling is very effective against small game.

FISHING DEVICES

You can make your own fishhooks, nets, and traps. The
paragraphs below discuss several methods to obtain fish.

IMPROVISED FISHHOOKS

You can make field-expedient fishhooks from pins, needles,
wire, small nails, or any piece of metal. You can also use wood,
bone, coconut shell, thorns, flint, seashell, or tortoise shell. You
can also make fishhooks from any combination of these items
(Figure 8-18).

Figure 8-18. Improvised Fishhooks


To make a wooden hook, cut a piece of hardwood about 2.5
centimeters (1 inch) long and about 6 millimeters (1/4 inch) in
diameter to form the shank. Cut a notch in one end in which to place
the point. Place the point (piece of bone, wire, nail) in the notch. Hold
the point in the notch and tie securely so that it does not move out of
position. This is a fairly large hook. To make smaller hooks, use
smaller material.

A gorge or skewer is a small shaft of wood, bone, metal, or
other material. It is sharp on both ends and notched in the middle
where you tie cordage. Bait the gorge by placing a piece of bait on
it lengthwise. When the fish swallows the bait, it also swallows
the gorge. If you are tending the fishing line when the fish bites,
do not attempt to pull on the line to set the hook as you would
with a conventional hook. Allow the fish to swallow the bait to get
the gorge as far down its throat before the gorge sets itself.

STAKEOUT

A stakeout is a fishing device you can use in a hostile
environment (Figure 8-19). To construct a stakeout, drive two
supple saplings into the bottom of the lake, pond, or stream with
their tops just below the water surface. Tie a cord between them
just slightly below the surface. Tie two short cords with hooks or
gorges to this cord, ensuring that they cannot wrap around the
poles or each other. They should also not slip along the long cord.
Bait the hooks or gorges.

Figure 8-19. Stakeout


GILL NET

If a gill net is not available, you can make one using
parachute suspension line or similar material (Figure 8-20).
Remove the core lines from the suspension line and tie the casing
between two trees. Attach several core lines to the casing by
doubling them over and tying them with prusik knots or girth
hitches. These lines should be six times the desired depth of the
net (for example, a 6-foot [180-centimeter] piece of string girthhitched
over the casing will give you two 3-foot [90-centimeter]
pieces, which after completing the net, will provide a 1-foot [30-
centimeter] deep net). The length of the desired net and the size
of the mesh determine the number of core lines used and the
space between them. The recommended size of the spaces in the
net mesh is about 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) square. Starting at one
end of the casing, tie the second and the third core lines together
using an overhand knot. Then tie the fourth and fifth, sixth and
seventh, and so on, until you reach the last core line. You should
now have all core lines tied in pairs with a single core line
hanging at each end. Start the second row with the first core line,
tie it to the second, the third to the fourth, and so on.

Figure 8-20. Making a Gill Net


To keep the rows even and to regulate the size of the mesh,
tie a guideline to the trees. Position the guideline on the opposite
side of the net you are working on. Move the guideline down after
completing each row. The lines will always hang in pairs and you
always tie a cord from one pair to a cord from an adjoining pair.
Continue tying rows until the net is the desired width. Thread a
suspension line casing along the bottom of the net to strengthen
it. Use the gill net as shown in Figure 8-21. Angling the gill net
will help to reduce the amount of debris that may accumulate in
the net. Be sure to check it frequently.

Figure 8-21. Setting a Gill Net in the Stream

FISH TRAPS

You may trap fish using several methods (Figure 8-22, page
8-31). Fish baskets are one method. You construct them by lashing
several sticks together with vines into a funnel shape. You close
the top, leaving a hole large enough for the fish to swim through.


Figure 8-22. Various Types of Fish Traps

You can also use traps to catch saltwater fish, as schools
regularly approach the shore with the incoming tide and often
move parallel to the shore. Pick a location at high tide and build
the trap at low tide. On rocky shores, use natural rock pools.
On coral islands, use natural pools on the surface of reefs by
blocking the openings as the tide recedes. On sandy shores, use
sandbars and the ditches they enclose. Build the trap as a low
stone wall extending outward into the water and forming an angle
with the shore.


SPEARFISHING

If you are near shallow water (about waist deep) where the
fish are large and plentiful, you can spear them. To make a spear,
cut a long, straight sapling (Figure 8-23). Sharpen the end to a
point or attach a knife, jagged piece of bone, or sharpened metal.
You can also make a spear by splitting the shaft a few inches
down from the end and inserting a piece of wood to act as a
spreader. You then sharpen the two separated halves to points.
To spear fish, find an area where fish either gather or where
there is a fish run. Place the spear point into the water and slowly
move it toward the fish. Then, with a sudden push, impale the
fish on the stream bottom. Do not try to lift the fish with the
spear, as it with probably slip off and you will lose it; hold the
spear with one hand and grab and hold the fish with the other. Do
not throw the spear, especially if the point is a knife. You cannot
afford to lose a knife in a survival situation. Be alert to the
problems caused by light refraction when looking at objects in the
water. You must aim lower than the object, usually at the bottom
of the fish, to hit your mark.

Figure 8-23. Types of Spear Points


CHOP FISHING

At night, in an area with high fish density, you can use a
light to attract fish. Then, armed with a machete or similar
weapon, you can gather fish using the back side of the blade to
strike them. Do not use the sharp side as you will cut them in two
pieces and end up losing some of the fish.

FISH POISON

Another way to catch fish is by using poison. Poison works
quickly. It allows you to remain concealed while it takes effect. It
also enables you to catch several fish at one time. When using fish
poison, be sure to gather all of the affected fish, because many
dead fish floating downstream could arouse suspicion. Some
plants that grow in warm regions of the world contain rotenone, a
substance that stuns or kills cold-blooded animals but does not
harm persons who eat the animals. The best place to use
rotenone, or rotenone-producing plants, is in ponds or the
headwaters of small streams containing fish. Rotenone works
quickly on fish in water 21 degrees C (70 degrees F) or above.
The fish rise helplessly to the surface. It works slowly in water 10
to 21 degrees C (50 to 70 degrees F) and is ineffective in water
below 10 degrees C (50 degrees F). The following plants, used as
indicated, will stun or kill fish:

Anamirta cocculus (Figure 8-24, page 8-34). This woody
vine grows in southern Asia and on islands of the South
Pacific. Crush the bean-shaped seeds and throw them in
the water.

Croton tiglium (Figure 8-24, page 8-34). This shrub or
small tree grows in waste areas on islands of the South
Pacific. It bears seeds in three angled capsules. Crush the
seeds and throw them into the water.

Barringtonia (Figure 8-24, page 8-34). These large trees
grow near the sea in Malaya and parts of Polynesia. They
bear a fleshy one-seeded fruit. Crush the seeds and bark
and throw into the water.

Derris eliptica (Figure 8-24, page 8-34). This large genus of
tropical shrubs and woody vines is the main source of
commercially produced rotenone. Grind the roots into a
powder and mix with water. Throw a large quantity of the
mixture into the water.


Duboisia (Figure 8-24). This shrub grows in Australia and
bears white clusters of flowers and berrylike fruit. Crush
the plants and throw them into the water.

Tephrosia (Figure 8-24). This species of small shrubs,
which bears beanlike pods, grows throughout the tropics.
Crush or bruise bundles of leaves and stems and throw
them into the water.

Figure 8-24. Fish-Poisoning Plants


Lime. You can get lime from commercial sources and in
agricultural areas that use large quantities of it. You may
produce your own by burning coral or seashells. Throw the
lime into the water.

Nut husks. Crush green husks from butternuts or black
walnuts. Throw the husks into the water.

COOKING AND STORAGE OF FISH AND GAME

You must know how to prepare fish and game for cooking
and storage in a survival situation. Improper cleaning or storage
can result in inedible fish or game.

FISH

Do not eat fish that appears spoiled. Cooking does not
ensure that spoiled fish will be edible. Signs of spoilage are—

Sunken eyes.

Peculiar odor.

Suspicious color. (Gills should be red to pink. Scales should
be a pronounced shade of gray, not faded.)

Dents that stay in the fish’s flesh after pressed with your
thumb.

Slimy, rather than moist or wet, body.

Sharp or peppery taste.

Eating spoiled or rotten fish may cause diarrhea, nausea,
cramps, vomiting, itching, paralysis, or a metallic taste in the
mouth. These symptoms appear suddenly, 1 to 6 hours after
eating. Induce vomiting if symptoms appear.

Fish spoils quickly after death, especially on a hot day.
Prepare fish for eating as soon as possible after catching it. Cut
out the gills and the large blood vessels that lie near the spine.
Gut fish that are more than 10 centimeters (4 inches) long. Scale
or skin the fish.

You can impale a whole fish on a stick and cook it over an
open fire. However, boiling the fish with the skin on is the best
way to get the most food value. The fats and oil are under the
skin and, by boiling, you can save the juices for broth. You can
use any of the methods used to cook plant food to cook fish. Pack


fish into a ball of clay and bury it in the coals of a fire until the
clay hardens. Break open the clay ball to get to the cooked fish.
Fish is done when the meat flakes off. If you plan to keep the fish
for later, smoke or fry it. To prepare fish for smoking, cut off the
head and remove the backbone.

SNAKES

To skin a snake, first cut off its head, to include 10 to 15
centimeters (4 to 6 inches) behind the head. This will ensure you
remove the venom sac, which is located at the base of the head.
Bury the sac to prevent further contact. Then cut the skin down
the body 2 to 4 centimeters (1 to 1 1/2 inches). Peel the skin back,
then grasp the skin in one hand and the body in the other and
pull apart (Figure 8-25). On large, bulky snakes it may be
necessary to slit the belly skin. Cook snakes in the same manner
as small game. Remove the entrails and discard. Cut the snake
into small sections and boil or roast it.

Figure 8-25. Cleaning a Snake


BIRDS

After killing the bird, remove its feathers by either plucking
or skinning. Remember, skinning removes some of the food value.
Open up the body cavity and remove the entrails, saving the craw
(in seed-eating birds), heart, and liver. Cut off the feet. Cook by
boiling or roasting over a spit. Before cooking scavenger birds,
boil them at least 20 minutes to kill parasites.

SKINNING AND BUTCHERING GAME

Bleed the animal by cutting its throat. If possible, clean the
carcass near a stream. Place the carcass belly up and split the
hide from throat to tail, cutting around all sexual organs (Figure
8-26). Remove the musk glands at points A and B to avoid
tainting the meat. For smaller mammals, cut the hide around the
body and insert two fingers under the hide on both sides of the
cut and pull both pieces off (Figure 8-27, page 8-38).

NOTE: When cutting the hide, insert the knife blade under the
skin and turn the blade up so that only the hide gets cut. This
will also prevent cutting hair and getting it on the meat.

Figure 8-26. Skinning and Butchering Large Game


Figure 8-27. Skinning Small Game

Remove the entrails from smaller game by splitting the body
open and pulling them out with the fingers. Do not forget the chest
cavity. For larger game, cut the gullet away from the diaphragm.
Roll the entrails out of the body. Cut around the anus, then reach
into the lower abdominal cavity, grasp the lower intestine, and pull
to remove. Remove the urine bladder by pinching it off and cutting
it below the fingers. If you spill urine on the meat, wash it to avoid
tainting the meat. Save the heart and liver. Cut these open and
inspect for signs of worms or other parasites. Also inspect the
liver’s color; it could indicate a diseased animal. The liver’s surface
should be smooth and wet and its color deep red or purple. If the
liver appears diseased, discard it. However, a diseased liver does
not indicate you cannot eat the muscle tissue.

Cut along each leg from above the foot to the previously
made body cut. Remove the hide by pulling it away from the
carcass, cutting the connective tissue where necessary. Cut off the
head and feet.

Cut larger game into manageable pieces. First, slice the
muscle tissue connecting the front legs to the body. There are no
bones or joints connecting the front legs to the body on fourlegged
animals. Cut the hindquarters off where they join the
body. You must cut around a large bone at the top of the leg and
cut to the ball-and-socket hip joint. Cut the ligaments around the


joint and bend it back to separate it. Remove the large muscles
(the tenderloin or “backstrap”) that lie on either side of the spine.
Separate the ribs from the backbone. There is less work and less
wear on your knife if you break the ribs first, then cut through
the breaks.

Boil large meat pieces or cook them over a spit. You can
stew or boil smaller pieces, particularly those that remain
attached to bone after the initial butchering, as soup or broth.
You can cook body organs such as the heart, liver, pancreas,
spleen, and kidneys using the same methods as for muscle meat.
You can also cook and eat the brain. Cut the tongue out, skin it,
boil it until tender, and eat it.

SMOKING MEAT

To smoke meat, prepare an enclosure around a fire
Figure 8-28, page 8-40). Two ponchos snapped together will work.
The fire does not need to be big or hot. The intent is to produce
smoke and heat, not flame. Do not use resinous wood because its
smoke will ruin the meat. Use hardwoods to produce good smoke.
The wood should be somewhat green. If it is too dry, soak it. Cut
the meat into thin slices, no more than 6 millimeters (about 1/4
inch) thick, and drape them over a framework. Make sure none of
the meat touches another piece. Keep the poncho enclosure
around the meat to hold the smoke and keep a close watch on the
fire. Do not let the fire get too hot. Meat smoked overnight in this
manner will last about 1 week. Two days of continuous smoking
will preserve the meat for 2 to 4 weeks. Properly smoked meat
will look like a dark, curled, brittle stick and you can eat it
without further cooking. You can also use a pit to smoke meat
(Figure 8-29, page 8-40).


Figure 8-28. Tepee Smoker

Figure 8-29. Smoking Meat Over a Pit


DRYING MEAT

To preserve meat by drying, cut it into 6-millimeter
(1/4-inch) strips with the grain. Hang the meat strips on a rack in
a sunny location with good airflow. Keep the strips out of the
reach of animals. Cover the strips to keep off blowflies. Allow the
meat to dry thoroughly before eating. Properly dried meat will
have a dry, crisp texture and will not feel cool to the touch.

OTHER PRESERVATION METHODS

You can also preserve meats using the freezing or brine and
salt methods. In cold climates, you can freeze and keep meat
indefinitely. Freezing is not a means of preparing meat. You must
still cook it before eating. You can also preserve meat by soaking
it thoroughly in a saltwater solution. The solution must cover the
meat. You can use salt by itself but make sure you wash off the
salt before cooking.


Survival Use of Plants

After having solved the problems of finding
water, shelter, and animal food, you will have to
consider the use of plants you can eat. In a
survival situation you should always be on the
lookout for familiar wild foods and live off the
land whenever possible.

You must not count on being able to go for days
without food as some sources would suggest.
Even in the most static survival situation,
maintaining health through a complete and
nutritious diet is essential to maintaining
strength and peace of mind.

Nature can provide you with food that will let
you survive almost any ordeal, if you don’t eat
the wrong plant. You must therefore learn as
much as possible beforehand about the flora of
the region where you will be operating. Plants
can provide you with medicines in a survival
situation. Plants can supply you with weapons
and raw materials to construct shelters and build
fires. Plants can even provide you with chemicals
for poisoning fish, preserving animal hides, and
for camouflaging yourself and your equipment.

NOTE: You will find illustrations of the plants described in this
chapter in Appendixes B and C.

EDIBILITY OF PLANTS

Plants are valuable sources of food because they are widely
available, easily procured, and, in the proper combinations, can
meet all your nutritional needs.


Absolutely identify plants before using them as food. Poison
hemlock has killed people who mistook it for its relatives, wild
carrots and wild parsnips.

You may find yourself in a situation where you have had
the chance to learn the plant life of the region in which you must
survive. In this case you can use the Universal Edibility Test to
determine which plants you can eat and which to avoid.

It is important to be able to recognize both cultivated and
wild edible plants in a survival situation. Most of the information
in this chapter is directed toward identifying wild plants because
information relating to cultivated plants is more readily available.

Consider the following when collecting wild plants for food:

Plants growing near homes and occupied buildings or
along roadsides may have been sprayed with pesticides.
Wash these plants thoroughly. In more highly developed
countries with many automobiles, avoid roadside plants, if
possible, due to contamination from exhaust emissions.

Plants growing in contaminated water or in water
containing Giardia lamblia and other parasites are
contaminated themselves. Boil or disinfect them.

Some plants develop extremely dangerous fungal toxins.
To lessen the chance of accidental poisoning, do not eat any
fruit that is starting to spoil or is showing signs of mildew
or fungus.

Plants of the same species may differ in their toxic or
subtoxic compounds content because of genetic or
environmental factors. One example of this is the foliage of
the common chokecherry. Some chokecherry plants have
high concentrations of deadly cyanide compounds but
others have low concentrations or none. Horses have died
from eating wilted wild cherry leaves. Avoid any weed,


leaves, or seeds with an almondlike scent, a characteristic
of the cyanide compounds.

Some people are more susceptible to gastric distress (from
plants) than others. If you are sensitive in this way, avoid
unknown wild plants. If you are extremely sensitive to
poison ivy, avoid products from this family, including any
parts from sumacs, mangoes, and cashews.

Some edible wild plants, such as acorns and water lily
rhizomes, are bitter. These bitter substances, usually
tannin compounds, make them unpalatable. Boiling them
in several changes of water will usually remove these
bitter properties.

Many valuable wild plants have high concentrations of
oxalate compounds, also known as oxalic acid. Oxalates
produce a sharp burning sensation in your mouth and
throat and damage the kidneys. Baking, roasting, or
drying usually destroys these oxalate crystals. The corm
(bulb) of the jack-in-the-pulpit is known as the “Indian
turnip,” but you can eat it only after removing these
crystals by slow baking or by drying.

PLANT IDENTIFICATION

You identify plants, other than by memorizing particular
varieties through familiarity, by using such factors as leaf shape
and margin, leaf arrangements, and root structure.

The basic leaf margins (Figure 9-1, page 9-4) are toothed,
lobed, and toothless or smooth.


Figure 9-1. Leaf Margins

These leaves may be lance-shaped, elliptical, egg-shaped,
oblong, wedge-shaped, triangular, long-pointed, or top-shaped
(Figure 9-2).

Figure 9-2. Leaf Shapes


The basic types of leaf arrangements (Figure 9-3) are
opposite, alternate, compound, simple, and basal rosette.

Figure 9-3. Leaf Arrangements

The basic types of root structures are the taproot, tuber, bulb,
rhizome, clove, corm, and crown (Figure 9-4, page 9-6). Bulbs are
familiar to us as onions and, when sliced in half, will show
concentric rings. Cloves are those bulblike structures that remind
us of garlic and will separate into small pieces when broken apart.
This characteristic separates wild onions from wild garlic. Taproots
resemble carrots and may be single-rooted or branched, but usually
only one plant stalk arises from each root. Tubers are like potatoes
and daylilies. You will find these structures either on strings or in
clusters underneath the parent plants. Rhizomes are large
creeping rootstock or underground stems. Many plants arise from
the “eyes” of these roots. Corms are similar to bulbs but are solid
when cut rather than possessing rings. A crown is the type of root
structure found on plants such as asparagus. Crowns look much
like a mophead under the soil’s surface.


Figure 9-4. Root Structures

Learn as much as possible about the unique characteristics
of plants you intend to use for food. Some plants have both edible
and poisonous parts. Many are edible only at certain times of the
year. Others may have poisonous relatives that look very similar
to the varieties you can eat or use for medicine.

UNIVERSAL EDIBILITY TEST

There are many plants throughout the world. Tasting or
swallowing even a small portion of some can cause severe
discomfort, extreme internal disorders, and even death.
Therefore, if you have the slightest doubt about a plant’s edibility,
apply the Universal Edibility Test (Figure 9-5, page 9-7) before
eating any portion of it.


1.

Test only one part of a potential food plant at a time.

2.

Separate the plant into its basic components—leaves, stems, roots,
buds, and flowers.

3.

Smell the food for strong or acid odors. Remember, smell alone does
not indicate a plant is edible or inedible.

4.

Do not eat for 8 hours before starting the test.

5.

During the 8 hours you abstain from eating, test for contact poisoning
by placing a piece of the plant part you are testing on the inside of
your elbow or wrist. Usually 15 minutes is enough time to allow for a
reaction.

6.

During the test period, take nothing by mouth except purified water
and the plant part you are testing.

7.

Select a small portion of a single part and prepare it the way you plan
to eat it.

8.

Before placing the prepared plant part in your mouth, touch a small
portion (a pinch) to the outer surface of your lip to test for burning or
itching.

9.

If after 3 minutes there is no reaction on your lip, place the plant part
on your tongue, holding it there for 15 minutes.

10.

If there is no reaction, thoroughly chew a pinch and hold it in your
mouth for 15 minutes. Do not swallow.

11.

If no burning, itching, numbing, stinging, or other irritation occurs
during the 15 minutes, swallow the food.

12.

Wait 8 hours. If any ill effects occur during this period, induce vomiting
and drink a lot of water.

13.

If no ill effects occur, eat 0.25 cup of the same plant part prepared the
same way. Wait another 8 hours. If no ill effects occur, the plant part
as prepared is safe for eating.

CAUTION

Test all parts of the plant for edibility, as some plants have both
edible and inedible parts. Do not assume that a part that proved
edible when cooked is also edible when raw. Test the part raw to
ensure edibility before eating raw. The same part or plant may
produce varying reactions in different individuals.



Figure 9-5. Universal Edibility Test


Before testing a plant for edibility, make sure there are
enough plants to make the testing worth your time and effort.
Each part of a plant (roots, leaves, flowers, and so on) requires
more than 24 hours to test. Do not waste time testing a plant that
is not relatively abundant in the area.

Remember, eating large portions of plant food on an empty
stomach may cause diarrhea, nausea, or cramps. Two good
examples of this are such familiar foods as green apples and wild
onions. Even after testing plant food and finding it safe, eat it in
moderation.

You can see from the steps and time involved in testing for
edibility just how important it is to be able to identify edible
plants.

To avoid potentially poisonous plants, stay away from any
wild or unknown plants that have—

Milky or discolored sap.

Beans, bulbs, or seeds inside pods.

A bitter or soapy taste.

Spines, fine hairs, or thorns.

Foliage that resembles dill, carrot, parsnip, or parsley.

An almond scent in woody parts and leaves.

Grain heads with pink, purplish, or black spurs.

A three-leafed growth pattern.

Using the above criteria as eliminators when choosing
plants for the Universal Edibility Test will cause you to avoid
some edible plants. More important, these criteria will often help
you avoid plants that are potentially toxic to eat or touch.

An entire encyclopedia of edible wild plants could be
written, but space limits the number of plants presented here.
Learn as much as possible about the plant life of the areas where
you train regularly and where you expect to be traveling or
working. Figure 9-6, pages 9-9 and 9-10, list some of the most
common edible and medicinal plants. Detailed descriptions and
photographs of these and other common plants are in Appendix B.


Temperate Zone

Amaranth (Amaranths retroflex and other species)

Arrowroot (Sagittarius species)

Asparagus (Asparagus officials)

Beechnut (Fags species)

Blackberries (Rubes species)

Blueberries (Vaccinium species)

Burdock (Arctium lappa)

Cattail (Typha species)

Chestnut (Castanea species)

Chicory (Cichorium intybus)

Chufa (Cyperus esculentus)

Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)

Daylily (Hemerocallis fulva)

Nettle (Urtica species)

Oaks (Quercus species)

Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana)

Plantain (Plantago species)

Pokeweed (Phytolacca americana)

Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia species)

Purslane (Portulaca oleracea)

Sassafras (Sassafras albidum)

Sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella)

Strawberries (Fragaria species)

Thistle (Cirsium species)

Water lily and lotus (Nuphar, Nelumbo, and other species)

Wild onion and garlic (Allium species)

Wild rose (Rosa species)

Wood sorrel (Oxalis species)



Figure 9-6. Food Plants


Tropical Zone

Bamboo (Bambusa and other species)

Bananas (Musa species)

Breadfruit (Artocarpus incisa)

Cashew nut (Anacardium occidental)

Coconut (Cocoa nucifera)

Mango (Mangifera indica)

Palms (various species)

Papaya (Carica species)

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)

Taro (Colocasia species)

Desert Zone

Acacia (Acacia farnesiana)

Agave (Agave species)

Cactus (various species)

Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera)

Desert amaranth (Amaranths palmer)



Figure 9-6. Food Plants (Continued)

SEAWEEDS

One plant you should never overlook is seaweed. It is a form
of marine algae found on or near ocean shores. There are also some
edible freshwater varieties. Seaweed is a valuable source of iodine,
other minerals, and vitamin C. Large quantities of seaweed in an
unaccustomed stomach can produce a severe laxative effect.
Figure 9-7, page 9-11, lists various types of edible seaweed.

When gathering seaweed for food, find living plants
attached to rocks or floating free. Seaweed washed onshore any
length of time may be spoiled or decayed. You can dry freshly
harvested seaweed for later use.


Different types of seaweed should be prepared in different
ways. You can dry thin and tender varieties in the sun or over a
fire until crisp. Crush and add these to soups or broths. Boil
thick, leathery seaweeds for a short time to soften them. Eat
them as a vegetable or with other foods. You can eat some
varieties raw after testing for edibility.

Dulse (Rhodymenia palmata)

Green seaweed (Ulva lactuca)

Irish moss (Chondrus crispus)

Kelp (Alaria esculenta)

Laver (Porphyra species)

Mojaban (Sargassum fulvellum)

Sugar wrack (Laminaria saccharina)



Figure 9-7. Types of Edible Seaweed

PREPARATION OF PLANT FOOD

Although some plants or plant parts are edible raw, you
must cook others for them to be edible or palatable. Edible means
that a plant or food will provide you with necessary nutrients;
palatable means that it is pleasing to eat. Many wild plants are
edible but barely palatable. It is a good idea to learn to identify,
prepare, and eat wild foods.

Methods used to improve the taste of plant food include
soaking, boiling, cooking, or leaching. Leaching is done by
crushing the food (for example, acorns), placing it in a strainer,
and pouring boiling water through it or immersing it in running
water.

Boil leaves, stems, and buds until tender, changing the
water, if necessary, to remove any bitterness.

Boil, bake, or roast tubers and roots. Drying helps to
remove caustic oxalates from some roots like those in the Arum
family.


Leach acorns in water, if necessary, to remove the
bitterness. Some nuts, such as chestnuts, are good raw, but taste
better roasted.

You can eat many grains and seeds raw until they mature.
When they are hard or dry, you may have to boil or grind them
into meal or flour.

The sap from many trees, such as maples, birches, walnuts,
and sycamores, contains sugar. You may boil these saps down to a
syrup for sweetening. It takes about 35 liters of maple sap to
make 1 liter of maple syrup!

PLANTS FOR MEDICINE

In using plants for medical treatment, positive
identification of the plants involved is as critical as when using
them for food. Proper use of these plants is equally important.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

The following terms and their definitions are associated
with medicinal plant use:

Poultice. This is crushed leaves or other plant parts,
possibly heated, that are applied to a wound or sore either
directly or wrapped in cloth or paper. Poultices, when hot,
increase the circulation in the affected area and help
healing through the chemicals present in the plants. As
the poultice dries out, it draws the toxins out of a wound. A
poultice should be prepared to a “mashed potatoes-like”
consistency and applied as warm as the patient can stand.

Infusion or tisane or tea. This blend is the preparation of
medicinal herbs for internal or external application. You
place a small quantity of a herb in a container, pour hot
water over it, and let it steep (covered or uncovered) before
use. Care must always be taken to not drink too much of a
tea in the beginning of treatment as it may have adverse
reactions on an empty stomach.

Decoction. This is the extract of a boiled-down or simmered
herb leaf or root. You add herb leaf or root to water. You
bring them to a sustained boil or simmer them to draw


their chemicals into the water. The average ratio is about
28 to 56 grams (1 to 2 ounces) of herb to 0.5 liter of water.

Expressed juice. These are liquids or saps squeezed from
plant material and either applied to the wound or made
into another medicine.

Many natural remedies work slower than the medicines you
know. Therefore, start with smaller doses and allow more time for
them to take effect. Naturally, some will act more rapidly than
others. Many of these treatments are addressed in more detail in
Chapter 4.

SPECIFIC REMEDIES

The following remedies are for use only in a survival
situation. Do not use them routinely as some can be potentially
toxic and have serious long- term effects (for example, cancer).

Antidiarrheals for diarrhea. This can be one of the most
debilitating illnesses for a survivor or prisoner of war.
Drink tea made from the roots of blackberries and their
relatives to stop diarrhea. White oak bark and other barks
containing tannin are also effective when made into a
strong tea. However, because of possible negative effects on
the kidneys, use them with caution and only when nothing
else is available. Clay, ashes, charcoal, powdered chalk,
powdered bones, and pectin can be consumed or mixed in a
tannic acid tea with good results. These powdered
mixtures should be taken in a dose of two tablespoons
every 2 hours. Clay and pectin can be mixed together to
give a crude form of Kaopectate. Pectin is obtainable from
the inner part of citrus fruit rinds or from apple pomace.
Tea made from cowberry, cranberry, or hazel leaves works,
too. Because of its inherent danger to an already undernourished
survivor, several of these methods may need to
be tried simultaneously to stop debilitating diarrhea,
which can quickly dehydrate even a healthy individual.

Antihemorrhagics for bleeding. Make medications to stop
bleeding from plantain leaves, or, most effectively, from
the leaves of the common yarrow or woundwort (Achillea
millefolium). These mostly give a physical barrier to the
bleeding. Prickly pear (the raw, peeled part) or witch hazel
can be applied to wounds. Both are good for their


astringent properties (they shrink blood vessels). For
bleeding gums or mouth sores, sweet gum can be chewed
or used as a toothpick. This provides some chemical and
antiseptic properties as well.

Antiseptics to clean infections. Use antiseptics to cleanse
wounds, snake bites, sores, or rashes. You can make
antiseptics from the expressed juice of wild onion or garlic,
the expressed juice from chickweed leaves, or the crushed
leaves of dock. You can also make antiseptics from a
decoction of burdock root, mallow leaves or roots, or white
oak bark (tannic acid). Prickly pear, slippery elm, yarrow,
and sweet gum are all good antiseptics as well. All these
medications are for external use only. Two of the best
antiseptics are sugar and honey. Sugar should be applied
to the wound until it becomes syrupy, then washed off and
reapplied. Honey should be applied three times daily (see
Chapter 4). Honey is by far the best of the antiseptics for
open wounds and burns, with sugar being second.

Antipyretics for fevers. Treat a fever with a tea made from
willow bark, an infusion of elder flowers or fruit, linden
flower tea, and aspen or slippery elm bark decoction.
Yarrow tea is also good. Peppermint tea is reportedly good
for fevers.

Colds and sore throats. Treat these illnesses with a
decoction made from either plantain leaves or willow bark.
You can also use a tea made from burdock roots, mallow or
mullein flowers or roots, and yarrow or mint leaves.

Analgesics for aches, pains, and sprains. Treat these
conditions with externally applied poultices of dock,
plantain, chickweed, willow bark, garlic, or sorrel. Sweet
gum has some analgesic (pain relief) properties. Chewing
the willow bark or making a tea from it is the best for pain
relief as it contains the raw component of aspirin. You can
also use salves made by mixing the expressed juices of
these plants in animal fat or vegetable oils.

Antihistamines and astringents for itching or contact
dermatitis. Relieve the itch from insect bites, sunburn, or
plant poisoning rashes by applying a poultice of jewelweed
(Impatiens biflora) or witch hazel, which give a cooling
relief and dry out the weeping (Hamamelis virginiana)


leaves. The jewelweed juice will help when applied to
poison ivy, rashes, or insect stings. Jewelweed and aloe
vera help relieve sunburn. In addition, dandelion sap,
crushed cloves of garlic, and sweet gum have been used.
Crushed leaves of burdock have received only so-so reports
of success, but crushed, green plantain leaves show relief
over a few days. Jewelweed is probably the best of these
plants. Tobacco will deaden the nerve endings and can also
be used to treat toothaches.

Sedatives. Get help in falling asleep by brewing a tea made
from mint leaves or passionflower leaves.

Hemorrhoids. Treat them with external washes from elm
bark or oak bark tea, from the expressed juice of plantain
leaves, or from a Solomon’s seal root decoction. Tannic acid
or witch hazel will provide soothing relief because of their
astringent properties.

Heat rash. Tannic acid or witch hazel will provide soothing
relief because of their astringent properties but cornstarch
or any crushed and powdered, nonpoisonous plant should
help to dry out the rash after a thorough cleansing.

Constipation. Relieve constipation by drinking decoctions
from dandelion leaves, rose hips, or walnut bark. Eating
raw daylily flowers will also help. Large amounts of water
in any form are critical to relieving constipation.

Antihelminthics for worms or intestinal parasites. Most
treatment for worms or parasites are toxic—just more so
for the worms or parasites than for humans. Therefore, all
treatments should be used in moderation. Treatments
include tea made from tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) or from
wild carrot (poisonous) leaves. Very strong tannic acid can
also be used with caution as it is very hard on the liver.
See Chapter 4 for more deworming techniques.

Antiflatulents for gas and cramps. Use a tea made from
carrot seeds; use tea made from mint leaves to settle the
stomach.

Antifungal washes. Make a decoction of walnut leaves, oak
bark, or acorns to treat ringworm and athlete’s foot. Apply it
frequently to the site, alternating with exposure to direct
sunlight. Broad-leaf plantain has also been used with


success but any treatment should be used in addition to
sunlight if possible. Jewelweed and vinegar make excellent
washes but are sometimes difficult to find.

Burns. Tannic acid, sugar, and honey can be used as
explained in Chapter 4.

Dentifrices for teeth. See Chapter 4 for other techniques in
addition to using twigs of sweet gum for its antiinflammatory,
analgesic, and antiseptic properties.

Insect repellents. Garlic and onions can be eaten and the
raw plant juice rubbed on the skin to repel some insects.
Sassafras leaves can be rubbed on the skin. Cedar chips
may help repel insects around your shelter.

Tannic acid. Because tannic acid is used for so many
treatments (burns, antihemorrhagics, antihelminthics,
antiseptics, antidiarrheals, antifungals, bronchitis, skin
inflammation, lice), a note as to its preparation is in order.
All thready plants, especially trees, contain tannic acid.
Hardwood trees generally contain more than softwood
trees. Of the hardwoods, oak—especially red and
chestnut—contain the highest amount. The warty looking
knots in oak trees can contain as much as 28 percent
tannic acid. This knot, the inner bark of trees, and pine
needles (cut into 2-centimeter [1-inch] strips), can all be
boiled down to extract tannic acid. Boiling can be done in
as little as 15 minutes (very weak), to 2 hours (moderate),
through 12 hours to 3 days (very strong). The stronger
concoctions will have a dark color that will vary depending
on the type of tree. All will have an increasingly vile taste
in relation to their concentration.

MISCELLANEOUS USES OF PLANTS

Plants can be your ally as long as you use them cautiously.
Be sure that you know the plant and how to use it. Some
additional uses of plants are as follows:

Make dyes from various plants to color clothing or to
camouflage your skin. Usually, you will have to boil the
plants to get the best results. Onionskins produce yellow,
walnut hulls produce brown, and pokeberries provide
purple dye.


Make fibers and cordage from plant fibers. Most commonly
used are the stems from nettles and milkweeds, yucca
plants, and the inner bark of trees like the linden.

Make tinder for starting fires from cattail fluff, cedar bark,
lighter knot wood from pine trees, or hardened sap from
resinous wood trees.

Make insulation by fluffing up female cattail heads or
milkweed down.

Make insect repellents by placing sassafras leaves in your
shelter or by burning or smudging cattail seed hair fibers.

Whether you use plants for food, medicine, or the
construction of shelters or equipment, the key to their safe use is
positive identification.


 Poisonous Plants

Successful use of plants in a survival situation
depends on positive identification. Knowing
poisonous plants is as important to you as
knowing edible plants. Knowing the poisonous
plants will help you avoid sustaining injuries
from them.

HOW PLANTS POISON

Plants generally poison by—

Contact. This contact with a poisonous plant causes any
type of skin irritation or dermatitis.

Ingestion. This occurs when a person eats a part of a
poisonous plant.

Absorption or inhalation. This happens when a person
either absorbs the poison through the skin or inhales it
into the respiratory system.

Plant poisoning ranges from minor irritation to death. A
common question asked is, “How poisonous is this plant?” It is
difficult to say how poisonous plants are because—

Some plants require a large amount of contact before you
notice any adverse reaction although others will cause
death with only a small amount.

Every plant will vary in the amount of toxins it contains
due to different growing conditions and slight variations in
subspecies.

Every person has a different level of resistance to toxic
substances.

Some persons may be more sensitive to a particular plant.

Some common misconceptions about poisonous plants
are—

Watch the animals and eat what they eat. Most of the time
this statement is true, but some animals can eat plants
that are poisonous to humans.


Boil the plant in water and any poisons will be removed.
Boiling removes many poisons, but not all.

Plants with a red color are poisonous. Some plants that are
red are poisonous, but not all.

The point is there is no one rule to aid in identifying
poisonous plants. You must make an effort to learn as much
about them as possible.

ALL ABOUT PLANTS

Many poisonous plants look like their edible relatives or
like other edible plants. For example, poison hemlock appears
very similar to wild carrot. Certain plants are safe to eat in
certain seasons or stages of growth but poisonous in other stages.
For example, the leaves of the pokeweed are edible when it first
starts to grow, but they soon become poisonous. You can eat some
plants and their fruits only when they are ripe. For example, the
ripe fruit of May apple is edible, but all other parts and the green
fruit are poisonous. Some plants contain both edible and
poisonous parts; potatoes and tomatoes are common plant foods,
but their green parts are poisonous.

Some plants become toxic after wilting. For example, when
the black cherry starts to wilt, hydrocyanic acid develops. Specific
preparation methods make some plants edible that are poisonous
raw. You can eat the thinly sliced and thoroughly dried (drying
may take a year) corms of the jack-in-the-pulpit, but they are
poisonous if not thoroughly dried.

Learn to identify and use plants before a survival situation.
Some sources of information about plants are pamphlets, books,
films, nature trails, botanical gardens, local markets, and local
natives. Gather and cross-reference information from as many
sources as possible, because many sources will not contain all the
information needed.

RULES FOR AVOIDING POISONOUS PLANTS

Your best policy is to be able to positively identify plants by
sight and to know their uses or dangers. Many times absolute
certainty is not possible. If you have little or no knowledge of the


local vegetation, use the rules to select plants for the Universal
Edibility Test. Remember, avoid—

All mushrooms. Mushroom identification is very difficult
and must be precise—even more so than with other plants.
Some mushrooms cause death very quickly. Some
mushrooms have no known antidote. Two general types of
mushroom poisoning are gastrointestinal and central
nervous system.

Contact with or touching plants unnecessarily.

CONTACT DERMATITIS

Contact dermatitis from plants will usually cause the most
trouble in the field. The effects may be persistent, spread by
scratching, and particularly dangerous if there is contact in or
around the eyes.

The principal toxin of these plants is usually an oil that
gets on the skin upon contact with the plant. The oil can also get
on equipment and then infect whoever touches the equipment.
Never burn a contact poisonous plant because the smoke may be
as harmful as the plant. You have a greater danger of being
affected when you are overheated and sweating. The infection
may be local or it may spread over the body.

Symptoms may take from a few hours to several days to
appear. Symptoms can include burning, reddening, itching,
swelling, and blisters.

When you first contact the poisonous plants or when the
first symptoms appear, try to remove the oil by washing with soap
and cold water. If water is not available, wipe your skin
repeatedly with dirt or sand. Do not use dirt if you have blisters.
The dirt may break open the blisters and leave the body open to
infection. After you have removed the oil, dry the area. You can
wash with a tannic acid solution and crush and rub jewelweed on
the affected area to treat plant-caused rashes. You can make
tannic acid from oak bark.

Poisonous plants that cause contact dermatitis are—

Cowhage.

Poison ivy.


Poison oak.

Poison sumac.

Rengas tree.

Trumpet vine.

INGESTION POISONING

Ingestion poisoning can be very serious and could lead to
death very quickly. Do not eat any plant unless you have
positively identified it first. Keep a log of all plants eaten.

Symptoms of ingestion poisoning can include nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, depressed heartbeat
and respiration, headaches, hallucinations, dry mouth,
unconsciousness, coma, and death.

If you suspect plant poisoning, try to remove the poisonous
material from the victim’s mouth and stomach as soon as
possible. If the victim is conscious, induce vomiting by tickling the
back of his throat or by giving him warm saltwater. If the victim
is conscious, dilute the poison by administering large quantities of
water or milk.

The following plants can cause ingestion poisoning if eaten:

Castor bean.

Chinaberry.

Death camas.

Lantana.

Manchineel.

Oleander.

Pangi.

Physic nut.

Poison and water hemlocks.

Rosary pea.

Strychnine tree.

Appendix C provides photographs and descriptions of these
plants.


Dangerous Animals

The threat from animals is less than from other
parts of the environment. However, common
sense tells you to avoid encounters with lions,
bears, and other large or dangerous animals. You
should also avoid large grazing animals with
horns, hooves, and great weight. Move carefully
through their environment. Caution may prevent
unexpected meetings. Do not attract large
predators by leaving food lying around your
camp. Carefully survey the scene before entering
water or forests.

Smaller animals actually present more of a
threat to you than large animals. To compensate
for their size, nature has given many small
animals weapons such as fangs and stingers to
defend themselves. Each year, a few people are
bitten by sharks, mauled by alligators, and
attacked by bears. Most of these incidents were
in some way the victim’s fault. However, each
year more victims die from bites by relatively
small venomous snakes than by large dangerous
animals. Even more victims die from allergic
reactions to bee stings. These smaller animals
are the ones you are more likely to meet as you
unwittingly move into their habitat, or they slip
into your environment unnoticed.

Keeping a level head and an awareness of your
surroundings will keep you alive if you use a few
simple safety procedures. Do not let curiosity and
carelessness kill or injure you.


INSECTS AND ARACHNIDS

Insects, except centipedes and millipedes, have six legs;
arachnids have eight. All these small creatures become pests
when they bite, sting, or irritate you.

Although their venom can be quite painful, bee, wasp, and
hornet stings rarely kill a person who is not allergic to that
particular toxin. Even the most dangerous spiders rarely kill, and
the effects of tick-borne diseases are very slow-acting. However,
in all cases, avoidance is the best defense. In environments
known to have spiders and scorpions, check your footgear and
clothing every morning. Also check your bedding and shelter. Use
care when turning over rocks and logs. See Appendix D for
examples of dangerous insects and arachnids.

SCORPIONS

You find scorpions (Buthotus species) in deserts, jungles,
and forests of tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate areas of
the world. They are mostly nocturnal. Desert scorpions range
from below sea level in Death Valley to elevations as high as
3,600 meters (12,000 feet) in the Andes. Typically brown or black
in moist areas, they may be yellow or light green in the desert.
Their average size is about 2.5 centimeters (1 inch). However,
there are 20-centimeter (8-inch) giants in the jungles of Central
America, New Guinea, and southern Africa. Fatalities from
scorpion stings are rare, but do occur with children, the elderly,
and ill persons. Scorpions resemble small lobsters with raised,
jointed tails bearing a stinger in the tip. Nature mimics the
scorpions with whip scorpions or vinegarroons. These are
harmless and have a tail like a wire or whip, rather than the
jointed tail and stinger of true scorpions.

SPIDERS

The brown recluse, or fiddleback spider, of North America
(Loxosceles reclusa) is recognized by a prominent violin-shaped
light spot on the back of its body. As its name suggests, this
spider likes to hide in dark places. Though its bite is rarely fatal,
it can cause excessive tissue degeneration around the wound,
leading to amputation of the digits if left untreated.


Members of the widow family (Latrodectus species) may be
found worldwide, though the black widow of North America is
perhaps the most well-known. Found in warmer areas of the
world, the widows are small, dark spiders with often hourglassshaped
white, red, or orange spots on their abdomens.

Funnelwebs (Atrax species) are large, gray or brown
Australian spiders. Chunky, with short legs, they are able to
move easily up and down the cone-shaped webs from which they
get their name. The local populace considers them deadly. Avoid
them as they move about, usually at night, in search of prey.
Symptoms of their bite are similar to those of the widow’s—severe
pain accompanied by sweating and shivering, weakness, and
disabling episodes that can last a week.

Tarantulas are large, hairy spiders (Theraphosidae and
Lycosa species) best known because they are often sold in pet
stores. There is one species in Europe, but most come from
tropical America. Some South American species do inject a
dangerous toxin, but most simply produce a painful bite. Some
tarantulas can be as large as a dinner plate. They all have large
fangs for capturing food such as birds, mice, and lizards. If bitten
by a tarantula, pain and bleeding are certain, and infection is
likely.

CENTIPEDES AND MILLIPEDES

Centipedes and millipedes are mostly small and harmless,
although some tropical and desert species may reach 25 centimeters
(10 inches). A few varieties of centipedes have a poisonous bite, but
infection is the greatest danger, as their sharp claws dig in and
puncture the skin. To prevent skin punctures, brush them off in the
direction they are traveling.

BEES, WASPS, AND HORNETS

Bees, wasps, and hornets come in many varieties and have
a wide diversity of habits and habitats. You recognize bees by
their hairy and usually thick body, while the wasps, hornets, and
yellow jackets have more slender, nearly hairless bodies. Some
bees, such as honeybees, live in colonies. They may be either
domesticated or living wild in caves or hollow trees. You may find
other bees, such as carpenter bees, in individual nest holes in
wood or in the ground like bumblebees. The main danger from


bees is the barbed stinger located on their abdomens. When a bee
stings you, it rips its stinger out of its abdomen along with the
venom sac, and dies. Except for killer bees, most bees tend to be
more docile than wasps, hornets, and yellow jackets, which have
smooth stingers and are capable of repeated attacks.

Avoidance is the best tactic for self-protection. Watch out for
flowers or fruit where bees may be feeding. Be careful of meateating
yellow jackets when cleaning fish or game. The average
person has a relatively minor and temporary reaction to bee stings
and recovers in a couple of hours when the pain and headache go
away. Those who are allergic to bee venom have severe reactions
including anaphylactic shock, coma, and death. If antihistamine
medicine is not available and you cannot find a substitute, an
allergy sufferer in a survival situation is in grave danger.

TICKS

Ticks are common in the tropics and temperate regions.
They are familiar to most of us. Ticks are small, round arachnids.
They can have either a soft or hard body. Ticks require a blood
host to survive and reproduce. This makes them dangerous
because they spread diseases like Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain
spotted fever, encephalitis, and others that can ultimately be
disabling or fatal. There is little you can do to treat these diseases
once they are contracted, but time is your ally since it takes at
least 6 hours of attachment to the host for the tick to transmit the
disease organisms. Thus, you have time to thoroughly inspect
your body for their presence. Beware of ticks when passing
through the thick vegetation they cling to, when cleaning host
animals for food, and when gathering natural materials to
construct a shelter. Always use insect repellents, if possible.

LEECHES

Leeches are bloodsucking creatures with a wormlike
appearance. You find them in the tropics and in temperate zones.
You will certainly encounter them when swimming in infested
waters or making expedient water crossings. You can find them
when passing through swampy, tropical vegetation and bogs. You
can also find them while cleaning food animals, such as turtles,
found in fresh water. Leeches can crawl into small openings;
therefore, avoid camping in their habitats when possible.


Keep your trousers tucked in your boots. Check yourself
frequently for leeches. Swallowed or eaten, leeches can be a great
hazard. It is therefore essential to treat water from questionable
sources by boiling or using chemical water treatments. Survivors
have developed severe infections from wounds inside the throat or
nose when sores from swallowed leeches became infected.

BATS

Despite the legends, bats (Desmodus species) are a
relatively small hazard to you. There are many bat varieties
worldwide, but you find the true vampire bats only in Central and
South America. They are small, agile fliers that land on their
sleeping victims, mostly cows and horses, to lap a blood meal after
biting their victim. Their saliva contains an anticoagulant that
keeps the blood slowly flowing while they feed. All bats are
considered to carry rabies. Any physical contact is considered to
be a rabies risk. They can carry other diseases and infections and
will bite readily when handled. However, taking shelter in a cave
occupied by bats presents the much greater hazard of inhaling
powdered bat dung, or guano. Bat dung carries many organisms
that can cause diseases. Eating thoroughly cooked flying foxes or
other bats presents no danger from rabies and other diseases, but
again, the emphasis is on thorough cooking.

VENOMOUS SNAKES

There are no infallible rules for expedient identification of
venomous snakes in the field, because the guidelines all require
close observation or manipulation of the snake’s body. The best
strategy is to leave all snakes alone. Where snakes are plentiful
and venomous species are present, the risk of their bites negates
their food value. Apply the following safety rules when traveling
in areas where there are venomous snakes:

Walk carefully and watch where you step. Step onto logs
rather than over them in a survival situation. During
evasion, always step over or go around logs to leave fewer
signs for trackers.

Look closely when picking fruit or moving around water.


Do not tease, molest, or harass snakes. Snakes cannot
close their eyes. Therefore, you cannot tell if they are
asleep. Some snakes, such as mambas, cobras, and
bushmasters, will attack aggressively when cornered or
guarding a nest.

Use sticks to turn logs and rocks.

Wear proper footgear, particularly at night.

Carefully check bedding, shelter, and clothing.

Be calm when you encounter serpents. Snakes cannot hear
and you can occasionally surprise them when they are
sleeping or sunning. Normally, they will flee if given the
opportunity.

Use extreme care if you must kill snakes for food or safety.
Although it is not common, warm, sleeping human bodies
occasionally attract snakes.

Appendix E provides detailed descriptions of the snakes
listed in Figure 11-1, pages 11-6 and 11-7.

The Americas

American Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix)

Bushmaster (Lachesis muta)

Coral snake (Micrurus fulvius)

Cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus)

Fer-de-lance (Bothrops atrox)

Rattlesnake (Crotalus species)

Europe

Common adder (Vipers berus)

Pallas’ viper (Agkistrodon halys)

Africa and Asia

Boomslang (Dispholidus typus)

Cobra (Naja species)



Figure 11-1. Venomous Snakes of the World


Africa and Asia (Continued)

Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica)

Green tree pit viper (Trimeresurus gramineus)

Habu pit viper (Trimeresurus flavoviridis)

Krait (Bungarus caeruleus)

Malayan pit viper (Callaselasma rhodostoma)

Mamba (Dendraspis species)

Puff adder (Bitis arietans)

Rhinoceros viper (Bitis nasicornis)

Russell’s viper (Vipera russellii)

Sand viper (Cerastes vipera)

Saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus)

Wagler’s pit viper (Trimeresurus wagleri)

Australia

Death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus)

Taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus)

Tiger snake (Notechis scutatus)

Yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platurus)



Figure 11-1. Venomous Snakes of the World (Continued)

SNAKE-FREE AREAS

The polar regions are free of snakes due to their
inhospitable environments. Other areas considered to be free of
venomous snakes are New Zealand, Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto
Rico, Ireland, Polynesia, and Hawaii.

DANGEROUS LIZARDS

The Gila monster (Heloderma suspectrum) of the American
Southwest and Mexico is a dangerous and poisonous lizard with
dark, highly textured skin marked by pinkish mottling. It is
typically 35 to 45 centimeters (14 to 18 inches) in length and has
a thick, stumpy tail. The Gila monster is unlikely to bite unless
molested but has a poisonous bite.


The Mexican beaded lizard (Heloderma horridum) resembles
its relative, the Gila monster. However, it has more uniform spots
rather than bands of color. It also is poisonous and has a docile
nature. You may find it from Mexico to Central America.

The komodo dragon is a giant lizard (Varanus
komodoensis) that grows to more than 3 meters (10 feet) in
length. It can be dangerous if you try to capture it. This
Indonesian lizard can weigh more than 135 kilograms
(300 pounds).

DANGERS IN RIVERS

Common sense will tell you to avoid confrontations with
hippopotami, alligators, crocodiles, and other large river
creatures. However, there are also the following smaller river
creatures with which you should be cautious.

Electric eels (Electrophorus electricus) may reach 2 meters
(7 feet) in length and 20 centimeters (8 inches) in diameter. Avoid
them. They are capable of generating up to 500 volts of electricity
in certain organs of their body. They use this shock to stun prey
and enemies. Normally, you find these eels in the Orinoco and
Amazon River systems in South America. They seem to prefer
shallow waters that are more highly oxygenated and provide
more food. They are bulkier than American eels. Their upper body
is dark gray or black with a lighter-colored underbelly.

Piranhas (Serrasalmo species) are another hazard of the
Orinoco and Amazon River systems, as well as the Paraguay
River Basin, where they are native. These fish vary greatly in size
and coloration, but usually have a combination of orange
undersides and dark tops. They have white, razor-sharp teeth
that are clearly visible. They may be as long as 50 centimeters (20
inches). Use great care when crossing waters where they live.
Blood attracts them. They are most dangerous in shallow waters
during the dry season.

Be careful when handling and capturing large freshwater
turtles, such as the snapping turtles and soft-shelled turtles of
North America and the matamata and other turtles of South
America. All of these turtles will bite in self-defense and can
amputate fingers and toes.


The platypus or duckbill (Ornithorhyncus anatinus) is the
only member of its family and is easily recognized. It has a long
body covered with grayish, short hair, a tail like a beaver, and a
bill like a duck. Growing up to 60 centimeters (24 inches) in
length, it may appear to be a good food source, but this egg-laying
mammal, the only one in the world, is very dangerous. The male
has a poisonous spur on each hind foot that can inflict intensely
painful wounds. You find the platypus only in Australia, mainly
along mud banks on waterways.

DANGERS IN BAYS AND ESTUARIES

In areas where seas and rivers come together, there are
dangers associated with both freshwater and saltwater. In
shallow saltwaters, there are many creatures that can inflict pain
and cause infection to develop. Stepping on sea urchins, for
example, can produce pain and infection. When moving about in
shallow water, wear some form of footgear and shuffle your feet
along the bottom, rather than picking up your feet and stepping.

Stingrays (Dasyatidae species) are a real hazard in shallow
waters, especially tropical waters. The type of bottom appears to
be irrelevant. There is a great variance between species, but all
have a sharp spike in their tail that may be venomous and can
cause extremely painful wounds if stepped on. All rays have a
typical shape that resembles a kite. You find them along the
coasts of the Americas, Africa, and Australia.

SALTWATER DANGERS

There are several fish that you should not handle, touch, or
contact. There are also others that you should not eat. These fish
are described below.

Sharks are the most feared animal in the sea. Usually,
shark attacks cannot be avoided and are considered accidents.
You should take every precaution to avoid any contact with
sharks. There are many shark species, but in general, dangerous
sharks have wide mouths and visible teeth, while relatively
harmless ones have small mouths on the underside of their heads.
However, any shark can inflict painful and often fatal injuries,
either through bites or through abrasions from their rough skin.


Rabbitfish or spinefoot (Siganidae species) live mainly on
coral reefs in the Indian and Pacific oceans. They have very
sharp, possibly venomous spines in their fins. Handle them with
care, if at all. This fish, like many others of the dangerous fish in
this section, is considered edible by native peoples where the fish
are found, but deaths occur from careless handling. Seek other
nonpoisonous fish to eat if possible.

Tang or surgeonfish (Acanthuridae species) average 20 to
25 centimeters (8 to 10 inches) in length and often are beautifully
colored. They are called surgeonfish because of the scalpel-like
spines located in the tail. The wounds inflicted by these spines
can bring about death through infection, envenomation, and loss
of blood, which may incidentally attract sharks.

Toadfish (Batrachoididae species) live in tropical waters off
the Gulf Coast of the United States and along both coasts of
Central and South America. These dully-colored fish average 18
to 25 centimeters (7 to 10 inches) in length. They typically bury
themselves in the sand to await fish and other prey. They have
sharp, very toxic spines along their backs.

Poisonous scorpion fish or zebra fish (Scorpaenidae
species) are mostly around reefs in the tropical Indian and Pacific
oceans and occasionally in the Mediterranean and Aegean seas.
They average 30 to 75 centimeters (12 to 29 inches) in length.
Their coloration is highly variable, from reddish brown to almost
purple or brownish yellow. They have long, wavy fins and spines
and their sting is intensely painful. Less poisonous relatives live
in the Atlantic Ocean.

Stonefish (Synanceja species) are in the Pacific and Indian
oceans. They can inject a painful venom from their dorsal spines
when stepped on or handled carelessly. They are almost
impossible to see because of their lumpy shape and drab colors.
They range in size up to 40 centimeters (16 inches).

Weever fish (Trachinidae species) average 30 centimeters
(12 inches) long. They are hard to see as they lie buried in the
sand off the coasts of Europe, Africa, and the Mediterranean.
Their color is usually a dull brown. They have venomous spines
on the back and gills.


NOTE: Appendix F provides more details on these venomous fish
and toxic mollusks.

The livers of polar bears are considered toxic due to high
concentrations of vitamin A. There is a chance of death after eating
this organ. Another toxic meat is the flesh of the hawksbill turtle.
These animals are distinguished by a down-turned bill and yellow
polka dots on their neck and front flippers. They weigh more than
275 kilograms (605 pounds) and are unlikely to be captured.

Many fish living in lagoons, estuaries, or reefs near shore
are poisonous to eat, though some are only seasonally dangerous.
Although the majority are tropical fish; be wary of eating any
unidentifiable fish wherever you are. Some predatory fish, such
as barracuda and snapper, may become toxic if the fish they feed
on in shallow waters are poisonous. The most poisonous types
appear to have parrotlike beaks and hard shell-like skins with
spines and can often inflate their bodies like balloons. However,
at certain times of the year, indigenous populations consider the
puffer a delicacy.

The blowfish or puffer (Tetraodontidae species) are more
tolerant of cold water. They live along tropical and temperate
coasts worldwide, even in some of the rivers of Southeast Asia
and Africa. Stout-bodied and round, many of these fish have short
spines and can inflate themselves into a ball when alarmed or
agitated. Their blood, liver, and gonads are so toxic that as little
as 28 milligrams (1 ounce) can be fatal. These fish vary in color
and size, growing up to 75 centimeters (29 inches) in length.

The triggerfish (Balistidae species) occur in great variety,
mostly in tropical seas. They are deep-bodied and compressed,
resembling a seagoing pancake up to 60 centimeters (24 inches) in
length, with large and sharp dorsal spines. Avoid them all, as
many have poisonous flesh.

Although most people avoid them because of their ferocity,
they occasionally eat barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda). These
predators of mostly tropical seas can reach almost 1.5 meters (5
feet) in length and have attacked humans without provocation.
They occasionally carry the poison ciguatera in their flesh,
making them deadly if consumed.


OTHER DANGEROUS SEA CREATURES

The blue-ringed octopus, jellyfish, and the cone and auger
shells are other dangerous sea creatures. Therefore, you should
always be alert and move carefully in any body of water.

Most octopi are excellent when properly prepared.
However, the blue-ringed octopus (Hapalochlaena lunulata) can
inflict a deadly bite from its parrotlike beak. Fortunately, it is
restricted to the Great Barrier Reef of Australia and is very
small. It is easily recognized by its grayish white overall color and
irridescent blue rings. Authorities warn that all tropical octopus
species should be treated with caution because of their poisonous
bites, although their flesh is edible.

Deaths related to jellyfish are rare, but the sting they
inflict is extremely painful. The Portuguese man-of-war
resembles a large pink or purple balloon floating on the sea. It
has poisonous tentacles hanging up to 12 meters (40 feet) below
its body. The huge tentacles are actually colonies of stinging cells.
Most known deaths from jellyfish are attributed to the man-ofwar.
Other jellyfish can inflict very painful stings as well. Avoid
the long tentacles of any jellyfish, even those washed up on the
beach and apparently dead.

The subtropical and tropical cone shells (Conidae species)
have a venomous harpoonlike barb. All have a fine netlike
pattern on the shell. A membrane may possibly obscure this
coloration. There are some very poisonous cone shells, even some
lethal ones in the Indian and Pacific oceans. Avoid any shell
shaped like an ice cream cone.

The auger shell or terebra (Terebridae species) are much
longer and thinner than the cone shells, but can be nearly as
deadly. They are found in temperate and tropical seas. Those in
the Indian and Pacific oceans have a more toxic venom in
their stinging barb. Do not eat these snails, as their flesh may
be poisonous.


Field-Expedient Weapons, Tools,
and Equipment

As a soldier, you know the importance of proper
care and use of your weapons, tools, and
equipment. This is especially true of your knife.
You must always keep it sharp and ready to use.
A knife is your most valuable tool in a survival
situation. Imagine being in a survival situation
without any weapons, tools, or equipment except
your knife. It could happen! You might even be
without a knife. You would probably feel helpless,
but with the proper knowledge and skills, you can
easily improvise needed items.

In survival situations, you may have to fashion
any number and type of field-expedient tools and
equipment to survive. The need for an item must
outweigh the work involved in making it. You
should ask, “Is it necessary or just nice to have?”
Remember that undue haste makes waste.
Examples of tools and equipment that could make
your life much easier are ropes (Appendix G),
rucksacks, clothes, and nets.

Weapons serve a dual purpose. You use them to
obtain and prepare food and to provide selfdefense.
A weapon can also give you a feeling of
security and provide you with the ability to hunt
on the move.

STAFFS

A staff should be one of the first tools you obtain. For
walking, it provides support and helps in ascending and
descending steep slopes. It provides some weapon’s capabilities if
used properly, especially against snakes and dogs. It should be


approximately the same height as you or at least eyebrow height.
The staff should be no larger than you can effectively wield when
tired and undernourished. It provides invaluable eye protection
when you are moving through heavy brush and thorns in
darkness.

CLUBS

You hold clubs; you do not throw them. However, the club
can extend your area of defense beyond your fingertips. It also
serves to increase the force of a blow without injuring yourself.
The three basic types of clubs are explained below.

SIMPLE CLUB

A simple club is a staff or branch. It must be short enough
for you to swing easily, but long enough and strong enough for
you to damage whatever you hit. Its diameter should fit
comfortably in your palm, but it should not be so thin as to allow
the club to break easily upon impact. A straight-grained
hardwood is best if you can find it.

WEIGHTED CLUB

A weighted club is any simple club with a weight on one
end. The weight may be a natural weight, such as a knot on the
wood, or something added, such as a stone lashed to the club.

To make a weighted club, first find a stone that has a shape
that will allow you to lash it securely to the club. A stone with a
slight hourglass shape works well. If you cannot find a suitably
shaped stone, then fashion a groove or channel into the stone by
“pecking,” repeatedly rapping the club stone with a smaller hard
stone.

Next, find a piece of wood that is the right length for you.
A straight-grained hardwood is best. The length of the wood
should feel comfortable in relation to the weight of the stone.
Finally, lash the stone to the handle using a technique shown in
Figure 12-1, page 12-3. The technique you use will depend on the
type of handle you choose.


Figure 12-1. Lashing Clubs


SLING CLUB

A sling club is another type of weighted club. A weight
hangs 8 to 10 centimeters (3 to 4 inches) from the handle by a
strong, flexible lashing (Figure 12-2). This type of club both
extends the user’s reach and multiplies the force of the blow.

Figure 12-2. Sling Club

EDGED WEAPONS

Knives, spear blades, and arrow points fall under the
category of edged weapons. The following paragraphs explain how
to make such weapons.

KNIVES

A knife has three basic functions. It can puncture, slash or
chop, and cut. A knife is also an invaluable tool used to construct
other survival items. You may find yourself without a knife or you
may need another type knife or a spear. To improvise you can use
stone, bone, wood, or metal to make a knife or spear blade.

Stone

To make a stone knife, you will need a sharp-edged piece of
stone, a chipping tool, and a flaking tool. A chipping tool is a light,
blunt-edged tool used to break off small pieces of stone. A flaking


tool is a pointed tool used to break off thin, flattened pieces of
stone. You can make a chipping tool from wood, bone, or metal, and
a flaking tool from bone, antler tines, or soft iron (Figure 12-3).

Figure 12-3. Making a Stone Knife


Start making the knife by roughing out the desired shape
on your sharp piece of stone, using the chipping tool. Try to make
the knife fairly thin. Then, press the flaking tool against the
edges. This action will cause flakes to come off the opposite side of
the edge, leaving a razor-sharp edge. Use the flaking tool along
the entire length of the edge you need to sharpen. Eventually, you
will have a very, sharp cutting edge that you can use as a knife.

Lash the blade to some type of hilt (Figure 12-3, page 12-5).

NOTE: Stone will make an excellent puncturing tool and a good
chopping tool but will not hold a fine edge. Some stones such as
chert or flint can have very fine edges.

Bone

You can also use bone as an effective field-expedient edged
weapon. First, you will need to select a suitable bone. The larger
bones, such as the leg bone of a deer or another medium-sized
animal, are best. Lay the bone upon another hard object. Shatter
the bone by hitting it with a heavy object, such as a rock. From
the pieces, select a suitable pointed splinter. You can further
shape and sharpen this splinter by rubbing it on a rough-surfaced
rock. If the piece is too small to handle, you can still use it by
adding a handle to it. Select a suitable piece of hardwood for a
handle and lash the bone splinter securely to it.

NOTE: Use the bone knife only to puncture. It will not hold an
edge and it may flake or break if used differently.

Wood

You can make field-expedient edged weapons from wood.
Use these only to puncture. Bamboo is the only wood that will
hold a suitable edge. To make a knife from wood, first select a
straight-grained piece of hardwood that is about 30 centimeters
(12 inches) long and 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) in diameter. Fashion
the blade about 15 centimeters (6 inches) long. Shave it down to a
point. Use only the straight-grained portions of the wood. Do not
use the core or pith, as it would make a weak point.

Harden the point by a process known as fire hardening. If
a fire is possible, dry the blade portion over the fire slowly until
lightly charred. The drier the wood, the harder the point. After
lightly charring the blade portion, sharpen it on a coarse stone.


If using bamboo and after fashioning the blade, remove any other
wood to make the blade thinner from the inside portion of the
bamboo. Removal is done this way because bamboo’s hardest part
is its outer layer. Keep as much of this layer as possible to ensure
the hardest blade possible. When charring bamboo over a fire,
char only the inside wood; do not char the outside.

Metal

Metal is the best material to make field-expedient edged
weapons. Metal, when properly designed, can fulfill a knife’s
three uses—puncture, slice or chop, and cut. First, select a
suitable piece of metal, one that most resembles the desired end
product. Depending on the size and original shape, you can obtain
a point and cutting edge by rubbing the metal on a roughsurfaced
stone. If the metal is soft enough, you can hammer out
one edge while the metal is cold. Use a suitable flat, hard surface
as an anvil and a smaller, harder object of stone or metal as a
hammer to hammer out the edge. Make a knife handle from wood,
bone, or other material that will protect your hand.

Other Materials

You can use other materials to produce edged weapons.
Glass is a good alternative to an edged weapon or tool, if no other
material is available. Obtain a suitable piece in the same manner
as described for bone. Glass has a natural edge but is less durable
for heavy work. You can also sharpen plastic—if it is thick enough
or hard enough—into a durable point for puncturing.

SPEAR BLADES

To make spears, use the same procedures to make the
blade that you used to make a knife blade. Then select a shaft (a
straight sapling) 1.2 to 1.5 meters (4 to 5 feet) long. The length
should allow you to handle the spear easily and effectively. Attach
the spear blade to the shaft using lashing. The preferred method
is to split the handle, insert the blade, then wrap or lash it
tightly. You can use other materials without adding a blade.
Select a 1.2- to 1.5-meter (4- to 5-foot) long straight hardwood
shaft and shave one end to a point. If possible, fire-harden the
point. Bamboo also makes an excellent spear. Select a piece 1.2 to


1.5 meters (4 to 5 feet) long. Starting 8 to 10 centimeters (3 to 4
inches) back from the end used as the point, shave down the end
at a 45-degree angle (Figure 12-4). Remember, to sharpen the
edges, shave only the inner portion.

Figure 12-4. Bamboo Spear

ARROW POINTS

To make an arrow point, use the same procedures for
making a stone knife blade. Chert, flint, and shell-type stones are
best for arrow points. You can fashion bone like stone—by flaking.
You can make an efficient arrow point using broken glass.

OTHER EXPEDIENT WEAPONS

You can make other field-expedient weapons such as the
throwing stick, archery equipment, and the bola. The following
paragraphs explain how to make these.

THROWING STICK

The throwing stick, commonly known as the rabbit stick, is
very effective against small game (squirrels, chipmunks, and
rabbits). The rabbit stick itself is a blunt stick, naturally curved
at about a 45-degree angle. Select a stick with the desired angle
from heavy hardwood such as oak. Shave off two opposite sides so
that the stick is flat like a boomerang (Figure 12-5, page 12-9).
You must practice the throwing technique for accuracy and speed.
First, align the target by extending the nonthrowing arm in line
with the mid- to lower-section of the target. Slowly and repeatedly


raise the throwing arm up and back until the throwing stick
crosses the back at about a 45-degree angle or is in line with the
nonthrowing hip. Bring the throwing arm forward until it is just
slightly above and parallel to the nonthrowing arm. This will be
the throwing stick’s release point. Practice slowly and repeatedly
to attain accuracy.

Figure 12-5. Rabbit Stick

ARCHERY EQUIPMENT

You can make a bow and arrow (Figure 12-6) from materials
available in your survival area. To make a bow, use the procedure
described in paragraphs 8-53 through 8-56 in Chapter 8.

Figure 12-6. Archery Equipment


While it may be relatively simple to make a bow and
arrow, it is not easy to use one. You must practice using it a long
time to be reasonably sure that you will hit your target. Also, a
field-expedient bow will not last very long before you have to
make a new one. For the time and effort involved, you may well
decide to use another type of field-expedient weapon.

BOLA

The bola is another field-expedient weapon that is easy to
make (Figure 12-7). It is especially effective for capturing running
game or low-flying fowl in a flock. To use the bola, hold it by the
center knot and twirl it above your head. Release the knot so that
the bola flies toward your target. When you release the bola, the
weighted cords will separate. These cords will wrap around and
immobilize the fowl or animal that you hit.

Figure 12-7. Bola

CORDAGE AND LASHING

Many materials are strong enough for use as cordage and
lashing. A number of natural and man-made materials are
available in a survival situation. For example, you can make a
cotton web belt much more useful by unraveling it. You can then
use the string for other purposes (fishing line, thread for sewing,
and lashing).


NATURAL CORDAGE SELECTION

Before making cordage, there are a few simple tests you
can do to determine you material’s suitability. First, pull on a
length of the material to test for strength. Next, twist it between
your fingers and roll the fibers together. If it withstands this
handling and does not snap apart, tie an overhand knot with the
fibers and gently tighten. If the knot does not break, the material
is usable. Figure 12-8 shows various methods of making cordage.

Figure 12-8. Making Lines From Plant Fibers

LASHING MATERIAL

The best natural material for lashing small objects is
sinew. You can make sinew from the tendons of large game, such
as deer. Remove the tendons from the game and dry them
completely. Smash the dried tendons so that they separate into
fibers. Moisten the fibers and twist them into a continuous
strand. If you need stronger lashing material, you can braid the
strands. When you use sinew for small lashings, you do not need
knots as the moistened sinew is sticky and it hardens when dry.

You can shred and braid plant fibers from the inner bark of
some trees to make cord. You can use the linden, elm, hickory,
white oak, mulberry, chestnut, and red and white cedar trees.
After you make the cord, test it to be sure it is strong enough for
your purpose. You can make these materials stronger by braiding
several strands together.


You can use rawhide for larger lashing jobs. Make rawhide
from the skins of medium or large game. After skinning the
animal, remove any excess fat and any pieces of meat from the
skin. Dry the skin completely. You do not need to stretch it as
long as there are no folds to trap moisture. You do not have to
remove the hair from the skin. Cut the skin while it is dry. Make
cuts about 6 millimeters (1/4 inch) wide. Start from the center of
the hide and make one continuous circular cut, working clockwise
to the hide’s outer edge. Soak the rawhide for 2 to 4 hours or until
it is soft. Use it wet, stretching it as much as possible while
applying it. It will be strong and durable when it dries.

RUCKSACK CONSTRUCTION

The materials for constructing a rucksack or pack are almost
limitless. You can use wood, bamboo, rope, plant fiber, clothing,
animal skins, canvas, and many other materials to make a pack.

There are several construction techniques for rucksacks.
Many are very elaborate, but those that are simple and easy are
often the most readily made in a survival situation.

HORSESHOE PACK

This pack is simple to make and use and relatively
comfortable to carry over one shoulder. Lay available squareshaped
material, such as poncho, blanket, or canvas, flat on the
ground. Lay items on one edge of the material. Pad the hard
items. Roll the material (with the items) toward the opposite edge
and tie both ends securely. Add extra ties along the length of the
bundle. You can drape the pack over one shoulder with a line
connecting the two ends (Figure 12-9).

Figure 12-9. Horseshoe Pack


SQUARE PACK

This pack is easy to construct if rope or cordage is
available. Otherwise, you must first make cordage. To make this
pack, construct a square frame from bamboo, limbs, or sticks. Size
will vary for each person and the amount of equipment carried
(Figure 12-10).

Figure 12-10. Square Pack

CLOTHING AND INSULATION

You can use many materials for clothing and insulation.
Both man-made materials, such as parachutes, and natural
materials, such as skins and plant materials, are available and
offer significant protection.


PARACHUTE ASSEMBLY

Consider the entire parachute assembly as a resource. Use
every piece of material and hardware, to include the canopy,
suspension lines, connector snaps, and parachute harness. Before
disassembling the parachute, consider all of your survival
requirements and plan to use different portions of the parachute
accordingly. For example, consider shelter requirements, need for
a rucksack, and any additional clothing or insulation needs.

ANIMAL SKINS

The selection of animal skins in a survival situation will
most often be limited to what you manage to trap or hunt.
However, if there is an abundance of wildlife, select the hides of
larger animals with heavier coats and large fat content. Do not
use the skins of infected or diseased animals if possible. Since
they live in the wild, animals are carriers of pests such as ticks,
lice, and fleas. Because of these pests, use water to thoroughly
clean any skin obtained from any animal. If water is not
available, at least shake out the skin thoroughly. As with
rawhide, lay out the skin and remove all fat and meat. Dry the
skin completely. Use the hindquarter joint areas to make shoes,
mittens, or socks. Wear the hide with the fur to the inside for its
insulating factor.

PLANT FIBERS

Several plants are sources of insulation from cold. Cattail
is a marshland plant found along lakes, ponds, and the
backwaters of rivers. The fuzz on the tops of the stalks forms dead
air spaces and makes a good down-like insulation when placed
between two pieces of material. Milkweed has pollenlike seeds
that act as good insulation. The husk fibers from coconuts are
very good for weaving ropes and, when dried, make excellent
tinder and insulation.

COOKING AND EATING UTENSILS

You can use many materials to make equipment for the
cooking, eating, and storing of food. Usually all materials can
serve some type of purpose when in a survival situation.


BOWLS

Use wood, bone, horn, bark, or other similar material to
make bowls. To make wooden bowls, use a hollowed out piece of
wood that will hold your food and enough water to cook it in.
Hang the wooden container over the fire and add hot rocks to the
water and food. Remove the rocks as they cool and add more hot
rocks until your food is cooked.

You can also use this method with containers made of bark
or leaves. However, these containers will burn above the
waterline unless you keep them moist or keep the fire low.

A section of bamboo also works very well for cooking. Be
sure you cut out a section between two sealed joints (Figure 12-11).

Figure 12-11. Containers for Boiling Food


FORKS, KNIVES, AND SPOONS

Carve forks, knives, and spoons from nonresinous woods so
that you do not get a wood resin aftertaste or do not taint the
food. Nonresinous woods include oak, birch, and other hardwood
trees.

NOTE: Do not use those trees that secrete a syrup or resinlike
liquid on the bark or when cut.

POTS

You can make pots from turtle shells or wood. As described
with bowls, using hot rocks in a hollowed out piece of wood is very
effective. Bamboo is the best wood for making cooking containers.

To use turtle shells, first thoroughly boil the upper portion
of the shell. Then use it to heat food and water over a flame
(Figure 12-11, page 12-15).

WATER BOTTLES

Make water bottles from the stomachs of larger animals.
Thoroughly flush the stomach out with water, then tie off the
bottom. Leave the top open, with some means of fastening
it closed.


 Desert Survival

To survive and evade in arid or desert areas, you
must understand and prepare for the
environment you will face. You must determine
your equipment needs, the tactics you will use,
and how the environment will affect you and your
tactics. Your survival will depend upon your
knowledge of the terrain, basic climatic elements,
your ability to cope with these elements, and your
will to survive.

TERRAIN

Most arid areas have several types of terrain. The five basic
desert terrain types are—

Mountainous (high altitude).

Rocky plateau.

Sand dunes.

Salt marshes.

Broken, dissected terrain (“gebel” or “wadi”).

Desert terrain makes movement difficult and demanding.
Land navigation will be extremely difficult as there may be very
few landmarks. Cover and concealment may be very limited;
therefore, the threat of exposure to the enemy remains constant.

MOUNTAIN DESERTS

Scattered ranges or areas of barren hills or mountains
separated by dry, flat basins characterize mountain deserts. High
ground may rise gradually or abruptly from flat areas to several
thousand meters above sea level. Most of the infrequent rainfall
occurs on high ground and runs off rapidly in the form of flash
floods. These floodwaters erode deep gullies and ravines and
deposit sand and gravel around the edges of the basins. Water
rapidly evaporates, leaving the land as barren as before, although


there may be short-lived vegetation. If enough water enters the
basin to compensate for the rate of evaporation, shallow lakes
may develop, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah or the Dead
Sea. Most of these lakes have a high salt content.

ROCKY PLATEAU DESERTS

Rocky plateau deserts have relatively slight relief
interspersed with extensive flat areas with quantities of solid or
broken rock at or near the surface. There may be steep-walled,
eroded valleys, known as wadis in the Middle East and arroyos or
canyons in the United States and Mexico. Although their flat
bottoms may be superficially attractive as assembly areas, the
narrower valleys can be extremely dangerous to men and
material due to flash flooding after rains. The Golan Heights is an
example of a rocky plateau desert.

SANDY OR DUNE DESERTS

Sandy or dune deserts are extensive flat areas covered with
sand or gravel. “Flat” is a relative term, as some areas may
contain sand dunes that are over 300 meters (1,000 feet) high and
16 to 24 kilometers (10 to 15 miles) long. Trafficability in such
terrain will depend on the windward or leeward slope of the
dunes and the texture of the sand. However, other areas may be
flat for 3,000 meters (10,000 feet) and more. Plant life may vary
from none to scrub over 2 meters (7 feet) high. Examples of this
type of desert include the edges of the Sahara, the empty quarter
of the Arabian Desert, areas of California and New Mexico, and
the Kalahari in South Africa.

SALT MARSHES

Salt marshes are flat, desolate areas, sometimes studded
with clumps of grass but devoid of other vegetation. They occur in
arid areas where rainwater has collected, evaporated, and left
large deposits of alkali salts and water with a high salt
concentration. The water is so salty it is undrinkable. A crust that
may be 2.5 to 30 centimeters (1 to 12 inches) thick forms over the
saltwater.

In arid areas, there are salt marshes hundreds of
kilometers square. These areas usually support many insects,
most of which bite. Avoid salt marshes. This type of terrain is


highly corrosive to boots, clothing, and skin. A good example is
the Shatt al Arab waterway along the Iran-Iraq border.

BROKEN TERRAIN

All arid areas contain broken or highly dissected terrain.
Rainstorms that erode soft sand and carve out canyons form this
terrain. A wadi may range from 3 meters (10 feet) wide and 2
meters (7 feet) deep to several hundred meters wide and deep.
The direction it takes varies as much as its width and depth. It
twists and turns and forms a mazelike pattern. A wadi will give
you good cover and concealment, but do not try to move through it
because it is very difficult terrain to negotiate.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Surviving and evading the enemy in an arid area depends
on what you know and how prepared you are for the
environmental conditions you will face. Determine what
equipment you will need, the tactics you will use, and the
environment’s impact on them and you.

In a desert area there are seven environmental factors that
you must consider—

Low rainfall.

Intense sunlight and heat.

Wide temperature range.

Sparse vegetation.

High mineral content near ground surface.

Sandstorms.

Mirages.

LOW RAINFALL

Low rainfall is the most obvious environmental factor in an
arid area. Some desert areas receive less than 10 centimeters (4
inches) of rain annually, and this rain comes in brief torrents that
quickly run off the ground surface. You cannot survive long
without water in high desert temperatures. In a desert survival
situation, you must first consider the amount of water you have
and other water sources.


INTENSE SUNLIGHT AND HEAT

Intense sunlight and heat are present in all arid areas. Air
temperature can rise as high as 60 degrees C (140 degrees F)
during the day. Heat gain results from direct sunlight, hot
blowing sand-laden winds, reflective heat (the sun’s rays
bouncing off the sand), and conductive heat from direct contact
with the desert sand and rock (Figure 13-1).

Figure 13-1. Types of Heat Gain


The temperature of desert sand and rock typically range
from 16 to 22 degrees C (30 to 40 degrees F) more than that of the
air. For instance, when the air temperature is 43 degrees C (110
degrees F), the sand temperature may be 60 degrees C (140
degrees F).

Intense sunlight and heat increase the body’s need for
water. To conserve your body fluids and energy, you will need a
shelter to reduce your exposure to the heat of the day. Travel at
night to lessen your use of water.

Radios and sensitive items of equipment exposed to direct
intense sunlight will malfunction.

WIDE TEMPERATURE RANGE

Temperatures in arid areas may get as high as 55 degrees
C (130 degrees F) during the day and as low as 10 degrees C (50
degrees F) during the night. The drop in temperature at night
occurs rapidly and will chill a person who lacks warm clothing
and is unable to move about. The cool evenings and nights are the
best times to work or travel. If your plan is to rest at night, you
will find a wool sweater, long underwear, and a wool stocking cap
extremely helpful.

SPARSE VEGETATION

Vegetation is sparse in arid areas. You will therefore have
trouble finding shelter and camouflaging your movements.
During daylight hours, large areas of terrain are visible and
easily controlled by a small opposing force.

If traveling in hostile territory, follow the principles of
desert camouflage:

Hide or seek shelter in dry washes (wadis) with thicker
growths of vegetation and cover from oblique observation.

Use the shadows cast from brush, rocks, or outcroppings.
The temperature in shaded areas will be 11 to 17 degrees
C (52 to 63 degrees F) cooler than the air temperature.

Cover objects that will reflect the light from the sun.


Before moving, survey the area for sites that provide cover
and concealment. You will have trouble estimating distance. The
emptiness of desert terrain causes most people to underestimate
distance by a factor of three: What appears to be 1 kilometer (1/2
mile) away is really 3 kilometers (1 3/4 miles) away.

HIGH MINERAL CONTENT

All arid regions have areas where the surface soil has a
high mineral content (borax, salt, alkali, and lime). Material in
contact with this soil wears out quickly, and water in these areas
is extremely hard and undrinkable. Wetting your uniform in such
water to cool off may cause a skin rash. The Great Salt Lake area
in Utah is an example of this type of mineral-laden water and
soil. There is little or no plant life; therefore, shelter is hard to
find. Avoid these areas if possible.

SANDSTORMS

Sandstorms (sand-laden winds) occur frequently in most
deserts. The Seistan desert wind in Iran and Afghanistan blows
constantly for up to 120 days. Within Saudi Arabia, winds
typically range from 3.2 to 4.8 kilometers per hour (kph) (2 to 3
miles per hour [mph]) and can reach 112 to 128 kph (67 to 77
mph) in early afternoon. Expect major sandstorms and dust
storms at least once a week.

The greatest danger is getting lost in a swirling wall of
sand. Wear goggles and cover your mouth and nose with cloth. If
natural shelter is unavailable, mark your direction of travel, lie
down, and sit out the storm.

Dust and wind-blown sand interfere with radio
transmissions. Therefore, be ready to use other means for
signaling, such as pyrotechnics, signal mirrors, or marker panels,
if available.

MIRAGES

Mirages are optical phenomena caused by the refraction of
light through heated air rising from a sandy or stony surface.
They occur in the interior of the desert about 10 kilometers (6
miles) from the coast. They make objects that are 1.5 kilometers
(1 mile) or more away appear to move.


This mirage effect makes it difficult for you to identify an
object from a distance. It also blurs distant range contours so
much that you feel surrounded by a sheet of water from which
elevations stand out as “islands.”

The mirage effect makes it hard for a person to identify
targets, estimate range, and see objects clearly. However, if you
can get to high ground (3 meters [10 feet] or more above the
desert floor), you can get above the superheated air close to the
ground and overcome the mirage effect. Mirages make land
navigation difficult because they obscure natural features. You
can survey the area at dawn, dusk, or by moonlight when there is
little likelihood of mirage.

Light levels in desert areas are more intense than in other
geographic areas. Moonlit nights are usually crystal clear, winds
die down, haze and glare disappear, and visibility is excellent.
You can see lights, red flashlights, and blackout lights at great
distances. Sound carries very far.

Conversely, during nights with little moonlight, visibility
is extremely poor. Traveling is extremely hazardous. You must
avoid getting lost, falling into ravines, or stumbling into enemy
positions. Movement during such a night is practical only if you
have a compass and have spent the day resting, observing, and
memorizing the terrain, and selecting your route.

NEED FOR WATER

The subject of man and water in the desert has generated
considerable interest and confusion since the early days of World
War II when the U.S. Army was preparing to fight in North
Africa. At one time, the U.S. Army thought it could condition men
to do with less water by progressively reducing their water
supplies during training. They called it water discipline. It caused
hundreds of heat casualties.

A key factor in desert survival is understanding the
relationship between physical activity, air temperature, and
water consumption. The body requires a certain amount of water
for a certain level of activity at a certain temperature. For
example, a person performing hard work in the sun at 43 degrees
C (109 degrees F) requires 19 liters (5 gallons) of water daily.


Lack of the required amount of water causes a rapid decline in an
individual’s ability to make decisions and to perform tasks
efficiently.

Your body’s normal temperature is 36.9 degrees C (98.6
degrees F). Your body gets rid of excess heat (cools off) by
sweating. The warmer your body becomes—whether caused by
work, exercise, or air temperature—the more you sweat. The
more you sweat, the more moisture you lose. Sweating is the
principal cause of water loss. If you stop sweating during periods
of high air temperature and heavy work or exercise, you will
quickly develop heat stroke. This is an emergency that requires
immediate medical attention.

Figure 13-2, page 13-9, shows daily water requirements for
various levels of work. Understanding how the air temperature
and your physical activity affect your water requirements allows
you to take measures to get the most from your water supply.
These measures are—

Find shade! Get out of the sun!

Place something between you and the hot ground.

Limit your movements!

Conserve your sweat. Wear your complete uniform to
include T-shirt. Roll the sleeves down, cover your head,
and protect your neck with a scarf or similar item. These
steps will protect your body from hot-blowing winds and
the direct rays of the sun. Your clothing will absorb your
sweat, keeping it against your skin so that you gain its full
cooling effect. By staying in the shade quietly, fully
clothed, not talking, keeping your mouth closed, and
breathing through your nose, your water requirement for
survival drops dramatically.

If water is scarce, do not eat. Food requires water for
digestion; therefore, eating food will use water that you
need for cooling.


Figure 13-2. Daily Water Requirements for
Three Levels of Activity


Thirst is not a reliable guide for your need for
water. A person who uses thirst as a guide will drink only twothirds
of his daily water requirement. To prevent this “voluntary”
dehydration, use the following guide:

At temperatures below 38 degrees C (100 degrees F), drink
0.5 liter of water every hour.

At temperatures above 38 degrees C (100 degrees F), drink
1 liter of water every hour.

Drinking water at regular intervals helps your body
remain cool and decreases sweating. Even when your water
supply is low, sipping water constantly will keep your body cooler
and reduce water loss through sweating. Conserve your fluids by
reducing activity during the heat of day. Do not ration your
water! If you try to ration water, you stand a good chance of
becoming a heat casualty.

HEAT CASUALTIES

Your chances of becoming a heat casualty as a survivor are
great, due to injury, stress, and lack of critical items of
equipment. Following are the major types of heat casualties and
their treatment when little water and no medical help are
available.

HEAT CRAMPS

The loss of salt due to excessive sweating causes heat
cramps. Symptoms are moderate to severe muscle cramps in legs,
arms, or abdomen. These symptoms may start as a mild muscular
discomfort. You should now stop all activity, get in the shade, and
drink water. If you fail to recognize the early symptoms and
continue your physical activity, you will have severe muscle
cramps and pain. Treat as for heat exhaustion, below.

HEAT EXHAUSTION

A large loss of body water and salt causes heat exhaustion.
Symptoms are headache, mental confusion, irritability, excessive
sweating, weakness, dizziness, cramps, and pale, moist, cold
(clammy) skin. Immediately get the patient under shade. Make
him lie on a stretcher or similar item about 45 centimeters (18
inches) off the ground. Loosen his clothing. Sprinkle him with


water and fan him. Have him drink small amounts of water every
3 minutes. Ensure he stays quiet and rests.

HEAT STROKE

An extreme loss of water and salt and your body’s inability
to cool itself can cause heat stroke. The patient may die if not
cooled immediately. Symptoms are the lack of sweat, hot and dry
skin, headache, dizziness, fast pulse, nausea and vomiting, and
mental confusion leading to unconsciousness. Immediately get the
person to shade. Lay him on a stretcher or similar item about 45
centimeters (18 inches) off the ground. Loosen his clothing. Pour
water on him (it does not matter if the water is polluted or
brackish) and fan him. Massage his arms, legs, and body. If he
regains consciousness, let him drink small amounts of water
every 3 minutes.

PRECAUTIONS

In a desert survival and evasion situation, it is unlikely
that you will have a medic or medical supplies with you to treat
heat injuries. Therefore, take extra care to avoid heat injuries.
Rest during the day. Work during the cool evenings and nights.
Use the buddy system to watch for heat injury. Observe the
following guidelines:

Make sure you tell someone where you are going and when
you will return.

Watch for signs of heat injury. If someone complains of
tiredness or wanders away from the group, he may be a
heat casualty.

Drink water at least once an hour.

Get in the shade when resting; do not lie directly on the
ground.

Do not take off your shirt and work during the day.

Check the color of your urine. A light color means you are
drinking enough water, a dark color means you need to
drink more.


DESERT HAZARDS

There are several hazards unique to desert survival. These
include insects, snakes, thorned plants and cacti, contaminated
water, sunburn, eye irritation, and climatic stress.

Insects of almost every type abound in the desert. Man, as
a source of water and food, attracts lice, mites, wasps, and flies.
They are extremely unpleasant and may carry diseases. Old
buildings, ruins, and caves are favorite habitats of spiders,
scorpions, centipedes, lice, and mites. These areas provide
protection from the elements and also attract other wildlife.
Therefore, take extra care when staying in these areas. Wear
gloves at all times in the desert. Do not place your hands
anywhere without first looking to see what is there. Visually
inspect an area before sitting or lying down. When you get up,
shake out and inspect your boots and clothing. All desert areas
have snakes. They inhabit ruins, native villages, garbage dumps,
caves, and natural rock outcroppings that offer shade. Never go
barefoot or walk through these areas without carefully inspecting
them for snakes. Pay attention to where you place your feet and
hands. Most snakebites result from stepping on or handling
snakes. Avoid them. Once you see a snake, give it a wide berth.


 Tropical Survival

Most people think of the tropics as a huge and
forbidding tropical rain forest through which
every step taken must be hacked out, and where
every inch of the way is crawling with danger.
Actually, over half of the land in the tropics is
cultivated in some way.

A knowledge of field skills, the ability to
improvise, and the application of the principles of
survival will increase the prospects of survival. Do
not be afraid of being alone in the jungle; fear will
lead to panic. Panic will lead to exhaustion and
decrease your chance of survival.

Everything in the jungle thrives, including
disease germs and parasites that breed at an
alarming rate. Nature will provide water, food,
and plenty of materials to build shelters.

Indigenous peoples have lived for millennia by
hunting and gathering. However, it will take an
outsider some time to get used to the conditions
and the nonstop activity of tropical survival.

TROPICAL WEATHER

High temperatures, heavy rainfall, and oppressive humidity
characterize equatorial and subtropical regions, except at high
altitudes. At low altitudes, temperature variation is seldom less
than 10 degrees C (50 degrees F) and is often more than 35
degrees C (95 degrees F). At altitudes over 1,500 meters (4,921
feet), ice often forms at night. The rain has a cooling effect, but
when it stops, the temperature soars.

Rainfall is heavy, often with thunder and lightning. Sudden
rain beats on the tree canopy, turning trickles into raging
torrents and causing rivers to rise. Just as suddenly, the rain


stops. Violent storms may occur, usually toward the end of the
summer months.

Hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons develop over the sea
and rush inland, causing tidal waves and devastation ashore. In
choosing campsites, make sure you are above any potential
flooding. Prevailing winds vary between winter and summer. The
dry season has rain once a day and the monsoon has continuous
rain. In Southeast Asia, winds from the Indian Ocean bring the
monsoon, but the area is dry when the wind blows from the
landmass of China.

Tropical day and night are of equal length. Darkness falls
quickly and daybreak is just as sudden.

JUNGLE TYPES

There is no standard jungle. The tropical area may be any
of the following:

Rain forests.

Secondary jungles.

Semievergreen seasonal and monsoon forests.

Scrub and thorn forests.

Savannas.

Saltwater swamps.

Freshwater swamps.

TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS

The climate varies little in rain forests. You find these
forests across the equator in the Amazon and Congo basins, parts
of Indonesia, and several Pacific islands. Up to 3.5 meters (12
feet) of rain falls throughout the year. Temperatures range from
about 32 degrees C (90 degrees F) in the day to 21 degrees C (70
degrees F) at night.

There are five layers of vegetation in this jungle (Figure 14-1,
page 14-3). Where untouched by man, jungle trees rise from
buttress roots to heights of 60 meters (198 feet). Below them,
smaller trees produce a canopy so thick that little light reaches
the jungle floor. Seedlings struggle beneath them to reach light,


and masses of vines and lianas twine up to the sun. Ferns, mosses,
and herbaceous plants push through a thick carpet of leaves, and a
great variety of fungi grow on leaves and fallen tree trunks.

Figure 14.1. Five Layers of Tropical Rain Forest Vegetation

Because of the lack of light on the jungle floor, there is little
undergrowth to hamper movement, but dense growth limits
visibility to about 50 meters (165 feet). You can easily lose your
sense of direction in this jungle, and it is extremely hard for
aircraft to see you.

SECONDARY JUNGLES

Secondary jungle is very similar to rain forest. Prolific
growth, where sunlight penetrates to the jungle floor, typifies this
type of forest. Such growth happens mainly along riverbanks, on
jungle fringes, and where man has cleared rain forest. When
abandoned, tangled masses of vegetation quickly reclaim these
cultivated areas. You can often find cultivated food plants among
this vegetation.

SEMIEVERGREEN SEASONAL AND MONSOON FORESTS

The characteristics of the American and African
semievergreen seasonal forests correspond with those of the
Asian monsoon forests. The characteristics are as follows:

Their trees fall into two stories of tree strata. Those in the
upper story range from 18 to 24 meters (60 to 79 feet);


those in the lower story range from 7 to 13 meters (23 to
43 feet).

The diameter of the trees averages 0.5 meter (2 feet).

Their leaves fall during a seasonal drought.

Except for the sago, nipa, and coconut palms, the same
edible plants grow in these areas as in the tropical rain forests.

You find these forests in portions of Columbia and
Venezuela and the Amazon basin in South America; in portions of
southeast coastal Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique in Africa; in
Northeastern India, much of Burma, Thailand, Indochina, Java,
and parts of other Indonesian islands in Asia.

TROPICAL SCRUB AND THORN FORESTS

The chief characteristics of tropical scrub and thorn forests
are as follows:

There is a definite dry season.

Trees are leafless during the dry season.

The ground is bare except for a few tufted plants in
bunches; grasses are uncommon.

Plants with thorns predominate.

Fires occur frequently.

You find tropical scrub and thorn forests on the west coast
of Mexico, the Yucatan peninsula, Venezuela, and Brazil; on the
northwest coast and central parts of Africa; and in Turkestan and
India in Asia.

Within the tropical scrub and thorn forest areas, you will
find it hard to obtain food plants during the dry season. During
the rainy season, plants are considerably more abundant.

TROPICAL SAVANNAS

General characteristics of the savanna are that it—

Is found within the tropical zones in South America and
Africa.

Looks like a broad, grassy meadow, with trees spaced at
wide intervals.


Frequently has red soil.

Grows scattered trees that usually appear stunted and
gnarled like apple trees. Palms also occur on savannas.

You find savannas in parts of Venezuela, Brazil, and the
Guianas in South America. In Africa, you find them in the
southern Sahara (north-central Cameroon and Gabon and
southern Sudan), Benin, Togo, most of Nigeria, northeastern
Republic of Congo, northern Uganda, western Kenya, part of
Malawi, part of Tanzania, southern Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and
western Madagascar.

SALTWATER SWAMPS

Saltwater swamps are common in coastal areas subject to
tidal flooding. Mangrove trees thrive in these swamps. Mangrove
trees can reach heights of 12 meters (39 feet). Their tangled roots
are an obstacle to movement. Visibility in this type of swamp is
poor, and movement is extremely difficult. Sometimes, streams
that you can raft form channels, but you usually must travel on
foot through this swamp.

You find saltwater swamps in West Africa, Madagascar,
Malaysia, the Pacific islands, Central and South America, and at
the mouth of the Ganges River in India. The swamps at the
mouths of the Orinoco and Amazon rivers and rivers of Guyana
consist of mud and trees that offer little shade. Tides in saltwater
swamps can vary as much as 12 meters (3 feet).

Everything in a saltwater swamp may appear hostile to
you, from leeches and insects to crocodiles and caimans. Avoid the
dangerous animals in this swamp.

Avoid this swamp altogether if you can. If there are water
channels through it, you may be able to use a raft to escape.

FRESHWATER SWAMPS

You find freshwater swamps in low-lying inland areas.
Their characteristics are masses of thorny undergrowth, reeds,
grasses, and occasional short palms that reduce visibility and
make travel difficult. There are often islands that dot these
swamps, allowing you to get out of the water. Wildlife is
abundant in these swamps.


TRAVEL THROUGH JUNGLE AREAS

With practice, movement through thick undergrowth and
jungle can be done efficiently. Always wear long sleeves to avoid
cuts and scratches.

To move easily, you must develop “jungle eye,” that is, you
should not concentrate on the pattern of bushes and trees to your
immediate front. You must focus on the jungle further out and
find natural breaks in the foliage. Look through the jungle, not at
it. Stop and stoop down occasionally to look along the jungle floor.
This action may reveal game trails that you can follow.

Stay alert and move slowly and steadily through dense
forest or jungle. Stop periodically to listen and take your bearings.
Use a machete to cut through dense vegetation, but do not cut
unnecessarily or you will quickly wear yourself out. If using a
machete, stroke upward when cutting vines to reduce noise
because sound carries long distances in the jungle. Use a stick to
part the vegetation. Using a stick will also help dislodge biting
ants, spiders, or snakes. Do not grasp at brush or vines when
climbing slopes; they may have irritating spines or sharp thorns.

Many jungle and forest animals follow game trails. These
trails wind and cross, but frequently lead to water or clearings.
Use these trails if they lead in your desired direction of travel.

In many countries, electric and telephone lines run for
miles through sparsely inhabited areas. Usually, the right-of-way
is clear enough to allow easy travel. When traveling along these
lines, be careful as you approach transformer and relay stations.
In enemy territory, they may be guarded.

Movement through jungles or dense vegetation requires
you to constantly be alert and aware of your surroundings. The
following travel tips will help you succeed:

Pinpoint your initial location as accurately as possible to
determine a general line of travel to safety. If you do not
have a compass, use a field-expedient direction-finding
method.

Take stock of water supplies and equipment.


Move in one direction, but not necessarily in a straight
line. Avoid obstacles. In enemy territory, take advantage of
natural cover and concealment.

Move smoothly through the jungle. Do not blunder through
it since you will get many cuts and scratches. Turn your
shoulders, shift your hips, bend your body, and shorten or
lengthen your stride as necessary to slide between the
undergrowth.

IMMEDIATE CONSIDERATIONS

There is less likelihood of your rescue from beneath a
dense jungle canopy than in other survival situations. You will
probably have to travel to reach safety.

If you are the victim of an aircraft crash, the most
important items to take with you from the crash site are a
machete, a compass, a first aid kit, and a parachute or other
material for use as mosquito netting and shelter.

Take shelter from tropical rain, sun, and insects. Malariacarrying
mosquitoes and other insects are immediate dangers, so
protect yourself against bites.

Do not leave the crash area without carefully blazing or
marking your route. Use your compass. Know what direction you
are taking.

In the tropics, even the smallest scratch can quickly
become dangerously infected. Promptly treat any wound, no
matter how minor.

WATER PROCUREMENT

Although water is abundant in most tropical
environments, you may have trouble finding it. If you do find
water, it may not be safe to drink. Some of the many sources are
vines, roots, palm trees, and condensation. You can sometimes
follow animals to water. Often you can get nearly clear water
from muddy streams or lakes by digging a hole in sandy soil
about 1 meter (3 feet) from the bank. Water will seep into the
hole. You must purify any water obtained in this manner.


ANIMALS—SIGNS OF WATER

Animals can often lead you to water. Most animals require
water regularly. Grazing animals, such as deer, are usually never
far from water and usually drink at dawn and dusk. Converging
game trails often lead to water. Carnivores (meat eaters) are not
reliable indicators of water. They get moisture from the animals
they eat and can go without water for long periods.

Birds can sometimes also lead you to water. Grain eaters,
such as finches and pigeons, are never far from water. They drink
at dawn and dusk. When they fly straight and low, they are
heading for water. When returning from water, they are full and
will fly from tree to tree, resting frequently. Do not rely on water
birds to lead you to water. They fly long distances without
stopping. Hawks, eagles, and other birds of prey get liquids from
their victims; you cannot use them as a water indicator.

Insects, especially bees, can be good indicators of water.
Bees seldom range more than 6 kilometers (4 miles) from their
nests or hives. They will usually have a water source in this
range. Ants need water. A column of ants marching up a tree is
going to a small reservoir of trapped water. You find such
reservoirs even in arid areas. Most flies, especially the European
mason fly, stay within 100 meters (330 feet) of water. This fly is
easily recognized by its iridescent green body.

Human tracks will usually lead to a well, bore hole, or
soak. Scrub or rocks may cover it to reduce evaporation. Replace
the cover after use.

WATER—FROM PLANTS

You will encounter many types of vegetation in a survival
situation depending upon your area. Plants such as vines, roots,
and palm trees are good sources of water.

Vines

Vines with rough bark and shoots about 5 centimeters
(2 inches) thick can be a useful source of water. You must learn
by experience which are the water-bearing vines, because not all
have drinkable water. Some may even have a poisonous sap. The
poisonous ones yield a sticky, milky sap when cut. Nonpoisonous
vines will give a clear fluid. Some vines cause a skin irritation on


contact; therefore let the liquid drip into your mouth, rather than
put your mouth to the vine. Preferably, use some type of
container. Use the procedure described in Chapter 6 to obtain
water from a vine.

Roots

In Australia, the water tree, desert oak, and bloodwood
have roots near the surface. Pry these roots out of the ground and
cut them into 30-centimeter (1-foot) lengths. Remove the bark and
suck out the moisture, or shave the root to a pulp and squeeze it
over your mouth.

Palm Trees

The buri, coconut, and nipa palms all contain a sugary
fluid that is very good to drink. To obtain the liquid, bend a
flowering stalk of one of these palms downward, and cut off its
tip. If you cut a thin slice off the stalk every 12 hours, the flow
will renew, making it possible to collect up to a liter per day. Nipa
palm shoots grow from the base, so that you can work at ground
level. On grown trees of other species, you may have to climb
them to reach a flowering stalk. Milk from coconuts has a large
water content, but may contain a strong laxative in ripe nuts.
Drinking too much of this milk may cause you to lose more fluid
than you drink.

WATER—FROM CONDENSATION

Often it requires too much effort to dig for roots containing
water. It may be easier to let a plant produce water for you in the
form of condensation. Tying a clear plastic bag around a green
leafy branch will cause water in the leaves to evaporate and
condense in the bag. Placing cut vegetation in a plastic bag will
also produce condensation. This is a solar still (Chapter 6).

FOOD

Food is usually abundant in a tropical survival situation.
To obtain animal food, use the procedures outlined in Chapter 8.

In addition to animal food, you will have to supplement
your diet with edible plants. The best places to forage are the


banks of streams and rivers. Wherever the sun penetrates the
jungle, there will be a mass of vegetation, but riverbanks may be
the most accessible areas.

If you are weak, do not expend energy climbing or felling a
tree for food. There are more easily obtained sources of food
nearer the ground. Do not pick more food than you need. Food
spoils rapidly in tropical conditions. Leave food on the growing
plant until you need it, and eat it fresh.

There are an almost unlimited number of edible plants
from which to choose. Unless you can positively identify these
plants, it may be safer at first to begin with palms, bamboos, and
common fruits. Appendix B provides detailed descriptions and
photographs of some of the most common food plants located in a
tropical zone.

POISONOUS PLANTS

The proportion of poisonous plants in tropical regions is no
greater than in any other area of the world. However, it may
appear that most plants in the tropics are poisonous because of
the great density of plant growth in some tropical areas
(Appendix C).


 Cold Weather Survival

One of the most difficult survival situations is a
cold weather scenario. Remember, cold weather is
an adversary that can be as dangerous as an
enemy soldier. Every time you venture into the
cold, you are pitting yourself against the
elements. With a little knowledge of the
environment, proper plans, and appropriate
equipment, you can overcome the elements. As
you remove one or more of these factors, survival
becomes increasingly difficult. Remember, winter
weather is highly variable. Prepare yourself to
adapt to blizzard conditions even during sunny
and clear weather.

Cold is a far greater threat to survival than it
appears. It decreases your ability to think and
weakens your will to do anything except to get
warm. Cold is an insidious enemy; as it numbs the
mind and body, it subdues the will to survive.

Cold makes it very easy to forget your ultimate
goal—to survive.

COLD REGIONS AND LOCATIONS

Cold regions include arctic and subarctic areas and areas
immediately adjoining them. You can classify about 48 percent of
the Northern Hemisphere’s total landmass as a cold region due to
the influence and extent of air temperatures. Ocean currents
affect cold weather and cause large areas normally included in
the temperate zone to fall within the cold regions during winter
periods. Elevation also has a marked effect on defining cold
regions.

Within the cold weather regions, you may face two types of
cold weather environments—wet or dry. Knowing in which


environment your area of operations falls will affect planning and
execution of a cold weather operation.

WET COLD WEATHER ENVIRONMENTS

Wet cold weather conditions exist when the average
temperature in a 24-hour period is -10 degrees C (14 degrees F) or
above. Characteristics of this condition are freezing during the
colder night hours and thawing during the day. Although the
temperatures are warmer during this condition, the terrain is
usually very sloppy due to slush and mud. You must concentrate
on protecting yourself from the wet ground and from freezing rain
or wet snow.

DRY COLD WEATHER ENVIRONMENTS

Dry cold weather conditions exist when the average
temperature in a 24-hour period remains below -10 degrees C (14
degrees F). Even though the temperatures in this condition are
much lower than normal, you do not have to contend with the
freezing and thawing. In these conditions, you need more layers
of inner clothing to protect you from temperatures as low as
-60 degrees C (-76 degrees F). Extremely hazardous conditions
exist when wind and low temperature combine.

WINDCHILL

Windchill increases the hazards in cold regions. Windchill is
the effect of moving air on exposed flesh. For instance, with a
27.8-kph (15-knot) wind and a temperature of -10 degrees C (14
degrees F), the equivalent windchill temperature is -23 degrees C
(-9 degrees F). Figure 15-1, page 15-3, gives the windchill factors
for various temperatures and wind speeds.

Remember, even when there is no wind, you will create the
equivalent wind by skiing, running, being towed on skis behind a
vehicle, or working around aircraft that produce windblasts.


Figure 15-1. Windchill Table


BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
COLD WEATHER SURVIVAL

It is more difficult for you to satisfy your basic water, food,
and shelter needs in a cold environment than in a warm
environment. Even if you have the basic requirements, you must
also have adequate protective clothing and the will to survive.
The will to survive is as important as the basic needs. There have
been incidents when trained and well-equipped individuals have
not survived cold weather situations because they lacked the
will to live. Conversely, this will has sustained individuals less
well-trained and equipped.

There are many different items of cold weather equipment
and clothing issued by the U.S. Army today. Specialized units
may have access to newer, lightweight gear such as polypropylene
underwear, Gore-Tex outerwear and boots, and other special
equipment. However, the older gear will keep you warm as long
as you apply a few cold weather principles. If the newer types of
clothing are available, use them. If not, then your clothing should
be entirely wool, with the possible exception of a windbreaker.

You must not only have enough clothing to protect you from
the cold, you must also know how to maximize the warmth you
get from it. For example, always keep your head covered. You can
lose 40 to 45 percent of body heat from an unprotected head and
even more from the unprotected neck, wrist, and ankles. These
areas of the body are good radiators of heat and have very little
insulating fat. The brain is very susceptible to cold and can stand
the least amount of cooling. Because there is much blood
circulation in the head, most of which is on the surface, you can
lose heat quickly if you do not cover your head.

There are four basic principles to follow to keep warm. An
easy way to remember these basic principles is to use the word
COLDER as follows:

C–Keep clothing clean. This principle is always important
for sanitation and comfort. In winter, it is also important
from the standpoint of warmth. Clothes matted with dirt
and grease lose much of their insulation value. Heat can
escape more easily from the body through the clothing’s
crushed or filled up air pockets.


O–Avoid overheating. When you get too hot, you sweat and
your clothing absorbs the moisture. This affects your
warmth in two ways: dampness decreases the insulation
quality of clothing, and as sweat evaporates, your body
cools. Adjust your clothing so that you do not sweat. Do
this by partially opening your parka or jacket, by removing
an inner layer of clothing, by removing heavy outer
mittens, or by throwing back your parka hood or changing
to lighter headgear. The head and hands act as efficient
heat dissipaters when overheated.

L–Wear your clothing loose and in layers. Wearing tight
clothing and footgear restricts blood circulation and invites
cold injury. It also decreases the volume of air trapped
between the layers, reducing its insulating value. Several
layers of lightweight clothing are better than one equally
thick layer of clothing, because the layers have dead
airspace between them. The dead airspace provides extra
insulation. Also, layers of clothing allow you to take off or
add clothing layers to prevent excessive sweating or to
increase warmth.

D–Keep clothing dry. In cold temperatures, your inner
layers of clothing can become wet from sweat and your
outer layer, if not water repellent, can become wet from
snow and frost melted by body heat. Wear water repellent
outer clothing, if available. It will shed most of the water
collected from melting snow and frost. Before entering a
heated shelter, brush off the snow and frost. Despite the
precautions you take, there will be times when you cannot
keep from getting wet. At such times, drying your clothing
may become a major problem. On the march, hang your
damp mittens and socks on your rucksack. Sometimes in
freezing temperatures, the wind and sun will dry this
clothing. You can also place damp socks or mittens,
unfolded, near your body so that your body heat can dry
them. In a campsite, hang damp clothing inside the shelter
near the top, using drying lines or improvised racks. You
may even be able to dry each item by holding it before an
open fire. Dry leather items slowly. If no other means are
available for drying your boots, put them between your


sleeping bag shell and liner. Your body heat will help to
dry the leather.

E–Examine your uniform for worn areas, tears, and
cleanliness.

R–Repair your uniform early before tears and holes
become too large to patch. Improvised sewing kits can be
made from bones, plant fibers, 550 cord, and large thorns.

A heavy, down-lined sleeping bag is a valuable piece of
survival gear in cold weather. Ensure the down remains dry. If
wet, it loses a lot of its insulation value. If you do not have a
sleeping bag, you can make one out of parachute cloth or similar
material and natural dry material, such as leaves, pine needles, or
moss. Place the dry material between two layers of the material.

Other important survival items are a knife; waterproof
matches in a waterproof container, preferably one with a flint
attached; a durable compass; map; watch; waterproof ground
cloth and cover; flashlight; binoculars; dark glasses; fatty
emergency foods; food gathering gear; and signaling items.

Remember, a cold weather environment can be very harsh.
Give a good deal of thought to selecting the right equipment for
survival in the cold. If unsure of an item you have never used,
test it in an “overnight backyard” environment before venturing
further. Once you have selected items that are essential for your
survival, do not lose them after you enter a cold weather
environment.

HYGIENE

Although washing yourself may be impractical and
uncomfortable in a cold environment, you must do so. Washing
helps prevent skin rashes that can develop into more serious
problems.

In some situations, you may be able to take a snow bath.
Take a handful of snow and wash your body where sweat and
moisture accumulate, such as under the arms and between the
legs, and then wipe yourself dry. If possible, wash your feet daily
and put on clean, dry socks. Change your underwear at least


twice a week. If you are unable to wash your underwear, take it
off, shake it, and let it air out for an hour or two.

If you are using a previously used shelter, check your body
and clothing for lice each night. If your clothing has become
infested, use insecticide powder if you have any. Otherwise, hang
your clothes in the cold, then beat and brush them. This will help
get rid of the lice, but not the eggs.

If you shave, try to do so before going to bed. This will give
your skin a chance to recover before exposing it to the elements.

MEDICAL ASPECTS

When you are healthy, your inner core temperature (torso
temperature) remains almost constant at 37 degrees C (98.6
degrees F). Since your limbs and head have less protective body
tissue than your torso, their temperatures vary and may not
reach core temperature.

Your body has a control system that lets it react to
temperature extremes to maintain a temperature balance. There
are three main factors that affect this temperature balance—heat
production, heat loss, and evaporation. The difference between
the body’s core temperature and the environment’s temperature
governs the heat production rate. Your body can get rid of heat
better than it can produce it. Sweating helps to control the heat
balance. Maximum sweating will get rid of heat about as fast as
maximum exertion produces it.

Shivering causes the body to produce heat. It also causes
fatigue that, in turn, leads to a drop in body temperature. Air
movement around your body affects heat loss. It has been noted
that a naked man exposed to still air at or about 0 degrees C (32
degrees F) can maintain a heat balance if he shivers as hard as he
can. However, he can’t shiver forever.

It has also been noted that a man at rest wearing the
maximum arctic clothing in a cold environment can keep his
internal heat balance during temperatures well below freezing.
However, to withstand really cold conditions for any length of
time, he will have to become active or shiver.

COLD INJURIES


The best way to deal with injuries and sicknesses is to take
measures to prevent them from happening in the first place.
Treat any injury or sickness that occurs as soon as possible to
prevent it from worsening.

The knowledge of signs and symptoms and the use of the
buddy system are critical in maintaining health. The following
paragraphs explain some cold injuries that can occur.

HYPOTHERMIA

Hypothermia is the lowering of the body temperature at a
rate faster than the body can produce heat. Causes of
hypothermia may be general exposure or the sudden wetting of
the body by falling into a lake or spraying with fuel or other
liquids.

The initial symptom is shivering. This shivering may
progress to the point that it is uncontrollable and interferes with
an individual’s ability to care for himself. This begins when the
body’s core temperature falls to about 35.5 degrees C (96 degrees
F). When the core temperature reaches 35 to 32 degrees C (95 to
90 degrees F), sluggish thinking, irrational reasoning, and a false
feeling of warmth may occur. Core temperatures of 32 to 30
degrees C (90 to 86 degrees F) and below result in muscle rigidity,
unconsciousness, and barely detectable signs of life. If the victim’s
core temperature falls below 25 degrees C (77 degrees F), death is
almost certain.

To treat hypothermia, rewarm the entire body. If there are
means available, rewarm the person by first immersing the trunk
area only in warm water of 37.7 to 43.3 degrees C (100 to 110
degrees F).

One of the quickest ways to get heat to the inner core is to
give warm water enemas. However, such an action may not be


possible in a survival situation. Another method is to wrap the
victim in a warmed sleeping bag with another person who is
already warm; both should be naked.

If the person is conscious, give him hot, sweetened fluids.
Honey or dextrose are best, but if they are unavailable, sugar,
cocoa, or a similar soluble sweetener may be used.

There are two dangers in treating hypothermia—
rewarming too rapidly and “after-drop.” Rewarming too rapidly
can cause the victim to have circulatory problems, resulting in
heart failure. After-drop is the sharp body core temperature drop
that occurs when taking the victim from the warm water. Its
probable cause is the return of previously stagnant limb blood to
the core (inner torso) area as recirculation occurs. Concentrating
on warming the core area and stimulating peripheral circulation
will lessen the effects of after-drop. Immersing the torso in a
warm bath, if possible, is the best treatment.

FROSTBITE

This injury is the result of frozen tissues. Light frostbite
involves only the skin that takes on a dull whitish pallor. Deep
frostbite extends to a depth below the skin. The tissues become
solid and immovable. Your feet, hands, and exposed facial areas
are particularly vulnerable to frostbite.

The best frostbite prevention, when you are with others, is
to use the buddy system. Check your buddy’s face often and make


sure that he checks yours. If you are alone, periodically cover your
nose and lower part of your face with your mittened hand.

The following pointers will aid you in keeping warm and
preventing frostbite when it is extremely cold or when you have
less than adequate clothing:

Face. Maintain circulation by “making faces.” Warm with
your hands.

Ears. Wiggle and move your ears. Warm with your
hands.

Hands. Move your hands inside your gloves. Warm by
placing your hands close to your body.

Feet. Move your feet and wiggle your toes inside your
boots.

A loss of feeling in your hands and feet is a sign of
frostbite. If you have lost feeling for only a short time, the
frostbite is probably light. Otherwise, assume the frostbite is
deep. To rewarm a light frostbite, use your hands or mittens to
warm your face and ears. Place your hands under your armpits.
Place your feet next to your buddy’s stomach. A deep frostbite
injury, if thawed and refrozen, will cause more damage than a
nonmedically trained person can handle. Figure 15-2, lists some
“dos and don’ts” regarding frostbite.

Do

Don’t

Periodically check for frostbite.

Rub injury with snow.

Rewarm light frostbite.

Drink alcoholic beverages.

Keep injuried areas from
refreezing.

Smoke.

Try to thaw out a deep frostbite
injury if you are away from
definitive medical care.



Figure 15-2. Frostbite Dos and Don’ts

TRENCH FOOT AND IMMERSION FOOT

These conditions result from many hours or days of
exposure to wet or damp conditions at a temperature just above


freezing. The symptoms are a sensation of pins and needles,
tingling, numbness, and then pain. The skin will initially appear
wet, soggy, white, and shriveled. As it progresses and damage
appears, the skin will take on a red and then a bluish or black
discoloration. The feet become cold, swollen, and have a waxy
appearance. Walking becomes difficult and the feet feel heavy and
numb. The nerves and muscles sustain the main damage, but
gangrene can occur. In extreme cases, the flesh dies and it may
become necessary to have the foot or leg amputated. The best
prevention is to keep your feet dry. Carry extra socks with you in
a waterproof packet. You can dry wet socks against your torso
(back or chest). Wash your feet and put on dry socks daily.

DEHYDRATION

When bundled up in many layers of clothing during cold
weather, you may be unaware that you are losing body moisture.
Your heavy clothing absorbs the moisture that evaporates in the
air. You must drink water to replace this loss of fluid. Your need
for water is as great in a cold environment as it is in a warm
environment (Chapter 13). One way to tell if you are becoming
dehydrated is to check the color of your urine on snow. If your
urine makes the snow dark yellow, you are becoming dehydrated
and need to replace body fluids. If it makes the snow light yellow
to no color, your body fluids have a more normal balance.

COLD DIURESIS

Exposure to cold increases urine output. It also decreases
body fluids that you must replace.

SUNBURN

Exposed skin can become sunburned even when the air
temperature is below freezing. The sun’s rays reflect at all angles
from snow, ice, and water, hitting sensitive areas of skin—lips,
nostrils, and eyelids. Exposure to the sun results in sunburn more
quickly at high altitudes than at low altitudes. Apply sunburn
cream or lip salve to your face when in the sun.

SNOW BLINDNESS

The reflection of the sun’s ultraviolet rays off a snowcovered
area causes this condition. The symptoms of snow


blindness are a sensation of grit in the eyes, pain in and over the

eyes that increases with eyeball movement, red and teary eyes,
and a headache that intensifies with continued exposure to light.
Prolonged exposure to these rays can result in permanent eye
damage. To treat snow blindness, bandage your eyes until the
symptoms disappear.

You can prevent snow blindness by wearing sunglasses. If
you don’t have sunglasses, improvise. Cut slits in a piece of
cardboard, thin wood, tree bark, or other available material
(Figure 15-3). Putting soot under your eyes will help reduce shine
and glare.

Figure 15-3. Improvised Sunglasses

CONSTIPATION

It is very important to relieve yourself when needed. Do
not delay because of the cold condition. Delaying relieving
yourself because of the cold, eating dehydrated foods, drinking too
little liquid, and irregular eating habits can cause you to become
constipated. Although not disabling, constipation can cause some
discomfort. Increase your fluid intake to at least 2 liters above
your normal 2 to 3 liters daily intake and, if available, eat fruit
and other foods that will loosen the stool.

INSECT BITES


Insect bites can become infected through constant
scratching. Flies can carry various disease-producing germs. To
prevent insect bites, use insect repellent and netting and wear
proper clothing. See Chapter 11 for information on insect bites
and Chapter 4 for treatment.

SHELTERS

Your environment and the equipment you carry with you
will determine the type of shelter you can build. You can build
shelters in wooded areas, open country, and barren areas.
Wooded areas usually provide the best location, while barren
areas have only snow as building material. Wooded areas provide
timber for shelter construction, wood for fire, concealment from
observation, and protection from the wind.

NOTE: In extreme cold, do not use metal, such as an aircraft
fuselage, for shelter. The metal will conduct away from the
shelter what little heat you can generate.

Shelters made from ice or snow usually require tools such
as ice axes or saws. You must also expend much time and energy
to build such a shelter. Be sure to ventilate an enclosed shelter,
especially if you intend to build a fire in it. Always block a
shelter’s entrance, if possible, to keep the heat in and the wind
out. Use a rucksack or snow block. Construct a shelter no larger
than needed. This will reduce the amount of space to heat. A fatal
error in cold weather shelter construction is making the shelter so
large that it steals body heat rather than helps save it.

Never sleep directly on the ground. Lay down some pine
boughs, grass, or other insulating material to keep the ground
from absorbing your body heat.

Never fall asleep without turning out your stove or lamp.
Carbon monoxide poisoning can result from a fire burning in an
unventilated shelter. Carbon monoxide is a great danger. It is
colorless and odorless. Any time you have an open flame, it may
generate carbon monoxide. Always check your ventilation. Even in
a ventilated shelter, incomplete combustion can cause carbon
monoxide poisoning. Usually, there are no symptoms.
Unconsciousness and death can occur without warning.
Sometimes, however, pressure at the temples, burning of the eyes,


headache, pounding pulse, drowsiness, or nausea may occur. The
one characteristic, visible sign of carbon monoxide poisoning is a
cherry red coloring in the tissues of the lips, mouth, and inside of
the eyelids. Get into fresh air at once if you have any of these
symptoms.

There are several types of field-expedient shelters you can
quickly build or employ. Many use snow for insulation.

SNOW CAVE SHELTER

The snow cave shelter (Figure 15-4, page 15-15) is a most
effective dwelling because of the insulating qualities of snow.
Remember that it takes time and energy to build and that you
will get wet while building it. First, you need to find a drift about
3 meters (10 feet) deep into which you can dig. While building this
shelter, keep the roof arched for strength and to allow melted
snow to drain down the sides. Build the sleeping platform higher
than the entrance. Separate the sleeping platform from the snow
cave’s walls or dig a small trench between the platform and the
wall. This platform will prevent the melting snow from wetting
you and your equipment. This construction is especially
important if you have a good source of heat in the snow cave.
Ensure the roof is high enough so that you can sit up on the
sleeping platform. Block the entrance with a snow block or other
material and use the lower entrance area for cooking. The walls
and ceiling should be at least 30 centimeters (1 foot) thick. Install
a ventilation shaft. If you do not have a drift large enough to build
a snow cave, you can make a variation of it by piling snow into a
mound large enough to dig out.


Figure 15-4. Snow Dwellings


SNOW TRENCH SHELTER

The idea behind this shelter (Figure 15-4, page 15-15) is to
get you below the snow and wind level and use the snow’s
insulating qualities. If you are in an area of compacted snow, cut
snow blocks and use them as overhead cover. If not, you can use a
poncho or other material. Build only one entrance and use a snow
block or rucksack as a door.

SNOW BLOCK AND PARACHUTE SHELTER

Use snow blocks for the sides and parachute material for
overhead cover (Figure 15-4, page 15-15). If snowfall is heavy, you
will have to clear snow from the top at regular intervals to
prevent the collapse of the parachute material.

SNOW HOUSE OR IGLOO

In certain areas, the natives frequently use this type of
shelter (Figure 15-4, page 15-15) as hunting and fishing shelters.
They are efficient shelters but require some practice to make
them properly. Also, you must be in an area that is suitable for
cutting snow blocks and have the equipment to cut them (snow
saw or knife).

LEAN-TO SHELTER

Construct this shelter in the same manner as for other
environments. However, pile snow around the sides for insulation
(Figure 15-5).

Figure 15-5. Lean-to Made From Natural Shelter


FALLEN TREE SHELTER

To build this shelter, find a fallen tree and dig out the
snow underneath it (Figure 15-6). The snow will not be deep
under the tree. If you must remove branches from the inside, use
them to line the floor.

Figure 15-6. Fallen Tree as Shelter

TREE-PIT SHELTER

Dig snow out from under a suitable large tree. It will not
be as deep near the base of the tree. Use the cut branches to line
the shelter. Use a ground sheet as overhead cover to prevent snow
from falling off the tree into the shelter. If built properly, you can
have 360-degree visibility (Chapter 5, Figure 5-12, page 5-18).

20-MAN LIFE RAFT

This raft is the standard overwater raft on U.S. Air Force
aircraft. You can use it as a shelter. Do not let large amounts of
snow build up on the overhead protection. If placed in an open
area, it also serves as a good signal to overhead aircraft.

FIRE

Fire is especially important in cold weather. It not only
provides a means to prepare food, but also to get warm and to
melt snow or ice for water. It also provides you with a significant
psychological boost by making you feel a little more secure in
your situation.


Use the techniques described in Chapter 7 to build and
light your fire. If you are in enemy territory, remember that the
smoke, smell, and light from your fire may reveal your location.
Light reflects from surrounding trees or rocks, making even
indirect light a source of danger. Smoke tends to go straight up in
cold, calm weather, making it a beacon during the day, but
helping to conceal the smell at night. In warmer weather,
especially in a wooded area, smoke tends to hug the ground,
making it less visible in the day, but making its odor spread.

If you are in enemy territory, cut low tree boughs rather
than the entire tree for firewood. Fallen trees are easily seen from
the air.

All wood will burn, but some types of wood create more
smoke than others. For instance, coniferous trees that contain
resin and tar create more and darker smoke than deciduous trees.

There are few materials to use for fuel in the high
mountainous regions of the arctic. You may find some grasses and
moss, but very little. The lower the elevation, the more fuel
available. You may find some scrub willow and small, stunted spruce
trees above the tree line. On sea ice, fuels are seemingly nonexistent.
Driftwood or fats may be the only fuels available to a survivor on the
barren coastlines in the arctic and subarctic regions.

Abundant fuels within the tree line are as follows:

Spruce trees are common in the interior regions. As a
conifer, spruce makes a lot of smoke when burned in the
spring and summer months. However, it burns almost
smoke-free in late fall and winter.

The tamarack tree is also a conifer. It is the only tree of the
pine family that loses its needles in the fall. Without its
needles, it looks like a dead spruce, but it has many
knobby buds and cones on its bare branches. When
burning, tamarack wood makes a lot of smoke and is
excellent for signaling purposes.

Birch trees are deciduous and the wood burns hot and fast,
as if soaked with oil or kerosene. Most birches grow near
streams and lakes, but occasionally you will find a few on
higher ground and away from water.


Willow and alder grow in arctic regions, normally in marsh
areas or near lakes and streams. These woods burn hot
and fast without much smoke.

Dried moss, grass, and scrub willow are other materials
you can use for fuel. These are usually plentiful near streams in
tundras (open, treeless plains). By bundling or twisting grasses or
other scrub vegetation to form a large, solid mass, you will have a
slower burning, more productive fuel.

If fuel or oil is available from a wrecked vehicle or downed
aircraft, use it for fuel. Leave the fuel in the tank for storage,
drawing on the supply only as you need it. Oil congeals in
extremely cold temperatures, therefore, drain it from the vehicle
or aircraft while still warm if there is no danger of explosion or
fire. If you have no container, let the oil drain onto the snow or
ice. Scoop up the fuel as you need it.

Some plastic products, such as MRE spoons, helmet visors,
visor housings, and foam rubber will ignite quickly from a
burning match. They will also burn long enough to help start a
fire. For example, a plastic spoon will burn for about 10 minutes.

In cold weather regions, there are some hazards in using
fires, whether to keep warm or to cook. For example—

Fires have been known to burn underground, resurfacing
nearby. Therefore, do not build a fire too close to a shelter.

In snow shelters, excessive heat will melt the insulating
layer of snow that may also be your camouflage.

A fire inside a shelter lacking adequate ventilation can
result in carbon monoxide poisoning.

A person trying to get warm or to dry clothes may become
careless and burn or scorch his clothing and equipment.


Melting overhead snow may get you wet, bury you and
your equipment, and possibly extinguish your fire.

In general, a small fire and some type of stove is the best
combination for cooking purposes. A hobo stove (Figure 15-7) is
particularly suitable to the arctic. It is easy to make out of a tin
can, and it conserves fuel. A bed of hot coals provides the best
cooking heat. Coals from a crisscross fire will settle uniformly.
Make this type of fire by crisscrossing the firewood. A simple
crane propped on a forked stick will hold a cooking container over
a fire.

Figure 15-7. Cooking Fire and Stove

For heating purposes, a single candle provides enough heat
to warm an enclosed shelter. A small fire about the size of a man’s
hand is ideal for use in enemy territory. It requires very little
fuel, yet it generates considerable warmth and is hot enough to
warm liquids.

WATER

There are many sources of water in the arctic and
subarctic. Your location and the season of the year will determine
where and how you obtain water.


Water sources in arctic and subarctic regions are more
sanitary than in other regions due to the climatic and
environmental conditions. However, always purify the water
before drinking it. During the summer months, the best natural
sources of water are freshwater lakes, streams, ponds, rivers, and
springs. Water from ponds or lakes may be slightly stagnant but
still usable. Running water in streams, rivers, and bubbling
springs is usually fresh and suitable for drinking.

The brownish surface water found in a tundra during the
summer is a good source of water. However, you may have to
filter the water before purifying it.

You can melt freshwater ice and snow for water.
Completely melt both before putting them in your mouth. Trying
to melt ice or snow in your mouth takes away body heat and may
cause internal cold injuries. If on or near pack ice in the sea, you
can use old sea ice to melt for water. In time, sea ice loses its
salinity. You can identify this ice by its rounded corners and
bluish color.

You can use body heat to melt snow. Place the snow in a
water bag and place the bag between your layers of clothing. This
is a slow process, but you can use it on the move or when you
have no fire.

NOTE: Do not waste fuel to melt ice or snow when drinkable
water is available from other sources.

When ice is available, melt it rather than snow. One cup of
ice yields more water than one cup of snow. Ice also takes less
time to melt. You can melt ice or snow in a water bag, MRE ration
bag, tin can, or improvised container by placing the container
near a fire. Begin with a small amount of ice or snow in the
container and, as it turns to water, add more ice or snow.

Another way to melt ice or snow is by putting it in a bag
made from porous material and suspending the bag near the fire.
Place a container under the bag to catch the water.

During cold weather, avoid drinking a lot of liquid before
going to bed. Crawling out of a warm sleeping bag at night to
relieve yourself means less rest and more exposure to the cold.


Once you have water, keep it next to you to prevent
refreezing. Also, do not fill your canteen completely. Allowing the
water to slosh around will help keep it from freezing.

FOOD

There are several sources of food in the arctic and
subarctic regions. The type of food—fish, animal, fowl, or plant—
and the ease in obtaining it depend on the time of the year and
your location.

FISH

During the summer months, you can easily get fish and
other water life from coastal waters, streams, rivers, and lakes.
Use the techniques described in Chapter 8 to catch fish.

The North Atlantic and North Pacific coastal waters are
rich in seafood. You can easily find crawfish, snails, clams,
oysters, and king crab. In areas where there is a great difference
between the high and low tidewater levels, you can easily find
shellfish at low tide. Dig in the sand on the tidal flats. Look in
tidal pools and on offshore reefs. In areas where there is a small
difference between the high- and low-tide water levels, storm
waves often wash shellfish onto the beaches.

The eggs of the spiny sea urchin that lives in the waters
around the Aleutian Islands and southern Alaska are excellent
food. Look for the sea urchins in tidal pools. Break the shell by
placing it between two stones. The eggs are bright yellow in color.

Most northern fish and fish eggs are edible. Exceptions are
the meat of the arctic shark and the eggs of the sculpins.

The bivalves, such as clams and mussels, are usually more
palatable than spiral-shelled seafood, such as snails.

The sea cucumber is another edible sea animal. Inside its
body are five long white muscles that taste much like clam meat.


In early summer, smelt spawn in the beach surf.
Sometimes you can scoop them up with your hands.

You can often find herring eggs on the seaweed in
midsummer. Kelp, the long ribbonlike seaweed, and other smaller
seaweeds that grow among offshore rocks are also edible.

SEA ICE ANIMALS

You find polar bears in practically all arctic coastal
regions, but rarely inland. Avoid them if possible. They are the
most dangerous of all bears. They are tireless, clever hunters with
good sight and an extraordinary sense of smell. If you must kill
one for food, approach it cautiously. Aim for the brain; a bullet
elsewhere will rarely kill one. Always cook polar bear meat before
eating it.

Earless seal meat is some of the best meat available.
However, you need considerable skill to get close enough to an
earless seal to kill it. In spring, seals often bask on the ice beside
their breathing holes. They raise their heads about every 30
seconds, however, to look for their enemy, the polar bear.

To approach a seal, do as the Eskimos do—stay downwind
from it, cautiously moving closer while it sleeps. If it moves, stop
and imitate its movements by lying flat on the ice, raising your
head up and down, and wriggling your body slightly. Approach
the seal with your body sideways to it and your arms close to your


body so that you look as much like another seal as possible. The
ice at the edge of the breathing hole is usually smooth and at an
incline, so the least movement of the seal may cause it to slide
into the water. Therefore, try to get within 22 to 45 meters (73 to
148 feet) of the seal and kill it instantly (aim for the brain). Try to
reach the seal before it slips into the water. In winter, a dead seal
will usually float, but it is difficult to retrieve from the water.

Keep the seal blubber and skin from coming into contact with
any scratch or broken skin you may have. You could get “spekkfinger,”
a reaction that causes the hands to become badly swollen.

Keep in mind that where there are seals, there are usually
polar bears, and polar bears have stalked and killed seal hunters.

You can find porcupines in southern subarctic regions
where there are trees. Porcupines feed on bark; if you find tree
limbs stripped bare, you are likely to find porcupines in the area.

Ptarmigans, owls, Canadian jays, grouse, and ravens are
the only birds that remain in the arctic during the winter. They
are scarce north of the tree line. Ptarmigans and owls are as good
for food as any game bird. Ravens are too thin to be worth the
effort it takes to catch them. Ptarmigans, which change color to
blend with their surroundings, are hard to spot. Rock ptarmigans
travel in pairs and you can easily approach them. Willow
ptarmigans live among willow clumps in bottomlands. They
gather in large flocks and you can easily snare them. During the
summer months, all arctic birds have a 2- to 3-week molting
period during which they cannot fly and are easy to catch. Use
one of the techniques described in Chapter 8 to catch them.

Skin and butcher game (Chapter 8) while it is still warm.
If you do not have time to skin the game, at least remove its
entrails, musk glands, and genitals before storing. If time allows,
cut the meat into usable pieces and freeze each separately so that
you can use the pieces as needed. Leave the fat on all animals
except seals. During the winter, game freezes quickly if left in the
open. During the summer, you can store it in underground
ice holes.


PLANTS

Although tundras support a variety of plants during the
warm months, all are small when compared to similar plants in
warmer climates. For instance, the arctic willow and birch are
shrubs rather than trees. Appendix B consists of plant foods and
descriptions that are found in arctic and subarctic regions.

There are some plants growing in arctic and subarctic
regions that are poisonous if eaten (Appendix C). Use the plants
that you know are edible. When in doubt, follow the Universal
Edibility Test in Chapter 9, Figure 9-5, page 9-7.

TRAVEL

You will face many obstacles if your survival situation is in
an arctic or subarctic region. Your location and the time of the
year will determine the types of obstacles and the inherent
dangers. You should—

Avoid traveling during a blizzard.

Take care when crossing thin ice. Distribute your weight
by lying flat and crawling.

Cross streams when the water level is lowest. Normal
freezing and thawing action may cause a stream level to
vary as much as 2 to 2.5 meters (7 to 8 feet) per day. This
variance may occur any time during the day, depending on
the distance from a glacier, the temperature, and the
terrain. Consider this variation in water level when
selecting a campsite near a stream.

Consider the clear arctic air. It makes estimating distance
difficult. You more frequently underestimate than
overestimate distances.

Avoid travel in “whiteout” conditions. The lack of
contrasting colors makes it impossible to judge the nature
of the terrain.

Always cross a snow bridge at right angles to the obstacle
it crosses. Find the strongest part of the bridge by poking
ahead of you with a pole or ice axe. Distribute your weight
by crawling or by wearing snowshoes or skis.


Make camp early so that you have plenty of time to build a
shelter.

Consider frozen or unfrozen rivers as avenues of travel.
However, some rivers that appear frozen may have soft,
open areas that make travel very difficult or may not allow
walking, skiing, or sledding.

Use snowshoes if you are traveling over snow-covered
terrain. Snow 30 or more centimeters (12 inches or more)
deep makes traveling difficult. If you do not have
snowshoes, make a pair using willow, strips of cloth,
leather, or other suitable material.

It is almost impossible to travel in deep snow without
snowshoes or skis. Traveling by foot leaves a well-marked trail for
any pursuers to follow. If you must travel in deep snow, avoid
snow-covered streams. The snow, which acts as an insulator, may
have prevented ice from forming over the water. In hilly terrain,
avoid areas where avalanches appear possible. Travel in the early
morning in areas where there is danger of avalanches. On ridges,
snow gathers on the lee side in overhanging piles called cornices.
These often extend far out from the ridge and may break loose if
stepped on.

WEATHER SIGNS

In most situations you can determine the effects that
weather can have on basic survival needs. Several good indicators
of climatic changes include the following:

WIND

You can determine wind direction by dropping grass or a
few leaves or by watching the treetops. Once you determine the
wind direction, you can predict the type of weather that is
imminent. Rapidly shifting winds indicate an unsettled
atmosphere and a likely change in the weather.

CLOUDS

Clouds come in a variety of shapes and patterns. A general
knowledge of clouds and the atmospheric conditions they indicate


can help you predict the weather. Appendix H explains cloud
formations in more detail.

SMOKE

Smoke rising in a thin vertical column indicates fair
weather. Low rising or “flattened out” smoke indicates stormy
weather.

BIRDS AND INSECTS

Birds and insects fly lower to the ground than normal in
heavy, moisture-laden air. Such flight indicates that rain is likely.
Most insect activity increases before a storm, but bee activity
increases before fair weather.

LOW-PRESSURE FRONT

Slow-moving or imperceptible winds and heavy, humid
air often indicate a low-pressure front. Such a front promises bad
weather that will probably linger for several days. You can
“smell” and “hear” this front. The sluggish, humid air makes
wilderness odors more pronounced than during high-pressure
conditions. In addition, sounds are sharper and carry farther in
low-pressure conditions than high-pressure conditions.


 Sea Survival

Sea survival is perhaps the most difficult survival
situation. Short- or long-term survival depends
upon rations, equipment available, and your
ingenuity. You must be resourceful to survive.

Water covers about 75 percent of the earth’s
surface, with about 70 percent being oceans and
seas. You can assume that you will sometime
cross vast expanses of water. There is always the
chance that the plane or ship you are on will
become crippled by such hazards as storms,
collision, fire, or war.

THE OPEN SEA

As a survivor on the open sea, you will face waves and wind.
You may also face extreme heat or cold. To keep these
environmental hazards from becoming serious problems, take
precautionary measures as soon as possible. Use the available
resources to protect yourself from the elements and from heat or
extreme cold and humidity.

Protecting yourself from the elements meets only one of
your basic needs. You must also be able to obtain water and food.
Satisfying these basic needs will help prevent serious physical
and psychological problems. However, you must also know how to
treat health problems that may arise.

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES

Your survival at sea depends upon your—

Knowledge of and ability to use the available survival
equipment.

Special skills and ability to cope with the hazards
you face.

Will to live.


When you board a ship or aircraft, find out what survival
equipment is on board, where it is stowed, and what it contains.
For instance, how many life preservers and lifeboats or rafts are
on board? Where are they located? What type of survival
equipment do they have? How much food, water, and medicine do
they contain? How many people can be supported? Also, if you are
responsible for other personnel on board, make sure you know
where they are and they know where you are.

DOWN AT SEA

If your aircraft goes down at sea, take the following actions.
Whether you are in the water or in a raft, you should—

Get clear and upwind of the aircraft as soon as possible,
but stay in the vicinity until the aircraft sinks.

Get clear of fuel-covered water in case the fuel ignites.

Try to find other survivors.

A search for survivors usually takes place around the entire
area of and near the crash site. Missing personnel may be
unconscious and floating low in the water. Figure 16-1, page 16-3,
illustrates three rescue procedures.

The best technique for rescuing personnel from the water is
to throw them a life preserver attached to a line (A). Another is to
send a swimmer (rescuer) from the raft with a line attached to a
flotation device that will support the rescuer’s weight (B). This
device will help conserve a rescuer’s energy while recovering the
survivor. The least acceptable technique is to send an attached
swimmer without flotation devices to retrieve a survivor (C). In
all cases, the rescuer wears a life preserver. A rescuer should not
underestimate the strength of a panic-stricken person in the
water. A careful approach can prevent injury to the rescuer.

When the rescuer approaches a survivor in trouble from
behind, there is little danger the survivor will kick, scratch, or
grab him. The rescuer swims to a point directly behind the
survivor and grasps the life preserver’s backstrap. The rescuer
uses the sidestroke to drag the survivor to the raft.


Figure 16-1. Rescue From Water


If you are in the water, make your way to a raft. If no rafts
are available, try to find a large piece of floating debris to cling to.
Relax; a person who knows how to relax in ocean water is in very
little danger of drowning. The body’s natural buoyancy will keep
at least the top of the head above water, but some movement is
needed to keep the face above water.

Floating on your back takes the least energy. Lie on your
back in the water, spread your arms and legs, and arch your back.
By controlling your breathing in and out, your face will always be
out of the water and you may even sleep in this position for short
periods. Your head will be partially submerged, but your face will
be above water. If you cannot float on your back or if the sea is too
rough, float facedown in the water as shown in Figure 16-2.

Figure 16-2. Floating Position


The following are the best swimming strokes during a
survival situation:

Dog paddle. This stroke is excellent when clothed or
wearing a life jacket. Although slow in speed, it requires
very little energy.

Breaststroke. Use this stroke to swim underwater, through
oil or debris, or in rough seas. It is probably the best stroke
for long-range swimming: it allows you to conserve your
energy and maintain a reasonable speed.

Sidestroke. It is a good relief stroke because you use only
one arm to maintain momentum and buoyancy.

Backstroke. This stroke is also an excellent relief stroke. It
relieves the muscles that you use for other strokes. Use it
if an underwater explosion is likely.

If you are in an area where surface oil is burning—

Discard your shoes and buoyant life preserver.

NOTE: If you have an uninflated life preserver, keep it.

Cover your nose, mouth, and eyes and quickly go
underwater.

Swim underwater as far as possible before surfacing to
breathe.

Before surfacing to breathe and while still underwater, use
your hands to push burning fluid away from the area
where you wish to surface. Once an area is clear of burning
liquid, you can surface and take a few breaths. Try to face
downwind before inhaling.

Submerge feet first and continue as above until clear of the
flames.

If you are in oil-covered water that is free of fire, hold your
head high to keep the oil out of your eyes. Attach your life
preserver to your wrist and then use it as a raft.

If you have a life preserver, you can stay afloat for an
indefinite period. In this case, use the “Heat Escaping Lessening
Posture (HELP)” body position (Figure 16-3, page 16-6). Remain
still and assume the fetal position to help you retain body heat.


You lose about 50 percent of your body heat through your head.
Therefore, keep your head out of the water. Other areas of high
heat loss are the neck, the sides, and the groin.

Figure 16-3. HELP Position

If you are in a raft (also see Raft Procedures, page 16-12)—

Check the physical condition of all on board. Give first aid
if necessary. Take seasickness pills if available. The best
way to take these pills is to place them under the tongue
and let them dissolve. There are also suppositories or
injections against seasickness. Vomiting, whether from
seasickness or other causes, increases the danger of
dehydration.

Try to salvage all floating equipment—rations; canteens,
thermos jugs, and other containers; clothing; seat cushions;
parachutes; and anything else that will be useful to you.
Secure the salvaged items in or to your raft. Make sure the
items have no sharp edges that can puncture the raft.

If there are other rafts, lash the rafts together so they are
about 7.5 meters (25 feet) apart. Be ready to draw them


closer together if you see or hear an aircraft. It is easier for
an aircrew to spot rafts that are close together rather than
scattered.

Remember, rescue at sea is a cooperative effort. Use all
available visual or electronic signaling devices to signal
and make contact with rescuers. For example, raise a flag
or reflecting material on an oar as high as possible to
attract attention.

Locate the emergency radio and get it into operation.
Operating instructions are on it. Use the emergency
transceiver only when friendly aircraft are likely to be in
the area.

Have other signaling devices ready for instant use. If you
are in enemy territory, avoid using a signaling device that
will alert the enemy. However, if your situation is
desperate, you may have to signal the enemy for rescue if
you are to survive.

Check the raft for inflation, leaks, and points of possible
chafing. Make sure the main buoyancy chambers are firm
(well rounded) but not overly tight (Figure 16-4, page 16-8).
Check inflation regularly. Air expands with heat; therefore,
on hot days, release some air and add air when the
weather cools.

Decontaminate the raft of all fuel. Petroleum will weaken
its surfaces and break down its glued joints.

Throw out the sea anchor, or improvise a drag from the
raft’s case, a bailing bucket, or a roll of clothing. A sea
anchor helps you stay close to your ditching site, making it
easier for searchers to find you if you have relayed your
location. Without a sea anchor, your raft may drift over
160 kilometers (96 miles) in a day, making it much harder
to find you. You can adjust the sea anchor to act as a drag
to slow down the rate of travel with the current, or as a
means to travel with the current. You make this
adjustment by opening or closing the sea anchor’s apex.
When open, the sea anchor (Figure 16-5, page 16-8) acts as
a drag that keeps you in the general area. When closed, it
forms a pocket for the current to strike and propels the raft
in the current’s direction.


Figure 16-4. Inflating the Raft

Figure 16-5. Sea Anchor


Also adjust the sea anchor so that when the raft is on the
wave’s crest, the sea anchor is in the wave’s trough (Figure 16-6).

Figure 16-6. Deployment of the Sea Anchor

Wrap the sea anchor rope with cloth to prevent its chafing
the raft. The anchor also helps to keep the raft headed into
the wind and waves.

In stormy water, rig the spray and windshield at once. In a
25-man raft, keep the canopy erected at all times. Keep
your raft as dry as possible. Keep it properly balanced. All
personnel should stay seated, the heaviest one in the
center.

Calmly consider all aspects of your situation and
determine what you and your companions must do to
survive. Inventory all equipment, food, and water.
Waterproof items that salt water may affect. These include
compasses, watches, sextant, matches, and lighters. Ration
food and water.

Assign a duty position to each person or assign teams, for
example, water collectors, food collectors, lookouts, radio
operators, signalers, and water bailers.

NOTE: Lookout duty should not exceed 2 hours. Keep in mind
and remind others that cooperation is one of the keys to survival.

Keep a log. Record the navigator’s last fix, the time of
ditching, the names and physical condition of personnel,
and the ration schedule. Also record the winds, weather,


direction of swells, times of sunrise and sunset, and other
navigational data.

If you are down in unfriendly waters, take special security
measures to avoid detection. Do not travel in the daytime.
Throw out the sea anchor and wait for nightfall before
paddling or hoisting sail. Keep low in the raft; stay covered
with the blue side of the camouflage cloth up. Be sure a
passing ship or aircraft is friendly or neutral before trying
to attract its attention. If the enemy detects you and you
are close to capture, destroy the logbook, radio, navigation
equipment, maps, signaling equipment, and firearms.
Jump overboard and submerge if the enemy starts
strafing.

Decide whether to stay in position or to travel. Ask
yourself, “How much information was signaled before the
accident? Is your position known to rescuers? Do you know
it yourself? Is the weather favorable for a search? Are
other ships or aircraft likely to pass your present position?
How many days supply of food and water do you have?”

COLD WEATHER CONSIDERATIONS

If you are in a cold climate—

Put on an antiexposure suit. If unavailable, put on any
extra clothing available. Keep clothes loose and
comfortable.

Take care not to snag the raft with shoes or sharp objects.
Keep the repair kit where you can readily reach it.

Rig a windbreak, spray shield, and canopy.

Try to keep the floor of the raft dry. Cover it with canvas or
cloth for insulation.

Huddle with others to keep warm, moving enough to keep
the blood circulating. Spread an extra tarpaulin, sail, or
parachute over the group.

Give extra rations, if available, to men suffering from
exposure to cold.


The greatest threat you face when submerged in cold water
is death due to hypothermia. The average ocean temperature
around the world is only 11 degrees C (51 degrees F). However, do
not be fooled by warm water—hypothermia can even occur in 27-
degree C (80-degree F) water. When you are immersed in cold
water, hypothermia occurs rapidly due to the decreased
insulating quality of wet clothing and the result of water
displacing the layer of still air that normally surrounds the body.
The rate of heat exchange in water is about 25 times greater than
it is in air of the same temperature. Figure 16-7 lists life
expectancy times for immersion in water.

Water Temperature

Time

21.0–15.5 degrees C (70–60 degrees F)

12 hours

15.5–10.0 degrees C (60–50 degrees F)

 6 hours

10.0–4.5 degrees C (50–40 degrees F)

1 hour

4.5 degrees C (40 degrees F) and below

Less than 1 hour

NOTE: Wearing an antiexposure suit may increase these times up to a
maximum of 24 hours.



Figure 16-7. Life Expectancy Times for Immersion in Water

Your best protection against the effects of cold water is to
get into the life raft, stay dry, and insulate your body from the
cold surface of the bottom of the raft. If these actions are not
possible, wearing an antiexposure suit will extend your life
expectancy considerably. Remember, keep your head and neck out
of the water and well insulated from the cold water’s effects when
the temperature is below 19 degrees C (66 degrees F). Wearing
life preservers increases the predicted survival time as body
position in the water increases the chance of survival.

HOT WEATHER CONSIDERATIONS

If you are in a hot climate—

Rig a sunshade or canopy. Leave enough space for
ventilation.

Cover your skin, where possible, to protect it from
sunburn. Use sunburn cream, if available, on all exposed


skin. Your eyelids, the back of your ears, and the skin
under your chin sunburn easily.

RAFT PROCEDURES

Most of the rafts in the U.S. Army and Air Force
inventories can satisfy the needs for personal protection, mode of
travel, and evasion and camouflage.

NOTE: Before boarding any raft, remove and tether (attach)
your life preserver to yourself or the raft. Ensure there are no
other metallic or sharp objects on your clothing or equipment that
could damage the raft. After boarding the raft, don your life
preserver again.

For all rafts, remember the five As. These are the first
things you should do if you are the first person into the raft:

Air–Check that all chambers are inflated and that all
inflation valves are closed and equalization tube clamps
(found on the 25-, 35-, and 46-man rafts) are clamped off
when fully inflated.

Assistance–Assist others into the raft. Remove all
puncture-producing items from pockets and move flotation
devices to the rear of the body. Use proper boarding
techniques; for example, the boarding loop on the sevenman
raft and the boarding ramps on the 25-, 35-, and 46-
man rafts.

Anchor–Ensure the sea anchor is properly deployed. It can
be found 180 degrees away from the equalization tube on
the 25-, 35-, and 46-man rafts.

Accessory bag–Locate the accessory bag. It will be tethered
to the raft between the smooth side of the CO2 bottle and
the closest boarding ramp.

Assessment–Assess the situation and keep a positive
mental attitude.

One-Man Raft

The one-man raft has a main cell inflation. If the CO2
bottle should malfunction or if the raft develops a leak, you can
inflate it by mouth.


The spray shield acts as a shelter from the cold, wind, and
water. In some cases, this shield serves as insulation. The raft’s
insulated bottom limits the conduction of cold thereby protecting
you from hypothermia (Figure 16-8).

You can travel more effectively by inflating or deflating the
raft to take advantage of the wind or current. You can use the
spray shield as a sail while the ballast buckets serve to increase
drag in the water. You may use the sea anchor to control the
raft’s speed and direction.

There are rafts developed for use in tactical areas that are
black. These rafts blend with the sea’s background. You can
further modify these rafts for evasion by partially deflating them
to obtain a lower profile.

Figure 16-8. One-Man Raft With Spray Shield

A lanyard connects the one-man raft to a parachutist
(survivor) landing in the water. You (the survivor) inflate it upon
landing. You do not swim to the raft, but pull it to you via the
lanyard. The raft may hit the water upside down, but you can


right it by approaching the side to which the bottle is attached
and flipping the raft over. The spray shield must be in the raft to
expose the boarding handles. Follow the five As outlined under
raft procedures above when boarding the raft (Figure 16-9).

Figure 16-9. Boarding the One-Man Raft

If you have an arm injury, the best way to board is by
turning your back to the small end of the raft, pushing the raft
under your buttocks, and lying back. Another way to board the
raft is to push down on its small end until one knee is inside and
lie forward (Figure 16-10).

Figure 16-10. Other Methods of Boarding the One-Man Raft

In rough seas, it may be easier for you to grasp the small
end of the raft and, in a prone position, to kick and pull yourself
into the raft. When you are lying face down in the raft, deploy and
adjust the sea anchor. To sit upright, you may have to disconnect
one side of the seat kit and roll to that side. Then you adjust the


spray shield. There are two variations of the one-man raft; the
improved model incorporates an inflatable spray shield and floor
that provide additional insulation. The spray shield helps keep
you dry and warm in cold oceans and protects you from the sun in
the hot climates (Figure 16-11).

Figure 16-11. One-Man Raft With Spray Shield Inflated

Seven-Man Raft

Some multiplace aircraft carry the seven-man raft. It is a
component of the survival drop kit (Figure 16-12, page 16-16).
This raft may inflate upside down and require you to right the
raft before boarding. Always work from the bottle side to prevent
injury if the raft turns over. Facing into the wind, the wind


provides additional help in righting the raft. Use the handles on
the inside bottom of the raft for boarding (Figure 16-13).

Figure 16-12. Seven-Man Raft

Figure 16-13. Method of Righting Raft


Use the boarding ramp if someone holds down the raft’s
opposite side. If you don’t have help, again work from the bottle
side with the wind at your back to help hold down the raft. Follow
the five As outlined in paragraph 16-22. Then grasp an oarlock
and boarding handle, kick your legs to get your body prone on the
water, and then kick and pull yourself into the raft. If you are
weak or injured, you may partially deflate the raft to make
boarding easier (Figure 16-14).

Figure 16-14. Method of Boarding Seven-Man Raft

Use the hand pump to keep the buoyancy chambers and
cross seat firm. Never overinflate the raft.

25-, 35-, and 46-Man Rafts

You may find 25-, 35-, or 46-man rafts in multiplace aircraft
(Figure 16-15, page 16-18). The 20-man raft has been discontinued.
The rafts are stowed in raft compartments on the outside of the
fuselage, usually on the wings, alongside the upper half of the port
(left) side of the aircraft. There will always be enough raft space to
accommodate all personnel on each type of aircraft. If the number
of personnel exceeds the maximum number of raft spaces,
additional rafts will be centerline-loaded and ratchet-strapped to
the cargo bay floor. Some may be automatically deployed from the


cockpit or from stations within the cargo area, usually near the
crew chief’s station, while others may need manual deployment. No
matter how the raft lands in the water, it is ready for boarding. A
lanyard connects the accessory kit to the raft and you retrieve the
kit by hand. You must manually inflate the center chamber with
the hand pump. Board the 25-, 35-, or 46-man raft from the
aircraft, if possible. If not, board in the following manner:

Approach the lower boarding ramp, following the arrows
printed on the outside of the raft.

Remove your life preserver and tether it to yourself so that
it trails behind you.

Grasp the boarding handles and kick your legs to get your
body into a prone position on the water’s surface; then kick
and pull until you are inside the raft.

Figure 16-15. 25-Man Raft


An incompletely inflated raft will make boarding easier.
Approach the intersection of the raft and ramp, grasp the upper
boarding handle, and swing one leg onto the center of the ramp,
as in mounting a horse.

Immediately tighten the equalizer clamp upon entering the
raft to prevent deflating the entire raft in case of a puncture
(Figure 16-16).

Use the pump to keep these rafts’ chambers and center
ring firm. They should be well rounded but not overly tight. The
center rings keep the center of the floor afloat, and give raft
occupants something to brace their feet against to prevent all
occupants from sliding toward the center.

Figure 16-16. Immediate Action—Multiplace Raft


SAILING RAFTS

Rafts do not have keels, therefore, you can’t sail them into
the wind. However, anyone can sail a raft downwind. You can
successfully sail the seven-man raft 10 degrees off from the
direction of the wind. Do not try to sail the raft unless land is
near. If you decide to sail and the wind is blowing toward a
desired destination, fully inflate the raft, sit high, take in the sea
anchor, rig a sail, and use an oar as a rudder.

In the seven-man raft, erect a square sail in the bow
using the oars and their extensions as the mast and crossbar
(Figure 16-17, page 16-21). You may use a waterproof tarpaulin
or parachute material for the sail. If the raft has no regular mast
socket and step, erect the mast by tying it securely to the front
cross seat using braces. Pad the bottom of the mast to prevent it
from chafing or punching a hole through the floor, whether or not
there is a socket. The heel of a shoe, with the toe wedged under
the seat, makes a good improvised mast step. Do not secure the
corners of the lower edge of the sail. Hold the lines attached to the
corners with your hands so that a gust of wind will not rip the
sail, break the mast, or capsize the raft.

Take every precaution to prevent the raft from turning
over. In rough weather, keep the sea anchor away from the bow.
Have the passengers sit low in the raft, with their weight
distributed to hold the upwind side down. To prevent falling out,
they should also avoid sitting on the sides of the raft or standing
up. Avoid sudden movements without warning the other
passengers. When the sea anchor is not in use, tie it to the raft
and stow it in such a manner that it will hold immediately if the
raft capsizes.

WATER

Water is your most important need. With it alone, you can
live for ten days or longer, depending on your will to live. When
drinking water, moisten your lips, tongue, and throat before
swallowing.


Figure 16-17. Sail Construction

Short-Water Rations

When you have a limited water supply and you can’t
replace it by chemical or mechanical means, use the water
efficiently. Protect freshwater supplies from seawater
contamination. Keep your body well shaded, both from overhead
sun and from reflection off the sea surface. Allow ventilation of


air; dampen your clothes during the hottest part of the day. Do
not exert yourself. Relax and sleep when possible. Fix your daily
water ration after considering the amount of water you have, the
output of solar stills and desalting kit, and the number and
physical condition of your party.

If you don’t have water, don’t eat. If your water ration is two
liters or more per day, eat any part of your ration or any additional
food that you may catch, such as birds, fish, shrimp. The life raft’s
motion and your anxiety may cause nausea. If you eat when
nauseated, you may lose your food immediately. If nauseated, rest
and relax as much as you can, and take only water.

To reduce your loss of water through perspiration, soak
your clothes in the sea and wring them out before putting them
on again. Don’t overdo this during hot days when no canopy or
sun shield is available. This is a trade-off between cooling and the
saltwater boils, sores, and rashes that will result. Be careful not
to get the bottom of the raft wet.

Watch the clouds and be ready for any chance of showers.
Keep the tarpaulin handy for catching water. If it is encrusted
with dried salt, wash it in seawater. Normally, a small amount of
seawater mixed with rain will hardly be noticeable and will not
cause any physical reaction. In rough seas you cannot get
uncontaminated fresh water.

At night, secure the tarpaulin like a sunshade, and turn up
its edges to collect dew. It is also possible to collect dew along the
sides of the raft using a sponge or cloth. When it rains, drink as
much as you can hold.

Manual Reverse Osmosis Desalinator

Most rafts today are equipped with a manual reverse
osmosis desalinator (MROD). The MROD is a very highly efficient
water purifier designed to remove salt particles from seawater,
thereby making seawater potable. The two most common models
are the Survivor 35 and the Survivor 06, which make 35 and 6
gallons of potable water in a 24-hour period if used continuously.
Water procurement at sea is a 24-hour-a-day job. The MROD’s
life cycle is up to 50,000 gallons of water. The MROD has a 10-
year shelf life before it must be repacked by the manufacturer.


To operate the MROD, place both the intake (larger dual hose) and
the potable water supply hose into the water. Begin a 2-second
cycle of pumping the handle—one second up, one second down.
A pressure indicator will protrude from the pump housing to show
that the proper flow is being maintained. An orange band will be
visible when the correct rhythm is maintained. Purge the
antimicrobial packing agent from the filter medium for 2 minutes.
Then begin to collect potable water.

NOTE: Ensure that the water is free from any petroleum residue
(jet fuel, hydraulic fluid, or oil) before using an MROD. The filter
medium is very sensitive to petroleum, oils, and lubricants, and
will render the filter useless, destroying your water production
capability.

Solar Still

When solar stills are available, read the instructions and
set them up immediately. Use as many stills as possible,
depending on the number of men in the raft and the amount of
sunlight available. Secure solar stills to the raft with care. Solar
stills only work on flat, calm seas.

Desalting Kits

When desalting kits are available in addition to solar stills,
use them only for immediate water needs or during long overcast
periods when you cannot use solar stills. In any event, keep
desalting kits and emergency water stores for periods when you
cannot use solar stills or catch rainwater.

Water From Fish

Drink the aqueous fluid found along the spine and in the
eyes of large fish. Carefully cut the fish in half to get the fluid
along the spine and suck the eye. If you are so short of water that
you need to do this, then do not drink any of the other body
fluids. These other fluids are rich in protein and fat and will use
up more of your reserve water in digestion than they supply.

Sea Ice

In arctic waters, use old sea ice for water. This ice is
bluish, has rounded corners, and splinters easily. It is nearly free


of salt. New ice is gray, milky, hard, and salty. Water from
icebergs is fresh, but icebergs are dangerous to approach. Use
them as a source of water only in emergencies.

As in any survival situation there are dangers when you
are substituting or compromising necessities. Even though water
is one of your basic needs, keep in mind the following tips.
DO NOT—

Drink seawater.

Drink urine.

Drink alcohol.

Smoke.

Eat, unless water is available.

Sleep and rest are the best ways of enduring periods of
reduced water and food intake. However, make sure that you have
enough shade when napping during the day. If the sea is rough, tie
yourself to the raft, close any cover, and ride out the storm as best
you can. Relax is the key word—at least try to relax.

FOOD PROCUREMENT

In the open sea, fish will be the main food source. There
are some poisonous and dangerous ocean fish, but, in general,
when out of sight of land, fish are safe to eat. Nearer the shore
there are fish that are both dangerous and poisonous to eat.
There are some fish, such as the red snapper and barracuda, that
are normally edible but poisonous when taken from the waters of
atolls and reefs. Flying fish will even jump into your raft!

Fish

When fishing, do not handle the fishing line with bare
hands and never wrap it around your hands or tie it to a life raft.
The salt that adheres to it can make it a sharp cutting edge, an
edge dangerous both to the raft and your hands. Wear gloves, if
they are available, or use a cloth to handle fish and to avoid
injury from sharp fins and gill covers.

In warm regions, gut and bleed fish immediately after
catching them. Cut fish that you do not eat immediately into thin,
narrow strips and hang them to dry. A well-dried fish stays edible


for several days. Fish not cleaned and dried may spoil in half a
day. Fish with dark meat are very prone to decomposition. If you
do not eat them all immediately, do not eat any of the leftovers.
Use the leftovers for bait.

Never eat fish that have pale, shiny gills, sunken eyes,
flabby skin and flesh, or an unpleasant odor. Good fish show the
opposite characteristics. Sea fish have a saltwater or clean fishy
odor. Do not confuse eels with sea snakes that have an obviously
scaly body and strongly compressed, paddle-shaped tail. Both eels
and sea snakes are edible, but you must handle the latter with
care because of their poisonous bites. The heart, blood, intestinal
wall, and liver of most fish are edible. Cook the intestines. Also
edible are the partly digested smaller fish that you may find in
the stomachs of large fish. In addition, sea turtles are edible.

Shark meat is a good source of food whether raw, dried, or
cooked. Shark meat spoils very rapidly due to the high
concentration of urea in the blood; therefore, bleed it immediately
and soak it in several changes of water. People prefer some shark
species over others. Consider them all edible except the Greenland
shark, whose flesh contains high quantities of vitamin A. Do not
eat the livers, due to high vitamin A content.

Fishing Aids

The accessory kit contains a very good fishing kit that
should meet your needs just about anywhere around the world.
You can also use different materials to make fishing aids as
described in the following paragraphs:

Fishing line. Use pieces of tarpaulin or canvas. Unravel
the threads and tie them together in short lengths in
groups of three or more threads. Shoelaces and parachute
suspension line also work well.

Fish hooks. No one at sea should be without fishing
equipment, but if you are, improvise hooks as shown in
Chapter 8.

Fish lures. You can fashion lures by attaching a double
hook to any shiny piece of metal.

Grapple. Use grapples to hook seaweed. You may shake
crabs, shrimp, or small fish out of the seaweed.


These you may eat or use for bait. You may eat seaweed
itself, but only when you have plenty of drinking water.
Improvise grapples from wood. Use a heavy piece of wood
as the main shaft, and lash three smaller pieces to the
shaft as grapples.

Bait. You can use small fish as bait for larger ones. Scoop
the small fish up with a net. If you don’t have a net, make
one from cloth of some type. Hold the net under the water
and scoop upward. Use all the guts from birds and fish for
bait. When using bait, try to keep it moving in the water to
give it the appearance of being alive.

Helpful Fishing Hints

Your fishing should be successful if you remember the
following important hints:

Be extremely careful with fish that have teeth and spines.

Cut a large fish loose rather than risk capsizing the raft.
Try to catch small rather than large fish.

Do not puncture your raft with hooks or other sharp
instruments.

Do not fish when large sharks are in the area.

Watch for schools of fish; try to move close to these schools.

Fish at night using a light. The light attracts fish.

In the daytime, shade attracts some fish. You may find
them under your raft.

Improvise a spear by tying a knife to an oar blade. This
spear can help you catch larger fish, but you must get
them into the raft quickly or they will slip off the blade.
Also, tie the knife very securely or you may lose it.

Always take care of your fishing equipment. Dry your
fishing lines, clean and sharpen the hooks, and do not
allow the hooks to stick into the fishing lines.

Birds

As stated in Chapter 8, all sea birds are edible. Eat any
birds you can catch. Sometimes birds may land on your raft, but
usually they are cautious. You may be able to attract some birds


by towing a bright piece of metal behind the raft. This will bring
the bird within shooting range, provided you have a firearm.

If a bird lands within your reach, you may be able to catch
it. If the birds do not land close enough or land on the other end of
the raft, you may be able to catch them with a bird noose. Bait the
center of the noose and wait for the bird to land. When the bird’s
feet are in the center of the noose, pull it tight.

Use all parts of the bird. Use the feathers for insulation,
the entrails and feet for bait, and so on. Use your imagination.

MEDICAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SEA SURVIVAL

At sea, you may become seasick, get saltwater sores, or
face some of the same medical problems that occur on land, such
as dehydration, hypothermia, or sunburn. These problems can
become critical if left untreated.

Seasickness

Seasickness is the nausea and vomiting caused by the
motion of the raft. It can result in—

Extreme fluid loss and exhaustion.

Loss of the will to survive.

Others becoming seasick.

Attraction of sharks to the raft.

Unclean conditions.

To treat seasickness—

Wash both the patient and the raft to remove the sight and
odor of vomit.

Keep the patient from eating food until his nausea is gone.

Have the patient lie down and rest.

Give the patient seasickness pills if available. If the
patient is unable to take the pills orally, insert them
rectally for absorption by the body. Do not take seasickness
pills if you are already seasick. They tend to make the
patient even sicker; always take seasickness pills before
the symptoms appear.


NOTE: Some people at sea have said that erecting a canopy or
using the horizon or a cloud as a focal point helped overcome
seasickness. Others have said that swimming alongside the raft for
short periods helped, but extreme care must be taken if swimming.

Saltwater Sores

These sores result from a break in skin exposed to
saltwater for an extended period. They may also occur at the
areas that your clothing binds you—your waist, ankles, or wrist.
The sores may form scabs and pus. Do not open or drain the
sores. Flush them with freshwater, if available, and allow to dry.
Apply an antiseptic, if available.

Immersion Rot, Frostbite, and Hypothermia

These problems are similar to those encountered in cold
weather environments. Symptoms and treatment are the same as
covered in Chapter 15.

Blindness or Headache

If flame, smoke, or other contaminants get in the eyes,
flush them immediately with saltwater, then with freshwater, if
available. Apply ointment, if available. Bandage both eyes 18 to
24 hours, or longer if damage is severe. If the glare from the sky
and water causes your eyes to become bloodshot and inflamed,
bandage them lightly. Try to prevent this problem by wearing
sunglasses. Improvise sunglasses if necessary.

Constipation

This condition is a common problem on a raft. Do not take
a laxative, as this will cause further dehydration. Exercise as
much as possible and drink an adequate amount of water,
if available.

Difficult Urination

This problem is not unusual and is due mainly to
dehydration. It is best not to treat it, as it could cause further
dehydration.


Sunburn

Sunburn is a serious problem in sea survival. Try to
prevent sunburn by staying in the shade and keeping your head
and skin covered. Use cream or lip salve from your first-aid kit.
Remember, reflection from the water also causes sunburn in
places where the sun usually doesn’t burn you—tender skin
under the earlobes, eyebrows, nose, chin, and underarms.

SHARKS

Whether you are in the water or in a boat or raft, you may
see many types of sea life around you. Some may be more
dangerous than others. Generally, sharks are the greatest danger
to you. Other animals, such as whales, porpoises, and stingrays,
may look dangerous, but really pose little threat in the open sea.

Of the many hundreds of shark species, only about 20
species are known to attack man. The most dangerous are the
great white shark, the hammerhead, the mako, and the tiger
shark. Other sharks known to attack man include the gray, blue,
lemon, sand, nurse, bull, and oceanic white-tip sharks. Consider
any shark longer than 1 meter (3 feet) dangerous.

There are sharks in all oceans and seas of the world. While
many live and feed in the depths of the sea, others hunt near the
surface. The sharks living near the surface are the ones you will
most likely see. Their dorsal fins frequently project above the
water. Sharks in the tropical and subtropical seas are far more
aggressive than those in temperate waters.

All sharks are basically eating machines. Their normal
diet is live animals of any type, and they will strike at injured or
helpless animals. Sight, smell, or sound may guide them to their
prey. Sharks have an acute sense of smell and the smell of blood
in the water excites them. They are also very sensitive to any
abnormal vibrations in the water. The struggles of a wounded
animal or swimmer, underwater explosions, or even a fish
struggling on a fishline will attract a shark.

Sharks can bite from almost any position; they do not have
to turn on their side to bite. The jaws of some of the larger sharks
are so far forward that they can bite floating objects easily
without twisting to the side.


Sharks may hunt alone, but most reports of attacks cite
more than one shark present. The smaller sharks tend to travel
in schools and attack in mass. Whenever one of the sharks finds a
victim, the other sharks will quickly join it. Sharks will eat a
wounded shark as quickly as their prey.

Sharks feed at all hours of the day and night. Most
reported shark contacts and attacks were during daylight, and
many of these have been in the late afternoon. Some of the
measures that you can take to protect yourself against sharks
when you are in the water are—

Stay with other swimmers. A group can maintain a 360-
degree watch. A group can either frighten or fight off
sharks better than one man.

Always watch for sharks. Keep all your clothing on, to
include your shoes. Historically, sharks have attacked the
unclothed men in groups first, mainly in the feet. Clothing
also protects against abrasions should the shark brush
against you.

Avoid urinating. If you must, only do so in small amounts.
Let it dissipate between discharges. If you must defecate,
do so in small amounts and throw it as far away from you
as possible. Do the same if you must vomit.

If a shark attack is imminent while you are in the water,
splash and yell just enough to keep the shark at bay. Sometimes
yelling underwater or slapping the water repeatedly will scare
the shark away. Conserve your strength for fighting in case the
shark attacks.

If attacked, kick and strike the shark. Hit the shark on the
gills or eyes if possible. If you hit the shark on the nose, you may
injure your hand if it glances off and hits its teeth.

When you are in a raft and see sharks—

Do not fish. If you have hooked a fish, let it go. Do not
clean fish in the water.

Do not throw garbage overboard.

Do not let your arms, legs, or equipment hang in the water.


Keep quiet and do not move around.

Bury all dead as soon as possible. If there are many sharks
in the area, conduct the burial at night.

When you are in a raft and a shark attack is imminent, hit
the shark with anything you have, except your hands. You will do
more damage to your hands than the shark. If you strike with an
oar, be careful not to lose or break it.

DETECTING LAND

You should watch carefully for any signs of land. There are
many indicators that land is near.

A fixed cumulus cloud in a clear sky or in a sky where all
other clouds are moving often hovers over or slightly downwind
from an island.

In the tropics, the reflection of sunlight from shallow
lagoons or shelves of coral reefs often causes a greenish tint in
the sky.

In the arctic, light-colored reflections on clouds often
indicate ice fields or snow-covered land. These reflections are
quite different from the dark gray ones caused by open water.

Deep water is dark green or dark blue. Lighter color
indicates shallow water, which may mean land is near.

At night, or in fog, mist, or rain, you may detect land by
odors and sounds. The musty odor of mangrove swamps and mud
flats carry a long way. You hear the roar of surf long before you
see the surf. The continued cries of seabirds coming from one
direction indicate their roosting place on nearby land.

There usually are more birds near land than over the open
sea. The direction from which flocks fly at dawn and to which
they fly at dusk may indicate the direction of land. During the
day, birds are searching for food and the direction of flight has no
significance.

Mirages occur at any latitude, but they are more likely in
the tropics, especially during the middle of the day. Be careful not
to mistake a mirage for nearby land. A mirage disappears or its


appearance and elevation change when viewed from slightly
different heights.

You may be able to detect land by the pattern of the waves
(refracted) as they approach land (Figure 16-18). By traveling
with the waves and parallel to the slightly turbulent area marked
“X” on the illustration, you should reach land.

Figure 16-18. Wave Patterns About an Island

RAFTING OR BEACHING TECHNIQUES

Once you have found land, you must get ashore safely. To
raft ashore, you can usually use the one-man raft without danger.
However, going ashore in a strong surf is dangerous. Take your
time. Select your landing point carefully. Try not to land when
the sun is low and straight in front of you. Try to land on the lee
side of an island or on a point of land jutting out into the water.
Keep your eyes open for gaps in the surf line, and head for them.
Avoid coral reefs and rocky cliffs. There are no coral reefs near
the mouths of freshwater streams. Avoid rip currents or strong
tidal currents that may carry you far out to sea. Either signal
ashore for help or sail around and look for a sloping beach where
the surf is gentle.

If you have to go through the surf to reach shore, take
down the mast. Keep your clothes and shoes on to avoid severe


cuts. Adjust and inflate your life vest. Trail the sea anchor over
the stem using as much line as you have. Use the oars or paddles
and constantly adjust the sea anchor to keep a strain on the
anchor line. These actions will keep the raft pointed toward shore
and prevent the sea from throwing the stern around and
capsizing you. Use the oars or paddles to help ride in on the
seaward side of a large wave.

The surf may be irregular and velocity may vary, so modify
your procedure as conditions demand. A good method of getting
through the surf is to have half the men sit on one side of the raft,
half on the other, facing away from each other. When a heavy sea
bears down, half should row (pull) toward the sea until the crest
passes; then the other half should row (pull) toward the shore
until the next heavy sea comes along.

Against a strong wind and heavy surf, the raft must have
all possible speed to pass rapidly through the oncoming crest to
avoid being turned broadside or thrown end over end. If possible,
avoid meeting a large wave at the moment it breaks.

If in a medium surf with no wind or offshore wind, keep
the raft from passing over a wave so rapidly that it drops
suddenly after topping the crest. If the raft turns over in the surf,
try to grab hold of it and ride it in.

As the raft nears the beach, ride in on the crest of a large
wave. Paddle or row hard and ride in to the beach as far as you
can. Do not jump out of the raft until it has grounded, then
quickly get out and beach it.

If you have a choice, do not land at night. If you have
reason to believe that people live on the shore, lay away from the
beach, signal, and wait for the inhabitants to come out and bring
you in.

If you encounter sea ice, land only on large, stable floes.
Avoid icebergs that may capsize and small floes or those obviously
disintegrating. Use oars and hands to keep the raft from rubbing
on the edge of the ice. Take the raft out of the water and store it
well back from the floe’s edge. You may be able to use it for
shelter. Keep the raft inflated and ready for use. Any floe may
break up without warning.


SWIMMING ASHORE

If rafting ashore is not possible and you have to swim,
wear your shoes and at least one thickness of clothing. Use the
sidestroke or breaststroke to conserve strength.

If the surf is moderate, ride in on the back of a small
wave by swimming forward with it. Dive to a shallow depth to
end the ride just before the wave breaks.

In high surf, swim toward shore in the trough between
waves. When the seaward wave approaches, face it and
submerge. After it passes, work toward shore in the next trough.
If caught in the undertow of a large wave, push off the bottom or
swim to the surface and proceed toward shore as above.

If you must land on a rocky shore, look for a place where
the waves rush up onto the rocks. Avoid places where the waves
explode with a high, white spray. Swim slowly when making your
approach. You will need your strength to hold on to the rocks. You
should be fully clothed and wear shoes to reduce injury.

After selecting your landing point, advance behind a
large wave into the breakers. Face toward shore and take a
sitting position with your feet in front, 60 to 90 centimeters (2 or
3 feet) lower than your head. This position will let your feet
absorb the shock when you land or strike submerged boulders or
reefs. If you do not reach shore behind the wave you picked, swim
with your hands only. As the next wave approaches, take a sitting
position with your feet forward. Repeat the procedure until you
land.

Water is quieter in the lee of a heavy growth of seaweed.
Take advantage of such growth. Do not swim through the
seaweed; crawl over the top by grasping the vegetation with
overhand movements.

Cross a rocky or coral reef as you would land on a rocky
shore. Keep your feet close together and your knees slightly bent
in a relaxed sitting posture to cushion the blows against the coral.

PICKUP OR RESCUE


On sighting rescue craft approaching for pickup (boat,
ship, conventional aircraft, or helicopter), quickly clear any lines

(fishing lines, desalting kit lines) or other gear that could cause
entanglement during rescue. Secure all loose items in the raft.
Take down canopies and sails to ensure a safer pickup. After
securing all items, put on your helmet, if available. Fully inflate
your life preserver. Remain in the raft, unless otherwise
instructed, and remove all equipment except the preservers. If
possible, you will receive help from rescue personnel lowered into
the water. Remember, follow all instructions given by the rescue
personnel.

If the helicopter recovery is unassisted, do the following
before pickup:

Secure all the loose equipment in the raft, accessory bag,
or in pockets.

Deploy the sea anchor, stability bags, and accessory bag.

Partially deflate the raft and fill it with water.

Unsnap the survival kit container from the parachute
harness.

Grasp the raft handhold and roll out of the raft.

Allow the recovery device or the cable to ground out on the
water’s surface.

Maintain the handhold until the recovery device is in your
other hand.

Mount the recovery device, avoiding entanglement with
the raft.

Signal the hoist operator for pickup by placing one arm
straight out to the side with your thumb up while you hold
on with the other. Vigorously splash the water and then
raise your arm in the “thumbs up” signal. Once recovered,
DO NOT reach for the helicopter or crewman to try to
assist him. Allow the aircrew personnel to pull you into the
aircraft by themselves.

SEASHORES


Search planes or ships do not always spot a drifting raft
or swimmer. You may have to land along the coast before being
rescued. Surviving along the seashore is different from open sea
survival. Food and water are more abundant and shelter is
obviously easier to locate and construct.

If you are in friendly territory and decide to travel, it is
better to move along the coast than to go inland. Do not leave the
coast except to avoid obstacles (swamps and cliffs) or unless you
find a trail that you know leads to human habitation.

In time of war, remember that the enemy patrols most
coastlines. These patrols may cause problems for you if you land
on a hostile shore. You will have extremely limited travel options
in this situation. Avoid all contact with other humans and make
every effort to cover all tracks you leave on the shore.

SPECIAL HEALTH HAZARDS

Surviving on the seashore certainly can provide a greater
abundance of your basic needs, but hazards also exist. Coral,
poisonous and aggressive fish, crocodiles, sea urchins, sea biscuits,
sponges, anemones, tides, and undertow can pose special health
hazards that you should be aware of and know how to handle.

Coral

Coral, dead or alive, can inflict painful cuts. There are
hundreds of water hazards that can cause deep puncture wounds,
severe bleeding, and the danger of infection. Clean all coral cuts
thoroughly. Do not use iodine to disinfect any coral cuts. Some coral
polyps feed on iodine and may grow inside your flesh if you use iodine.

Poisonous Fish

Many reef fish have toxic flesh. For some species, the
flesh is always poisonous, for other species, only at certain times
of the year. The poisons are present in all parts of the fish, but
especially in the liver, intestines, and eggs. This is due to their
ingesting of a poisonous bacterial that grows only on coral reefs.
This bacteria is toxic to humans.

Fish toxins are water soluble; no amount of cooking will
neutralize them. They are tasteless, therefore, the standard
edibility tests are useless. Birds are least susceptible to the


poisons. Therefore, do not think that because a bird can eat a fish,
it is a safe species for you to eat.

The toxins will produce a numbness of the lips, tongue,
toes, and tips of the fingers, severe itching, and a clear reversal of
temperature sensations. Cold items appear hot and hot items
cold. There will probably also be nausea, vomiting, loss of speech,
dizziness, and a paralysis that eventually brings death.

In addition to fish with poisonous flesh, there are those
that are dangerous to touch. Many stingrays have a poisonous
barb in their tail. There are also species that can deliver an
electric shock. Some reef fish, such as stonefish and toadfish,
have venomous spines that can cause very painful although
seldom fatal injuries. The venom from these spines causes a
burning sensation or even an agonizing pain that is out of
proportion to the apparent severity of the wound. A jellyfish,
while not usually fatal, can inflict a very painful sting if it touches
you with its tentacles. See Chapter 11 and Appendix F for details
on particularly dangerous fish of the sea and seashore.

Aggressive Fish

You should also avoid some ferocious fish. The bold and
inquisitive barracuda has attacked men wearing shiny objects.
It may charge lights or shiny objects at night. The sea bass, which
can grow to 1.7 meters (6 feet), is another fish to avoid. The
moray eel, which has many sharp teeth and grows to 1.5 meters
(5 feet), can also be aggressive if disturbed.

Sea Snakes

Sea snakes are venomous and sometimes found in mid
ocean. They are unlikely to bite unless provoked. Avoid them.

Crocodiles

Crocodiles inhabit tropical saltwater bays and mangrovebordered
estuaries and range up to 65 kilometers (39 miles) into
the open sea. Few remain near inhabited areas. You commonly
find crocodiles in the remote areas of the East Indies and
Southeast Asia. Consider specimens over 1 meter (3 feet) long
dangerous, especially females guarding their nests. Crocodile
meat is an excellent source of food when available.


Sea Urchins, Sea Biscuits, Sponges, and Anemones

These animals can cause extreme, though seldom fatal,
pain. Usually found in tropical shallow water near coral
formations, sea urchins resemble small, round porcupines. If
stepped on, they slip fine needles of lime or silica into the skin,
where they break off and fester. If possible, remove the spines
and treat the injury for infection. The other animals mentioned
inflict injury similarly.

Tides and Undertow

If caught in a large wave’s undertow, push off the bottom
or swim to the surface and proceed shoreward in a trough
between waves. Do not fight against the pull of the undertow.
Swim with it or perpendicular to it until it loses strength, then
swim for shore.

FOOD

Obtaining food along a seashore should not present a
problem. There are many types of seaweed and other plants you
can easily find and eat. See Chapter 9 and Appendix B for a
discussion of these plants. There is also a great variety of animal
life that can supply your need for food in this type of survival
situation.

Mollusks

Mussels, limpets, clams, sea snails, octopuses, squids,
and sea slugs are all edible. Shellfish will usually supply most of
the protein eaten by coastal survivors. Avoid the blue-ringed
octopus and cone shells (described in Chapter 11 and Appendix
F). Also, beware of “red tides” that make mollusks poisonous.
Apply the edibility test on each species before eating.

Worms

Coastal worms are generally edible, but it is better to use
them for fish bait. Avoid bristle worms that look like fuzzy
caterpillars. Also, avoid tubeworms that have sharp-edged tubes.
Arrow worms, alias amphioxus, are not true worms. You find
them in the sand. They are excellent either fresh or dried.


Crabs, Lobsters, and Barnacles

These animals are seldom dangerous to man and are an
excellent food source. The pincers of larger crabs or lobsters can
crush a man’s finger. Many species have spines on their shells,
making it preferable to wear gloves when catching them.
Barnacles can cause scrapes or cuts and are difficult to detach
from their anchor, but the larger species are an excellent food
source.

Sea Urchins

These are common and can cause painful injuries when
stepped on or touched. They are also a good source of food. Handle
them with gloves and remove all spines.

Sea Cucumbers

This animal is an important food source in the Indo-
Pacific regions. Use them whole after evisceration or remove the
five muscular strips that run the length of its body. Eat them
smoked, pickled, or cooked.


 Expedient Water Crossings

In a survival situation, you may have to cross a
water obstacle. It may be in the form of a river, a
stream, a lake, a bog, quicksand, quagmire, or
muskeg. Even in the desert, flash floods occur,
making streams an obstacle. Whatever the
obstacle, you need to know how to cross it safely.

RIVERS AND STREAMS

You can apply almost every description to rivers and
streams. They may be shallow or deep, slow or fast moving,
narrow or wide. Before you try to cross a river or stream, develop
a good plan.

Your first step is to look for a high place from which you can
get a good view of the river or stream. From this place, you can
look for a place to cross. If there is no high place, climb a tree.
Good crossing locations include—

A level stretch where it breaks into several channels. Two
or three narrow channels are usually easier to cross than a
wide river.

A shallow bank or sandbar. If possible, select a point
upstream from the bank or sandbar so that the current
will carry you to it if you lose your footing.

A course across the river that leads downstream so that
you will cross the current at about a 45-degree angle.

The following areas possess potential hazards; avoid them,
if possible:

Obstacles on the opposite side of the river that might
hinder your travel. Try to select the spot from which travel
will be the safest and easiest.

A ledge of rocks that crosses the river. This often indicates
dangerous rapids or canyons.




A deep or rapid waterfall or a deep channel. Never try to
ford a stream directly above or even close to such hazards.

Rocky places that could cause you to sustain serious
injuries from slipping or falling. Usually, submerged rocks
are very slick, making balance extremely difficult. An
occasional rock that breaks the current, however, may help
you.

An estuary of a river because it is normally wide, has
strong currents, and is subject to tides. These tides can
influence some rivers many kilometers from their mouths.
Go back upstream to an easier crossing site.

Eddies, which can produce a powerful backward pull
downstream of the obstruction causing the eddy and pull
you under the surface.

The depth of a fordable river or stream is no deterrent if you
can keep your footing. In fact, deep water sometimes runs more
slowly and is therefore safer than fast-moving shallow water. You
can always dry your clothes later, or if necessary, you can make a
raft to carry your clothing and equipment across the river.

You must not try to swim or wade across a stream or river
when the water is at very low temperatures. This swim could be
fatal. Try to make a raft of some type. Wade across if you can get
only your feet wet. Dry them vigorously as soon as you reach the
other bank.

RAPIDS

If necessary, you can safely cross a deep, swift river or rapids.
To swim across a deep, swift river, swim with the current, never
fight it. Try to keep your body horizontal to the water. This will
reduce the danger of being pulled under.

In fast, shallow rapids, lie on your back, feet pointing
downstream, finning your hands alongside your hips. This action
will increase buoyancy and help you steer away from obstacles.
Keep your feet up to avoid getting them bruised or caught by rocks.

In deep rapids, lie on your stomach, head downstream,
angling toward the shore whenever you can. Watch for obstacles


and be careful of backwater eddies and converging currents, as
they often contain dangerous swirls. Converging currents occur
where new watercourses enter the river or where water has been
diverted around large obstacles such as small islands.

To ford a swift, treacherous stream, apply the following steps:

Remove your pants and shirt to lessen the water’s pull on
you. Keep your footgear on to protect your feet and ankles
from rocks. It will also provide you with firmer footing.

Tie your pants and other articles to the top of your
rucksack or in a bundle, if you have no pack. This way, if
you have to release your equipment, all your articles will
be together. It is easier to find one large pack than to find
several small items.

Carry your pack well up on your shoulders and be sure you
can easily remove it, if necessary. Not being able to get a
pack off quickly enough can drag even the strongest
swimmers under.

Find a strong pole about 7.5 centimeters (3 inches) in
diameter and 2.1 to 2.4 meters (7 to 8 feet) long to help you
ford the stream. Grasp the pole and plant it firmly on your
upstream side to break the current. Plant your feet firmly
with each step, and move the pole forward a little
downstream from its previous position, but still upstream
from you. With your next step, place your foot below the
pole. Keep the pole well slanted so that the force of the
current keeps the pole against your shoulder (Figure 17-1).

Cross the stream so that you will cross the downstream
current at a 45-degree angle.

Figure 17-1. One Man Crossing Swift Stream


Using this method, you can safely cross currents usually
too strong for one person to stand against. Do not concern yourself
about your pack’s weight, as the weight will help rather than
hinder you in fording the stream.

If there are other people with you, cross the stream
together. Ensure that everyone has prepared their pack and
clothing as outlined above. Position the heaviest person on the
downstream end of the pole and the lightest on the upstream end.
In using this method, the upstream person breaks the current,
and those below can move with relative ease in the eddy formed
by the upstream person. If the upstream person gets temporarily
swept off his feet, the others can hold steady while he regains his
footing (Figure 17-2).

Figure 17-2. Several Men Crossing Swift Stream

If you have three or more people and a rope available, you
can use the technique shown in Figure 17-3, page 17-5, to cross
the stream. The length of the rope must be three times the width
of the stream.


Figure 17-3. Individuals Tied Together to Cross Stream

RAFTS

If you have two ponchos, you can construct a brush raft or
an Australian poncho raft. With either of these rafts, you can
safely float your equipment across a slow-moving stream or river.


BRUSH RAFT

The brush raft, if properly constructed, will support about
115 kilograms (253 pounds). To construct it, use ponchos, fresh
green brush, two small saplings, and rope or vine as follows
(Figure 17-4, page 17-7):

Push the hood of each poncho to the inner side and tightly
tie off the necks using the drawstrings.

Attach the ropes or vines at the corner and side grommets
of each poncho. Make sure they are long enough to cross to
and tie with the others attached at the opposite corner or
side.

Spread one poncho on the ground with the inner side up.
Pile fresh, green brush (no thick branches) on the poncho
until the brush stack is about 45 centimeters (18 inches)
high. Pull the drawstring up through the center of the
brush stack.

Make an X-frame from two small saplings and place it on
top of the brush stack. Tie the X-frame securely in place
with the poncho drawstring.

Pile another 45 centimeters (18 inches) of brush on top of
the X-frame, then compress the brush slightly.

Pull the poncho sides up around the brush and, using the
ropes or vines attached to the corner or side grommets, tie
them diagonally from corner to corner and from side to
side.

Spread the second poncho, inner side up, next to the brush
bundle.

Roll the brush bundle onto the second poncho so that the
tied side is down. Tie the second poncho around the brush
bundle in the same manner as you tied the first poncho
around the brush.

Place it in the water with the tied side of the second
poncho facing up.


Figure 17-4. Brush Raft

AUSTRALIAN PONCHO RAFT

If you do not have time to gather brush for a brush raft,
you can make an Australian poncho raft. This raft, although more
waterproof than the poncho brush raft, will only float about 35
kilograms (77 pounds) of equipment. To construct this raft, use
two ponchos, two rucksacks, two 1.2-meter (4-foot) poles or
branches, and ropes, vines, bootlaces, or comparable material as
follows (Figure 17-5, page 17-8):

Push the hood of each poncho to the inner side and tightly
tie off the necks using the drawstrings.

Spread one poncho on the ground with the inner side up.
Place and center the two 1.2-meter (4-foot) poles on the
poncho about 45 centimeters (18 inches) apart.

Place your rucksacks, packs, or other equipment between
the poles. Also, place other items that you want to keep dry
between the poles. Snap the poncho sides together.

Use your buddy’s help to complete the raft. Hold the
snapped portion of the poncho in the air and roll it tightly
down to the equipment. Make sure you roll the full width
of the poncho.

Twist the ends of the roll to form pigtails in opposite
directions. Fold the pigtails over the bundle and tie them
securely in place using ropes, bootlaces, or vines.


Spread the second poncho on the ground, inner side up. If
you need more buoyancy, place some fresh green brush on
this poncho.

Place the equipment bundle, tied side down, on the center
of the second poncho. Wrap the second poncho around the
equipment bundle following the same procedure you used
for wrapping the equipment in the first poncho.

Tie ropes, bootlaces, vines, or other binding material
around the raft about 30 centimeters (12 inches) from the
end of each pigtail. Place and secure weapons on top of the
raft.

Tie one end of a rope to an empty canteen and the other
end to the raft. This will help you to tow the raft.

Figure 17-5. Australian Poncho Raft

PONCHO DONUT RAFT

Another type of raft is the poncho donut raft. It takes more
time to construct than the brush raft or Australian poncho raft,
but it is effective. To construct it, use one poncho, small saplings,
willow or vines, and rope, bootlaces, or other binding material
(Figure 17-6, page 17-9) as follows:

Make a framework circle by placing several stakes in the
ground that roughly outline an inner and outer circle.


Using young saplings, willow, or vines, construct a donut
ring within the circles of stakes.

Wrap several pieces of cordage around the donut ring
about 30 to 60 centimeters (12 to 24 inches) apart and tie
them securely.

Push the poncho’s hood to the inner side and tightly tie off
the neck using the drawstring.

Place the poncho on the ground, inner side up. Place the
donut ring on the center of the poncho. Wrap the poncho
up and over the donut ring and tie off each grommet on the
poncho to the ring.

Tie one end of a rope to an empty canteen and the other
end to the raft. This rope will help you to tow the raft.

Figure 17-6. Poncho Donut Raft

When launching any of the above rafts, take care not to
puncture or tear it by dragging it on the ground. Before you start
to cross the river or stream, let the raft lay on the water a few
minutes to ensure that it floats.

If the river is too deep to ford, push the raft in front of you
while you are swimming. The design of the above rafts does not
allow them to carry a person’s full body weight. Use them as a
float to get you and your equipment safely across the river
or stream.

Be sure to check the water temperature before trying to
cross a river or water obstacle. If the water is extremely cold and
you are unable to find a shallow fording place in the river, do not


try to ford it. Devise other means for crossing. For instance, you
might improvise a bridge by felling a tree over the river. Or you
might build a raft large enough to carry you and your equipment.
For this, however, you will need an axe, a knife, a rope or vines,
and time.

LOG RAFT

You can make a raft using any dry, dead, standing trees
for logs. However, spruce trees found in polar and subpolar
regions make the best rafts. A simple method for making a raft is
to use pressure bars lashed securely at each end of the raft to
hold the logs together (Figure 17-7).

Figure 17-7. Use of Pressure Bars

FLOTATION DEVICES

If the water is warm enough for swimming and you do not
have the time or materials to construct one of the poncho-type
rafts, you can use various flotation devices to negotiate the water
obstacle. Some items you can use for flotation devices are—

Trousers. Knot each trouser leg at the bottom and close the
fly. With both hands, grasp the waistband at the sides and
swing the trousers in the air to trap air in each leg. Quickly
press the sides of the waistband together and hold it
underwater so that the air will not escape. You now have
water wings to keep you afloat as you cross the body of water.


NOTE: Wet the trousers before inflating to trap the air better
You may have to reinflate the trousers several times when
crossing a large body of water.

Empty containers. Lash together empty gas cans, water
jugs, ammo cans, boxes, or other items that will trap or
hold air. Use them as water wings. Use this type of
flotation device only in a slow-moving river or stream.

Plastic bags and ponchos. Fill two or more plastic bags
with air and secure them together at the opening. Use your
poncho and roll green vegetation tightly inside it so that
you have a roll at least 20 centimeters (8 inches) in
diameter. Tie the ends of the roll securely. You can wear it
around your waist or across one shoulder and under the
opposite arm.

Logs. Use a stranded drift log if one is available, or find a
log near the water to use as a float. Be sure to test the log
before starting to cross. Some tree logs—palm, for
example—will sink even when the wood is dead. Another
method is to tie two logs about 60 centimeters
(24 inches) apart. Sit between the logs with your back
against one and your legs over the other (Figure 17-8).

Cattails. Gather stalks of cattails and tie them in a bundle
25 centimeters (10 inches) or more in diameter. The many
air cells in each stalk cause a stalk to float until it rots.
Test the cattail bundle to be sure it will support your
weight before trying to cross a body of water.

Figure 17-8. Log Flotation


There are many other flotation devices that you can devise
by using some imagination. Just make sure to test the device
before trying to use it.

OTHER WATER OBSTACLES

Other water obstacles that you may face are bogs,
quagmire, muskeg, or quicksand. Do not try to walk across these.
Trying to lift your feet while standing upright will make you sink
deeper. Try to bypass these obstacles. If you are unable to bypass
them, you may be able to bridge them using logs, branches, or
foliage.

A way to cross a bog is to lie face down, with your arms
and legs spread. Use a flotation device or form pockets of air in
your clothing. Swim or pull your way across moving slowly and
trying to keep your body horizontal.

In swamps, the areas that have vegetation are usually firm
enough to support your weight. However, vegetation will usually
not be present in open mud or water areas. If you are an average
swimmer, you should have no problem swimming, crawling, or
pulling your way through miles of bog or swamp.

Quicksand is a mixture of sand and water that forms a
shifting mass. It yields easily to pressure and sucks down and
engulfs objects resting on its surface. It varies in depth and is
usually localized. Quicksand commonly occurs on flat shores, in
silt-choked rivers with shifting watercourses, and near the
mouths of large rivers. If you are uncertain whether a sandy area
is quicksand, toss a small stone on it. The stone will sink in
quicksand. Although quicksand has more suction than mud or
muck, you can cross it just as you would cross a bog. Lie face
down, spread your arms and legs, and move slowly across.

VEGETATION OBSTACLES

Some water areas you must cross may have underwater
and floating plants that will make swimming difficult. However,
you can swim through relatively dense vegetation if you remain
calm and do not thrash about. Stay as near the surface as
possible and use the breaststroke with shallow leg and arm
motion. Remove the plants around you as you would clothing.


When you get tired, float or swim on your back until you have
rested enough to continue with the breaststroke.

The mangrove swamp is another type of obstacle that
occurs along tropical coastlines. Mangrove trees or shrubs throw
out many prop roots that form dense masses. To get through a
mangrove swamp, wait for low tide. If you are on the inland side,
look for a narrow grove of trees and work your way seaward
through these. You can also try to find the bed of a waterway or
creek through the trees and follow it to the sea. If you are on the
seaward side, work inland along streams or channels. Be on the
lookout for crocodiles along channels and in shallow water. If
there are any near you, leave the water and scramble over the
mangrove roots. While crossing a mangrove swamp, it is possible
to gather food from tidal pools or tree roots.

A large swamp area requires more time and effort.
Therefore, if you must cross a large swamp area, construct some
type of raft.


Field-Expedient Direction Finding

In a survival situation, you will be extremely
fortunate if you happen to have a map and
compass. If you do have these two pieces of
equipment, you will most likely be able to move
toward help. If you are not proficient in using a
map and compass, you must take the steps to gain
this skill.

There are several methods by which you can
determine direction by using the sun and the
stars. These methods, however, will give you only
a general direction. You can come up with a more
nearly true direction if you know the terrain of the
territory or country.

You must learn all you can about the terrain of
the country or territory to which you or your unit
may be sent, especially any prominent features or
landmarks. This knowledge of the terrain
together with using the methods explained below
will let you come up with fairly true directions to
help you navigate.

USING THE SUN AND SHADOWS

The earth’s relationship to the sun can help you to
determine direction on earth. The sun always rises in the east
and sets in the west, but not exactly due east or due west. There
is also some seasonal variation. Shadows will move in the
opposite direction of the sun. In the Northern Hemisphere, they
will move from west to east, and will point north at noon. In the
Southern Hemisphere, shadows will indicate south at noon. With
practice, you can use shadows to determine both direction and
time of day. The shadow methods used for direction finding are
the shadow-tip and watch methods.


SHADOW-TIP METHODS

In the first shadow-tip method, find a straight stick 1 meter
(3 feet) long, and a level spot free of brush on which the stick will
cast a definite shadow. This method is simple and accurate and
consists of four steps:

Step 1. Place the stick or branch into the ground at a level
spot where it will cast a distinctive shadow. Mark the
shadow’s tip with a stone, twig, or other means. This first
shadow mark is always west—everywhere on earth.

Step 2. Wait 10 to 15 minutes until the shadow tip moves a
few centimeters. Mark the shadow tip’s new position in the
same way as the first. This mark will represent East.

Step 3. Draw a straight line through the two marks to
obtain an approximate east-west line.

Step 4. Stand with the first mark (west) to your left and
the second mark to your right—you are now facing north.
This fact is true everywhere on earth.

An alternate method is more accurate but requires more
time. Set up your shadow stick and mark the first shadow in the
morning. Use a piece of string to draw a clean arc through this
mark and around the stick. At midday, the shadow will shrink
and disappear. In the afternoon, it will lengthen again and at
the point where it touches the arc, make a second mark. Draw a
line through the two marks to get an accurate east-west line
(Figure 18-1, page 18-3).

THE WATCH METHOD

You can also determine direction using a common or analog
watch—one that has hands. The direction will be accurate if you
are using true local time, without any changes for daylight
savings time. Remember, the further you are from the equator,
the more accurate this method will be. If you only have a digital
watch, draw a clock face on a circle of paper with the correct time
on it and use it to determine your direction at that time. You may
also choose to draw a clock face on the ground or lay your watch
on the ground for a more accurate reading.


Figure 18-1. Shadow-Tip Method

In the Northern Hemisphere, hold the watch horizontal and
point the hour hand at the sun. Bisect the angle between the hour
hand and the 12-o’clock mark to get the north-south line (Figure
18-2, page 18-4). If there is any doubt as to which end of the line
is north, remember that the sun rises in the east, sets in the west,


and is due south at noon. The sun is in the east before noon and
in the west after noon.

NOTE: If your watch is set on daylight savings time, use the
midway point between the hour hand and 1 o’clock to determine
the north-south line.

In the Southern Hemisphere, point the watch’s 12-o’clock
mark toward the sun; a midpoint halfway between 12 and the
hour hand will give you the north-south line (Figure 18-2).

Figure 18-2. Watch Method

Another method is called the 24-hour clock method. Take
the local military time and divide it by two. Imagine this result to
now represent the hour hand. In the Northern Hemisphere, point
this resulting hour hand at the sun, and the 12 will point north.
For example, it is 1400 hours. Divide 1400 by two and the answer
is 700, which will represent the hour. Holding the watch
horizontal, point the 7 at the sun and 12 will point north. In the
Southern Hemisphere, point the 12 at the sun, and the resulting
“hour” from the division will point south.


USING THE MOON

Because the moon has no light of its own, we can only see it
when it reflects the sun’s light. As it orbits the earth on its 28-day
circuit, the shape of the reflected light varies according to its
position. We say there is a new moon or no moon when it is on the
opposite side of the earth from the sun. Then, as it moves away
from the earth’s shadow, it begins to reflect light from its right side
and waxes to become a full moon before waning, or losing shape, to
appear as a sliver on the left side. You can use this information to
identify direction.

If the moon rises before the sun has set, the illuminated
side will be the west. If the moon rises after midnight, the
illuminated side will be the east. This obvious discovery provides
us with a rough east-west reference during the night.

USING THE STARS

Your location in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere
determines which constellation you use to determine your north
or south direction. Each sky is explained below.

THE NORTHERN SKY

The main constellations to learn are the Ursa Major,
also known as the Big Dipper or the Plow, and Cassiopeia, also
known as the Lazy W (Figure 18-3, page 18-6). Use them to locate
Polaris, also known as the polestar or the North Star. Polaris is
considered to remain stationary, as it rotates only 1.08 degrees
around the northern celestial pole. The North Star is the last star
of the Little Dipper’s handle and can be confused with the Big
Dipper. However, the Little Dipper is made up of seven rather
dim stars and is not easily seen unless you are far away from any
town or city lights. Prevent confusion by attempting to use both
the Big Dipper and Cassiopeia together. The Big Dipper and
Cassiopeia are generally opposite each other and rotate
counterclockwise around Polaris, with Polaris in the center. The
Big Dipper is a seven-star constellation in the shape of a dipper.
The two stars forming the outer lip of this dipper are the “pointer
stars” because they point to the North Star. Mentally draw a line
from the outer bottom star to the outer top star of the Big
Dipper’s bucket. Extend this line about five times the distance


between the pointer stars. You will find the North Star along this
line. You may also note that the North Star can always be found
at the same approximate vertical angle above the horizon as the
northern line of latitude you are located on. For example, if you
are at 35 degrees north latitude, Polaris will be easier to find if
you scan the sky at 35 degrees off the horizon. This will help to
lessen the area of the sky in which to locate the Big Dipper,
Cassiopeia, and the North Star.

Cassiopeia or the Lazy W has five stars that form a shape
like a “W.” One side of the “W” appears flattened or “lazy.” The
North Star can be found by bisecting the angle formed on the lazy
side. Extend this line about five times the distance between the
bottom of the “W” and the top. The North Star is located between
Cassiopeia and the Ursa Major (Big Dipper).

After locating the North Star, locate the North Pole or true
north by drawing an imaginary line directly to the earth.

Figure 18-3. The Big Dipper and Cassiopeia


THE SOUTHERN SKY

Because there is no single star bright enough to be easily
recognized near the south celestial pole, you can use a constellation
known as the Southern Cross. You can use it as a signpost to the
South (Figure 18-4). The Southern Cross or Crux has five stars. Its
four brightest stars form a cross. The two stars that make up the
Cross’s long axis are used as a guideline. To determine south,
imagine a distance four-and-one-half to five times the distance
between these stars and the horizon. The pointer stars to the left of
the Southern Cross serve two purposes. First, they provide an
additional cue toward south by imagining a line from the stars
toward the ground. Second, the pointer stars help accurately
identify the true Southern Cross from the False Cross. The
intersection of the Southern Cross and the two pointer stars is very
dark and devoid of stars. This area is called the coal sac. Look
down to the horizon from this imaginary point and select a
landmark to steer by. In a static survival situation, you can fix this
location in daylight if you drive stakes in the ground at night to
point the way.

Figure 18-4. Southern Cross


MAKING IMPROVISED COMPASSES

You can construct improvised compasses using a piece of
ferrous metal that can be needleshaped or a flat double-edged
razor blade and a piece of thread or long hair from which to
suspend it. You can magnetize or polarize the metal by slowly
stroking it in one direction on a piece of silk or carefully through
your hair using deliberate strokes. You can also polarize metal by
stroking it repeatedly at one end with a magnet. Always stroke in
one direction only. If you have a battery and some electric wire,
you can polarize the metal electrically. The wire should be
insulated. If it is not insulated, wrap the metal object in a single,
thin strip of paper or a leaf to prevent contact. The battery must
be a minimum of 2 volts. Form a coil with the electric wire and
touch its ends to the battery’s terminals. Repeatedly insert one
end of the metal object in and out of the coil. The needle will
become an electromagnet. When suspended from a piece of
nonmetallic string, or floated on a small piece of wood, cork or a
leaf in water, it will align itself with a north-south line.

You can construct a more elaborate improvised compass
using a sewing needle or thin metallic object, a nonmetallic
container (for example, the cut-off bottom of a plastic container or
soft drink bottle), and the silver tip from a pen. To construct this
compass, take an ordinary sewing needle and break in half. One
half will form your direction pointer and the other will act as the
pivot point. Push the portion used as the pivot point through the
bottom center of your container; this portion should be flush on
the bottom and not interfere with the lid. Attach the center of the
other portion (the pointer) of the needle on the pen’s silver tip
using glue, tree sap, or melted plastic. Magnetize one end of the
pointer and rest it on the pivot point.

OTHER MEANS OF DETERMINING DIRECTION

The old saying about using moss on a tree to indicate north
is not considered accurate because moss grows completely around
some trees. Actually, growth is more lush on the side of the tree
facing the south in the Northern Hemisphere and vice versa in
the southern hemisphere. If there are several felled trees around
for comparison, look at the stumps. Growth is more vigorous on
the side toward the equator and the tree growth rings will be


more widely spaced. On the other hand, the tree growth rings will
be closer together on the side toward the poles.

Wind direction may be helpful in some instances where
there are prevailing directions and you know what they are.

Recognizing the differences between vegetation and
moisture patterns on north- and south-facing slopes can aid in
determining direction. In the Northern Hemisphere, north-facing
slopes receive less sun than south-facing slopes and are therefore
cooler and damper. In the summer, north-facing slopes retain
patches of snow. In the winter, trees and open areas on southfacing
slopes and the southern side of boulders and large rocks
are the first to lose their snow. The ground snowpack is also
shallower due to the warming effects of the sun. In the Southern
Hemisphere, all of these effects will be the opposite.


 Signaling Techniques

One of your first concerns when you find yourself
in a survival situation is to communicate with
your friends or allies. Generally, communication
is the giving and receiving of information. In a
survival situation, you must first get your
rescuer’s attention, then second, send a message
your rescuer understands. Some attentiongetters
are man-made geometric patterns such as
straight lines, circles, triangles, or Xs displayed
in uninhabited areas; a large fire or flash of light;
a large, bright object moving slowly; or contrast,
whether from color or shadows. The type of
signal used will depend on your environment and
the enemy situation.

APPLICATION

If in a noncombat situation, you need to find the largest
available clear and flat area on the highest possible terrain. Use
as obvious a signal as you can create. On the other hand, you will
have to be more discreet in combat situations. You do not want to
signal and attract the enemy. Pick an area that is visible from the
air, but ensure there are hiding places nearby. Try to have a hill
or other object between the signal site and the enemy to mask
your signal from the enemy. Perform a thorough reconnaissance
of the area to ensure there are no enemy forces nearby.

Whatever signaling technique or device you plan to use,
know how to use it and be ready to put it into operation on short
notice. If possible, avoid using signals or signaling techniques
that can physically endanger you. Keep in mind that signals to
your friends may alert the enemy of your presence and location.
Before signaling, carefully weigh your rescue chances by friends
against the danger of capture by the enemy.

A radio is probably the surest and quickest way to let others
know where you are and to let you receive their messages.


Become familiar with the radios in your unit. Learn how to
operate them and how to send and receive messages.

You will find descriptions of other signaling techniques,
devices, and articles you can use. Learn how to use them. Think
of ways in which you can adapt or change them for different
environments. Practice using these signaling techniques, devices,
and articles before you need them. Planned, prearranged
signaling techniques may improve your chance of rescue.

MEANS FOR SIGNALING

There are two main ways to get attention or to communicate—
visual and audio. The means you use will depend on your situation
and the material you have available. Whatever the means, always
have visual and audio signals ready for use. Throughout this chapter
you will see references to “groups of threes.” This is because nature
does not normally replicate anything in groups of three. “Things in
threes” tend more often to be manmade sounds or visual signals.

VISUAL SIGNALS

These signals are materials or equipment you use to make
your presence known to rescuers. Visual signals can include fire,
smoke, flares, and many other means of signaling.

Fire

During darkness, fire is an effective visual means for
signaling. Build three fires in a triangle (the international
distress signal) or in a straight line with about 25 meters (83 feet)
between the fires. Build them as soon as time and the situation
permit and protect them from the elements until you need them.
If you are alone, maintaining three fires may be difficult. If so,
maintain one signal fire. The hot coal bed left by a fire also may
be seen by aerial platforms that are equipped to detect infrared or
thermal signatures.

When constructing signal fires, consider your geographic
location. If in a jungle, find a natural clearing or the edge of a
stream where you can build fires that the jungle foliage will not
hide. You may even have to clear an area. If in a snow-covered area,
you may have to clear the ground of snow or make a platform on
which to build the fire so that melting snow will not extinguish it.


A burning tree (tree torch) is another way to attract
attention (Figure 19-1). You can set pitch-bearing trees afire,
even when green. You can get other types of trees to burn by
placing dry wood in the lower branches and igniting it so that the
flames flare up and ignite the foliage. Before the primary tree is
consumed, cut and add more small green trees to the fire to
produce more smoke. Always select an isolated tree so that you do
not start a forest fire and endanger yourself.

Figure 19-1. Tree Torch

Smoke

During daylight, build a smoke generator and use smoke to
gain attention (Figure 19-2, page 19-4). The international distress
signal is three columns of smoke. Try to create a color of smoke
that contrasts with the background; dark smoke against a light
background and vice versa. If you practically smother a large fire
with green leaves, moss, or a little water, the fire will produce
white smoke. If you add rubber or oil-soaked rags to a fire, you
will get black smoke.

In a desert environment, smoke hangs close to the ground,
but a pilot can spot it in open desert terrain.


Figure 19-2. Smoke Generator—Ground

Smoke signals are effective only on comparatively calm,
clear days. High winds, rain, or snow disperse smoke, lessening
its chances of being seen.

Smoke Grenades

If you have smoke grenades with you, use them in the
same pattern as described for fires. Keep them dry so that they
will work when you need them. Take care not to ignite the
vegetation in the area when you use them. Red is an


internationally recognized color of distress, but any color smoke,
if properly used, will attract attention.

Pen Flares

The M185 signal device is part of an aviator’s survival
vest. The device consists of a pen-shaped gun with a flare
attached by a nylon cord. When fired, the pen flare sounds like a
pistol shot and fires the flare about 150 meters (495 feet) high. It
is about 3 centimeters (1 inch) in diameter.

To have the pen flare ready for immediate use, take it out
of its wrapper, partially screw on the flare, leave the gun
uncocked, and drape the cord around your neck. Be ready to fire it
well in front of search aircraft in a nonthreatening direction and
be ready with a secondary signal. Also, be ready to take cover in
case the pilot mistakes the flare for enemy fire. It is important to
note that pen flares may deflect off tree limbs and tree canopies.
This may cause the flare to deflect or shoot back to the ground,
causing a forest fire hazard. Ensure you have proper overhead
clearance and an obstacle-free path to shoot through.

Gyro-Jets

These devices are the newer version of the pen flare.
They differ in that they are jet-powered rather than ballistic like
the pen flares. They will reach a height of up to 300 meters (990
feet). To prepare them for firing, the flares are pushed until
firmly seated into a crimped collar rather than a threaded screwon
type assembly. They are designed to better penetrate tree
canopies, but do not rely on this to always happen. Always ensure
you have a clear path in which to aim and fire all overhead
pyrotechnics. Again, groups of threes are internationally
recognized symbols of distress.

Tracer Ammunition

You may use rifle or pistol tracer ammunition to signal
search aircraft. Do not fire the ammunition in front of the
aircraft. As with pen flares, be ready to take cover if the pilot
mistakes your tracers for enemy fire. Again, groups of threes are
internationally recognized symbols of distress.


Star Clusters

Red is the international distress color; therefore, use a red
star cluster whenever possible. However, any color will let your
rescuers know where you are. Star clusters reach a height of 200
to 215 meters (660 to 710 feet), burn an average of 6 to 10
seconds, and descend at a rate of 14 meters (46 feet) per second.

Star Parachute Flares

These flares reach a height of 200 to 215 meters (660 to
710 feet) and descend at a rate of 2.1 meters (7 feet) per second.
The M126 (red) burns about 50 seconds and the M127 (white)
about 25 seconds. At night you can see these flares at 48 to 56
kilometers (30 to 34 miles).

MK-13 and MK-124

These signals are normally found on aircraft and lift rafts.
They produce an orange smoke on one end for day signaling and a
flare on the other end for nighttime use. The smoke lasts for
approximately 15 seconds and the flare lasts 20 to 25 seconds.
Though the signal is designed for use on a life raft, they do not
float. They are designed to be handheld, but hold the device by
the far end that is not being used to prevent burns. Note that
after expending either signal the other end is still available for
use, so do not discard it until both ends have been used. There are
numerous redundant markings on each side of the flare to ensure
that you activate the correct signal, day or night. The end caps
are colored, raised protrusions or nipples are present, and a
washer is on the pull ring to differentiate night and day.

Mirrors or Shiny Objects

On a sunny day, a mirror is your best signaling device.
If you don’t have a mirror, polish your canteen cup, your belt
buckle, or a similar object that will reflect the sun’s rays. Direct the
flashes in one area so that they are secure from enemy observation.
Practice using a mirror or shiny object for signaling now; do not
wait until you need it. If you have an MK-3 signal mirror, follow
the instructions on its back (Figure 19-3, page 19-7). An alternate,
easier method of aiming the signal mirror is to catch the reflection
on the palm of your hand or in between two fingers held up in a “V”
or “peace sign.” Now slowly move your hand so that it is just below


your aim point or until the aircraft is between the “V” in your
fingers, keeping the glare on your palm. Then move the mirror
slowly and rhythmically up and down off your hand and onto the
aim point as in Figures 19-4 and 19-5, page 19-8.

Figure 19-3. MK-3 Signal Mirror

Wear the signal mirror on a cord or chain around your
neck so that it is ready for immediate use. However, be sure the
glass side is against your body so that it will not flash; the enemy
can see the flash.


Figure 19-4. Aiming an Improvised Signal Mirror

Haze, ground fog, and mirages may make it hard for a pilot
to spot signals from a flashing object. So, if possible, get to the
highest point in your area when signaling. If you can’t determine
the aircraft’s location, flash your signal in the direction of the
aircraft noise.

Figure 19-5. Aiming an Improvised Signal Mirror
Using a Stationary Object


NOTE: Pilots have reported seeing mirror flashes up to 160
kilometers (96 miles) away under ideal conditions.

Flashlight or Strobe Light

At night you can use a flashlight or a strobe light to send
an SOS to an aircraft. When using a strobe light, take care to
prevent the pilot from mistaking it for incoming ground fire. The
strobe light flashes 60 times per minute. Some strobe lights have
infrared covers and lenses. Blue flash collimators are also
available for strobe lights that aid in distinguishing the flashing
of the strobe light from a muzzle flash, and also make the strobe
light directional.

Laser Devices

Laser aiming devices on weapons systems are highly
visible. So are targeting pointers and many commercial types of
laser presentation pointers.

Firefly Lights

These small lights, about 3 centimeters (1 1/4 inches) square
and 1 centimeter (1/8 inch) thick, snap onto 9-volt batteries. They
are available in a variety of visible and infrared, blinking and
steady light versions. The visible range and battery duration will
depend on the intensity of the bulb and the mode each light uses.
Other models incorporate a 4-second programmable memory that
allows users to input any particular code they wish.

VS-17 Panel

During daylight you can use a VS-17 panel to signal. Place
the orange side up as it is easier to see from the air than the
violet side. Flashing the panel will make it easier for the aircrew
to spot. You can use any bright orange or violet cloth as a
substitute for the VS-17.

Clothing

Spreading clothing on the ground or in the top of a tree is
another way to signal. Select articles whose color will contrast
with the natural surroundings. Arrange them in a large geometric
pattern to make them more likely to attract attention.


Natural Material

If you lack other means, you can use natural materials to
form a symbol or message that can be seen from the air. Build
mounds that cast shadows; you can use brush, foliage of any type,
rocks, or snow blocks.

In snow-covered areas, tramp the snow to form letters or
symbols and fill the depression with contrasting material (twigs
or branches). In sand, use boulders, vegetation, or seaweed to
form a symbol or message. In brush-covered areas, cut out
patterns in the vegetation or sear the ground. In tundra, dig
trenches or turn the sod upside down.

In any terrain, use contrasting materials that will make
the symbols visible to the aircrews. Orient the signal in a northsouth
fashion to attain the maximum benefit of the sun’s shadow
for contrast and recognition.

Sea Dye Markers

All aircraft involved in operations near or over water will
normally carry a water survival kit that contains sea dye
markers. If you are in a water survival situation, use sea dye
markers during daylight to indicate your location. These spots of
dye stay conspicuous for about 3 hours, except in very rough seas.
Use them only if you are in a friendly area. Keep the markers
wrapped until you are ready to use them. The sea dye is visible at
a distance of more than 11 kilometers (7 miles) from an aircraft at
2,000 feet, so you should use them only when you hear or sight an
aircraft. To further conserve them do not use them all at once.
Dip the marker bag in the water until a slick about 30 meters
(100 feet) appears. Sea dye markers are also very effective on
snow-covered ground; use them to write distress code letters.

NOTE: Rumors have persisted about how sea dye attracts
sharks. The U.S. Navy has conducted research, and no scientific
data has been found to support this rumor. Sharks are naturally
curious and are drawn to strange objects in their area. Therefore,
a shark may investigate a person, with or without sea dye, as a
possible food source. Do not be afraid to use sea dye markers; it
may be your last or only chance to signal a rescue aircraft.


AUDIO SIGNALS

Your other means of signaling a rescuer can be audio
signals. Radios, whistles, and gunshots are some of the methods
you can use to signal your location.

Radio Equipment

The AN/PRC-90 survival radio is a part of the Army
aviator’s survival vest. The AN/PRC-112 will eventually replace
the AN/PRC-90. Both radios can transmit either tone or voice.
Any other type of Army radio can do the same. The ranges of the
different radios vary depending on the altitude of the receiving
aircraft, terrain, vegetation density, weather, battery strength,
type of radio, and interference. To obtain maximum performance
from radios, use the following procedures:

Try to transmit only in clear, unobstructed terrain. Since
radios are line-of-sight communications devices, any
terrain between the radio and the receiver will block the
signal.

Keep the antenna at right angles to the rescuing aircraft.
There is little or no signal strength emanating from the tip
of the antenna.

If the radio has tone capability, place it upright on a flat,
elevated surface so that you can perform other survival
tasks.

Never let any part of the antenna or its mounting lug
touch your clothing, body, foliage, or the ground. Such
contact greatly reduces the range of the signal.

Conserve battery power. Turn the radio off when you are
not using it. Do not transmit or receive constantly. In
hostile territory, keep transmissions short to avoid enemy
radio direction finding.

In cold weather, keep the battery inside your clothing
when not using the radio. Cold quickly drains the battery’s
power. Do not expose the battery to extreme heat such as
desert sun. High heat may cause the battery to explode.
The radio is designed to be waterproof, but always try to
keep the radio and battery as dry as possible, as water
may destroy the circuitry.


A worldwide satellite monitoring system has been
developed by international search and rescue agencies to
assist in locating survivors. To activate this search and
rescue satellite-aided tracking (SARSAT) system in
peacetime, key the transmitter for a minimum of
30 seconds.

Whistles

Whistles provide an excellent way for close-up signaling. In
some documented cases, they have been heard up to 1.6
kilometers (3/4 mile) away. Manufactured whistles have more
range than a human whistle.

Gunshots

In some situations you can use firearms for signaling.
Three shots fired at distinct intervals usually indicate a distress
signal. Do not use this technique in enemy territory. The enemy
will surely come to investigate shots.

CODES AND SIGNALS

Now that you know how to let people know where you are,
you need to know how to give them more information. It is easier
to form one symbol than to spell out an entire message. Therefore,
learn the codes and symbols that all aircraft pilots understand.

SOS

You can use lights or flags to send an SOS—three dots,
three dashes, three dots. The SOS is the internationally
recognized distress signal in radio Morse code. A dot is a short,
sharp pulse; a dash is a longer pulse. Keep repeating the signal.
When using flags, hold flags on the left side for dashes and on the
right side for dots.


GROUND-TO-AIR EMERGENCY CODE

This code (Figure 19-6) is actually five definite, meaningful
symbols. Make these symbols a minimum of 4 meters (13 feet)
wide and 6 meters (20 feet) long. If you make them larger, keep
the same 2:3 ratio. The signal arms or legs should be 1 meter (3
feet) wide and 1 meter (3 feet) high to ensure maximum visibility
from high altitudes. Ensure the signal contrasts greatly with the
ground it is on. The signal may be constructed from any available
materials; for example, aircraft parts, logs, or leaves. Remember
size, ratio, angularity, straight lines, and square corners are not
found in nature. You must consider how the signal will contrast
with the natural background. The signal may be made by
breaking and bending over crops or tall grass in a field or
trampled down into snow or sandy soil. Place it in an open area
easily spotted from the air. If evading, the signal could also be
dug into the ground to reduce its signature from ground forces.

Number

Message

Code Symbol

1

Require assistance.

V

2

Require medical assistance.

X

3

No or negative.

N

4

Yes or affirmative.

Y

5

Proceed in this direction.

..



Figure 19-6. Ground-to-Air Emergency Code (Pattern Signals)


BODY SIGNALS

When an aircraft is close enough for the pilot to see
you clearly, use body movements or positions (Figure 19-7) to
convey a message.

Figure 19-7. Body Signals

PANEL SIGNALS

If you have a life raft cover or sail, or a suitable substitute
such as a space blanket or combat casualty blanket, use the
symbols shown in Figure 19-8, page 19-15, to convey a message.


Figure 19-8. Panel Signals


AIRCRAFT ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Once the pilot of a fixed-wing aircraft has sighted you, he
will normally indicate he has seen you by flying low, moving the
plane, and flashing lights as shown in Figure 19-9, page 19-17. Be
ready to relay other messages to the pilot once he acknowledges
that he received and understood your first message. Use a radio,
if possible, to relay further messages. If no radio is available, use
the codes covered in the previous paragraphs.

AIRCRAFT VECTORING PROCEDURES

To establish initial contact, use beacon for 15 seconds, use
voice for 15 seconds (Mayday, Mayday, Mayday—this is call sign),
then listen for 15 seconds. When you contact a friendly aircraft
with a radio, guide the pilot to your location. Use the following
general format to guide the pilot:

Call sign (if any).

Name.

Location (clock direction and distance from aircraft to your
location).

Enemy disposition and location.

Number of people needing to be rescued.

Available landing sites.

Any remarks such as medical aid or other specific types of
help needed immediately.

Give any guidance or steering corrections to the pilot from
their perspective to remove any chance of error. For
example, if the aircraft needs to turn left to pass over your
position, tell the pilot to steer left. As he begins to come
close to the correct heading, tell him to “roll out.” Continue
to make corrections as necessary to align the aircraft with
you. Give the pilot estimates of distance from you as
well, and be prepared to give a countdown to your position.
Example: “You are one mile out… one-half mile out…
you’ll be over my position in ten seconds, nine, eight,
seven, six, five, four, three, two, one, mark.” This
will aid the pilot in estimating your range over the
plane’s nose. Remember that pilots may not be able to


see straight down, only out in front of them at an angle
depending on the aircraft design.

Simply because you have made contact with rescuers
does not mean you are safe. Follow instructions and continue
to use sound survival and evasion techniques until you are
actually rescued.

Figure 19-9. Aircraft Acknowledgments


Survival Movement In Hostile Areas

The “rescue at any cost” philosophy of previous
conflicts is not likely to be possible in future
conflicts. Our potential adversaries have made
great progress in air defense measures and radio
direction finder (RDF) techniques. We must
assume that U.S. military forces trapped behind
enemy lines in future conflicts may not
experience quick recovery by friendly elements.
Soldiers may have to move for extended times
and distances to places less threatening to the
recovery forces. The soldier will not likely know
the type of recovery to expect. Each situation and
the available resources determine the type of
recovery possible. Since no one can be absolutely
sure until the recovery effort begins, soldiers
facing a potential cutoff from friendly forces
should be familiar with all the possible types of
recovery, their related problems, and their
responsibilities to the recovery effort.
Preparation and training can improve the
chances of success.

PHASES OF PLANNING

Preparation is a requirement for all missions. When
planning, you must consider how to avoid capture and return to
your unit. Evasion plans must be prepared in conjunction with
unit standing operating procedures (SOPs) and current joint
doctrine. You must also consider any courses of action (COAs)
that you or your unit will take.

EVASION PLAN OF ACTION

Successful evasion is dependent on effective prior planning.
The responsibility ultimately rests on the individual concerned.
Sound evasion planning should incorporate intelligence


briefings—selected areas for evasion; area intelligence
descriptions; E&R area studies; survival, evasion, resistance, and
escape (SERE) guides and bulletins; isolated personnel reports;
and an evasion plan of action (EPA).

The study and research needed to develop the EPA will
make you aware of the current situation in your mission area.
Your EPA will let recovery forces know your probable actions
should you have to move to avoid capture.

You should start preparing even before premission
planning. Portions of the EPA are the unit SOP. Include the EPA
in your training. Planning starts in your daily training.

The EPA is your entire plan for your return to friendly
control. It consists of five paragraphs written in the operation
order format. You can take most of Paragraph I—Situation, with
you on the mission. Appendix I contains the EPA format and
indicates what portion of the EPA you can take on the mission.

A comprehensive EPA is a valuable asset to the soldier
trapped behind enemy lines attempting to avoid capture. To
complete Paragraph I, know your unit’s assigned area or
concentrate on potential mission areas of the world. Many open or
closed sources contain the information you need to complete an
EPA. Open sources may include newspapers, magazines, country
or area handbooks, area studies, television, radio, internet,
persons familiar with the area, and libraries. Use caution with
open source information; it may be unreliable. Closed sources
may include area studies, area assessments, SERE contingency
guides, SECRET Internet Protocol Router Network, various
classified field manuals, and intelligence reports.

Prepare your EPA in three phases. During your normal
training, prepare Paragraph I—Situation. Prepare Paragraphs II,
III, IV, and V during your premission planning. After deployment
into an area, continually update your EPA based on situation or
mission changes and intelligence updates.

The EPA is a guide. You may add or delete certain portions
based on the mission. The EPA may be a recovery force’s only
means of determining your location and intentions after you start
to evade. It is an essential tool for your survival and return to
friendly control.


STANDING OPERATING PROCEDURES

Your unit SOPs are valuable tools that will help you plan
your EPA. When faced with a dangerous situation requiring
immediate action, it is not the time to discuss options; it is the
time to act. Many of the techniques used during small unit
movement can be carried over to fit requirements for moving and
returning to friendly control. Items from the SOP should include,
but are not limited to—

Movement team size (three to four persons per team).

Team communications (technical and nontechnical).

Essential equipment.

Actions at danger areas.

Signaling techniques.

Immediate action drills.

Linkup procedures.

Helicopter recovery devices and procedures.

Security procedures during movement and at hide sites.

Rally points.

Rehearsals work effectively for reinforcing these SOP skills
and also provide opportunities for evaluation and improvement.

NOTIFICATION TO MOVE AND AVOID CAPTURE

An isolated unit has several general COAs it can take to
avoid the capture of the group or individuals. These COAs are not
courses the commander can choose instead of his original mission.
He cannot arbitrarily abandon the assigned mission. Rather, he
may adopt these COAs after completing his mission when his unit
cannot complete its assigned mission (because of combat power
losses) or when he receives orders to extract his unit from its
current position. If such actions are not possible, the commander
may decide to have the unit try to move to avoid capture and
return to friendly control. In either case, as long as there is
communication with higher headquarters, that headquarters will
make the decision.

If the unit commander loses contact with higher
headquarters, he must make the decision to move or wait. He


bases his decision on many factors, including the mission, rations
and ammunition on hand, casualties, the chance of relief by
friendly forces, and the tactical situation. The commander of an
isolated unit faces other questions. What COA will inflict
maximum damage on the enemy? What COA will assist in
completing the higher headquarters’ overall mission?

Movement teams conduct the execution portion of the plan
when notified by higher headquarters or, if there is no contact
with higher headquarters, when the highest ranking person
decides that the situation requires the unit to try to escape
capture or destruction. Movement team leaders receive their
notification through prebriefed signals. Once the signal to try to
avoid capture is given, it must be passed rapidly to all personnel.
Notify higher headquarters, if possible. If unable to communicate
with higher headquarters, leaders must recognize that organized
resistance has ended, and that organizational control has ceased.
Command and control is now at the movement team or individual
level and is returned to higher organizational control only after
reaching friendly lines.

EXECUTION

Upon notification to avoid capture, all movement team
members will try to link up at the initial evasion point (IEP). This
point is where team members rally and actually begin their
evasion. Tentatively select the IEP during your planning phase
through a map reconnaissance. Once on the ground, the team
verifies this location or selects a better one. All team members
must know its location. The IEP should be easy to locate and
occupy for a minimum amount of time.

Once the team has rallied at the IEP, it must—

Give first aid.

Inventory its equipment (decide what to abandon, destroy,
or take along).

Apply camouflage.

Make sure everyone knows the tentative hide locations.

Ensure everyone knows the primary and alternate routes
and rally points en route to the hide locations.


Always maintain security.

Split the team into smaller elements. The ideal element
should have two to three members; however, it could
include more depending on team equipment and
experience.

The movement portion of returning to friendly control is
the most dangerous as you are now most vulnerable. It is usually
better to move at night because of the concealment darkness
offers. Exceptions to such movement would be when moving
through hazardous terrain or dense vegetation (for example,
jungle or mountainous terrain). When moving, avoid the following
even if it takes more time and energy to bypass:

Obstacles and barriers.

Roads and trails.

Inhabited areas.

Waterways and bridges.

Natural lines of drift.

Man-made structures.

All civilian and military personnel.

Movement in enemy-held territory is a very slow and
deliberate process. The slower you move and the more careful you
are, the better. Your best security will be using your senses. Use
your eyes and ears to detect people before they detect you. Make
frequent listening halts. In daylight, observe a section of your
route before you move along it. The distance you travel before you
hide will depend on the enemy situation, your health, the terrain,
the availability of cover and concealment for hiding, and the
amount of darkness left. See Chapter 22 for more movement and
countertracking techniques.

Once you have moved into the area in which you want to
hide (hide area), select a hide site. Keep the word BLISS in mind
when selecting a hide site:

B–Blends in with the surroundings.

L–Low in silhouette.

I–Irregular in shape.


S–Small in size.

S–Secluded.

Avoid the use of existing buildings or shelters. Usually,
your best option will be to crawl into the thickest vegetation you
can find. Construct any type of shelter within the hide area only
in cold weather and desert environments. If you build a shelter,
follow the BLISS formula.

HIDE SITE ACTIVITIES

After you have located your hide site, do not move straight
into it. Use a buttonhook or other deceptive technique to move to
a position outside of the hide site. Conduct a listening halt before
moving individually into the hide site. Be careful not to disturb or
cut any vegetation. Once you have occupied the hide site, limit
your activities to maintaining security, resting, camouflaging, and
planning your next moves.

Maintain your security through visual scanning and
listening. Upon detection of the enemy, the security personnel
alert all personnel, even if the team’s plan is to stay hidden and
not move upon sighting the enemy. Take this action so that
everyone is aware of the danger and ready to react.

If any team member leaves the team, give him a five-point
contingency plan. It should include—Who is going? Where are
they going? How long will they be gone? What to do if they are
hit or don’t return on time? Where to go if anyone is hit?

It is extremely important to stay healthy and alert when
trying to avoid capture. Take every opportunity to rest, but do not
sacrifice security. Rotate security so that all members of your
movement team can rest. Treat all injuries, no matter how minor.
Loss of your health will mean loss of your ability to continue to
avoid capture.

Camouflage is an important aspect of both moving and
securing a hide site. Always use a buddy system to ensure that
camouflage is complete. Ensure that team members blend with
the hide site. Use natural or man-made materials. If you add any
additional camouflage material to the hide site, do not cut
vegetation in the immediate area.


Plan your next actions while at the hide site. Start your
planning process immediately upon occupying the hide site.
Inform all team members of their current location and designate
an alternate hide site location. Once this is done, start planning
for the team’s next movement.

Planning the team’s movement begins with a map
reconnaissance. Choose the next hide area first. Then choose a
primary and an alternate route to the hide area. In choosing the
routes, do not use straight lines. Use one or two radical changes
in direction. Pick the routes that offer the best cover and
concealment, the fewest obstacles, and the least likelihood of
contact with humans. There should be locations along the route
where the team can get water. To aid team navigation, use
azimuths, distances, checkpoints or steering marks, and
corridors. Plan rally points and rendezvous points at intervals
along the route.

Other planning considerations may fall under what the
team already has in the team SOP. Examples are immediate
action drills, actions on sighting the enemy, and hand-and-arm
signals.

Once planning is complete, ensure everyone knows and
memorizes the entire plan. The team members should know the
distances and azimuths for the entire route to the next hide area.
They should study the map and know the various terrain they
will be moving across so that they can move without using the
map.

Do not occupy a hide site for more than 24 hours. In most
situations, hide during the day and move at night. Limit your
actions in the hide site to those discussed above. Once in the hide
site, restrict all movement to less than 45 centimeters (18 inches)
above the ground. Do not build fires or prepare food. Smoke and
food odors will reveal your location. Before leaving the hide site,
sterilize it to prevent tracking.

HOLE-UP AREAS

After moving and hiding for several days, usually three or
four, you or the movement team will have to move into a hole-up
area. This is an area where you can rest, recuperate, and get and
prepare food. Choose an area near a water source. You then have


a place to get water, to place fishing devices, and to trap game.
Since waterways are a line of communication, locate your hide
site well away from the water.

The hole-up area should offer plenty of cover and
concealment for movement in and around the area. Always
maintain security while in the hole-up area. Always man the
hole-up area. Actions in the hole-up area are the same as in the
hide site, except that you can move away from the hole-up area to
get and prepare food. While in the hole-up area, you can—

Select and occupy the next hide site (remember you are
still in a dangerous situation; this is not a friendly area).

Reconnoiter the area for resources and potential concealed
movement routes to the alternate hide site.

Gather food (nuts, berries, vegetables). When moving
around the area for food, maintain security and avoid
leaving tracks or other signs. When setting traps and
snares, keep them well-camouflaged and in areas where
people are not likely to discover them. Remember, the local
population sometimes heavily travels trails near water
sources.

Get water from sources within the hide area. Be careful
not to leave tracks of signs along the banks of water
sources when getting water. Moving on hard rocks or logs
along the banks to get water will reduce the signs you
leave.

Set clandestine fishing devices, such as stakeouts, below
the surface of the water to avoid detection.

Locate a fire site well away from the hide site. Use this site
to prepare food or boil water. Camouflage and sterilize the
fire site after each use. Be careful that smoke and light
from the fire does not compromise the hole-up area.

While in the hole-up area, security is still your primary
concern. Designate team members to perform specific tasks. To
limit movement around the area, you may have a two-man team
perform more than one task. For example, the team getting water
could also set the fishing devices. Do not occupy the hole-up area
longer than 72 hours.


RETURN TO FRIENDLY CONTROL

Establishing contact with friendly lines or patrols is the
most crucial part of movement and return to friendly control. All
your patience, planning, and hardships will be in vain if you do
not exercise caution when contacting friendly frontline forces.
Friendly patrols have killed personnel operating behind enemy
lines because they did not make contact properly. Most of the
casualties could have been avoided if caution had been exercised
and a few simple procedures followed. The normal tendency is to
throw caution to the wind when in sight of friendly forces. You
must overcome this tendency and understand that linkup is a
very sensitive situation.

BORDER CROSSINGS

If you have made your way to a friendly or neutral country,
use the following procedures to cross the border and link up with
friendly forces on the other side:

Occupy a hide site on the near side of the border and send
a team out to reconnoiter the potential crossing site.

Surveil the crossing site for at least 24 hours, depending on
the enemy situation.

Make a sketch of the site, taking note of terrain, obstacles,
guard routines and rotations, and any sensor devices or
trip wires. Once the reconnaissance is complete, the team
moves to the hide site, briefs the rest of the team, and
plans to cross the border at night.

After crossing the border, set up a hide site on the far side
of the border and try to locate friendly positions. Do not
reveal your presence.

Depending on the size of your movement team, have two
men surveil the potential linkup site with friendly forces
until satisfied that the personnel are indeed friendly.

Make contact with the friendly forces during daylight.
Personnel chosen to make contact should be unarmed,
have no equipment, and have positive identification readily
available. The person who actually makes the linkup
should be someone who looks least like the enemy.


During the actual contact, have only one person make the
contact. The other person provides the security and
observes the link-up area from a safe distance. The
observer should be far enough away so that he can warn
the rest of the movement team if something goes wrong.

Wait until the party he is contacting looks in his direction
so that he does not surprise the contact. He stands up from
behind cover, with hands overhead and states that he is an
American. After this, he follows any instructions given
him. He avoids answering any tactical questions and does
not give any indication that there are other team members.

Reveal that there are other personnel with him only after
verifying his identity and satisfying himself he has made
contact with friendly forces.

Language problems or difficulties confirming identities
may arise. The movement team should maintain security, be
patient, and have a contingency plan.

NOTE: If you are moving to a neutral country, you are
surrendering to that power and become a detained person.

LINKUP AT THE FORWARD EDGE OF THE BATTLE AREA
OR FORWARD LINE OF OWN TROOPS

If caught between friendly and enemy forces and there is
heavy fighting in the area, you may choose to hide and let the
friendly lines pass over you. If overrun by friendly forces, you may
try to link up from their rear during daylight hours. If overrun by
enemy forces, you may move further to the enemy rear, try to
move to the forward edge of the battle area or forward line of own
troops during a lull in the fighting, or move to another area along
the front.

The actual linkup will be done as for linkup during a
border crossing. The only difference is that you must be more
careful on the initial contact. Frontline personnel are more likely
to shoot first and ask questions later, especially in areas of heavy
fighting. You should be near or behind cover before trying to
make contact.


LINKUP WITH FRIENDLY PATROLS

If friendly lines are a circular perimeter or an isolated
camp, for example, any direction you approach from will be
considered enemy territory. You do not have the option of moving
behind the lines and trying to link up. This move makes the
linkup extremely dangerous. One option you have is to place the
perimeter under observation and wait for a friendly patrol to
move out in your direction, providing a chance for a linkup. You
may also occupy a position outside of the perimeter and call out to
get the attention of the friendly forces. Ideally, display anything
that is white while making contact. If nothing else is available,
use any article of clothing. The idea is to draw attention while
staying behind cover. Once you have drawn attention to your
signal and called out, follow instructions given to you.

Be constantly on the alert for friendly patrols because
these provide a means for return to friendly control. Find a
concealed position that allows you maximum visual coverage of
the area. Try to memorize every terrain feature so that, if
necessary, you can infiltrate to friendly positions under the cover
of darkness. Remember, trying to infiltrate in darkness is
extremely dangerous.

Because of the missions of combat and reconnaissance
patrols and where they are operating, making contact can be
dangerous. If you decide not to make contact, you can observe
their route and approach friendly lines at about the same
location. Such observation will enable you to avoid mines and
booby traps.

Once you have spotted a patrol, remain in position and, if
possible, allow the patrol to move toward you. When the patrol is
25 to 50 meters (83 to 165 feet) from your position, signal them
and call out a greeting that is clearly and unmistakably of
American origin.

If you have nothing white, an article of clothing will suffice
to draw attention. If the distance is greater than 50 meters (165
feet), a reconnaissance patrol may avoid contact and bypass your
position. If the distance is less than 25 meters (83 feet), a patrol
member may react instantly by firing a fatal shot.


It is crucial, at the time of contact, that there is enough
light for the patrol to identify you as an American.

Whatever linkup technique you decide to use, use extreme
caution. From the perspective of the friendly patrol or friendly
personnel occupying a perimeter, you are hostile until they make
positive identification.


 Camouflage

In a survival situation, especially in a hostile
environment, you may find it necessary to
camouflage yourself, your equipment, and your
movement. Effective camouflage may mean the
difference between survival and capture by the
enemy. Camouflage and movement techniques,
such as stalking, will also help you get animals
or game for food using primitive weapons and
skills.

PERSONAL CAMOUFLAGE

When camouflaging yourself, consider that certain shapes
are particular to humans. The enemy will look for these shapes.
The shape of a hat, helmet, or black boots can give you away.
Even animals know and run from the shape of a human
silhouette. Break up your outline by placing small amounts of
vegetation from the surrounding area in your uniform,
equipment, and headgear. Try to reduce any shine from skin or
equipment. Blend in with the surrounding colors and simulate
the texture of your surroundings.

SHAPE AND OUTLINE

Change the outline of weapons and equipment by tying
vegetation or strips of cloth onto them. Make sure the added
camouflage does not hinder the equipment’s operation. When
hiding, cover yourself and your equipment with leaves, grass, or
other local debris. Conceal any signaling devices you have
prepared, but keep them ready for use.

COLOR AND TEXTURE

Each area of the world and each climatic condition
(arctic/winter, temperate/jungle, or swamp/desert) has color
patterns and textures that are natural for that area. While color
is self-explanatory, texture defines the surface characteristics of
something when looking at it. For example, surface textures may


be smooth, rough, rocky, leafy, or many other possible
combinations. Use color and texture together to camouflage
yourself effectively. It makes little sense to cover yourself with
dead, brown vegetation in the middle of a large grassy field.
Similarly, it would be useless to camouflage yourself with green
grass in the middle of a desert or rocky area.

To hide and camouflage movement in any specific area of
the world, you must take on the color and texture of the
immediate surroundings. Use natural or man-made materials to
camouflage yourself. A few examples include camouflage paint,
charcoal from burned paper or wood, mud, grass, leaves, strips of
cloth or burlap, pine boughs, and camouflaged uniforms.

Cover all areas of exposed skin, including face, hands, neck,
and ears. Use camouflage paint, charcoal, or mud to camouflage
yourself. Cover areas that stick out more and catch more light
(forehead, nose, cheekbones, chin, and ears) with a darker color.
Cover other areas, particularly recessed or shaded areas (around
the eyes and under the chin), with lighter colors. Be sure to use
an irregular pattern. Attach vegetation from the area or strips of
cloth of the proper color to clothing and equipment. If you use
vegetation, replace it as it wilts. As you move through an area, be
alert to the color changes and modify your camouflage colors as
necessary.

Figure 21-1 gives a general idea of how to apply camouflage
for various areas and climates. Use appropriate colors for your
surroundings. The blotches or slashes will help to simulate
texture.

Area

Method

Temperature deciduous forest

Blotches

Coniferous forest

Broad slash

Jungle

Broad slash

Desert

Slash

Arctic

Blotches

Grass or open area

Slash



Figure 21-1. Camouflage Methods for Specific Areas


SHINE

As skin gets oily, it becomes shiny. Equipment with wornoff
paint is also shiny. Even painted objects, if smooth, may shine.
Glass objects such as mirrors, glasses, binoculars, and telescopes
shine. You must cover these glass objects when not in use.
Anything that shines will automatically attract attention and will
give away your location.

Whenever possible, wash oily skin and reapply camouflage.
Skin oil will wash off camouflage, so reapply it frequently. If you
must wear glasses, camouflage them by applying a thin layer of
dust to the outside of the lenses. This layer of dust will reduce the
reflection of light. Cover shiny spots on equipment by painting,
covering with mud, or wrapping with cloth or tape. Pay particular
attention to covering boot eyelets, buckles on equipment, watches
and jewelry, zippers, and uniform insignia. Carry a signal mirror
in its designed pouch or in a pocket with the mirror portion facing
your body.

SHADOW

When hiding or traveling, stay in the deepest part of the
shadows. The outer edges of the shadows are lighter and the
deeper parts are darker. Remember, if you are in an area where
there is plenty of vegetation, keep as much vegetation between
you and a potential enemy as possible. This action will make it
very hard for the enemy to see you as the vegetation will partially
mask you from his view. Forcing an enemy to look through many
layers of masking vegetation will fatigue his eyes very quickly.

When traveling, especially in built-up areas at night, be
aware of where you cast your shadow. It may extend out around
the corner of a building and give away your position. Also, if you
are in a dark shadow and there is a light source to one side, an
enemy on the other side can see your silhouette against the light.

MOVEMENT

Movement, especially fast movement, attracts attention. If
possible, avoid movement in the presence of an enemy. If capture
appears imminent in your present location and you must move,
move away slowly, making as little noise as possible. By moving
slowly in a survival situation, you decrease the chance of


detection and conserve energy that you may need for long-term
survival or long-distance evasion.

When moving past obstacles, avoid going over them. If you
must climb over an obstacle, keep your body level with its top to
avoid silhouetting yourself. Do not silhouette yourself against the
skyline when crossing hills or ridges. When you are moving, you
will have difficulty detecting the movement of others. Stop
frequently, listen, and look around slowly to detect signs of hostile
movement.

NOISE

Noise attracts attention, especially if there is a sequence of
loud noises such as several snapping twigs. If possible, avoid
making any noise. Slow your pace as much as necessary to avoid
making noise when moving around or away from possible threats.

Use background noises to cover the noise of your
movement. Sounds of aircraft, trucks, generators, strong winds,
and people talking will cover some or all the sounds produced by
your movement. Rain will mask a lot of movement noise, but it
also reduces your ability to detect potential enemy noise.

SCENT

Whether hunting animals or avoiding the enemy, it is
always wise to camouflage the scent associated with humans.
Start by washing yourself and your clothes without using soap.
This washing method removes soap and body odors. Avoiding
strong smelling foods, such as garlic, helps reduce body odors. Do
not use tobacco products, candy, gum, or cosmetics.

You can use aromatic herbs or plants to wash yourself and
your clothing, to rub on your body and clothing, or to chew on to
camouflage your breath. Pine needles, mint, or any similar
aromatic plant will help camouflage your scent from both animals
and humans. Standing in smoke from a fire can help mask your
scent from animals. While animals are afraid of fresh smoke from
a fire, older smoke scents are normal smells after forest fires and
do not scare them.

While traveling, use your sense of smell to help you find or
avoid humans. Pay attention to smells associated with humans,
such as fire, cigarettes, gasoline, oil, soap, and food. Such smells


may alert you to their presence long before you can see or hear
them, depending on wind speed and direction. Note the wind’s
direction and, when possible, approach from or skirt around on
the downwind side when nearing humans or animals.

METHODS OF STALKING

Sometimes you need to move, undetected, to or from a location.
You need more than just camouflage to make these moves
successfully. The ability to stalk or move without making any sudden
quick movement or loud noise is essential to avoiding detection.
Always pick your route carefully to keep you concealed; use trenches,
slight rises in terrain, thick vegetation for concealment. Avoid lateral
movement to the observer unless you have good concealment,
otherwise stalk straight in toward the observer.

You must practice stalking if it is to be effective. Use the
following techniques when practicing.

UPRIGHT STALKING

Take steps about half your normal stride when stalking in
the upright position. Such strides help you to maintain your
balance. You should be able to stop at any point in that movement
and hold that position as long as necessary. Curl the toes up out
of the way when stepping down so the outside edge of the ball of
the foot touches the ground. Feel for sticks and twigs that may
snap when you place your weight on them. If you start to step on
one, lift your foot and move it. After making contact with the
outside edge of the ball of your foot, roll to the inside ball of your
foot, place your heel down, followed by your toes. Then gradually
shift your weight forward to the front foot. Lift the back foot to
about knee height and start the process over again.

Keep your hands and arms close to your body and avoid
waving them about or hitting vegetation. When moving in a
crouch, you gain extra support by placing your hands on your
knees. One step usually takes 1 minute to complete, but the time
it takes will depend on the situation.

CRAWLING

Crawl on your hands and knees when the vegetation is too
low to allow you to walk upright without being seen. Move one


limb at a time and be sure to set it down softly, feeling for
anything that may snap and make noise. Be careful that your
toes and heels do not catch on vegetation.

PRONE STAKING

To stalk in the prone position, you do a low, modified pushup
on your hands and toes, moving yourself forward slightly, and
then lowering yourself again slowly. Avoid dragging and scraping
along the ground as this makes excessive noise and leaves large
trails for trackers to follow.

ANIMAL STALKING

Before stalking an animal, select the best route. If the
animal is moving, you will need an intercepting route. Pick a
route that puts objects between you and the animal to conceal
your movement from it. By positioning yourself in this way, you
will be able to move faster, until you pass that object. Some
objects such as large rocks and trees may totally conceal you, and
others such as small bushes and grass may only partially conceal
you. Pick the route that offers the best concealment and requires
the least amount of effort.

Keep your eyes on the animal and stop when it looks your
way or turns its ears your way, especially if it suspects your
presence. As you get close, squint your eyes slightly to conceal
both the light-dark contrast of the whites of the eyes and any
shine from your eyes. Keep your mouth closed so that the animal
does not see the whiteness or shine of your teeth.

ANTITRACKING

Along with camouflage of your body, you need to
camouflage your movement from visual trackers. Antitracking
techniques should be used; countertracking techniques are of
little use to the evader, as they would pinpoint his location or
route. During movement this can be accomplished by using the
following methods:

Restore vegetation—Use a stick to lift the vegetation you
crushed down during movement through it. This can slow
you down and it is hard to tell if you are being effective.


Brush out tracks—Use a tree branch to brush or pat out
tracks in open ground. This is effective in concealing the
number in the party, but leaves obvious signs in itself.

Use hard or stony ground—Using this type of terrain
minimizes the signs you leave slowing the visual tracker.

Make abrupt direction changes—Using this technique
combined with the use of hard or stony ground can be very
effective in slowing the visual tracker as it will be much
harder to detect the direction change.

Use well-used paths—Although the use of paths is not
advisable, there may be times you can use them to your
advantage. For example, if you have been in an area long
enough to surveil the path to determine the traffic
patterns, you could use the path prior to a farmer moving a
heard of cows down the path, eliminating your sign.

Use foot coverings—They can assist in aging or virtually
eliminating your signs. Examples include sandbags, rags,
old socks, or commercial foot coverings made from
imitation sheepskin (these seem to work the best).

Change footgear—Use this method in an area such as hard
or stony ground. Vary the tread pattern.

Use custom footgear—Militaries generally have a standard
issue footgear, although with the world economy, this is
changing. If you know that the area you are working in has
a standard issue footgear, you may want to acquire a pair
or have that tread pattern put on your boots.

Walk backwards—This can be useful at times but there
are pitfalls to avoid. Avoid turning your foot out. When you
look over your left shoulder your left foot tends to turn
outward and visa versa. Avoid dragging dirt backwards.
Try to place your footfalls so that the toe indention is
deeper than your heel indention to give the appearance of
moving forward.

Confuse the start point—Whatever the point on the ground
you start your evasion, try to confuse it by walking
numerous cloverleaf patterns out of and back into it before
you leave on your initial route (this can assist in delaying
dog trackers also).


Use streams, lakes, waterways—This is a judgement call
on your part. Ask yourself: Is the stream moving in the
direction you need to go? Is it fast or slow moving water?
Will it put you that much farther ahead of the trackers?
(Note: You will leave more signs upon exiting the water.)

Crossing roads or paths with the traffic pattern—When
crossing roads or paths try to cross with the direction of
travel, not perpendicular, this will assist in your tracks
blending into normal traffic patterns and making them
harder to follow.

Careful placement of footfalls leaving little heel or toe
dig—Try to leave as little sign as possible. Last but not
least, always vary your techniques so as not to educate the
tracker as to what to look for if he loses the track!

ANTIDOG TRACKING

When trying to elude dog trackers always remember you
are trying to beat the handler not the dog! Whatever you do, it
should be done to either tire the handler or decrease the handler’s
confidence in his dog. Some techniques to use against dog tracker
teams are as follows:

Open ground—Although this is a danger area, if the wind
is high it will blow the scent to vegetated areas; thus the
team will not be directly on your tracks and it will slow the
team’s progression.

Thick terrain—Using a zigzag pattern of movement will
slow and tire the handler and possibly decrease the
handler’s confidence.

Hard or stony ground—In high winds or high
temperatures these areas will dissipate your scent quicker,
increasing the chance of the dog losing the track.

Crowded places—If the dog is not scent-specific trained,
and you move through an area where many other people
have recently been he may lose the track.

Freshly plowed or fertilized fields—The dog may lose the
track in these areas due to the overpowering scent of fresh
dirt and human or animal manure used as fertilizer (do not
rely too much on this theory).


Speed—Try to maintain a constant speed. Try not to run.
Running increases the scent, due to more soil and
vegetation disturbance and more body odor from sweat or
adrenaline.

Transportation—Using a vehicle will greatly increase your
time and distance but you could still be tracked; however,
it would be at a much slower pace.


 Contact With People

Some of the best and most frequently given
advice, when dealing with the local population, is
for you to accept, respect, and adapt to their
ways. Thus, “When in Rome, do as the Romans
do.” This is excellent advice, but there are
several considerations involved in putting this
advice into practice.

CONTACT WITH LOCAL PEOPLE

You must give serious consideration to dealing with the
local people. Do they have a primitive culture? Are they farmers,
fishermen, friendly people, or enemy? In a survival situation,
“cross-cultural communication” can vary radically from area to
area and from people to people. It may mean interaction with
people of an extremely primitive culture or contact with people
who have a relatively modern culture. A culture is identified by
standards of behavior that its members consider proper and
acceptable but may or may not conform to your idea of what is
proper. No matter who these people are, you can expect they will
have laws, social and economic values, and political and religious
beliefs that may be radically different from yours. Before
deploying into your area of operations, study these different
cultural aspects. Prior study and preparation will help you make
or avoid contact if you have to deal with the local population.

People will be friendly, unfriendly, or they will choose to
ignore you. Their attitude may be unknown. If the people are
known to be friendly, try to keep them friendly through your
courtesy and respect for their religion, politics, social customs,
habits, and all other aspects of their culture. If the people are
known to be enemies or are unknowns, make every effort to avoid
any contact and leave no sign of your presence. A basic knowledge
of the daily habits of the local people will be essential in this
attempt. If, after careful observation, you determine that an
unknown people are friendly, you may contact them if you
absolutely need their help.


Usually, you have little to fear and much to gain from
cautious and respectful contact with local people of friendly or
neutral countries. If you become familiar with the local customs,
display common decency, and most important, show respect for
their customs, you should be able to avoid trouble and possibly
gain needed help. To make contact, wait until only one person is
near and, if possible, let that person make the initial approach.
Most people will be willing to help if you appear to be in need.
However, local political attitudes, instruction, or propaganda
efforts may change the attitudes of otherwise friendly people.
Conversely, in unfriendly countries, many people, especially in
remote areas, may feel animosity toward their politicians and
may be friendlier toward you.

The key to successful contact with local people is to be
friendly, courteous, and patient. Displaying fear, showing
weapons, and making sudden or threatening movements can
cause a local person to fear you. Such actions can prompt a hostile
response. When attempting a contact, smile as often as you can.
Many local people are shy and seem unapproachable, or they may
ignore you. Approach them slowly and do not rush your contact.

SURVIVAL BEHAVIOR

Use salt, tobacco, silver money, and similar items discreetly
when trading with local people. Paper money is well-known
worldwide. Do not overpay; it may lead to embarrassment and
even danger. Always treat people with respect. Do not bully them
or laugh at them.

Using sign language or acting out needs or questions can be
very effective. Many people are used to such language and
communicate using nonverbal sign language. Try to learn a few
words and phrases of the local language in and around your
potential area of operations. Trying to speak someone’s language
is one of the best ways to show respect for his culture. Since
English is widely used, some of the local people may understand a
few words of English.

Some areas may be taboo. They range from religious or
sacred places to diseased or danger areas. In some areas, certain
animals must not be killed. Learn the rules and follow them.
Watch and learn as much as possible. Such actions will help to


strengthen relations and provide new knowledge and skills that
may be very important later. Seek advice on local hazards and find
out from friendly people where the hostile people are. Always
remember that people frequently insist that other people are
hostile, simply because they do not understand different cultures
and distant people. The people they can usually trust are their
immediate neighbors—much the same as in our own neighborhood.

Frequently, local people, like ourselves, will suffer from
contagious diseases. Build a separate shelter, if possible, and avoid
physical contact without giving the impression of doing so. Personally
prepare your food and drink, if you can do so without giving offense.
Frequently, the local people will accept the use of “personal or
religious custom” as an explanation for isolationist behavior.

Barter, or trading, is common in more primitive societies.
Hard coin is usually good, whether for its exchange value or as
jewelry or trinkets. In isolated areas, matches, tobacco, salt, razor
blades, empty containers, or cloth may be worth more than any
form of money.

Be very cautious when touching people. Many people
consider “touching” taboo and such actions may be dangerous.
Avoid sexual contact.

Hospitality among some people is such a strong cultural
trait that they may seriously reduce their own supplies to feed a
stranger. Accept what they offer and share it equally with all
present. Eat in the same way they eat and, most important, try to
eat all they offer.

If you make any promises, keep them. Respect personal
property and local customs and manners, even if they seem odd.
Make some kind of payment for food and supplies. Respect
privacy. Do not enter a house unless invited.

CHANGES TO POLITICAL ALLEGIANCE

In today’s world of fast-paced international politics,
political attitudes and commitments within nations are subject to
rapid change. The population of many countries, especially
politically hostile countries, must not be considered friendly just
because they do not demonstrate open hostility. Unless briefed to
the contrary, avoid all contact with such people.


 Survival In Man-Made Hazards

Nuclear, chemical, and biological (NBC) weapons
have become potential realities on any modern
battlespace. Recent experience in Afghanistan,
Cambodia, and other areas of conflict has proved
the use of chemical and biological weapons (such as
mycotoxins). The warfighting doctrine of the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization and former Warsaw
Pact nations addresses the use of both nuclear and
chemical weapons. The potential use of these
weapons intensifies the problems of survival
because of the serious dangers posed by either
radioactive fallout or contamination produced by
persistent biological or chemical agents.

You must use special precautions if you expect to
survive in these man-made hazards. If you are
subjected to any of the effects of nuclear, chemical,
or biological warfare, the survival procedures
recommended in this chapter may save your life.
This chapter presents some background
information on each type of hazard so you may
better understand the true nature of the hazard.
Awareness of the hazards, knowledge of this
chapter, and application of common sense can keep
you alive.

THE NUCLEAR ENVIRONMENT

Prepare yourself to survive in a nuclear environment. Make
sure you know what to expect and how to react to a nuclear
hazard.

EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS

The effects of nuclear weapons are classified as either
initial or residual. Initial effects occur in the immediate area of


the explosion and are hazardous in the first minute after the
explosion. Residual effects can last for days or years and cause
death. The principal initial effects are blast and radiation.

Blast

Blast is the brief and rapid movement of air away from
the explosion’s center and the pressure accompanying this
movement. Strong winds accompany the blast. Blast hurls debris
and personnel, collapses lungs, ruptures eardrums, collapses
structures and positions, and causes immediate death or injury
with its crushing effect.

Thermal Radiation

This effect is the heat and light radiation a nuclear
explosion’s fireball emits. Light radiation consists of both visible
light and ultraviolet and infrared light. Thermal radiation
produces extensive fires, skin burns, and flash blindness.

Nuclear Radiation

Nuclear radiation breaks down into two categories. The
effects can be initial radiation and residual radiation.

Initial nuclear radiation consists of intense gamma rays
and neutrons produced during the first minute after the
explosion. This radiation causes extensive damage to cells
throughout the body. Radiation damage may cause headaches,
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and even death, depending on the
radiation dose received. The major problem in protecting yourself
against the initial radiation’s effects is that you may have
received a lethal or incapacitating dose before taking any
protective action. Personnel exposed to lethal amounts of initial
radiation may well have been killed or fatally injured by blast or
thermal radiation.

Residual radiation consists of all radiation produced after 1
minute from the explosion. It has more effect on you than initial
radiation. A discussion of residual radiation takes place in a
subsequent paragraph.


TYPES OF NUCLEAR BURSTS

There are three types of nuclear bursts: subsurface burst,
airburst, and surface burst. The type of burst directly affects your
chances of survival. A subsurface burst occurs completely
underground or underwater. Its effects remain beneath the
surface or in the immediate area where the surface collapses into
a crater over the burst’s location. Subsurface bursts cause you
little or no radioactive hazard unless you enter the immediate
area of the crater.

An airburst occurs in the air above its intended target. The
airburst provides the maximum radiation effect on the target and
is, therefore, most dangerous to you in terms of immediate
nuclear effects.

A surface burst occurs on the ground or water surface.
Large amounts of fallout result, with serious long-term effects for
you. This type of burst is your greatest nuclear hazard.

NUCLEAR INJURIES

Most injuries in the nuclear environment result from the
initial nuclear effects of the detonation. These injuries are classed
as blast, thermal, or radiation injuries. Further radiation injuries
may occur if you do not take proper precautions against fallout.
Individuals in the area near a nuclear explosion will probably
suffer a combination of all three types of injuries.

Blast Injuries

Blast injuries produced by nuclear weapons are similar to
those caused by conventional high-explosive weapons. Blast
overpressure can collapse lungs and rupture internal organs.
Projectile wounds occur as the explosion’s force hurls debris at
you. Large pieces of debris striking you will cause fractured limbs
or massive internal injuries. Blast overpressure may throw you
long distances, and you will suffer severe injury upon impact with
the ground or other objects. Substantial cover and distance from
the explosion are the best protection against blast injury. Cover
blast injury wounds as soon as possible to prevent the entry of
radioactive dust particles.


Thermal Injuries

The heat and light the nuclear fireball emits cause thermal
injuries. First-, second-, or third-degree burns may result. Flash
blindness also occurs. This blindness may be permanent or
temporary depending on the degree of exposure of the eyes.
Substantial cover and distance from the explosion can prevent
thermal injuries. Clothing will provide significant protection
against thermal injuries. Cover as much exposed skin as possible
before a nuclear explosion. First aid for thermal injuries is the
same as first aid for burns. Cover open burns (second- or thirddegree)
to prevent the entry of radioactive particles. Wash all
burns before covering.

Radiation Injuries

Neutrons, gamma radiation, alpha radiation, and beta
radiation cause radiation injuries. Neutrons are high-speed,
extremely penetrating particles that actually smash cells within
your body. Gamma radiation is similar to X rays and is also
highly penetrating radiation. During the initial fireball stage of a
nuclear detonation, initial gamma radiation and neutrons are the
most serious threat. Beta and alpha radiation are radioactive
particles normally associated with radioactive dust from fallout.
They are short-range particles. You can easily protect yourself
against them if you take precautions. See “Bodily Reactions to
Radiation,” below, for the symptoms of radiation injuries.

RESIDUAL RADIATION

Residual radiation is all radiation emitted after 1 minute
from the instant of the nuclear explosion. Residual radiation
consists of induced radiation and fallout.

Induced Radiation

This term describes a relatively small, intensely
radioactive area directly underneath the nuclear weapon’s
fireball. The irradiated earth in this area will remain highly
radioactive for an extremely long time. You should not travel into
an area of induced radiation.


Fallout

Fallout consists of radioactive soil and water particles, as
well as weapon fragments. During a surface detonation, or if an
airburst’s nuclear fireball touches the ground, large amounts of
soil and water are vaporized along with the bomb’s fragments,
and forced upward to altitudes of 25,000 meters (82,000 feet) or
more. When these vaporized contents cool, they can form more
than 200 different radioactive products. The vaporized bomb
contents condense into tiny radioactive particles that the wind
carries until they fall back to earth as radioactive dust. Fallout
particles emit alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Alpha and beta
radiation are relatively easy to counteract, and residual gamma
radiation is much less intense than the gamma radiation emitted
during the first minute after the explosion. Fallout is your most
significant radiation hazard, provided you have not received a
lethal radiation dose from the initial radiation.

BODILY REACTIONS TO RADIATION

The effects of radiation on the human body can be broadly
classed as either chronic or acute. Chronic effects are those that
occur some years after exposure to radiation. Examples are
cancer and genetic defects. Chronic effects are of minor concern
insofar as they affect your immediate survival in a radioactive
environment. On the other hand, acute effects are of primary
importance to your survival. Some acute effects occur within
hours after exposure to radiation. These effects result from the
radiation’s direct physical damage to tissue. Radiation sickness
and beta burns are examples of acute effects. Radiation sickness
symptoms include nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, fatigue, weakness,
and loss of hair. Penetrating beta rays cause radiation burns; the
wounds are similar to fire burns.

Recovery Capability

The extent of body damage depends mainly on the part of
the body exposed to radiation and how long it was exposed, as
well as its ability to recover. The brain and kidneys have little
recovery capability. Other parts (skin and bone marrow) have a
great ability to recover from damage. Usually, a dose of 600
centigrays (cGy) to the entire body will result in almost certain
death. If only your hands received this same dose, your overall


health would not suffer much, although your hands would suffer
severe damage.

External and Internal Hazards

An external or internal hazard can cause body damage.
Highly penetrating gamma radiation or the less penetrating beta
radiation that causes burns can cause external damage. The
entry of alpha or beta radiation-emitting particles into the body
can cause internal damage. The external hazard produces overall
irradiation and beta burns. The internal hazard results in
irradiation of critical organs such as the gastrointestinal tract,
thyroid gland, and bone. A very small amount of radioactive
material can cause extreme damage to these and other internal
organs. The internal hazard can enter the body either through
consumption of contaminated water or food or by absorption
through cuts or abrasions. Material that enters the body through
breathing presents only a minor hazard. You can greatly reduce
the internal radiation hazard by using good personal hygiene and
carefully decontaminating your food and water.

Symptoms

The symptoms of radiation injuries include nausea,
diarrhea, and vomiting. The severity of these symptoms is due to
the extreme sensitivity of the gastrointestinal tract to radiation.
The severity of the symptoms and the speed of onset after
exposure are good indicators of the degree of radiation damage.
The gastrointestinal damage can come from either the external or
the internal radiation hazard.

COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST
PENETRATING EXTERNAL RADIATION

Knowledge of the radiation hazards discussed earlier is
extremely important in surviving in a fallout area. It is also
critical to know how to protect yourself from the most dangerous
form of residual radiation—penetrating external radiation.

The means you can use to protect yourself from
penetrating external radiation are time, distance, and shielding.
You can reduce the level of radiation and help increase your
chance of survival by controlling the duration of exposure. You
can also get as far away from the radiation source as possible.


Finally, you can place some radiation-absorbing or shielding
material between you and the radiation.

Time

Time is important, in two ways, when you are in a survival
situation. First, radiation dosages are cumulative. The longer you
are exposed to a radioactive source, the greater the dose you will
receive. Obviously, spend as little time in a radioactive area as
possible. Second, radioactivity decreases or decays over time. This
concept is known as radioactive half-life. Thus, a radioactive
element decays or loses half of its radioactivity within a certain
time. The rule of thumb for radioactivity decay is that it decreases
in intensity by a factor of ten for every sevenfold increase in time
following the peak radiation level. For example, if a nuclear
fallout area had a maximum radiation rate of 200 cGy per hour
when fallout is complete, this rate would fall to 20 cGy per hour
after 7 hours; it would fall still further to 2 cGy per hour after 49
hours. Even an untrained observer can see that the greatest
hazard from fallout occurs immediately after detonation, and that
the hazard decreases quickly over a relatively short time. You
should try to avoid fallout areas until the radioactivity decays to
safe levels. If you can avoid fallout areas long enough for most of
the radioactivity to decay, you enhance your chance of survival.

Distance

Distance provides very effective protection against
penetrating gamma radiation because radiation intensity
decreases by the square of the distance from the source. For
example, if exposed to 1,000 cGy of radiation standing 30
centimeters (12 inches) from the source, at 60 centimeters (24
inches), you would only receive 250 cGy. Thus, when you double
the distance, radiation decreases to (0.5)2 or 0.25 the amount.
While this formula is valid for concentrated sources of radiation
in small areas, it becomes more complicated for large areas of
radiation such as fallout areas.

Shielding

Shielding is the most important method of protection from
penetrating radiation. Of the three countermeasures against
penetrating radiation, shielding provides the greatest protection


and is the easiest to use under survival conditions. Therefore, it is
the most desirable method. If shielding is not possible, use the
other two methods to the maximum extent practical.

Shielding actually works by absorbing or weakening the
penetrating radiation, thereby reducing the amount of radiation
reaching your body. The denser the material, the better the
shielding effect. Lead, iron, concrete, and water are good
examples of shielding materials.

Special Medical Aspects

The presence of fallout material in your area requires
slight changes in first aid procedures. You must cover all wounds
to prevent contamination and the entry of radioactive particles.
You must first wash burns of beta radiation, then treat them as
ordinary burns. Take extra measures to prevent infection. Your
body will be extremely sensitive to infections due to changes in
your blood chemistry. Pay close attention to the prevention of
colds or respiratory infections. Rigorously practice personal
hygiene to prevent infections. Cover your eyes with improvised
goggles to prevent the entry of particles.

SHELTER

As stated earlier, the shielding material’s effectiveness
depends on its thickness and density. An ample thickness of
shielding material will reduce the level of radiation to negligible
amounts.

The primary reason for finding and building a shelter is to
get protection against the high-intensity radiation levels of early
gamma fallout as fast as possible. Five minutes to locate the
shelter is a good guide. Speed in finding shelter is absolutely
essential. Without shelter, the dosage received in the first few
hours will exceed that received during the rest of a week in a
contaminated area. The dosage received in this first week will
exceed the dosage accumulated during the rest of a lifetime spent
in the same contaminated area.


Shielding Materials

The thickness required to weaken gamma radiation from
fallout is far less than that needed to shield against initial
gamma radiation. Fallout radiation has less energy than a
nuclear detonation’s initial radiation. For fallout radiation, a
relatively small amount of shielding material can provide
adequate protection. Figure 23-1 shows the thickness of various
materials needed to reduce residual gamma radiation
transmission by 50 percent.

Figure 23-1. Materials to Reduce Gamma Radiation

The principle of half-value layer thickness is useful in
understanding the absorption of gamma radiation by various
materials. According to this principle, if 5 centimeters (2 inches)
of brick reduce the gamma radiation level by one-half, adding
another 5 centimeters (2 inches) of brick (another half-value
layer) will reduce the intensity by another half, namely, to onefourth
the original amount. Fifteen centimeters (6 inches) will
reduce gamma radiation fallout levels to one-eighth its original
amount, 20 centimeters (8 inches) to one-sixteenth, and so on.
Thus, a shelter protected by 1 meter (3 feet) of dirt would reduce
a radiation intensity of 1,000 cGy per hour on the outside to about
0.5 cGy per hour inside the shelter.


Natural Shelters

Terrain that provides natural shielding and easy shelter
construction is the ideal location for an emergency shelter. Good
examples are ditches, ravines, rocky outcropping, hills, and
riverbanks. In level areas without natural protection, dig a
fighting position or slit trench.

Trenches

When digging a trench, work from inside the trench as
soon as it is large enough to cover part of your body thereby not
exposing all your body to radiation. In open country, try to dig the
trench from a prone position, stacking the dirt carefully and
evenly around the trench. On level ground, pile the dirt around
your body for additional shielding. Depending upon soil
conditions, shelter construction time will vary from a few minutes
to a few hours. If you dig as quickly as possible, you will reduce
the dosage you receive.

Other Shelters

While an underground shelter covered by 1 meter (3 feet)
or more of earth provides the best protection against fallout
radiation, the following unoccupied structures (in order listed)
offer the next best protection:

Caves and tunnels covered by more than 1 meter (3 feet) of
earth.

Storm or storage cellars.

Culverts.

Basements or cellars of abandoned buildings.

Abandoned buildings made of stone or mud.

Roofs

It is not mandatory that you build a roof on your shelter.
Build one only if the materials are readily available with only a
brief exposure to outside contamination. If building a roof would
require extended exposure to penetrating radiation, it would be
wiser to leave the shelter roofless. A roof’s sole function is to
reduce radiation from the fallout source to your body. Unless you
use a thick roof, a roof provides very little shielding.


You can construct a simple roof from a poncho anchored
down with dirt, rocks, or other refuse from your shelter. You can
remove large particles of dirt and debris from the top of the
poncho by beating it off from the inside at frequent intervals. This
cover will not offer shielding from the radioactive particles
deposited on the surface, but it will increase the distance from the
fallout source and keep the shelter area from further
contamination.

Shelter Site Selection and Preparation

To reduce your exposure time and thereby reduce the
dosage received, remember the following factors when selecting
and setting up a shelter:

Where possible, seek a crude, existing shelter that you can
improve. If none is available, dig a trench.

Dig the shelter deep enough to get good protection, then
enlarge it as required for comfort.

Cover the top of the fighting position or trench with any
readily available material and a thick layer of earth, if you
can do so without leaving the shelter. While a roof and
camouflage are both desirable, it is probably safer to do
without them than to expose yourself to radiation outside
your fighting position.

While building your shelter, keep all parts of your body
covered with clothing to protect it against beta burns.

Clean the shelter site of any surface deposit using a branch
or other object that you can discard. Do this cleaning to
remove contaminated materials from the area you will
occupy. The cleaned area should extend at least 1.5 meters
(5 feet) beyond your shelter’s area.

Decontaminate any materials you bring into the shelter.
These materials include grass or foliage that you use as
insulation or bedding, and your outer clothing (especially
footgear). If the weather permits and you have heavily
contaminated outer clothing, you may want to remove it
and bury it under a foot of earth at the end of your shelter.
You may retrieve it later (after the radioactivity decays)
when leaving the shelter. If the clothing is dry, you may


decontaminate it by beating or shaking it outside the
shelter’s entrance to remove the radioactive dust. You may
use any body of water, even though contaminated, to rid
materials of excess fallout particles. Simply dip the
material into the water and shake it to get rid of the excess
water. Do not wring it out, this action will trap the
particles.

If possible and without leaving the shelter, wash your body
thoroughly with soap and water, even if the water on hand
may be contaminated. This washing will remove most of
the harmful radioactive particles that are likely to cause
beta burns or other damage. If water is not available, wipe
your face and any other exposed skin surface to remove
contaminated dust and dirt. You may wipe your face with a
clean piece of cloth or a handful of uncontaminated dirt.
You get this uncontaminated dirt by scraping off the top
few inches of soil and using the “clean” dirt.

Upon completing the shelter, lie down, keep warm, and
sleep and rest as much as possible while in the shelter.

When not resting, keep busy by planning future actions,
studying your maps, or making the shelter more
comfortable and effective.

Don’t panic if you experience nausea and symptoms of
radiation sickness. Your main danger from radiation
sickness is infection. There is no first aid for this sickness.
Resting, drinking fluids, taking any medicine that
prevents vomiting, maintaining your food intake, and
preventing additional exposure will help avoid infection
and aid recovery. Even small doses of radiation can cause
these symptoms, which may disappear in a short time.

Exposure Timetable

The following timetable provides you with the information
needed to avoid receiving a serious dosage and still let you cope
with survival problems:

Complete isolation from 4 to 6 days following delivery of
the last weapon.


A very brief exposure to get water on the third day is
permissible, but exposure should not exceed 30 minutes.

One exposure of not more than 30 minutes on the seventh
day.

One exposure of not more than 1 hour on the eighth day.

Exposure of 2 to 4 hours from the ninth day through the
twelfth day.

Normal operation, followed by rest in a protected shelter,
from the thirteenth day on.

In all instances, make your exposures as brief as possible.
Consider only mandatory requirements as valid reasons for
exposure. Decontaminate at every stop.

The times given above are conservative. If forced to move
after the first or second day, you may do so. Make sure that the
exposure is no longer than absolutely necessary.

WATER PROCUREMENT

In a fallout-contaminated area, available water sources
may be contaminated. If you wait at least 48 hours before
drinking any water to allow radioactive decay to take place and
select the safest possible water source, you will greatly reduce the
danger of ingesting harmful amounts of radioactivity.

Although many factors (wind direction, rainfall, sediment)
will influence your choice in selecting water sources, consider the
following guidelines.

Safest Water Sources

Water from springs, wells, or other underground sources
that undergo natural filtration will be your safest sources. Any
water found in the pipes or containers of abandoned houses or
stores will also be free from radioactive particles. This water will
be safe to drink, although you will have to take precautions
against bacteria in the water.

Snow taken from 15 centimeters (6 inches) or more below
the surface during the fallout is also a safe source of water.


Streams and Rivers

Water from streams and rivers will be relatively free from
fallout within several days after the last nuclear explosion because
of dilution. If possible, filter such water before drinking to get rid of
radioactive particles. The best filtration method is to dig sediment
holes or seepage basins along the side of a water source. The water
will seep laterally into the hole through the intervening soil that
acts as a filtering agent and removes the contaminated fallout
particles that settled on the original body of water. This method
can remove up to 99 percent of the radioactivity in water. You must
cover the hole in some way to prevent further contamination.
See Figure 6-9, page 6-13, for an example of a water filter.

Standing Water

Water from lakes, pools, ponds, and other standing sources
is likely to be heavily contaminated; though most of the heavier,
long-lived radioactive isotopes will settle to the bottom. Use the
settling technique to purify this water. First, fill a bucket or other
deep container three-fourths full with contaminated water. Then
take dirt from a depth of 10 centimeters (4 inches) or more below
the ground surface and stir it into the water. Use about 2.5
centimeters (1 inch) of dirt for every 10 centimeters (4 inches) of
water. Stir the water until you see most dirt particles suspended
in the water. Let the mixture settle for at least 6 hours. The
settling dirt particles will carry most of the suspended fallout
particles to the bottom and cover them. You can then dip out the
clear water. Purify this water using a filtration device.

Additional Precautions

As an additional precaution against disease, treat all water
with water purification tablets from your survival kit or boil it.

FOOD PROCUREMENT

Obtaining edible food in a radiation-contaminated area is a
serious but not insurmountable problem. You need to follow a few
special procedures in selecting and preparing rations and local
foods for use. Since secure packaging protects your combat
rations, they will be perfectly safe for use. Supplement your
rations with any food you can find on trips outside your shelter.


 Abandoned buildings may have stores of processed foods. They
are safe for use after decontaminating them. Canned and
packaged foods should have containers or wrappers removed or
washed free of fallout particles. These processed foods also
include food stored in any closed container and food stored in
protected areas (such as cellars). All such foods must be washed
before eating or handling them.

If little or no processed food is available in your area, you
may have to supplement your diet with local food sources.
Animals and plants are local food sources.

Animals—A Food Source

Assume that all animals, regardless of their habitat or
living conditions, were exposed to radiation. The effects of
radiation on animals are similar to those on humans. Thus, most
of the wild animals living in a fallout area are likely to become
sick or die from radiation during the first month after the nuclear
explosion. Although animals may not be free from harmful
radioactive materials, you can and must use them in survival
conditions as a food source if other foods are not available. With
careful preparation and by following several important principles,
animals can be safe food sources.

First, do not eat an animal that appears to be sick. It may
have developed a bacterial infection because of radiation
poisoning. Contaminated meat, even if thoroughly cooked, could
cause severe illness or death if eaten.

Carefully skin all animals to prevent any radioactive
particles on the skin or fur from entering the body. Do not eat
meat close to the bones and joints as an animal’s skeleton
contains over 90 percent of the radioactivity. However, the
remaining animal muscle tissue will be safe to eat. Before cooking
it, cut the meat away from the bone, leaving at least a 3-
millimeter (1/8-inch) thickness of meat on the bone. Discard all
internal organs (heart, liver, and kidneys) since they tend to
concentrate beta and gamma radioactivity.

Cook all meat until it is very well done. To be sure the
meat is well done, cut it into less than 13-millimeter-thick (4 1/2-
inch-thick) pieces before cooking. Such cuts will also reduce
cooking time and save fuel.


The extent of contamination in fish and aquatic animals
will be much greater than that of land animals. This is also true
for water plants, especially in coastal areas. Use aquatic food
sources only in conditions of extreme emergency.

All eggs, even if laid during the period of fallout, will be
safe to eat. Completely avoid milk from any animals in a fallout
area because animals absorb large amounts of radioactivity from
the plants they eat.

Plants—A Food Source

Plant contamination occurs by the accumulation of fallout
on their outer surfaces or by absorption of radioactive elements
through their roots. Your first choice of plant food should be
vegetables such as potatoes, turnips, carrots, and other plants
whose edible portion grows underground. These are the safest to
eat once you scrub them and remove their skins.

Second, in order of preference, are those plants with edible
parts that you can decontaminate by washing and peeling their
outer surfaces. Examples are bananas, apples, tomatoes, prickly
pears, and other such fruits and vegetables.

Any smooth-skinned vegetable, fruit, or plant that you
cannot easily peel or effectively decontaminate by washing will be
your third choice of emergency food.

The effectiveness of decontamination by scrubbing is
inversely proportional to the roughness of the fruit’s surface.
Smooth-surfaced fruits will lose 90 percent of their contamination
after washing, but rough-surfaced plants will lose only about 50
percent.

Eat rough-surfaced plants (such as lettuce) only as a last
resort because you cannot effectively decontaminate them by
peeling or washing. Other difficult foods to decontaminate by
washing with water include dried fruits (figs, prunes, peaches,
apricots, pears) and soybeans.

In general, you can use any plant food that is ready for
harvest if you can effectively decontaminate it. However, growing
plants can absorb some radioactive materials through their leaves
as well as from the soil, especially if rains have occurred during or


after the fallout period. Avoid using these plants for food except in
an emergency.

BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS

The use of biological agents is real. Prepare yourself for
survival by being proficient in the tasks identified in your
soldier’s manuals of common tasks (SMCTs). Know what to do to
protect yourself against these agents.

BIOLOGICAL AGENTS AND EFFECTS

Biological agents are microorganisms that can cause
disease among personnel, animals, or plants. They can also cause
the deterioration of material. These agents fall into two broad
categories—pathogens (usually called germs) and toxins.
Pathogens are living microorganisms that cause lethal or
incapacitating diseases. Bacteria, rickettsiae, fungi, and viruses
are included in the pathogens. Toxins are poisons that plants,
animals, or microorganisms produce naturally. Possible biological
warfare toxins include a variety of neurotoxic (affecting the
central nervous system) and cytotoxic (causing cell death)
compounds.

Germs

Germs are living organisms. Some nations have used them
in the past as weapons. Only a few germs can start an infection,
especially if inhaled into the lungs. Because germs are so small
and weigh so little, the wind can spread them over great
distances; they can also enter unfiltered or nonairtight places.
Buildings and bunkers can trap them, causing a higher
concentration. Germs do not affect the body immediately. They
must multiply inside the body and overcome the body’s defenses—
a process called the incubation period. Incubation periods vary
from several hours to several months, depending on the germ.
Most germs must live within another living organism (host), such
as your body, to survive and grow. Weather conditions such as
wind, rain, cold, and sunlight rapidly kill germs.

Some germs can form protective shells, or spores, to allow
survival outside the host. Spore-producing agents are a long-term
hazard you must neutralize by decontaminating infected areas or
personnel. Fortunately, most live agents are not spore producing.


These agents must find a host within roughly a day of their
delivery or they die. Germs have three basic routes of entry into
your body—through the respiratory tract, through a break in the
skin, and through the digestive tract. Symptoms of infection vary
according to the disease.

Toxins

Toxins are substances that plants, animals, or germs
produce naturally. These toxins are what actually harm man, not
bacteria. An example is botulin, which produces botulism. Modern
science has allowed large-scale production of these toxins without
the use of the germ that produces the toxin. Toxins may produce
effects similar to those of chemical agents. However, toxic victims
may not respond to first aid measures used against chemical
agents. Toxins enter the body in the same manner as germs.
However, some toxins, unlike germs, can penetrate unbroken
skin. Symptoms appear almost immediately, since there is no
incubation period. Many toxins are extremely lethal, even in very
small doses. Symptoms may include any of the following:

Dizziness.

Mental confusion.

Blurred or double vision.

Numbness or tingling of skin.

Paralysis.

Convulsions.

Rashes or blisters.

Coughing.

Fever.

Aching muscles.

Tiredness.

Nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea.

Bleeding from body openings.

Blood in urine, stool, or saliva.

Shock.

Death.


DETECTION OF BIOLOGICAL AGENTS

Biological agents are, by nature, difficult to detect. You
cannot detect them by any of the five physical senses. Often, the
first sign of a biological agent will be symptoms of the victims
exposed to the agent. Your best chance of detecting biological
agents before they can affect you is to recognize their means of
delivery. The three main means of delivery are—

Bursting-type munitions. These may be bombs or
projectiles whose burst causes very little damage. The
burst will produce a small cloud of liquid or powder in the
immediate impact area. This cloud will disperse
eventually; the rate of dispersion depends on terrain and
weather conditions.

Spray tanks or generators. Aircraft, vehicle spray tanks, or
ground-level aerosol generators produce an aerosol cloud of
biological agents.

Vectors. Insects such as mosquitoes, fleas, lice, and ticks
deliver pathogens. Large infestations of these insects may
indicate the use of biological agents.

Sign of a possible biological attack are the presence of
unusual substances on the ground or vegetation, or sick-looking
plants, crops, or animals.

INFLUENCE OF WEATHER AND TERRAIN

Your knowledge of how weather and terrain affect the
agents can help you avoid contamination by biological agents.
Major weather factors that affect biological agents are sunlight,
wind, and precipitation. Aerosol sprays will tend to concentrate in
low areas of terrain, similar to early morning mist.

Sunlight contains visible and ultraviolet solar radiation
that rapidly kills most germs used as biological agents. However,
natural or man-made cover may protect some agents from
sunlight. Other man-made mutant strains of germs may be
resistant to sunlight.

High wind speeds increase the dispersion of biological
agents, dilute their concentration, and dehydrate them. The
further downwind the agent travels, the less effective it becomes
due to dilution and death of the pathogens. However, the


downwind hazard area of the biological agent is significant and
you cannot ignore it.

Precipitation in the form of moderate to heavy rain tends
to wash biological agents out of the air, reducing downwind
hazard areas. However, the agents may still be very effective
where they were deposited on the ground.

PROTECTION AGAINST BIOLOGICAL AGENTS

While you must maintain a healthy respect for biological
agents, there is no reason for you to panic. You can reduce your
susceptibility to biological agents by maintaining current
immunizations, avoiding contaminated areas, and controlling
rodents and pests. You must also use proper first aid measures in
the treatment of wounds, and only safe or properly
decontaminated sources of food and water. You must ensure that
you get enough sleep to prevent a run-down condition. You must
always use proper field sanitation procedures.

Assuming you do not have a protective mask, always try to
keep your face covered with some type of cloth to protect yourself
against biological agent aerosols. Dust may contain biological
agents; wear some type of mask when dust is in the air.

Your uniform and gloves will protect you against bites
from vectors (mosquitoes and ticks) that carry diseases.
Completely button your clothing and tuck your trousers tightly
into your boots. Wear a chemical protective overgarment, if
available, as it provides better protection than normal clothing.
Covering your skin will also reduce the chance of the agent
entering your body through cuts or scratches. Always practice
high standards of personal hygiene and sanitation to help prevent
the spread of vectors.

Bathe with soap and water whenever possible. Use
germicidal soap, if available. Wash your hair and body
thoroughly. Clean under your fingernails. Clean teeth, gums,
tongue, and the roof of your mouth frequently. Wash your
clothing in hot, soapy water if you can. If you cannot wash your
clothing, lay it out in an area of bright sunlight and allow the
light to kill the microorganisms. After a toxin attack,
decontaminate yourself as if for a chemical attack using the
M258A2 kit (if available) or by washing with soap and water.


SHELTER

You can build expedient shelters under biological
contamination conditions using the same techniques described in
Chapter 5. However, you must make slight changes to reduce the
chance of biological contamination. Do not build your shelter in
depressions in the ground. Aerosol sprays tend to concentrate in
these depressions. Avoid building your shelter in areas of
vegetation, as vegetation provides shade and some degree of
protection to biological agents. Avoid using vegetation in
constructing your shelter. Place your shelter’s entrance at a 90-
degree angle to the prevailing winds. Such placement will limit
the entry of airborne agents and prevent air stagnation in your
shelter. Always keep your shelter clean.

WATER PROCUREMENT

Water procurement under biological conditions is difficult
but not impossible. Whenever possible, try to use water that has
been in a sealed container. You can assume that the water inside
the sealed container is not contaminated. Wash the water
container thoroughly with soap and water or boil it for at least 10
minutes before breaking the seal.

If water in sealed containers is not available, your next
choice, only under emergency conditions, is water from
springs. Again, boil the water for at least 10 minutes before
drinking. Keep the water covered while boiling to prevent
contamination by airborne pathogens. Your last choice, only in
an extreme emergency, is to use standing water. Vectors and
germs can survive easily in stagnant water. Boil this water as
long as practicable to kill all organisms. Filter this water through
a cloth to remove the dead vectors. Use water purification tablets
in all cases.

FOOD PROCUREMENT

Food procurement, like water procurement, is not
impossible, but you must take special precautions. Your combat
rations are sealed, and you can assume they are not
contaminated. You can also assume that sealed containers or
packages of processed food are safe. To ensure safety,
decontaminate all food containers by washing with soap and
water or by boiling the container in water for 10 minutes.


You should consider supplementing your rations with local
plants or animals only in extreme emergencies. No matter what
you do to prepare the food, there is no guarantee that cooking will
kill all the biological agents. Use local food only in life-or-death
situations. Remember, you can survive for a long time without
food, especially if the food you eat may kill you!

If you must use local food, select only healthy-looking
plants and animals. Do not select known carriers of vectors such
as rats or other vermin. Select and prepare plants as you would in
radioactive areas. Prepare animals as you do plants. Always use
gloves and protective clothing when handling animals or plants.
Cook all plant and animal food by boiling only. Boil all food for at
least 10 minutes to kill all pathogens. Do not try to fry, bake, or
roast local food. There is no guarantee that all infected portions
have reached the required temperature to kill all pathogens. Do
not eat raw food.

CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENTS

Chemical agent warfare is real. It can create extreme
problems in a survival situation, but you can overcome the
problems with the proper equipment, knowledge, and training. In
a survival situation, your first line of defense against chemical
agents is your proficiency in individual NBC training, to include
donning and wearing the protective mask and overgarment,
personal decontamination, recognition of chemical agent
symptoms, and individual first aid for chemical agent
contamination. The SMCTs cover these subjects. If you are not
proficient in these skills, you will have little chance of surviving a
chemical environment.

The subject matter covered below is not a substitute for
any of the individual tasks in which you must be proficient. The
SMCTs address the various chemical agents, their effects, and
first aid for these agents. The following information is provided
under the assumption that you are proficient in the use of
chemical protective equipment and know the symptoms of various
chemical agents.


DETECTION OF CHEMICAL AGENTS

The best method for detecting chemical agents is the use of
a chemical agent detector. If you have one, use it. However, in a
survival situation, you will most likely have to rely solely on the
use of all of your physical senses. You must be alert and able to
detect any clues indicating the use of chemical warfare. General
indicators of the presence of chemical agents are tears, difficult
breathing, choking, itching, coughing, and dizziness. With agents
that are very hard to detect, you must watch for symptoms in
other personnel. Your surroundings will provide valuable clues to
the presence of chemical agents; for example, dead animals, sick
people, or people and animals displaying abnormal behavior.

Your sense of smell may alert you to some chemical agents,
but most will be odorless. The odor of newly cut grass or hay may
indicate the presence of choking agents. A smell of almonds may
indicate blood agents.

Sight will help you detect chemical agents. Most chemical
agents in the solid or liquid state have some color. In the vapor
state, you can see some chemical agents as a mist or thin fog
immediately after the bomb or shell bursts. By observing for
symptoms in others and by observing delivery means, you may be
able to have some warning of chemical agents. Mustard gas in the
liquid state will appear as oily patches on leaves or on buildings.

The sound of enemy munitions will give some clue to the
presence of chemical weapons. Muffled shell or bomb detonations
are a good indicator.

Irritation in the nose or eyes or on the skin is an urgent
warning to protect your body from chemical agents. Additionally,
a strange taste in food, water, or cigarettes may serve as a
warning that they have been contaminated.

PROTECTION AGAINST CHEMICAL AGENTS

In a survival situation, always perform the following steps,
in the order listed, to protect yourself from a chemical attack:

Use protective equipment.

Give quick and correct self-aid when contaminated.

Avoid areas where chemical agents exist.


Decontaminate your equipment and body as soon as
possible.

Your protective mask and overgarment are the key to your
survival. Without these, you stand very little chance of survival.
You must take care of these items and protect them from damage.
You must practice and know correct self-aid procedures before
exposure to chemical agents. The detection of chemical agents
and the avoidance of contaminated areas are extremely important
to your survival. Use whatever detection kits may be available to
help in detection. Since you are in a survival situation, avoid
contaminated areas at all costs. You can expect no help should
you become contaminated. If you do become contaminated,
decontaminate yourself as soon as possible using proper
procedures.

SHELTER

If you find yourself in a contaminated area, try to move out
of the area as fast as possible. Travel crosswind or upwind to
reduce the time spent in the downwind hazard area. If you cannot
leave the area immediately and have to build a shelter, use
normal shelter construction techniques, with a few changes. Build
the shelter in a clearing, away from all vegetation. Remove all
topsoil in the area of the shelter to decontaminate the area. Keep
the shelter’s entrance closed and oriented at a 90-degree angle to
the prevailing wind. Do not build a fire using contaminated wood;
the smoke will be toxic. Use extreme caution when entering your
shelter so that you will not bring contamination inside.

WATER PROCUREMENT

As with biological and nuclear environments, getting water
in a chemical environment is difficult. Obviously, water in sealed
containers is your best and safest source. You must protect this
water as much as possible. Be sure to decontaminate the
containers before opening.

If you cannot get water in sealed containers, try to get it
from a closed source such as underground water pipes. You may
use rainwater or snow if there is no evidence of contamination.
Use water from slow-moving streams, if necessary, but always
check first for signs of contamination, and always filter the water
as described under nuclear conditions. Signs of water source


contamination are foreign odors such as garlic, mustard,
geranium, or bitter almonds; oily spots on the surface of the water
or nearby; and the presence of dead fish or animals. If these signs
are present, do not use the water. Always boil or purify the water
to prevent bacteriological infection.

FOOD PROCUREMENT

It is extremely difficult to eat while in a contaminated
area. You will have to break the seal on your protective mask to
eat. If you eat, find an area in which you can safely unmask. The
safest source of food is your sealed combat rations. Food in sealed
cans or bottles will also be safe. Decontaminate all sealed food
containers before opening, otherwise you will contaminate the
food.

If you must supplement your combat rations with local
plants or animals, do not use plants from contaminated areas or
animals that appear to be sick. When handling plants or animals,
always use protective gloves and clothing.


 Survival Kits

The Army has several basic survival kits,
primarily for issue to aviators. There are kits for
cold climates, hot climates, and overwater. There
is also an individual survival kit with a general
packet and medical packet. The cold, hot, and
overwater kits are in canvas carrying bags.
These kits are normally stowed in the
helicopter’s cargo and passenger area.

An aviator’s survival vest (SRU-21P), worn by
helicopter crews, also contains survival items.

U.S. Army aviators flying fixed-wing aircraft
equipped with ejection seats use the SRFU-31/P
survival vest. The individual survival kits are
stowed in the seat pan. Like all other kits, the
rigid seat survival kit (RSSK) you use depends
on the environment.

Items contained in the kits may be ordered
separately through supply channels. All survival
kits and vests are Common Table of Allowances
50-900 items and can be ordered by authorized
units. Figures A-1 through A-6, pages A-2
through A-8, describe the various survival kits
and their contents.


Food packets.

Snare wire.

Smoke, illumination signals.

Waterproof matchbox.

Saw/knife blade.

Wood matches.

First aid kit.

MC-1 magnetic compass.

Pocket knife.

Saw/knife/shovel handle.

Frying pan.

Illuminating candles.

Compressed trioxane fuel.

Signaling mirror.

Survival fishing kit.

Plastic spoon.

Survival manual (AFM 64-5).

Poncho.

Insect headnet.

Ejector snap.

Attaching strap.

Kit, outer case.

Kit, inner case.

Shovel.

Water bag.

Kit, packing list.

Sleeping bag.



Figure A-1. Cold Climate Kit


Canned drinking water.

Waterproof matchbox.

Plastic whistle.

Smoke, illumination signals.

Pocket knife.

Signaling mirror.

Plastic water bag.

First aid kit.

Sunburn-prevention cream.

Plastic spoon.

Food packets.

Compression trioxane fuel.

Fishing tackle kit.

MC-1 magnetic compass.

Snare wire.

Frying pan.

Wood matches.

Insect headnet.

Reversible sun hat.

Tool kit.

Kit, packing list.

Tarpaulin.

Survival manual (AFM 64-5).

Kit, inner case.

Kit, outer case.

Attaching strap.

Ejector snap.



Figure A-2. Hot Climate Kit


Kit, packing list.

Raft boat paddle.

Survival manual (AFM 64-5).

Insect headnet.

Reversible sun hat.

Water storage bag.

MC-1 magnetic compass.

Boat bailer.

Sponge.

Sunburn-prevention cream.

Wood matches.

First aid kit.

Plastic spoon.

Pocket knife.

Food packets.

Fluorescent sea marker.

Frying pan.

Seawater desalter kit.

Compressed trioxane fuel.

Smoke, illumination signals.

Signaling mirror.

Fishing tackle kit.

Waterproof matchbox.

Raft repair kit.



Figure A-3. Overwater Kit


NSN

Description

QTY/UI

1680-00-205-0474

1680-00-187-5716

7340-00-098-4327

5110-00-850-8655

4220-00-850-8655

6230-00-938-1778

6350-00-105-1252

1370-00-490-7362

SURVIVAL KIT, INDIVIDUAL
SURVIVAL VEST (OV-1), large, SC
1680-97-CL-A07

SURVIVAL KIT, INDIVIDUAL
SURVIVAL VEST (OV-1), small, SC
1680-97-CL-A07

Consisting of the following
components:

KNIFE, HUNTING: 5-inch lg blade,
leather handle, w/sheath

KNIFE, POCKET: one 3-1/16-inch lg
cutting blade, and one 1-25/32-inch
lg hook blade, w/safety lock and
clevis

LIFE PRESERVER, UNDERARM:
gas or orally inflated, w/gas cyl, adult
size, 10-inch h, orange color,
shoulder and chest-type harness
w/quick-release buckle and clip

LIGHT, MARKER, DISTRESS:
plastic body, rd, 1-inch w, accom 1
flashtube; one 5.4 v dry battery
required

MIRROR, EMERGENCY
SIGNALING: glass, circular clear
window in center or mirror for
sighting, 3-inch lg, 2-inch w, 1/8-inch
thk, w/o case, w/lanyard

SIGNAL KIT, PERSONNEL
DISTRESS: w/7 rocket cartridges
and launcher

1 ea

1 ea

1 ea

1 ea

1 ea

1 ea



Figure A-4. Individual Survival Kit With General and
Medical Packets


NSN

Description

QTY/UI

6546-00-478-6504

4240-00-152-1578

6545-00-231-9421

6510-00-926-8881

6505-00-118-1948

6510-00-913-7909

6510-00-913-7906

SURVIVAL KIT, INDIVIDUAL
consisting of:

GENERAL PACKET, INDIVIDUAL
SURVIVAL KIT: w/mandatory pack
bag; 1 pkg ea of coffee and fruitflavored
candy; 3 pkg chewing gum;
1 water storage container; 2 flash
guards, w/infrared and blue filters; 1
mosquito headnet and pr mittens; 1
instruction card; 1 emergency
signaling mirror; 1 fire starter and
tinder; 5 safety pins; 1 small straighttype
surgical razor; 1 rescue/
signal/medical instruction panel; 1
tweezer, and 1 wrist compass, strap
and lanyard

MEDICAL PACKET, INDIVIDUAL
SURVIVAL KIT: w/carrying bag; 1
tube insect repellent and sunscreen
ointment; 1 medical instruction card;
1 waterproof receptacle, 1 bar soap
and the following items:

ADHESIVE TAPE, SURGICAL: white
rubber coating, 1/2-inch w, 360-inch
lg., porous woven

ASPIRIN TABLETS, USP: 0.324 gm,
individually sealed in roll strip
container

BANDAGE, ADHESIVE: flesh,
plastic coated, 3/4-inch w, 3-inch lg

BANDAGE, GAUZE, ELASTIC:
white, sterile, 2-inch w, 180-inch lg

1 ea

1 ea

1 ea

10 ea

1 ea

1 ea



Figure A-4. Individual Survival Kit With General and
Medical Packets (Continued)


NSN

Description

QTY/UI

6505-00-118-1914

6505-00-183-9419

6850-00-985-7166

8415-00-201-9098

8415-00-201-9097

8465-00-254-8803

DIPHENOXYLATE
HYDROCHLORIDE AND
ATROPINE SULFATE TABLETS,
USP: 0.025 mg atropine sulfate and
2.500 mg diphenoxylate
hydrochloride active ingredients,
individually sealed, roll strip
container

SULFACETAMIDE SODIUM
OPHTHALMIC OINTMENT, USP:
10 percent

WATER PURIFICATION TABLET,
IODINE: 8 mg

VEST, SURVIVAL: nylon duck

large size

small size

WHISTLE, BALL: plastic, olive drab
w/lanyard

10 ea

3.5 gm

50 ea

1 ea

1 ea

1 ea



Figure A-4. Individual Survival Kit With General and
Medical Packets (Continued)


NSN

Description

8465-00-177-4819

6516-00-383-0565

5820-00-782-5308

1305-00-301-1692

1305-00-322-6391

1005-00-835-9773

9920-00-999-6753

6350-00-105-1252

6545-00-782-6412

1370-00-490-7362

6230-00-938-1778

8465-00-634-4499

5110-00-162-2205

4240-00-300-2138

6605-00-151-5337

Survival vest

Tourniquet

AN/PRC-90 survival radio

.38 caliber tracer ammunition

.38 caliber ball ammunition

Revolver, .38 caliber

Lighter, butane

Mirror, signaling

Survival kit, individual tropical

Signal kit, foliage penetrating

Light, distress marker, SDU-5/E

Bag, storage, drinking water

Knife, pocket

Net, gill, fishing

Compass, magnetic, lensatic



Figure A-5. SRU-21P Aviator’s Survival Kit

NSN

Description

1680-00-148-9233

1680-00-148-9234

1680-00-965-4702

Survival kit, cold climate (RSSK OV-1)

Survival kit, hot climate (RSSK OV-1)

Survival kit, overwater (RSSK OV-1)



Figure A-6. OV-1 Rigid Seat Survival Kits


 Edible and Medicinal Plants

In a survival situation, plants can provide food and
medicine. Their safe use requires absolutely
positive identification, knowing how to prepare
them for eating, and knowing any dangerous
properties they might have. Familiarity with
botanical structures of plants and information on
where they grow will make them easier to locate
and identify. This appendix provides pictures,
descriptions, habitats and distribution, and edible
parts of the most common plants that you might
encounter.


Abal
Calligonum comosum

Description: The abal is one of the few shrubby plants that exist in the shady
deserts. This plant grows to about 1.2 meters (4 feet), and its branches look like
wisps from a broom. The stiff, green branches produce an abundance of flowers
in March and April.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant is found in desert scrub and waste in any
climatic zone. It inhabits much of the North African desert. It may also be found
on the desert sands of the Middle East and as far eastward as the Rajputana
desert of western India.

Edible Parts: This plant’s general appearance would not indicate its usefulness
to you, but while this plant is flowering in the spring, its fresh flowers can be
eaten. It is common in the areas where it is found. An analysis of the abal’s food
value has shown it to be high in sugar and nitrogenous components.


Acacia
Acacia farnesiana

Description: Acacia is a spreading, usually short tree with spines and alternate
compound leaves. Its individual leaflets are small. Its flowers are ball-shaped,
bright yellow, and very fragrant. Its bark is a whitish-gray color. Its fruits are dark
brown and podlike.

Habitat and Distribution: Acacia grows in open, sunny areas. It is found
throughout all tropical regions.

NOTE: There are about 500 species of acacia. These plants are especially
prevalent in Africa, southern Asia, and Australia, but many species are found in
the warmer and drier parts of America.

Edible Parts: Its young leaves, flowers, and pods are edible raw or cooked.


Agave
Agave species

Description: These plants have large clusters of thick, fleshy leaves borne close
to the ground and surrounding a central stalk. The plants flower only once, then
die. They produce a massive flower stalk.

Habitat and Distribution: Agaves prefer dry, open areas. They are found
throughout Central America, the Caribbean, and parts of the western deserts of
the United States and Mexico.

Edible Parts: Its flowers and flower buds are edible. Boil them before eating.

Other Uses: Cut the huge flower stalk and collect the juice for drinking. Some
species have very fibrous leaves. Pound the leaves and remove the fibers for
weaving and making ropes. Most species have thick, sharp needles at the tips of
the leaves. Use them for sewing or making hacks. The sap of some species
contains a chemical that makes the sap suitable for use as a soap.


Almond
Prunus amygdalus

Description: The almond tree, which sometimes grows to 12.2 meters (40 feet),
looks like a peach tree. The fresh almond fruit resembles a gnarled, unripe peach
and grows in clusters. The stone (the almond itself) is covered with a thick, dry,
woolly skin.

Habitat and Distribution: Almonds are found in the scrub and thorn forests of
the tropics, the evergreen scrub forests of temperate areas, and in desert scrub
and waste in all climatic zones. The almond tree is also found in the semidesert
areas of the Old World in southern Europe, the eastern Mediterranean, Iran, the
Middle East, China, Madeira, the Azores, and the Canary Islands.

Edible Parts: The mature almond fruit splits open lengthwise down the side,
exposing the ripe almond nut. You can easily get the dry kernel by simply
cracking open the stone. Almond meats are rich in food value, like all nuts.
Gather them in large quantities and shell them for further use as survival food.
You could live solely on almonds for rather long periods. When you boil them, the
kernel’s outer covering comes off and only the white meat remains.


Amaranth
Amaranthus species

Description: These plants, which grow 90 to 150 centimeters (35 to
60 inches) tall, are abundant weeds in many parts of the world. All amaranth
have alternate simple leaves. They may have some red color present on the
stems. They bear minute, greenish flowers in dense clusters at the top of the
plants. Their seeds may be brown or black in weedy species and light-colored in
domestic species.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for amaranth along roadsides, in disturbed
waste areas, or as weeds in crops throughout the world. Some amaranth species
have been grown as a grain crop and a garden vegetable in various parts of the
world, especially in South America.

Edible Parts: All parts are edible, but some may have sharp spines you should
remove before eating. The young plants or the growing tips of older plants are an
excellent vegetable. Simply boil the young plants or eat them raw. Their seeds
are very nutritious. Shake the tops of older plants to get the seeds. Eat the seeds
raw, boiled, ground into flour, or popped like popcorn.


Arctic willow
Salix arctica

Description: The arctic willow is a shrub that never exceeds more than 60
centimeters (24 inches) in height and grows in clumps that form dense mats on
the tundra.

Habitat and Distribution: The arctic willow is common on tundras in North
America, Europe, and Asia. You can also find it in some mountainous areas in
temperate regions.

Edible Parts: You can collect the succulent, tender young shoots of the arctic
willow in early spring. Strip off the outer bark of the new shoots and eat the inner
portion raw. You can also peel and eat raw the young underground shoots of any
of the various kinds of arctic willow. Young willow leaves are one of the richest
sources of vitamin C, containing 7 to 10 times more than an orange.


Arrowroot
Maranta and Sagittaria species

Description: The arrowroot is an aquatic plant with arrow-shaped leaves and
potatolike tubers in the mud.

Habitat and Distribution: Arrowroot is found worldwide in temperate zones and
the tropics. It is found in moist to wet habitats.

Edible Parts: The rootstock is a rich source of high quality starch. Boil the
rootstock and eat it as a vegetable.


Asparagus
Asparagus officinalis

Description: The spring growth of this plant resembles a cluster of green fingers.
The mature plant has fernlike, wispy foliage and red berries. Its flowers are small
and greenish in color. Several species have sharp, thornlike structures.

Habitat and Distribution: Asparagus is found worldwide in temperate areas.
Look for it in fields, old homesites, and fencerows.

Edible Parts: Eat the young stems before leaves form. Steam or boil them for 10
to 15 minutes before eating. Raw asparagus may cause nausea or diarrhea. The
fleshy roots are a good source of starch.


Bael fruit
Aegle marmelos

Description: This is a tree that grows from 2.4 to 4.6 meters (8 to
15 feet) tall, with a dense spiny growth. The fruit is 5 to 10 centimeters (2 to 4
inches) in diameter, gray or yellowish, and full of seeds.

Habitat and Distribution: Bael fruit is found in rain forests and semievergreen
seasonal forests of the tropics. It grows wild in India and Burma.

Edible Parts: The fruit, which ripens in December, is at its best when just turning
ripe. The juice of the ripe fruit, diluted with water and mixed with a small amount
of tamarind and sugar or honey, is sour but refreshing. Like other citrus fruits, it is
rich in vitamin C.


Bamboo
Various species including Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Phyllostachys

Description: Bamboos are woody grasses that grow up to 15 meters (50 feet)
tall. The leaves are grasslike and the stems are the familiar bamboos used in
furniture and fishing poles.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for bamboo in warm, moist regions in open or jungle
country, in lowland, or on mountains. Bamboos are native to the Far East (temperate
and tropical zones) but have been widely planted around the world.

Edible Parts: The young shoots of almost all species are edible raw or cooked.
Raw shoots have a slightly bitter taste that is removed by boiling. To prepare,
remove the tough protective sheath that is coated with tawny or red hairs. The
seed grain of the flowering bamboo is also edible. Boil the seeds like rice or
pulverize them, mix with water, and make into cakes.

Other Uses: Use the mature bamboo to build structures or to make containers,
ladles, spoons, and various other cooking utensils. Also, use bamboo to make
tools and weapons. You can make a strong bow by splitting the bamboo and
putting several pieces together.


Banana and plantain
Musa species

Description: These are treelike plants with several large leaves at the top. Their
flowers are borne in dense hanging clusters.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for bananas and plantains in open fields or
margins of forests where they are grown as a crop. They grow in the humid
tropics.

Edible Parts: Their fruits are edible raw or cooked. They may be boiled or
baked. You can boil their flowers and eat them like a vegetable. You can cook
and eat the rootstocks and leaf sheaths of many species. The center or “heart” of
the plant is edible year-round, cooked or raw.

Other Uses: You can use the layers of the lower third of the plants to cover coals
to roast food. You can also use their stumps to get water (see Chapter 6). You
can use their leaves to wrap other foods for cooking or storage.


Baobab
Adansonia digitata

Description: The baobab tree may grow as high as 18 meters (60 feet) and may
have a trunk 9 meters (30 feet) in diameter. The tree has short, stubby branches
and a gray, thick bark. Its leaves are compound and their segments are arranged
like the palm of a hand. Its flowers, which are white and several centimeters
across, hang from the higher branches. Its fruit is shaped like a football,
measures up to 45 centimeters (18 inches) long, and is covered with short dense
hair.

Habitat and Distribution: These trees grow in savannas. They are found in
Africa, in parts of Australia, and on the island of Madagascar.

Edible Parts: You can use the young leaves as a soup vegetable. The tender
root of the young baobab tree is edible. The pulp and seeds of the fruit are also
edible. Use one handful of pulp to about one cup of water for a refreshing drink.
To obtain flour, roast the seeds, and then grind them.

Other Uses: Drinking a mixture of pulp and water will help cure diarrhea. Often
the hollow trunks are good sources of fresh water. The bark can be cut into strips
and pounded to obtain a strong fiber for making rope.


Batoko plum
Flacourtia inermis

Description: This shrub or small tree has dark green, alternate, simple leaves.
Its fruits are bright red and contain six or more seeds.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant is a native of the Philippines but is widely
cultivated for its fruit in other areas. It can be found in clearings and at the edges
of the tropical rain forests of Africa and Asia.

Edible Parts: Eat the fruit raw or cooked.


Bearberry or kinnikinnick

Arctostaphylos uvaursi

Description: This plant is a common evergreen shrub with reddish, scaly bark
and thick, leathery leaves 4 centimeters (1 1/2 inches) long and 1 centimeter (1/2
inch) wide. It has white flowers and bright red fruits.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant is found in arctic, subarctic, and temperate
regions, most often in sandy or rocky soil.

Edible Parts: Its berries are edible raw or cooked. You can make a refreshing
tea from its young leaves.


Beech
Fagus species

Description: Beech trees are large (9 to 24 meters [30 to 80 feet]), symmetrical
forest trees that have smooth, light-gray bark and dark green foliage. The
character of its bark, plus its clusters of prickly seedpods, clearly distinguish the
beech tree in the field.

Habitat and Distribution: This tree is found in the temperate zone. It grows wild
in the eastern United States, Europe, Asia, and North Africa. It is found in moist
areas, mainly in the forests. This tree is common throughout southeastern
Europe and across temperate Asia. Beech relatives are also found in Chile, New
Guinea, and New Zealand.

Edible Parts: The mature beechnuts readily fall out of the husklike seedpods.
You can eat these dark-brown, triangular nuts by breaking the thin shell with your
fingernail and removing the white, sweet kernel inside. Beechnuts are one of the
most delicious of all wild nuts. They are a most useful survival food because of
the kernel’s high oil content. You can also use the beechnuts as a coffee
substitute. Roast them so that the kernel becomes golden brown and quite hard.
Then pulverize the kernel and, after boiling or steeping in hot water, you have a
passable coffee substitute.


Bignay
Antidesma bunius

Description: Bignay is a shrub or small tree, 3 to 12 meters (10 to
40 feet) tall, with shiny, pointed leaves about 15 centimeters (6 inches) long. Its
flowers are small, clustered, and green. It has fleshy, dark red or black fruit and a
single seed. The fruit is about 1 centimeter (1/2 inch) in diameter.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant is found in rain forests and semievergreen
seasonal forests in the tropics. It is found in open places and in secondary
forests. It grows wild from the Himalayas to Sri Lanka and eastward through
Indonesia to northern Australia. However, it may be found anywhere in the
tropics in cultivated forms.

Edible Parts: The fruit is edible raw. Do not eat any other parts of the tree. In
Africa, the roots are toxic. Other parts of the plant may be poisonous.


Blackberry, raspberry, and dewberry
Rubus species

Description: These plants have prickly stems (canes) that grow upward, arching
back toward the ground. They have alternate, usually compound leaves. Their
fruits may be red, black, yellow, or orange. This plant is often confused with
poison ivy during some seasons but these stems have thorns.

Habitat and Distribution: These plants grow in open, sunny areas at the margin
of woods, lakes, streams, and roads throughout temperate regions. There is also
an arctic raspberry.

Edible Parts: The fruits and peeled young shoots are edible. Flavor varies
greatly.

Other Uses: Use the leaves to make tea. To treat diarrhea, drink a tea made by
brewing the dried root bark of the blackberry bush.


Blueberry and huckleberry
Vaccinium and Gaylussacia species

Description: These shrubs vary in size from 30 centimeters (12 inches) to 3.7
meters (12 feet) tall. All have alternate, simple leaves. Their fruits may be dark
blue, black, or red and have many small seeds.

Habitat and Distribution: These plants prefer open, sunny areas. They are
found throughout much of the north temperate regions and at higher elevations in
Central America.

Edible Parts: Their fruits are edible raw.


Breadfruit
Artocarpus incisa

Description: This tree may grow up to 9 meters (30 feet) tall. It has dark green,
deeply divided leaves that are 75 centimeters (29 inches) long and 30
centimeters (12 inches) wide. Its fruits are large, green, ball-like structures up to
30 centimeters (12 inches) across when mature.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for this tree at the margins of forests and
homesites in the humid tropics. It is native to the South Pacific region but has
been widely planted in the West Indies and parts of Polynesia.

Edible Parts: The fruit pulp is edible raw. The fruit can be sliced, dried, and
ground into flour for later use. The seeds are edible cooked.

Other Uses: The thick sap can serve as glue and caulking material. You can
also use it as birdlime (to entrap small birds by smearing the sap on twigs where
they usually perch).


Burdock
Arctium lappa

Description: This plant has wavy-edged, arrow-shaped leaves and flower heads
in burrlike clusters. It grows up to 2 meters (7 feet) tall, with purple or pink flowers
and a large, fleshy root.

Habitat and Distribution: Burdock is found worldwide in the north temperate
zone. Look for it in open waste areas during the spring and summer.

Edible Parts: Peel the tender leaf stalks and eat them raw or cook them like
greens. The roots are also edible boiled or baked.

Other Uses: A liquid made from the roots will help to produce sweating and
increase urination. Dry the root, simmer it in water, strain the liquid, and then
drink the strained liquid. Use the fiber from the dried stalk to weave cordage.


Burl Palm
Corypha elata

Description: This tree may reach 18 meters (60 feet) in height. It has large,
fan-shaped leaves up to 3 meters (10 feet) long and split into about 100 narrow
segments. It bears flowers in huge dusters at the top of the tree. The tree dies
after flowering.

Habitat and Distribution: This tree grows in coastal areas of the East Indies.

Edible Parts: The trunk contains starch that is edible raw. The very tip of the
trunk is also edible raw or cooked. You can get large quantities of liquid by
bruising the flowering stalk. The kernels of the nuts are edible.

Other Uses: You can use the leaves as weaving material.


Canna lily
Canna indica

Description: The canna lily is a coarse perennial herb, 90 centimeters (36
inches) to 3 meters (10 feet) tall. The plant grows from a large, thick,
underground rootstock that is edible. Its large leaves resemble those of the
banana plant but are not so large. The flowers of wild canna lily are usually small,
relatively inconspicuous, and brightly colored reds, oranges, or yellows.

Habitat and Distribution: As a wild plant, the canna lily is found in all tropical
areas, especially in moist places along streams, springs, ditches, and the
margins of woods. It may also be found in wet temperate, mountainous regions.
It is easy to recognize because it is commonly cultivated in flower gardens in the
United States.

Edible Parts: The large and much-branched rootstocks are full of edible starch.
The younger parts may be finely chopped and then boiled or pulverized into a
meal. Mix in the young shoots of palm cabbage for flavoring.


Carob tree
Ceratonia siliqua

Description: This large tree has a spreading crown. Its leaves are compound and
alternate. Its seedpods, also known as Saint John’s bread, are up to 45 centimeters
(18 inches) long and are filled with round, hard seeds and a thick pulp.

Habitat and Distribution: This tree is found throughout the Mediterranean, the
Middle East, and parts of North Africa.

Edible Parts: The young, tender pods are edible raw or boiled. You can
pulverize the seeds in mature pods and cook as porridge.


Cashew nut
Anacardium occidentale

Description: The cashew is a spreading evergreen tree growing to a height of 12
meters (40 feet), with leaves up to 20 centimeters (8 inches) long and 10 centimeters
(4 inches) wide. Its flowers are yellowish-pink. Its fruit is very easy to recognize
because of its peculiar structure. The fruit is thick and pear-shaped, pulpy and red or
yellow when ripe. This fruit bears a hard, green, kidney-shaped nut at its tip. This nut
is smooth, shiny, and green or brown according to its maturity.

Habitat and Distribution: The cashew is native to the West Indies and northern
South America, but transplantation has spread it to all tropical climates. In the
Old World, it has escaped from cultivation and appears to be wild at least in parts
of Africa and India.

Edible Parts: The nut encloses one seed. The seed is edible when roasted. The
pear-shaped fruit is juicy, sweet acid, and astringent. It is quite safe and
considered delicious by most people who eat it.


Cattail
Typha latifolia

Description: Cattails are grasslike plants with strap-shaped leaves
1 to 5 centimeters (1/4 to 2 inches) wide and growing up to 1.8 meters
(6 feet) tall. The male flowers are borne in a dense mass above the female
flowers. The male flowers last only a short time, leaving the female flowers,
which develop into the brown cattail. Pollen from the male flowers is often
abundant and bright yellow.

Habitat and Distribution: Cattails are found throughout most of the world. Look
for them in full sun areas at the margins of lakes, streams, canals, rivers, and
brackish water.

Edible Parts: The young tender shoots are edible raw or cooked. The rhizome is
often very tough but is a rich source of starch. Pound the rhizome to remove the
starch and use as a flour. The pollen is also an exceptional source of starch.
When the cattail is immature and still green, you can boil the female portion and
eat it like corn on the cob.

Other Uses: The dried leaves are an excellent source of weaving material you
can use to make floats and rafts. The cottony seeds make good pillow stuffing
and insulation. The fluff makes excellent tinder. Dried cattails are effective insect
repellents when burned.


Cereus cactus
Cereus species

Description: These cacti are tall and narrow with angled stems and numerous
spines.

Habitat and Distribution: They may be found in true deserts and other dry,
open, sunny areas throughout the Caribbean region, Central America, and the
western United States.

Edible Parts: The fruits are edible, but some may have a laxative effect.

Other Uses: The pulp of the cactus is a good source of water. Break open the
stem and scoop out the pulp.


Chestnut
Castanea sativa

Description: The European chestnut is usually a large tree, up to
18 meters (60 feet) in height.

Habitat and Distribution: In temperate regions, the chestnut is found in both
hardwood and coniferous forests. In the tropics, it is found in semievergreen
seasonal forests. They are found over all of middle and south Europe and across
middle Asia to China and Japan. They are relatively abundant along the edge of
meadows and as a forest tree. The European chestnut is one of the most
common varieties. Wild chestnuts in Asia belong to the related chestnut species.

Edible Parts: Chestnuts are highly useful as survival food. Ripe nuts are usually
picked in autumn, although unripe nuts picked while green may also be used for
food. Perhaps the easiest way to prepare them is to roast the ripe nuts in
embers. Cooked this way, they are quite tasty, and you can eat large quantities.
Another way is to boil the kernels after removing the outer shell. After boiling the
nuts until fairly soft, you can mash them like potatoes.


Chicory
Cichorium intybus

Description: This plant grows up to 1.8 meters (6 feet) tall. It has leaves
clustered at the base of the stem and some leaves on the stem. The base leaves
resemble those of the dandelion. The flowers are sky blue and stay open only on
sunny days. Chicory has a milky juice.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for chicory in old fields, waste areas, weedy lots,
and along roads. It is a native of Europe and Asia, but is also found in Africa and
most of North America, where it grows as a weed.

Edible Parts: All parts are edible. Eat the young leaves as a salad or boil to eat
as a vegetable. Cook the roots as a vegetable. For use as a coffee substitute,
roast the roots until they are dark brown and then pulverize them.


Chufa
Cyperus esculentus

Description: This very common plant has a triangular stem and grasslike leaves.
It grows to a height of 20 to 60 centimeters (8 to 24 inches). The mature plant
has a soft, furlike bloom that extends from a whorl of leaves. Tubers 1 to 2.5
centimeters (1/2 to 1 inch) in diameter grow at the ends of the roots.

Habitat and Distribution: Chufa grows in moist sandy areas throughout the
world. It is often an abundant weed in cultivated fields.

Edible Parts: The tubers are edible raw, boiled, or baked. You can also grind
them and use them as a coffee substitute.


Coconut
Cocos nucifera

Description: This tree has a single, narrow, tall trunk with a cluster of very large
leaves at the top. Each leaf may be over 6 meters (20 feet) long with over 100
pairs of leaflets.

Habitat and Distribution: Coconut palms are found throughout the tropics. They
are most abundant near coastal regions.

Edible Parts: The nut is a valuable source of food. The milk of the young
coconut is rich in sugar and vitamins and is an excellent source of liquid. The nut
meat is also nutritious but is rich in oil. To preserve the meat, spread it in the sun
until it is completely dry.

Other Uses: Use coconut oil to cook and to protect metal objects from corrosion.
Also, use the oil to treat saltwater sores, sunburn, and dry skin. Use the oil in
improvised torches. Use the tree trunk as building material and the leaves as
thatch. Hollow out the large stump for use as a food container. The coconut
husks are good flotation devices and the husk’s fibers are used to weave ropes
and other items. Use the gauzelike fibers at the leaf bases as strainers or use
them to weave a bug net or to make a pad to use on wounds. The husk makes a
good abrasive. Dried husk fiber is an excellent tinder. A smoldering husk helps to
repel mosquitoes. Smoke caused by dripping coconut oil in a fire also repels
mosquitoes. To render coconut oil, put the coconut meat in the sun, heat it over a
slow fire, or boil it in a pot of water. Coconuts washed out to sea are a good
source of fresh liquid for the sea survivor.


Common jujube
Ziziphus jujuba

Description: The common jujube is either a deciduous tree growing to a height of
12 meters (40 feet) or a large shrub, depending upon where it grows and how
much water is available for growth. Its branches are usually spiny. Its reddishbrown
to yellowish-green fruit is oblong to ovoid, 3 centimeters (1 inch) or less in
diameter, smooth, and sweet in flavor, but with a rather dry pulp around a
comparatively large stone. Its flowers are green.

Habitat and Distribution: The jujube is found in forested areas of temperate
regions and in desert scrub and waste areas worldwide. It is common in many of
the tropical and subtropical areas of the Old World. In Africa, it is found mainly
bordering the Mediterranean. In Asia, it is especially common in the drier parts of
India and China. The jujube is also found throughout the East Indies. It can be
found bordering some desert areas.

Edible Parts: The pulp, crushed in water, makes a refreshing beverage. If time
permits, you can dry the ripe fruit in the sun like dates. Its fruit is high in vitamins
A and C.


Cranberry
Vaccinium macrocarpon

Description: This plant has tiny leaves arranged alternately. Its stem creeps
along the ground. Its fruits are red berries.

Habitat and Distribution: It only grows in open, sunny, wet areas in the colder
regions of the Northern Hemisphere.

Edible Parts: The berries are very tart when eaten raw. Cook in a small amount
of water and add sugar, if available, to make a jelly.

Other Uses: Cranberries may act as a diuretic. They are useful for treating
urinary tract infections.


Crowberry
Empetrum nigrum

Description: This is a dwarf evergreen shrub with short needlelike leaves. It has
small, shiny, black berries that remain on the bush throughout the winter.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for this plant in tundra throughout arctic regions
of North America and Eurasia.

Edible Parts: The fruits are edible fresh or can be dried for later use.


Cuipo tree
Cavanillesia platanifolia

Description: This is a very dominant and easily detected tree because it extends
above the other trees. Its height ranges from 45 to 60 meters (149 to 198 feet). It
has leaves only at the top and is bare 11 months out of the year. It has rings on
its bark that extend to the top to make it easily recognizable. Its bark is reddish or
gray in color. Its roots are light reddish-brown or yellowish-brown.

Habitat and Distribution: The cuipo tree is located primarily in Central American
tropical rain forests in mountainous areas.

Edible Parts: To get water from this tree, cut a piece of the root and clean the dirt
and bark off one end, keeping the root horizontal. Put the clean end to your mouth
or canteen and raise the other. The water from this tree tastes like potato water.

Other Uses: Use young saplings and the branches’ inner bark to make rope.


Dandelion
Taraxacum officinale

Description: Dandelion leaves have a jagged edge, grow close to the ground,
and are seldom more than 20 centimeters (8 inches) long. The flowers are bright
yellow. There are several dandelion species.

Habitat and Distribution: Dandelions grow in open, sunny locations throughout
the Northern Hemisphere.

Edible Parts: All parts are edible. Eat the leaves raw or cooked. Boil the roots as
a vegetable. Roots roasted and ground are a good coffee substitute. Dandelions
are high in vitamins A and C and in calcium.

Other Uses: Use the white juice in the flower stems as glue.


Date palm
Phoenix dactylifera

Description: The date palm is a tall, unbranched tree with a crown of huge,
compound leaves. Its fruit is yellow when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: This tree grows in arid semitropical regions. It is
native to North Africa and the Middle East but has been planted in the arid
semitropics in other parts of the world.

Edible Parts: Its fruit is edible fresh but is very bitter if eaten before it is ripe. You
can dry the fruits in the sun and preserve them for a long time.

Other Uses: The trunks provide valuable building material in desert regions
where few other treelike plants are found. The leaves are durable, and you can
use them for thatching and as weaving material. The base of the leaves
resembles coarse cloth that you can use for scrubbing and cleaning.


Daylily
Hemerocallis fulva

Description: This plant has unspotted, tawny blossoms that open for
1 day only. It has long, swordlike, green basal leaves. Its root is a mass of
swollen and elongated tubers.

Habitat and Distribution: Daylilies are found worldwide in tropic and temperate
zones. They are grown as a vegetable in the Orient and as an ornamental plant
elsewhere.

Edible Parts: The young green leaves are edible raw or cooked. Tubers are also
edible raw or cooked. You can eat its flowers raw, but they taste better cooked.
You can also fry the flowers for storage.


Duchesnea or Indian strawberry
Duchesnea indica

Description: The duchesnea is a small plant that has runners and three-parted
leaves. Its flowers are yellow and its fruit resembles a strawberry.

Habitat and Distribution: It is native to southern Asia but is a common weed in
warmer temperate regions. Look for it in lawns, gardens, and along roads.

Edible Parts: Its fruit is edible. Eat it fresh.


Elderberry
Sambucus canadensis

Description: Elderberry is a many-stemmed shrub with opposite, compound
leaves. It grows to a height of 6 meters (20 feet). Its flowers are fragrant, white,
and borne in large flat-topped clusters up to 30 centimeters (12 inches) across.
Its berrylike fruits are dark blue or black when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant is found in open, usually wet areas at the
margins of marshes, rivers, ditches, and lakes. It grows throughout much of
eastern North America.

Edible Parts: The flowers and fruits are edible. You can make a drink by soaking
the flower heads for 8 hours, discarding the flowers, and drinking the liquid.


Fireweed
Epilobium angustifolium

Description: This plant grows up to 1.8 meters (6 feet) tall. It has large, showy,
pink flowers and lance-shaped leaves. Its relative, the dwarf fireweed (Epilobium
latifolium), grows 30 to 60 centimeters (12 to 24 inches) tall.

Habitat and Distribution: Tall fireweed is found in open woods, on hillsides, on
stream banks, and near seashores in arctic regions. It is especially abundant in
burned-over areas. Dwarf fireweed is found along streams, sandbars, and
lakeshores and on alpine and arctic slopes.

Edible Parts: The leaves, stems, and flowers are edible in the spring but
become tough in summer. You can split open the stems of old plants and eat the
pith raw.


Fishtail palm
Caryota urens

Description: Fishtail palms are large trees, at least 18 meters (60 feet) tall. Their
leaves are unlike those of any other palm; the leaflets are irregular and toothed
on the upper margins. All other palms have either fan-shaped or featherlike
leaves. Its massive flowering shoot is borne at the top of the tree and hangs
downward.

Habitat and Distribution: The fishtail palm is native to the tropics of India,
Assam, and Myanmar. Several related species also exist in Southeast Asia and
the Philippines. These palms are found in open hill country and jungle areas.

Edible Parts: The chief food in this palm is the starch stored in large quantities in
its trunk. The juice from the fishtail palm is very nourishing and you have to drink
it shortly after getting it from the palm flower shoot. Boil the juice down to get a
rich sugar syrup. Use the same method as for the sugar palm to get the juice.
The palm cabbage may be eaten raw or cooked.


Foxtail grass
Setaria species

Description: This weedy grass is readily recognized by the narrow, cylindrical
head containing long hairs. Its grains are small, less than
6 millimeters (1/4 inch) long. The dense heads of grain often droop when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for foxtail grasses in open, sunny areas, along
roads, and at the margins of fields. Some species occur in wet, marshy areas.
Species of Setaria are found throughout the United States, Europe, western Asia,
and tropical Africa. In some parts of the world, foxtail grasses are grown as a
food crop.

Edible Parts: The grains are edible raw but are very hard and sometimes bitter.
Boiling removes some of the bitterness and makes them easier to eat.


Goa bean
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus

Description: The goa bean is a climbing plant that may cover small shrubs and
trees. Its bean pods are 22 centimeters (9 inches) long, its leaves 15 centimeters
(6 inches) long, and its flowers are bright blue. The mature pods are 4-angled,
with jagged wings on the pods.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant grows in tropical Africa, Asia, the East
Indies, the Philippines, and Taiwan. This member of the bean (legume) family
serves to illustrate a kind of edible bean common in the tropics of the Old World.
Wild edible beans of this sort are most frequently found in clearings and around
abandoned garden sites. They are more rare in forested areas.

Edible Parts: You can eat the young pods like string beans. The mature seeds
are a valuable source of protein after parching or roasting them over hot coals.
You can germinate the seeds (as you can many kinds of beans) in damp moss
and eat the resultant sprouts. The thickened roots are edible raw. They are
slightly sweet, with the firmness of an apple. You can also eat the young leaves
as a vegetable, raw or steamed.


Hackberry
Celtis species

Description: Hackberry trees have smooth, gray bark that often has corky warts
or ridges. The tree may reach 39 meters (129 feet) in height. Hackberry trees
have long-pointed leaves that grow in two rows. This tree bears small, round
berries that can be eaten when they are ripe and fall from the tree. The wood of
the hackberry is yellowish.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant is widespread in the United States,
especially in and near ponds.

Edible Parts: Its berries are edible when they are ripe and fall from the tree.


Hazelnut or wild filbert
Corylus species

Description: Hazelnuts grow on bushes 1.8 to 3.6 meters (6 to 12 feet) high.
One species in Turkey and another in China are large trees. The nut itself grows
in a very bristly husk that conspicuously contracts above the nut into a long neck.
The different species vary in this respect as to size and shape.

Habitat and Distribution: Hazelnuts are found over wide areas in the United
States, especially the eastern half of the country and along the Pacific coast.
These nuts are also found in Europe where they are known as filberts. The
hazelnut is common in Asia, especially in eastern Asia from the Himalayas to
China and Japan. The hazelnut usually grows in the dense thickets along stream
banks and open places. They are not plants of the dense forest.

Edible Parts: Hazelnuts ripen in the autumn, when you can crack them open
and eat the kernel. The dried nut is extremely delicious. The nut’s high oil content
makes it a good survival food. When they are unripe, you can crack them open
and eat the fresh kernel.


Horseradish tree
Moringa pterygosperma

Description: This tree grows from 4.5 to 14 meters (15 to 46 feet) tall. Its leaves
have a fernlike appearance. Its flowers and long, pendulous fruits grow on the
ends of the branches. Its fruit (pod) looks like a giant bean. Its 25- to 60-
centimeter-long pods are triangular in cross section, with strong ribs. Its roots
have a pungent odor.

Habitat and Distribution: This tree is found in the rain forests and
semievergreen seasonal forests of the tropical regions. It is widespread in India,
Southeast Asia, Africa, and Central America. Look for it in abandoned fields and
gardens and at the edges of forests.

Edible Parts: The leaves are edible raw or cooked, depending on their
hardness. Cut the young seedpods into short lengths and cook them like string
beans or fry them. You can get oil for frying by boiling the young fruits of palms
and skimming the oil off the surface of the water. You can eat the flowers as part
of a salad. You can chew fresh, young seedpods to eat the pulpy and soft seeds.
The roots may be ground as a substitute for seasoning similar to horseradish.


Iceland moss
Cetraria islandica

Description: This moss grows only a few inches high. Its color may be gray,
white, or even reddish.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for it in open areas. It is found only in the arctic.

Edible Parts: All parts of the Iceland moss are edible. During the winter or dry
season, it is dry and crunchy but softens when soaked. Boil the moss to remove
the bitterness. After boiling, eat by itself or add to milk or grains as a thickening
agent. Dried plants store well.


Indian potato or Eskimo potato
Claytonia species

Description: All Claytonia species are somewhat fleshy plants only a few
centimeters tall, with showy flowers about 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) across.

Habitat and Distribution: Some species are found in rich forests, where they
are conspicuous before the leaves develop. Western species are found
throughout most of the northern United States and in Canada.

Edible Parts: The tubers are edible but you should boil them before eating.


Juniper
Juniperus species

Description: Junipers, sometimes called cedars, are trees or shrubs with very
small, scalelike leaves densely crowded around the branches. Each leaf is less
than 1.2 centimeters (1/3 inch) long. All species have a distinct aroma resembling
the well-known cedar. The berrylike cones are usually blue and covered with a
whitish wax.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for junipers in open, dry, sunny areas throughout
North America and northern Europe. Some species are found in southeastern
Europe, across Asia to Japan, and in the mountains of North Africa.

Edible Parts: The berries and twigs are edible. Eat the berries raw or roast the
seeds to use as a coffee substitute. Use dried and crushed berries as a
seasoning for meat. Gather young twigs to make a tea.


Lotus
Nelumbo species

Description: There are two species of lotus: one has yellow flowers and the
other pink flowers. The flowers are large and showy. The leaves, which may float
on or rise above the surface of the water, often reach 1.5 meters (5 feet) in
radius. The fruit has a distinctive flattened shape and contains up to 20 hard
seeds.

Habitat and Distribution: The yellow-flowered lotus is native to North America.
The pink-flowered species, which is widespread in the Orient, is planted in many
other areas of the world. Lotuses are found in quiet freshwater.

Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible raw or cooked. The underwater
parts contain large quantities of starch. Dig the fleshy portions from the mud and
bake or boil them. Boil the young leaves and eat them as a vegetable. The seeds
have a pleasant flavor and are nutritious. Eat them raw, or parch and grind them
into flour.


Malanga
Xanthosoma caracu

Description: This plant has soft, arrow-shaped leaves up to
60 centimeters (24 inches) long. The leaves have no aboveground stems.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant grows widely in the Caribbean region. Look
for it in open, sunny fields.

Edible Parts: The tubers are rich in starch. Cook them before eating to destroy a
poison contained in all parts of the plant.


Mango
Mangifera indica

Description: This tree may reach 30 meters (90 feet) in height. It has alternate,
simple, shiny, dark green leaves. Its flowers are small and inconspicuous. Its fruits
have a large single seed. There are many cultivated varieties of mango. Some have
red flesh, others yellow or orange, often with many fibers and a kerosene taste.

Habitat and Distribution: This tree grows in warm, moist regions. It is native to
northern India, Myanmar, and western Malaysia. It is now grown throughout the
tropics.

Edible Parts: The fruits are a nutritious food source. The unripe fruit can be peeled
and its flesh eaten by shredding it and eating it like a salad. The ripe fruit can be
peeled and eaten raw. Roasted seed kernels are edible.


Manioc
Manihot utillissima

Description: Manioc is a perennial shrubby plant, 1 to 3 meters (3 to
9 feet) tall, with jointed stems and deep green, fingerlike leaves. It has large,
fleshy rootstocks.

Habitat and Distribution: Manioc is widespread in all tropical climates,
particularly in moist areas. Although cultivated extensively, it may be found in
abandoned gardens and growing wild in many areas.

Edible Parts: The rootstocks are full of starch and high in food value. Two kinds
of manioc are known: bitter and sweet. Both are edible. The bitter type contains
poisonous hydrocyanic acid. To prepare manioc, first grind the fresh manioc root
into a pulp, then cook it for at least 1 hour to remove the bitter poison from the
roots. Then flatten the pulp into cakes and bake as bread. Manioc cakes or flour
will keep almost indefinitely if protected against insects and dampness. Wrap
manioc in banana leaves for protection.


Marsh marigold
Caltha palustris

Description: This plant has rounded, dark green leaves arising from a short
stem. It has bright yellow flowers.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant is found in bogs, lakes, and slow-moving
streams. It is abundant in arctic and subarctic regions, and in much of the
eastern region of the northern United States.

Edible Parts: All parts are edible if boiled.


Mulberry
Morus species

Description: This tree has alternate, simple, often lobed leaves with rough
surfaces. Its fruits are blue or black and many-seeded.

Habitat and Distribution: Mulberry trees are found in forests, along roadsides,
and in abandoned fields in temperate and tropical zones of North America, South
America, Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Edible Parts: The fruit is edible raw or cooked. It can be dried for eating later.

Other Uses: You can shred the inner bark of the tree and use it to make twine
or cord.


Nettle
Urtica and Laportea species

Description: These plants grow several feet high. They have small,
inconspicuous flowers. Fine, hairlike bristles cover the stems, leafstalks, and
undersides of leaves. The bristles cause a stinging sensation when they touch
the skin.

Habitat and Distribution: Nettles prefer moist areas along streams or at the
margins of forests. They are found throughout North America, Central America,
the Caribbean, and northern Europe.

Edible Parts: Young shoots and leaves are edible. Boiling the plant for 10 to 15
minutes destroys the stinging element of the bristles. This plant is very nutritious.

Other Uses: Mature stems have a fibrous layer that you can divide into individual
fibers and use to weave string or twine.


Nipa palm
Nipa fruticans

Description: This palm has a short, mainly underground trunk and very large,
erect leaves up to 6 meters (20 feet) tall. The leaves are divided into leaflets. A
flowering head forms on a short erect stern that rises among the palm leaves.
The fruiting (seed) head is dark brown and may be 30 centimeters (12 inches) in
diameter.

Habitat and Distribution: This palm is common on muddy shores in coastal
regions throughout eastern Asia.

Edible Parts: The young flower stalk and the seeds provide a good source of
water and food. Cut the flower stalk and collect the juice. The juice is rich in
sugar. The seeds are hard but edible.

Other Uses: The leaves are excellent as thatch and coarse weaving material.


Oak
Quercus species

Description: Oak trees have alternate leaves and acorn fruits. There are two
main groups of oaks: red and white. The red oak group has leaves with bristles
and smooth bark in the upper part of the tree. Red oak acorns take 2 years to
mature. The white oak group has leaves without bristles and a rough bark in the
upper portion of the tree. White oak acorns mature in 1 year.

Habitat and Distribution: Oak trees are found in many habitats throughout
North America, Central America, and parts of Europe and Asia.

Edible Parts: All parts are edible, but often contain large quantities of bitter
substances. White oak acorns usually have a better flavor than red oak acorns.
Gather and shell the acorns. Soak red oak acorns in water for 1 to 2 days to
remove the bitter substance. You can speed up this process by putting wood
ashes in the water in which you soak the acorns. Boil the acorns or grind them
into flour and use the flour for baking. You can use acorns that you baked until
very dark as a coffee substitute.


Oak (Continued)

Other Uses: Oak wood is excellent for building or burning. Small oaks can be
split and cut into long thin strips (3 to 6 millimeters [1/8 to
1/4 inch] thick and 1.2 centimeters [1/3 inch] wide) used to weave mats, baskets,
or frameworks for packs, sleds, furniture, etc. Oak bark soaked in water produces
a tanning solution used to preserve leather.

Orach
Atriplex species

Description: This plant is vinelike in growth and has arrowhead-shaped,
alternate leaves up to 5 centimeters (2 inches) long. Young leaves maybe silvercolored.
Its flowers and fruits are small and inconspicuous.

Habitat and Distribution: Orach species are entirety restricted to salty soils.
They are found along North America’s coasts and on the shores of alkaline lakes
inland. They are also found along seashores from the Mediterranean countries to
inland areas in North Africa and eastward to Turkey and central Siberia.

Edible Parts: The entire plant is edible raw or boiled.


Palmetto palm
Sabal palmetto

Description: The palmetto palm is a tall, unbranched tree with persistent leaf
bases on most of the trunk. The leaves are large, simple, and palmately lobed.
Its fruits are dark blue or black with a hard seed.

Habitat and Distribution: The palmetto palm is found throughout the coastal
regions of the southeastern United States.

Edible Parts: The fruits are edible raw. The hard seeds may be ground into flour.
The heart of the palm is a nutritious food source at any time. Cut off the top of the
tree to obtain the palm heart.


Papaya or pawpaw
Carica papaya

Description: The papaya is a small tree 1.8 to 6 meters (6 to 20 feet) tall, with a
soft, hollow trunk. When cut, the entire plant exudes a milky juice. The trunk is
rough and the leaves are crowded at the trunk’s apex. The fruit grows directly
from the trunk, among and below the leaves. The fruit is green before ripening.
When ripe, it turns yellow or remains greenish with a squashlike appearance.

Habitat and Distribution: Papaya is found in rain forests and semievergreen
seasonal forests in tropical regions and in some temperate regions as well. Look
for it in moist areas near clearings and former habitations. It is also found in
open, sunny places in uninhabited jungle areas.

Edible Parts: The ripe fruit is high in vitamin C. Eat it raw or cook it like squash.
Place green fruit in the sun to make it ripen quickly. Cook the young papaya
leaves, flowers, and stems carefully, changing the water as for taro.

Other Uses: Use the milky juice of the unripe fruit to tenderize tough meat. Rub
the juice on the meat.


Persimmon
Diospyros virginiana and other species

Description: These trees have alternate, dark green, elliptic leaves with entire
margins. The flowers are inconspicuous. The fruits are orange, have a sticky
consistency, and have several seeds.

Habitat and Distribution: The persimmon is a common forest margin tree. It is
wide spread in Africa, eastern North America, and the Far East.

Edible Parts: The leaves are a good source of vitamin C. The fruits are edible
raw or baked. To make tea, dry the leaves and soak them in hot water. You can
eat the roasted seeds.


Pincushion cactus
Mammilaria species

Description: Members of this cactus group are round, short, barrel-shaped, and
without leaves. Sharp spines cover the entire plant.

Habitat and Distribution: These cacti are found throughout much of the desert
regions of the western United States and parts of Central America.

Edible Parts: They are a good source of water in the desert.


Pine
Pinus species

Description: Pine trees are easily recognized by their needlelike leaves grouped
in bundles. Each bundle may contain one to five needles, the number varying
among species. The tree’s odor and sticky sap provide a simple way to
distinguish pines from similar looking trees with needlelike leaves.

Habitat and Distribution: Pines prefer open, sunny areas. They are found
throughout North America, Central America, much of the Caribbean region, North
Africa, the Middle East, Europe, and some places in Asia.

Edible Parts: The seeds of all species are edible. You can collect the young
male cones, which grow only in the spring, as a survival food. Boil or bake the
young cones. The bark of young twigs is edible. Peel off the bark of thin twigs.
You can chew the juicy inner bark; it is rich in sugar and vitamins. Eat the seeds
raw or cooked. Green pine needle tea is high in vitamin C.

Other Uses: Use the resin to waterproof articles. Also, use it as glue. Collect the
resin from the tree. If there is not enough resin on the tree, cut a notch in the bark
so more sap will seep out. Put the resin in a container and heat it. The hot resin
is your glue. Use it as is or add a small amount of ash dust to strengthen it. Use it
immediately. You can use hardened pine resin as an emergency dental filling.


Plantain, broad and narrow leaf
Plantago species

Description: The broad leaf plantain has leaves over 2.5 centimeters
(1 inch) across that grow close to the ground. The flowers are on a spike that
rises from the middle of the cluster of leaves. The narrow leaf plantain has leaves
up to 12 centimeters (5 inches) long and 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) wide, covered
with hairs. The leaves form a rosette. The flowers are small and inconspicuous.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for these plants in lawns and along roads in the
north temperate zone. This plant is a common weed throughout much of
the world.

Edible Parts: The young tender leaves are edible raw. Older leaves should be
cooked. Seeds are edible raw or roasted.

Other Uses: To relieve pain from wounds and sores, wash and soak the entire
plant for a short time and apply it to the injured area. To treat diarrhea, drink tea
made from 28 grams (1 ounce) of the plant leaves boiled in 0.5 liter of water. The
seeds and seed husks act as laxatives.


Pokeweed
Phytolacca americana

Description: This plant may grow as high as 3 meters (9 feet). Its leaves are
elliptic and up to 1 meter (3 feet) in length. It produces many large clusters of
purple fruits in late spring.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for this plant in open, sunny areas in forest
clearings, in fields, and along roadsides in eastern North America, Central
America, and the Caribbean.

Edible Parts: The young leaves and stems are edible cooked. Boil them twice,
discarding the water from the first boiling. The berries are considered poisonous,
even if cooked.

Other Uses: Use the juice of fresh berries as a dye.


Prickly pear cactus
Opuntia species

Description: This cactus has flat, padlike stems that are green. Many round,
furry dots that contain sharp-pointed hairs cover these stems.

Habitat and Distribution: This cactus is found in arid and semiarid regions and
in dry, sandy areas of wetter regions throughout most of the United States and
Central and South America. Some species are planted in arid and semiarid
regions of other parts of the world.

Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible. Peel the fruits and eat them fresh
or crush them to prepare a refreshing drink. Avoid the tiny, pointed hairs. Roast
the seeds and grind them to a flour.

Other Uses: The pad is a good source of water. Peel it carefully to remove all
sharp hairs before putting it in your mouth. You can also use the pads to promote
healing. Split them and apply the pulp to wounds.


Purslane
Portulaca oleracea

Description: This plant grows close to the ground. It is seldom more than a few
centimeters tall. Its stems and leaves are fleshy and often tinged with red. It has
paddleshaped leaves, 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) or less long, clustered at the tips
of the stems. Its flowers are yellow or pink. Its seeds are tiny and black.

Habitat and Distribution: It grows in full sun in cultivated fields, field margins,
and other weedy areas throughout the world.

Edible Parts: All parts are edible. Wash and boil the plants for a tasty vegetable
or eat them raw. Use the seeds as a flour substitute or eat them raw.


Rattan palm
Calamus species

Description: The rattan palm is a stout, robust climber. It has hooks on the
midrib of its leaves that it uses to remain attached to the trees on which it grows.
Sometimes, mature stems grow to 90 meters (300 feet). It has alternate,
compound leaves and a whitish flower.

Habitat and Distribution: The rattan palm is found from tropical Africa through
Asia to the East Indies and Australia. It grows mainly in rain forests.

Edible Parts: Rattan palms hold a considerable amount of starch in their young
stem tips. You can eat them roasted or raw. In other kinds, a gelatinous pulp,
either sweet or sour, surrounds the seeds. You can suck out this pulp. The palm
heart is also edible raw or cooked.

Other Uses: You can obtain large amounts of potable water by cutting the ends
of the long stems (see Chapter 6). The stems can be used to make baskets and
fish traps.


Reed
Phragmites australis

Description: This tall, coarse grass grows to 3.5 meters (12 feet) tall and has
gray-green leaves about 4 centimeters (1 1/2 inch) wide. It has large masses of
brown flower branches in early summer. These rarely produce grain and become
fluffy, gray masses late in the season.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for reed in any open, wet area, especially one
that has been disturbed through dredging. Reed is found throughout the
temperate regions of both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible raw or cooked in any season.
Harvest the stems as they emerge from the soil and boil them. You can also
harvest them just before they produce flowers, then dry and beat them into flour.
You can also dig up and boil the underground stems, but they are often tough.
Seeds are edible raw or boiled, but they are rarely found.


Reindeer moss
Cladonia rangiferina

Description: Reindeer moss is a low-growing plant only a few centimeters tall. It
does not flower but does produce bright red reproductive structures.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for this lichen in open, dry areas. It is very
common in much of North America.

Edible Parts: The entire plant is edible but has a crunchy, brittle texture. Soak
the plant in water with some wood ashes to remove the bitterness; then dry,
crush, and add it to milk or to other food.


Rock tripe
Umbilicaria species

Description: This plant forms large patches with curling edges. The top of the
plant is usually black. The underside is lighter in color.

Habitat and Distribution: Look on rocks and boulders for this plant. It is
common throughout North America.

Edible Parts: The entire plant is edible. Scrape it off the rock and wash it to
remove grit. The plant may be dry and crunchy; soak it in water until it becomes
soft. Rock tripes may contain large quantities of bitter substances; soaking or
boiling the plant in several changes of water will remove the bitterness.


Rose apple
Eugenia jambos

Description: This tree grows 3 to 9 meters (9 to 27 feet) high. It has opposite,
simple, dark green, shiny leaves. When fresh, it has fluffy, yellowish-green
flowers and red to purple egg-shaped fruit.

Habitat and Distribution: This tree is widely planted in all of the tropics. It can
also be found in a semiwild state in thickets, waste places, and secondary
forests.

Edible Parts: The entire fruit is edible raw or cooked.


Sago palm
Metroxylon sagu

Description: These palms are low trees, rarely over 9 meters (27 feet) tall, with
a stout, spiny trunk. The outer rind is about 5 centimeters (2 inches) thick and
hard as bamboo. The rind encloses a spongy inner pith containing a high
proportion of starch. It has typical palmlike leaves clustered at the tip.

Habitat and Distribution: The sago palm is found in tropical rain forests. It
flourishes in damp lowlands in the Malay Peninsula, New Guinea, Indonesia, the
Philippines, and adjacent islands. It is found mainly in swamps and along
streams, lakes, and rivers.

Edible Parts: These palms, when available, are of great use to the survivor. One
trunk, cut just before it flowers, will yield enough sago to feed a person for 1 year.
Obtain sago starch from nonflowering palms. To extract the edible sage, cut
away the bark lengthwise from one half of the trunk and pound the soft, whitish
inner part (pith) as fine as possible. Knead the pith in water and strain it through
a coarse cloth into a container. The fine, white sago will settle in the container.
Once the sago settles, it is ready for use. Squeeze off the excess water and let it
dry. Cook it as pancakes or oatmeal. Two kilograms of sago is the nutritional
equivalent of 1.5 kilograms of rice. The upper part of the trunk’s core does not
yield sago, but you can roast it in lumps over a fire. You can also eat the young
sago nuts and the growing shoots or palm cabbage.


Sassafras
Sassafras albidum

Description: This shrub or small tree bears different leaves on the same plant.
Some leaves will have one lobe, some two lobes, and some no lobes. The
flowers, which appear in early spring, are small and yellow. The fruits are dark
blue. The plant parts have a characteristic root beer smell.

Habitat and Distribution: Sassafras grows at the margins of roads and forests,
usually in open, sunny areas. It is a common tree throughout eastern North
America.

Edible Parts: The young twigs and leaves are edible fresh or dried. You can add
dried young twigs and leaves to soups. Dig the underground portion, peel off the
bark, and let it dry. Then boil it in water to prepare sassafras tea.

Other Uses: Shred the tender twigs for use as a toothbrush.


Saxaul
Haloxylon ammondendron

Description: The saxaul is found either as a small tree or as a large shrub with
heavy, coarse wood and spongy, water-soaked bark. The branches of the young
trees are vivid green and pendulous. The flowers are small and yellow.

Habitat and Distribution: The saxaul is found in desert and arid areas. It is
found on the arid salt deserts of Central Asia, particularly in the Turkestan region
and east of the Caspian Sea.

Edible Parts: The thick bark acts as a water storage organ. You can get drinking
water by pressing quantities of the bark. This plant is an important source of
water in the arid regions in which it grows.


Screw pine
Pandanus species

Description: The screw pine is a strange plant on stilts, or prop roots, that
support the plant above ground so that it appears suspended in midair. These
plants are either shrubby or treelike, 3 to 9 meters (9 to 27 feet) tall, with stiff
leaves having sawlike edges. The fruits are large, roughened balls resembling
pineapples but without the tuft of leaves at the end.

Habitat and Distribution: The screw pine is a tropical plant that grows in rain
forests and semievergreen seasonal forests. It is found mainly along seashores,
although certain kinds occur inland for some distance, from Madagascar to
southern Asia and the islands of the southwestern Pacific. There are about
180 types.

Edible Parts: Knock the ripe fruit to the ground to separate the fruit segments
from the hard outer covering. Chew the inner fleshy part. Cook in an earth oven
fruit that is not fully ripe. Before cooking, wrap the whole fruit in banana leaves,
breadfruit leaves, or any other suitable thick, leathery leaves. After cooking for
about 2 hours, you can chew fruit segments like ripe fruit. Green fruit is inedible.


Sea orach
Atriplex halimus

Description: The sea orach is a sparingly branched herbaceous plant with small,
gray-colored leaves up to 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) long. Sea orach resembles
lamb’s quarter, a common weed in most gardens in the United States. It
produces its flowers in narrow, densely compacted spikes at the tips of its
branches.

Habitat and Distribution: The sea orach is found in highly alkaline and salty
areas along seashores from the Mediterranean countries to inland areas in North
Africa and eastward to Turkey and central Siberia. Generally, it can be found in
tropical scrub and thorn forests, steppes in temperate regions, and most desert
scrub and waste areas.

Edible Parts: Its leaves are edible. In the areas where it grows, it has the healthy
reputation of being one of the few native plants that can sustain man in times
of want.


Sheep sorrel
Rumex acerosella

Description: These plants are seldom more than 30 centimeters
(12 inches) tall. They have alternate leaves, often with arrowlike bases, very
small flowers, and frequently reddish stems.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for these plants in old fields and other disturbed
areas in North America and Europe.

Edible Parts: The plants are edible raw or cooked.


Sorghum
Sorghum species

Description: There are many different kinds of sorghum, all of which bear grains
in heads at the top of the plants. The grains are brown, white, red, or black.
Sorghum is the main food crop in many parts of the world.

Habitat and Distribution: Sorghum is found worldwide, usually in warmer
climates. All species are found in open, sunny areas.

Edible Parts: The grains are edible at any stage of development. When young,
the grains are milky and edible raw. Boil the older grains. Sorghum is a nutritious
food.

Other Uses: Use the stems of tall sorghum as building materials.


Spatterdock or yellow water lily
Nuphar species

Description: This plant has leaves up to 60 centimeters (24 inches) long with a
triangular notch at the base. The shape of the leaves is somewhat variable. The
plant’s yellow flowers are 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) across and develop into bottleshaped
fruits. The fruits are green when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: These plants grow throughout most of North America.
They are found in quiet, shallow (never deeper than 1.8 meters [6 feet])
freshwater.

Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible. The fruits contain several dark
brown seeds you can parch or roast and then grind into flour. The large rootstock
contains starch. Dig it out of the mud, peel off the outside, and boil the flesh.
Sometimes the rootstock contains large quantities of a very bitter compound.
Boiling the plant in several changes of water may remove the bitterness.


Sterculia
Sterculia foetida

Description: Sterculias are tall trees, rising in some instances to 30 meters
(90 feet). Their leaves are either undivided or palmately lobed. Their flowers are
red or purple. The fruit of all sterculias is similar in aspect, with a red, segmented
seedpod containing many edible black seeds.

Habitat and Distribution: There are over 100 species of sterculias distributed
through all warm or tropical climates. They are mainly forest trees.

Edible Parts: The large, red pods produce a number of edible seeds. The seeds
of all sterculias are edible and have a pleasant taste similar to cocoa. You can
eat them like nuts, either raw or roasted.


Strawberry
Fragaria species

Description: Strawberry is a small plant with a three-leaved growth pattern. It
has small, white flowers usually produced during the spring. Its fruit is red and
fleshy.

Habitat and Distribution: Strawberries are found in the north temperate zone
and also in the high mountains of the southern Western Hemisphere.
Strawberries prefer open, sunny areas. They are commonly planted.

Edible Parts: The fruit is edible fresh, cooked, or dried. Strawberries are a good
source of vitamin C. You can also eat the plant’s leaves or dry them to make a
tea. Care should be taken with strawberries and other farm foods that have
similar, pitted skins. In areas where human fertilizer is used, even bleach will not
be able to effectively remove all bacteria.


Sugarcane
Saccharum officinarum

Description: This plant grows up to 4.5 meters (15 feet) tall. It is a grass and has
grasslike leaves. Its green or reddish stems are swollen where the leaves grow.
Cultivated sugarcane seldom flowers.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for sugarcane in fields. It grows only in the
tropics (throughout the world). Because it is a crop, it is often found in large
numbers.

Edible Parts: The stem is an excellent source of sugar and is very nutritious.
Peel the outer portion off with your teeth and eat the sugarcane raw. You can
also squeeze juice out of the sugarcane.


Sugar palm
Arenga pinnata

Description: This tree grows about 15 meters (45 feet) high and has huge
leaves up to 6 meters (18 feet) long. Needlelike structures stick out of the bases
of the leaves. Flowers grow below the leaves and form large conspicuous
dusters from which the fruits grow.

Habitat and Distribution: This palm is native to the East Indies but has been
planted in many parts of the tropics. It can be found at the margins of forests.

Edible Parts: The chief use of this palm is for sugar. However, its seeds and the
tip of its stems are a survival food. Bruise a young flower stalk with a stone or
similar object and collect the juice as it comes out. It is an excellent source of
sugar. Boil the seeds. Use the tip of the stems as a vegetable.

Other Uses: The shaggy material at the base of the leaves makes an excellent
rope, as it is strong and resists decay.


Sweetsop
Annona squamosa

Description: This tree is small, seldom more than 6 meters (18 feet) tall, and
multi-branched. It has alternate, simple, elongate, dark green leaves. Its fruit is
green when ripe, round, and covered with protruding bumps on its surface. The
fruit’s flesh is white and creamy.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for sweetsop at margins of fields, near villages,
and around homesites in tropical regions.

Edible Parts: The fruit flesh is edible raw.

Other Uses: You can use the finely ground seeds as an insecticide.


Tamarind
Tamarindus indica

Description: The tamarind is a large, densely branched tree. It grows up to 25
meters (75 feet) tall. Its has pinnate leaves (divided like a feather) with 10 to 15
pairs of leaflets.

Habitat and Distribution: The tamarind grows in the drier parts of Africa, Asia,
and the Philippines. Although it is thought to be a native of Africa, it has been
cultivated in India for so long that it looks like a native tree. It is also found in the
American tropics, the West Indies, Central America, and tropical South America.

Edible Parts: The pulp surrounding the seeds is rich in vitamin C and is an
important survival food. You can make a pleasantly acid drink by mixing the pulp
with water and sugar or honey and letting the mixture mature for several days.
Suck the pulp to relieve thirst. Cook the young, unripe fruits or seedpods with
meat. Use the young leaves in soup. You must cook the seeds. Roast them
above a fire or in ashes. Another way is to remove the seed coat and soak the
seeds in salted water and grated coconut for 24 hours, then cook them. You can
peel the tamarind bark and chew it.


Taro, cocoyam, elephant ears, eddo, dasheen
Colocasia and Alocasia species

Description: All plants in these groups have large leaves, sometimes up to 1.8
meters (6 feet) tall, that grow from a very short stem. The rootstock is thick,
fleshy, and filled with starch.

Habitat and Distribution: These plants grow in the humid tropics. Look for them
in fields and near homesites and villages.

Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible when boiled or roasted. When
boiling, change the water once to get rid of any poison.


Thistle
Cirsium species

Description: This plant may grow as high as 1.5 meters (5 feet). Its leaves are
long-pointed, deeply lobed, and prickly.

Habitat and Distribution: Thistles grow worldwide in dry woods and fields.

Edible Parts: Peel the stalks, cut them into short sections, and boil them before
eating. The roots are edible raw or cooked.

Other Uses: Twist the tough fibers of the stems to make a strong twine.


Ti
Cordyline terminalis

Description: The ti has unbranched stems with straplike leaves often clustered
at the tip of the stem. The leaves vary in color and may be green or reddish. The
flowers grow at the plant’s top in large, plumelike clusters. The ti may grow up to
4.5 meters (15 feet) tall.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for this plant at the margins of forests or near
homesites in tropical areas. It is native to the Far East but is now widely planted
in tropical areas worldwide.

Edible Parts: The roots and very tender young leaves are good survival foods.
Boil or bake the short, stout roots found at the base of the plant. They are a
valuable source of starch. Boil the very young leaves to eat. You can use the
leaves to wrap other food to cook over coals or to steam.

Other Uses: Use the leaves to cover shelters or to make a rain cloak. Cut the
leaves into liners for shoes; this works especially well if you have a blister.
Fashion temporary sandals from the leaves. The terminal leaf, if not completely
unfurled, can be used as a sterile bandage. Cut the leaves into strips, then braid
the strips into rope.


Tree fern
Various genera

Description: Tree ferns are tall trees with long, slender trunks that often have a
very rough, barklike covering. Large, lacy leaves uncoil from the top of the trunk.

Habitat and Distribution: Tree ferns are found in wet, tropical forests.

Edible Parts: The young leaves and the soft inner portion of the trunk are edible.
Boil the young leaves and eat as greens. Eat the inner portion of the trunk raw or
bake it.


Tropical almond
Terminalia catappa

Description: This tree grows up to 9 meters (27 feet) tall. Its leaves are
evergreen, leathery, 45 centimeters (18 inches) long, 15 centimeters (6 inches)
wide, and very shiny. It has small, yellowish-green flowers. Its fruit is flat, 10
centimeters (4 inches) long, and not quite as wide. The fruit is green when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: This tree is usually found growing near the ocean. It is
a common and often abundant tree in the Caribbean and Central and South
America. It is also found in the tropical rain forests of southeastern Asia, northern
Australia, and Polynesia.

Edible Parts: The seed is a good source of food. Remove the fleshy, green
covering and eat the seed raw or cooked.


Walnut
Juglans species

Description: Walnuts grow on very large trees, often reaching 18 meters
(54 feet) tall. The divided leaves characterize all walnut spades. The walnut itself
has a thick outer husk that must be removed to reach the hard inner shell of
the nut.

Habitat and Distribution: The English walnut, in the wild state, is found from
southeastern Europe across Asia to China and is abundant in the Himalayas.
Several other species of walnut are found in China and Japan. The black walnut
is common in the eastern United States.

Edible Parts: The nut kernel ripens in the autumn. You get the walnut meat by
cracking the shell. Walnut meats are highly nutritious because of their protein
and oil content.

Other Uses: You can boil walnuts and use the juice as an antifungal agent. The
husks of “green” walnuts produce a dark brown dye for clothing or camouflage.
Crush the husks of “green” black walnuts and sprinkle them into sluggish water
or ponds for use as fish poison.


Water chestnut
Trapa natans

Description: The water chestnut is an aquatic plant that roots in the mud and
has finely divided leaves that grow underwater. Its floating leaves are much
larger and coarsely toothed. The fruits, borne underwater, have four sharp spines
on them.

Habitat and Distribution: The water chestnut is a freshwater plant only. It is a
native of Asia but has spread to many parts of the world in both temperate and
tropical areas.

Edible Parts: The fruits are edible raw and cooked. The seeds are also a source
of food.


Water lettuce
Ceratopteris species

Description: The leaves of water lettuce are much like lettuce and are very tender
and succulent. One of the easiest ways of distinguishing water lettuce is by the little
plantlets that grow from the margins of the leaves. These little plantlets grow in the
shape of a rosette. Water lettuce plants often cover large areas in the regions
where they are found.

Habitat and Distribution: Found in the tropics throughout the Old World in both
Africa and Asia. Another kind is found in the New World tropics from Florida to
South America. Water lettuce grows only in very wet places and often as a
floating water plant. Look for water lettuce in still lakes, ponds, and the
backwaters of rivers.

Edible Parts: Eat the fresh leaves like lettuce. Be careful not to dip the leaves in
the contaminated water in which they are growing. Eat only the leaves that are
well out of the water.


Water lily
Nymphaea odorata

Description: These plants have large, triangular leaves that float on the water’s
surface, large, fragrant flowers that are usually white, or red, and thick, fleshy
rhizomes that grow in the mud.

Habitat and Distribution: Water lilies are found throughout much of the
temperate and subtropical regions.

Edible Parts: The flowers, seeds, and rhizomes are edible raw or cooked. To
prepare rhizomes for eating, peel off the corky rind. Eat raw, or slice thinly, allow
to dry, and then grind into flour. Dry, parch, and grind the seeds into flour.

Other Uses: Use the liquid resulting from boiling the thickened root in water as a
medicine for diarrhea and as a gargle for sore throats.


Water plantain
Alisma plantago-aquatica

Description: This plant has small, white flowers and heart-shaped leaves with
pointed tips. The leaves are clustered at the base of the plant.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for this plant in freshwater and in wet, full sun
areas in temperate and tropical zones.

Edible Parts: The rootstocks are a good source of starch. Boil or soak them in
water to remove the bitter taste.


Wild caper
Capparis aphylla

Description: This is a thorny shrub that loses its leaves during the dry season.
Its stems are gray-green and its flowers pink.

Habitat and Distribution: These shrubs form large stands in scrub and thorn
forests and in desert scrub and waste. They are common throughout North Africa
and the Middle East.

Edible Parts: The fruit and the buds of young shoots are edible raw.


Wild crab apple or wild apple
Malus species

Description: Most wild apples look enough like domestic apples that the survivor
can easily recognize them. Wild apple varieties are much smaller than cultivated
kinds; the largest kinds usually do not exceed 5 to 7.5 centimeters (2 to 3 inches)
in diameter, and most often are smaller. They have small, alternate, simple
leaves and often have thorns. Their flowers are white or pink and their fruits
reddish or yellowish.

Habitat and Distribution: They are found in the savanna regions of the tropics.
In temperate areas, wild apple varieties are found mainly in forested areas. Most
frequently, they are found on the edge of woods or in fields. They are found
throughout the Northern Hemisphere.

Edible Parts: Prepare wild apples for eating in the same manner as cultivated
kinds. Eat them fresh, when ripe, or cooked. Should you need to store food, cut
the apples into thin slices and dry them. They are a good source of vitamins.


Wild desert gourd or colocynth
Citrullus colocynthis

Description: The wild desert gourd, a member of the watermelon family,
produces a 2.4- to 3-meter-long (7 1/2- to 9-foot-long) ground-trailing vine. The
perfectly round gourds are as large as an orange. They are yellow when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: This creeping plant can be found in any climatic zone,
generally in desert scrub and waste areas. It grows abundantly in the Sahara, in
many Arab countries, on the southeastern coast of India, and on some of the
islands of the Aegean Sea. The wild desert gourd will grow in the hottest localities.

Edible Parts: The seeds inside the ripe gourd are edible after they are
completely separated from the very bitter pulp. Roast or boil the seeds—their
kernels are rich in oil. The flowers are edible. The succulent stem tips can be
chewed to obtain water.


Wild dock and wild sorrel
Rumex crispus and Rumex acetosella

Description: Wild dock is a stout plant with most of its leaves at the base of its
stem that is commonly 15 to 30 centimeters (6 to 12 inches) long. The plants
usually develop from a strong, fleshy, carrotlike taproot. Its flowers are usually
very small, growing in green to purplish plumelike clusters. Wild sorrel is similar
to wild dock but smaller. Many of the basal leaves are arrow-shaped. They are
smaller than those of dock and contain sour juice.

Habitat and Distribution: These plants can be found in almost all climatic zones
of the world. They can grow in areas of high or low rainfall. Many kinds are found
as weeds in fields, along roadsides, and in waste places.

Edible Parts: Because of the tender nature of their foliage, sorrel and dock are
useful plants, especially in desert areas. You can eat their succulent leaves fresh
or slightly cooked. To take away the strong taste, change the water once or twice
during cooking—a useful hint in preparing many kinds of wild greens.


Wild fig
Ficus species

Description: These trees have alternate, simple leaves with entire margins. Often,
the leaves are dark green and shiny. All figs have a milky, sticky juice. The fruits
vary in size depending on the species, but are usually yellow-brown when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: Figs are plants of the tropics and semitropics. They
grow in several different habitats, including dense forests, margins of forests, and
around human settlements.

Edible Parts: The fruits are edible raw or cooked. Some figs have little flavor.


Wild gourd or luffa sponge
Luffa cylindrica

Description: The luffa sponge is widely distributed and fairly typical of a wild
squash. There are several dozen kinds of wild squashes in tropical regions. Like
most squashes, the luffa is a vine with leaves 7.5 to 20 centimeters (3 to 8
inches) across having 3 lobes. Some squashes have leaves twice this size. Luffa
fruits are oblong or cylindrical, smooth, and many-seeded. Luffa flowers are
bright yellow. The luffa fruit, when mature, is brown and resembles the
cucumber.

Habitat and Distribution: A member of the squash family, which also includes
the watermelon, cantaloupe, and cucumber, the luffa sponge is widely cultivated
throughout the tropical zone. It may be found in a semiwild state in old clearings
and abandoned gardens in rain forests and semievergreen seasonal forests.

Edible Parts: You can boil the young green (half-ripe) fruit and eat them as a
vegetable. Adding coconut milk will improve the flavor. After ripening, the luffa
sponge develops an inedible spongelike texture in the interior of the fruit. You
can also eat the tender shoots, flowers, and young leaves after cooking them.
Roast the mature seeds a little and eat them like peanuts.


Wild grape vine
Vitis species

Description: The wild grapevine climbs with the aid of tendrils. Most grapevines
produce deeply lobed leaves similar to the cultivated grape. Wild grapes grow in
pyramidal, hanging bunches and are black-blue to amber, or white when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: Wild grapes are distributed worldwide. Some kinds
are found in deserts, others in temperate forests, and others in tropical areas.
Wild grapes are commonly found throughout the eastern United States as well as
in the southwestern desert areas. Most kinds are rampant climbers over other
vegetation. The best place to look for wild grapes is on the edges of forested
areas. Wild grapes are also found in Mexico. In the Old World, wild grapes are
found from the Mediterranean region eastward through Asia, the East Indies, and
to Australia. Africa also has several kinds of wild grapes.

Edible Parts: The ripe grape is the portion eaten. Grapes are rich in natural
sugars and, for this reason, are much sought after as a source of energy-giving
wild food. None are poisonous.

Other Uses: You can obtain water from severed grapevine stems. Cut off the vine at the
bottom and place the cut end in a container. Make a slant-wise cut into the vine about 1.8
meters (6 feet) up on the hanging part. This cut will allow water to flow from the bottom
end. As water diminishes in volume, make additional cuts farther down the vine.


Wild onion and garlic
Allium species

Description: Allium cernuum is an example of the many species of wild onions
and garlics, all easily recognized by their distinctive odor.

Habitat and Distribution: Wild onions and garlics are found in open, sunny
areas throughout the temperate regions. Cultivated varieties are found anywhere
in the world.

Edible Parts: The bulbs and young leaves are edible raw or cooked. Use in soup
or to flavor meat.

Other Uses: Eating large quantities of onions will give your body an odor that will
help to repel insects. Garlic juice works as an antibiotic on wounds.


Wild pistachio
Pistacia species

Description: Some kinds of pistachio trees are evergreen; others lose their
leaves during the dry season. The leaves alternate on the stem and have either
three large leaves or a number of leaflets. The fruits or nuts are usually hard and
dry at maturity.

Habitat and Distribution: About seven kinds of wild pistachio nuts are found in
desert or semidesert areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea to Turkey and
Afghanistan. The pistachio is generally found in evergreen scrub forests or scrub
and thorn forests.

Edible Parts: You can eat the oil nut kernels after parching them over coals.


Wild rice
Zizania aquatica

Description: Wild rice is a tall grass that typically is 1 to 1.5 meters (3 to 4 feet)
in height, but may reach 4.5 meters (15 feet). Its grain grows in very loose heads
at the top of the plant and is dark brown or blackish when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: Wild rice grows only in very wet areas in tropical and
temperate regions.

Edible Parts: During the spring and summer, the central portion of the lower
stems and root shoots are edible. Remove the tough covering before eating.
During the late summer and fall, collect the straw-covered husks. Dry and parch
the husks, break them, and remove the rice. Boil or roast the rice and then beat it
into flour.


Wild rose
Rosa species

Description: This shrub grows 60 centimeters to 2.5 meters (24 inches to 8 feet)
high. It has alternate leaves and sharp prickles. Its flowers may be red, pink, or
yellow. Its fruit, called rose hip, stays on the shrub year-round.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for wild roses in dry fields and open woods
throughout the Northern Hemisphere.

Edible Parts: The flowers and buds are edible raw or boiled. In an emergency,
you can peel and eat the young shoots. You can boil fresh, young leaves in water
to make a tea. After the flower petals fall, eat the rose hips; the pulp is highly
nutritious and an excellent source of vitamin C. Crush or grind dried rose hips to
make flour.


Wood sorrel
Oxalis species

Description: Wood sorrel resembles shamrock or four-leaf clover, with a bellshaped
pink, yellow, or white flower.

Habitat and Distribution: Wood sorrel is found in temperate zones worldwide, in
lawns, open areas, and sunny woods.

Edible Parts: Cook the entire plant.


Yam
Dioscorea species

Description: These plants are vines that creep along the ground. They have
alternate, heart- or arrow-shaped leaves. Their rootstock may be very large and
weigh many kilograms.

Habitat and Distribution: True yams are restricted to tropical regions where they
are an important food crop. Look for yams in fields, clearings, and abandoned
gardens. They are found in rain forests, semievergreen seasonal forests, and scrub
and thorn forests in the tropics. In warm temperate areas, they are found in
seasonal hardwood or mixed hardwood-coniferous forests, as well as some
mountainous areas.

Edible Parts: Boil the rootstock and eat it as a vegetable.


Yam bean
Pachyrhizus erosus

Description: The yam bean is a climbing plant of the bean family, with alternate,
three-parted leaves and a turniplike root. The bluish or purplish flowers are
pealike in shape. The plants are often so rampant that they cover the vegetation
upon which they are growing.

Habitat and Distribution: The yam bean is native to the American tropics, but it
was carried by man years ago to Asia and the Pacific islands. Now it is
commonly cultivated in these places, and is also found growing wild in forested
areas. This plant grows in wet areas of tropical regions.

Edible Parts: The tubers are about the size of a turnip and they are crisp, sweet,
and juicy with a nutty flavor. They are nourishing and thirst quenching. Eat them
raw or boiled. To make flour, slice the raw tubers, let them dry in the sun, and
grind into a flour that is high in starch and may be used to thicken soup.


Poisonous Plants

Plants basically poison on contact, through
ingestion, by absorption, or by inhalation. They
cause painful skin irritations upon contact, they
cause internal poisoning when eaten, and they
poison through skin absorption or inhalation in to
the respiratory system. Many edible plants have
deadly relatives and look-alikes. Preparation for
military missions includes learning to identify
those harmful plants in the target area. Positive
identification of edible plants will eliminate the
danger of accidental poisoning. There is no room
for experimentation where plants are concerned,
especially in unfamiliar territory.


Castor bean, castor-oil plant, palma Christi
Ricinus communis
Spurge (Euphorbiaceae) Family

Description: The castor bean is a semiwoody plant with large, alternate, starlike
leaves that grows as a tree in tropical regions and as an annual in temperate
regions. Its flowers are very small and inconspicuous. Its fruits grow in clusters at
the tops of the plants.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant is found in all tropical regions and has been
introduced to temperate regions.


Chinaberry
Melia azedarach
Mahogany (Meliaceae) Family

Description: This tree has a spreading crown and grows up to 14 meters (42 feet)
tall. It has alternate, compound leaves with toothed leaflets. Its flowers are light
purple with a dark center and grow in ball-like masses. It has marble-sized fruits
that are light orange when first formed but turn lighter as they become older.

Habitat and Distribution: Chinaberry is native to the Himalayas and eastern
Asia but is now planted as an ornamental tree throughout the tropical and
subtropical regions. It has been introduced to the southern United States and has
escaped to thickets, old fields, and disturbed areas.


Cowhage, cowage, cowitch
Mucuna pruritum
Leguminosae (Fabaceae) Family

Description: A vinelike plant that has oval leaflets in groups of three and hairy
spikes with dull purplish flowers. The seeds are brown, hairy pods.

Habitat and Distribution: Tropical areas and the United States.


Death camas, death lily
Zigadenus species
Lily (Liliaceae) Family

Description: This plant arises from a bulb and may be mistaken for an onionlike
plant. Its leaves are grasslike. Its flowers are six-parted and the petals have a
green, heart-shaped structure on them. The flowers grow on showy stalks above
the leaves.

Habitat and Distribution: Death camas is found in wet, open, sunny habitats,
although some species favor dry, rocky slopes. They are common in parts of the
western United States. Some species are found in the eastern United States and
in parts of the North American western subarctic and eastern Siberia.


Lantana
Lantana camara
Vervain (Verbenaceae) Family

Description: Lantana is a shrublike plant that may grow up to 45 centimeters (18
inches) high. It has opposite, round leaves and flowers borne in flat-topped
clusters. The flower color (which varies in different areas) may be white, yellow,
orange, pink, or red. It has a dark blue or black berrylike fruit. A distinctive feature
of all parts of this plant is its strong scent.

Habitat and Distribution: Lantana is grown as an ornamental in tropical
and temperate areas and has escaped cultivation as a weed along roads and
old fields.


Manchineel
Hippomane mancinella
Spurge (Euphorbiaceae) Family

Description: Manchineel is a tree reaching up to 15 meters (45 feet) high with
alternate, shiny green leaves and spikes of small greenish flowers. Its fruits are
green or greenish-yellow when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: The tree prefers coastal regions. It is found in south
Florida, the Caribbean, Central America, and northern South America.


Oleander
Nerium oleander
Dogbane (Apocynaceae) Family

Description: This shrub or small tree grows to about 9 meters
(27 feet), with alternate, very straight, dark green leaves. Its flowers may be
white, yellow, red, pink, or intermediate colors. Its fruit is a brown, podlike
structure with many small seeds.

Habitat and Distribution: This native of the Mediterranean area is now grown
as an ornamental in tropical and temperate regions.


Pangi
Pangium edule
Pangi Family

Description: This tree, with heart-shaped leaves in spirals, reaches a height of
18 meters (54 feet). Its flowers grow in spikes and are green in color. Its large,
brownish, pear-shaped fruits grow in clusters.

Habitat and Distribution: Pangi trees grow in southeast Asia.


Physic nut
Jatropha curcas
Spurge (Euphoriaceae) Family

Description: This shrub or small tree has large, 3- to 5-parted alternate leaves. It
has small, greenish-yellow flowers and its yellow, apple-sized fruits contain three
large seeds.

Habitat and Distribution: Throughout the tropics and southern United States.


Poison hemlock, fool’s parsley
Conium maculatum
Parsley (Apiaceae) Family

Description: This biennial herb may grow to 2.5 meters (8 feet) high. The
smooth, hollow stem may or may not be purple or red striped or mottled. Its white
flowers are small and grow in small groups that tend to form flat umbels. Its long,
turniplike taproot is solid.

Habitat and Distribution: Poison hemlock grows in wet or moist ground like
swamps, wet meadows, stream banks, and ditches. Native to Eurasia, it has
been introduced to the United States and Canada.


Poison ivy and poison oak
Toxicodendron radicans and Toxicodendron diversibba
Cashew (Anacardiacese) Family

Description: These two plants are quite similar in appearance and will often
crossbreed to make a hybrid. Both have alternate, compound leaves with three
leaflets. The leaves of poison ivy are smooth or serrated. Poison oak’s leaves are
lobed and resemble oak leaves. Poison ivy grows as a vine along the ground or
climbs by red feeder roots. Poison oak grows like a bush. The greenish-white
flowers are small and inconspicuous and are followed by waxy green berries that
turn waxy white or yellow, then gray.

Habitat and Distribution: Poison ivy and oak can be found in almost any habitat
in North America.


Poison sumac
Toxicodendron vernix
Cashew (Anacardiacese) Family

Description: Poison sumac is a shrub that grows to 8.5 meters (28 feet) tall. It has
alternate, pinnately compound leafstalks with 7 to 13 leaflets. Flowers are greenishyellow
and inconspicuous and are followed by white or pale yellow berries.

Habitat and Distribution: Poison sumac grows only in wet, acid swamps in
North America.


Rosary pea or crab’s eyes
Abrus precatorius
Leguminosae (Fabaceae) Family

Description: This plant is a vine with alternate compound leaves, light purple
flowers, and beautiful seeds that are red and black.

Habitat and Distribution: This is a common weed in parts of Africa, southern
Florida, Hawaii, Guam, the Caribbean, and Central and South America.


Strychnine tree
Nux vomica
Logania (Loganiaceae) Family

Description: The strychnine tree is a medium-sized evergreen, reaching a
height of about 12 meters (36 feet), with a thick, frequently crooked trunk. Its
deeply veined oval leaves grow in alternate pairs. Small, loose clusters of
greenish flowers appear at the ends of branches and are followed by fleshy,
orange-red berries about 4 centimeters (1 1/2 inches) in diameter.

Habitat and Distribution: A native of the tropics and subtropics of southeastern
Asia and Australia.


Trumpet vine or trumpet creeper
Campsis radicans
Trumpet creeper (Bignoniaceae) Family

Description: This woody vine may climb to 15 meters (45 feet) high. It has
pealike fruit capsules. The leaves are pinnately compound, 7 to 11 toothed
leaves per leaf stock. The trumpet-shaped flowers are orange to scarlet in color.

Habitat and Distribution: This vine is found in wet woods and thickets
throughout eastern and central North America.


Water hemlock or spotted cowbane
Cicuta maculata
Parsley (Apiaceae) Family

Description: This perennial herb may grow to 1.8 meters (6 feet) high. The stem
is hollow and sectioned off like bamboo. It may or may not be purple or red
striped or mottled. Its flowers are small, white, and grow in groups that tend to
form flat umbels. Its roots may have hollow air chambers and, when cut, may
produce drops of yellow oil.

Habitat and Distribution: Water hemlock grows in wet or moist ground like
swamps, wet meadows, stream banks, and ditches throughout the Unites States
and Canada.


Dangerous Insects and Arachnids

Insects are often overlooked as a danger to the
survivor. More people in the United States die each
year from bee stings, and resulting anaphylactic
shock, than from snake bites. A few other insects
are venomous enough to kill, but often the greatest
danger is the transmission of disease.


Scorpion
Scorpionidae order

Description: Dull brown, yellow, or black. Have 7.5- to 20-centimeter long (3- to
8-inch long) lobsterlike pincers and jointed tail usually held over the back. There
are 800 species of scorpions.

Habitat: Decaying matter, under debris, logs, and rocks. Feeds at night.
Sometimes hides in boots.

Distribution: Worldwide in temperate, arid, and tropical regions.


Brown house spider or brown recluse spider
Laxosceles reclusa

Description: Brown to black with obvious “fiddle” on back of head and thorax.
Chunky body with long, slim legs 2.5 to 4 centimeters (1 to 1 1/2 inches) long.

Habitat: Under debris, rocks, and logs. In caves and dark places.

Distribution: North America.


Funnelweb spider
Atrax species (A. robustus, A. formidablis)

Description: Large, brown, bulky spiders. Aggressive when disturbed.

Habitat: Woods, jungles, and brushy areas. Web has a funnel-like opening.

Distribution: Australia. (Other nonvenomous species worldwide.)


Tarantula
Theraphosidae and Lycosa species

Description: Very large, brown, black, reddish, hairy spiders. Large fangs inflict
painful bite.

Habitat: Desert areas, tropics.

Distribution: Americas, southern Europe.


Widow spider

Latrodectus species

Description: Dark spiders with light red or orange markings on female’s
abdomen.

Habitat: Under logs, rocks, and debris. In shaded places.

Distribution: Varied species worldwide. Black widow in United States, red widow
in Middle East, and brown widow in Australia.

NOTE: Females are the poisonous gender. Red widow in the Middle East is the
only spider known to be deadly to man.


Centipede

Description: Multi-joined body to 30 centimeters (12 inches) long. Dull orange to
brown, with black point eyes at the base of the antenna. There are 2,800 species
worldwide.

Habitat: Under bark and stones by day. Active at night.

Distribution: Worldwide.


Bee

Description: Insect with brown or black, hairy bodies. Generally found in
colonies. Many build wax combs.

Habitat: Hollow trees, caves, dwellings. Near water in desert areas.

Distribution: Worldwide.

NOTE: Bees have barbed stingers and die after stinging because their venom
sac and internal organs are pulled out during the attack.


Wasps and hornets

Description: Generally smooth-bodied, slender stinging insects. Many nest
individually in mud nests or in paper nest colonies. Smooth stinger permits
multiple attacks. There are several hundred species worldwide.

Habitat: May be found anywhere in various species.

Distribution: Worldwide.

NOTE: An exception to general appearance is the velvet ant of the southern
United States. It is a flightless wasp with red and black alternating velvety bands.


Tick

Description: Round body from size of pinhead to 2.5 centimeters. Has 8 legs
and sucking mouth parts. There are 850 species worldwide.

Habitat: Mainly in forests and grasslands. Also in urban areas and farmlands.

Distribution: Worldwide.


Venomous Snakes and Lizards

If you fear snakes, it is probably because you are
unfamiliar with them or you have wrong
information about them. There is no need for you
to fear snakes if you know—

Their habits.

How to identify the dangerous kinds.

Precautions to take to prevent snakebite.

What actions to take in case of snakebite (Chapter 3).

For a man wearing shoes and trousers and living
in a camp, the danger of being bitten by a
venomous snake is small compared to the hazards
of malaria, cholera, dysentery, or other diseases.

Nearly all snakes avoid man if possible. A few—the
king cobra of Southeast Asia, the bushmaster and
tropical rattlesnake of South America, and the
mamba of Africa—may aggressively attack man,
but even these snakes do so only occasionally. Most
snakes get out of the way and are seldom seen.

WAYS TO AVOID SNAKEBITE

Snakes are widely distributed. They are found in all tropical,
subtropical, and most temperate regions. Some species of snakes
have specialized glands that contain a toxic venom, and long, hollow
fangs to inject their venom.

Although venomous snakes use their venom to secure food,
they also use it for self-defense. Human accidents occur when you
don’t see or hear the snake, when you step on them, or when you
walk too close to them.

Follow these simple rules to reduce the chance of accidental
snakebite:

Don’t sleep next to brush, tall grass, large boulders, or trees.
They provide hiding places for snakes. Place your sleeping


bag in a clearing. Use mosquito netting tucked well under
the bag. This netting should provide a good barrier.

Don’t put your hands into dark places, such as rock
crevices, heavy brush, or hollow logs, without first
investigating.

Don’t step over a fallen tree. Step on the log and look to
see if there is a snake resting on the other side.

Don’t walk through heavy brush or tall grass without
looking down. Look where you are walking.

Don’t pick up any snake unless you are absolutely
positive it is not venomous.

Don’t pick up freshly killed snakes without first severing
the head. The nervous system may still be active and a
dead snake can deliver a bite.

SNAKE GROUPS

Snakes dangerous to man usually fall into two groups:
proteroglypha and solenoglypha. Their fangs and their venom best
describe these two groups (Figure E-1).

Group

Fang Type

Venom Type

Proteroglypha

Fixed

Usually dominant neurotoxic

Solenoglypha

Folded

Usually dominant hemotoxic



Figure E-1. Snake Group Characteristics

FANGS

The proteroglypha have, in front of the upper jaw and
preceding the ordinary teeth, permanently erect fangs. These fangs
are called fixed fangs.

The solenoglypha have erectile fangs; that is, fangs they can
raise to an erect position. These fangs are called folded fangs.

VENOM

The fixed-fang snakes (proteroglypha) usually have neurotoxic
venoms. These venoms affect the nervous system, making the victim
unable to breathe.


The folded-fang snakes (solenoglypha) usually have hemotoxic
venoms. These venoms affect the circulatory system, destroying
blood cells, damaging skin tissues, and causing internal
hemorrhaging.

Remember, however, that most venomous snakes have both
neurotoxic and hemotoxic venom. Usually one type of venom in the
snake is dominant and the other is weak.

VENOMOUS VERSUS NONVENOMOUS SNAKES

No single characteristic distinguishes a venomous snake from
a harmless one except the presence of poison fangs and glands. Only
in dead specimens can you determine the presence of these fangs
and glands without danger.

DESCRIPTIONS OF VENOMOUS SNAKES

There are many different venomous snakes throughout the
world. It is unlikely you will see many except in a zoo. This manual
describes only a few venomous snakes. However, you should be able
to spot a venomous snake if you—

Learn about the two groups of snakes and the families in
which they fall (Figures E-2, pages E-3 and E-4, and E-3,
pages E-4 and E-5).

Examine the pictures and read the descriptions of snakes
in this appendix.

Group

Family

Local Effects

Venom Type

Viperidae
True vipers
with movable
front fangs.

Crotalidae
Pit vipers with
movable front
fangs.
Solenoglypha
Usually dominant
hemotoxic venom
affecting the
circulatory system.
Trimeresurus
Strong pain,
swelling,
necrosis.

Hemorrhaging,
internal organ
break down,
destroying of
blood cells.



Figure E-2. Clinical Effects of Snakebites


Group

Family

Local Effects

Venom Type

Elapidae
Fixed front fangs.

Cobra

Various pains,
swelling, necrosis.

Respiratory
collapse.

Krait

No local effects.

Respiratory
collapse.

Micrurus

Little or no pain; no
local symptoms.

Respiratory
collapse.

Proteroglypha

Usually dominant
neurotoxic venom
affecting the
nervous system.







Laticaudidae
and Hydrophidae
Ocean-living with
fixed front fangs.

Pain and local
swelling.

Respiratory
collapse.

NOTE: The venom of the gaboon viper, the rhinoceros viper, the tropical
rattlesnake, and the Mojave rattlesnake is both strongly hemotoxic and
neurotoxic.



Figure E-2. Clinical Effects of Snakebites (Continued)

Viperidae

Common Adder

Long-Nosed Adder

Gaboon Viper

Levant Viper

Horned Desert Viper

McMahon’s Viper

Mole Viper

Palestinian Viper

Puff Adder

Rhinoceros Viper

Russell’s Viper

Sand Viper

Saw-Scaled Viper

Ursini’s Viper

Elapidae

Australian Copperhead

Common Cobra

Coral Snake

Death Adder

Egyptian Cobra

Green Mamba

King Cobra

Krait

Taipan

Tiger Snake



Figure E-3. Snake Families


Crotalidae

American Copperhead

Boomslang

Bush Viper

Bushmaster

Cottonmouth

Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake

Eyelash Pit Viper

Fer-de-lance

Green Tree Pit Viper

Habu Pit Viper

Jumping Viper

Malayan Pit Viper

Mojave Rattlesnake

Pallas’ Viper

Tropical Rattlesnake

Wagler’s Pit Viper

Western Diamondback Rattlesnake

Banded Sea Snake

Hydrophidae

Yellow-Bellied Sea Snake



Figure E-3. Snake Families (Continued)

VIPERIDAE

The viperidae, or true vipers, usually have thick bodies and
heads that are much wider than their necks (Figure E-4). However,
there are many different sizes, markings, and colorations.

Figure E-4. Positive Identification of Vipers


This snake group has developed a highly sophisticated means
for delivering venom. They have long, hollow fangs that perform like
hypodermic needles. They deliver their venom deep into the wound.

The fangs of this group of snakes are movable. These snakes
fold their fangs into the roof of their mouths. When they strike, their
fangs come forward, stabbing the victim. The snake controls the
movement of its fangs; fang movement is not automatic. The venom
is usually hemotoxic. However, there are several species that have
large quantities of neurotoxic elements, thus making them even
more dangerous. The vipers are responsible for many human
fatalities around the world.

CROTALIDAE

The crotalids, or pit vipers (Figure E-5), may be either slender
or thick-bodied. Their heads are usually much wider than their
necks. These snakes take their name from the deep pit located
between the eye and the nostril. They are usually brown with dark
blotches but some kinds are green.

Figure E-5 Positive Identification of Pit Vipers

Rattlesnakes, copperheads, cottonmouths, and several species
of dangerous snakes from Central and South America, Asia, China,
and India fall into the pit viper group. The pit is a highly sensitive
organ capable of picking up the slightest temperature variance. Most
pit vipers are nocturnal. They hunt for food at night with the aid of
these specialized pits that let them locate prey in total darkness.


Rattlesnakes are the only pit vipers that possess a rattle at the tip of
the tail.

India has about twelve species of these snakes. You find them
in trees or on the ground in all types of terrain. The tree snakes are
slender; the ground snakes are heavy-bodied. All are dangerous.

China has a pit viper similar to the cottonmouth found in
North America. You find it in the rocky areas of the remote
mountains of South China. It reaches a length of 1.4 meters
(5 feet) but is not vicious unless irritated. You can also find a small
pit viper, about 45 centimeters (18 inches) long, on the plains of
eastern China. It is too small to be dangerous to a man wearing
shoes.

There are about twenty-seven species of rattlesnakes in the
United States and Mexico. They vary in color and may or may not
have spots or blotches. Some are small but others, such as the
diamondbacks, may grow to 2.5 meters (8 feet) long.

There are five kinds of rattlesnakes in Central and South
America, but only the tropical rattlesnake is widely distributed. The
rattle on the tip of the tail is sufficient identification for a
rattlesnake.

Most will try to escape without a fight when approached, but
there is always a chance one will strike at a passerby. They do not
always give a warning; they may strike first and rattle afterwards or
not at all.

The genus Trimeresurus is a subgroup of the crotalidae. These
are Asian pit vipers. They are normally tree-loving snakes, but some
live on the ground. They basically have the same characteristics of
the crotalidae—slender build and very dangerous. Their bites
usually are on the upper extremities—head, neck, and shoulders.
Their venom is largely hemotoxic.

ELAPIDAE

Elapidae are a group of highly dangerous snakes with a
powerful neurotoxic venom that affects the nervous system, causing
respiratory paralysis. Included in this family are coral snakes,
cobras, mambas, and all the Australian venomous snakes. The coral
snake is small and has caused human fatalities. The Australian


death adder, tiger, taipan, and king brown snakes are among the
most venomous in the world, causing many human fatalities.

Only by examining a dead snake can you positively determine
if it is a cobra or a near relative (Figure E-6). On cobras, kraits, and
coral snakes, the third scale on the upper lip touches both the nostril
scale and the eye. The krait also has a row of enlarged scales down
its ridged back.

Figure E-6. Positive Identification of Cobras, Kraits,and Coral Snakes

You can find the cobras of Africa and the Near East in almost
any habitat. One kind may live in or near water, another in trees.
Some are aggressive and savage. The distance a cobra can strike in a
forward direction is equal to the distance its head is raised above the
ground. Some cobras, however, can spit venom a distance of 3 to 3.5
meters (10 to 12 feet). This venom is harmless unless it gets into
your eyes; then it may cause blindness if not washed out
immediately. Poking around in holes and rock piles is dangerous
because of the chance of encountering a spitting cobra.

LATICAUDIDAE AND HYDROPHIDAE

A subfamily of elapidae, these snakes are specialized in that
they found a better environment in the oceans. Why they are in the
oceans is not clear to scientists.


Sea snakes differ in appearance from other snakes in that they
have an oarlike tail to aid in swimming. Some species of sea
nakes have venom several times more toxic than the cobra’s.
Because of their marine environment, sea snakes seldom come in
contact with humans. The exceptions are fisherman who capture
these dangerous snakes in fishnets and scuba divers who swim in
waters where sea snakes are found.

There are many species of sea snakes. They vary greatly in
color and shape. Their scales distinguish them from eels that have
no scales.

Sea snakes occur in salt water along the coasts throughout the
Pacific. There are also sea snakes on the east coast of
Africa and in the Persian Gulf. There are no sea snakes in the
Atlantic Ocean.

There is no need to fear sea snakes. They have not been known
to attack a man swimming. Fishermen occasionally get bitten by a
sea snake caught in a net. The bite is dangerous.

COLUBRIDAE

The colubridae is the largest group of snakes worldwide. In
this family there are species that are rear-fanged; however, most are
completely harmless to man. They have a venom-producing gland
and enlarged, grooved rear fangs that allow venom to flow into the
wound. The inefficient venom apparatus and the specialized venom
is effective on cold-blooded animals (such as frogs and lizards) but
not considered a threat to human life. However, the boomslang and
the twig snake of Africa have caused human deaths.

LIZARDS

There is little to fear from lizards as long as you follow the
same precautions as for avoiding snakebite. There are only two
poisonous lizards: the Gila monster and the Mexican beaded lizard.
The venom of both these lizards is neurotoxic. The two lizards are in
the same family, and both are slow moving with a docile nature.

The komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis), although not
poisonous, can be dangerous due to its large size. These lizards can
reach lengths of 3 meters (10 feet) and weigh over 115 kilograms
(253 pounds). Do not try to capture this lizard.


VENOMOUS SNAKES OF THE AMERICAS

American copperhead
Agkistrodon contortrix

Description: Chestnut color dominates overall, with darker crossbands of rich
browns that become narrower on top and widen at the bottom. The top of the
head is a coppery color.

Characteristics: Very common over much of its range, with a natural
camouflage ability to blend in the environment. Copperheads are rather quiet and
inoffensive in disposition but will defend themselves vigorously. Bites occur when
the snakes are stepped on or when a victim is lying next to one. A copperhead
lying on a bed of dead leaves becomes invisible. Its venom is hemotoxic.

Habitat: Found in wooded and rocky areas and mountainous regions.

Length: Average 60 centimeters (24 inches), maximum (47 inches) 120
centimeters.

Distribution: Texas, Oklahoma, Illinois, Kansas, Ohio, most of the southeast
United States, and along the Atlantic coast from north Florida to Massachusetts
(Figure E-7, page E-11).


Figure E-7. American Copperhead Habitat


Bushmaster
Lachesis muta

Description: The body hue is rather pale brown or pinkish, with a series of large
bold dark brown or black blotches extending along the body. Its scales are
extremely rough.

Characteristics: The world’s largest pit viper has a bad reputation. This huge
venomous snake is not common anywhere in its range. It lives in remote and
isolated habitats and is largely nocturnal in its feeding habits. It seldom bites
anyone, so few bites are recorded. A bite from one would indeed be very serious
and fatal if medical aid was not immediately available. Usually, the bites occur in
remote, dense jungles, many kilometers and several hours or even days away
from medical help. Bushmaster fangs are long. In large bushmasters, they can
measure 3.8 centimeters (1 3/4 inches). Its venom is a powerful hemotoxin.

Habitat: Found chiefly in tropical forests in their range.

Length: Average 2.1 meters (7 feet), maximum 3.7 meters (12 feet).

Distribution: Northern South America and parts of Central America, including
Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Trinidad, and Brazil (Figure E-8, page E-13).


Figure E-8. Bushmaster Habitat


Coral snake
Micrurus fulvius

Description: Beautifully marked with bright blacks, reds, and yellows. To identify
the species, remember that when red touches yellow it is a coral snake.

Characteristics: Common over range, but secretive in its habits, therefore
seldom seen. It has short fangs that are fixed in an erect position. It often chews
to release its venom into a wound. Its venom is very powerful. The venom is
neurotoxic, causing respiratory paralysis in the victim, who succumbs to
suffocation.

Habitat: Found in a variety of habitats including wooded areas, swamps,
palmetto and scrub areas. Coral snakes often venture into residential locations.

Length: Average 60 centimeters (24 inches), maximum 115 centimeters (45
inches).

Distribution: Southeast United States and west to Texas. Another genus of
coral snake is found in Arizona. Coral snakes are also found throughout Central
and most of South America (Figure E-9, page E-15).


Figure E-9. Coral Snake Habitat


Cottonmouth
Agkistrodon piscivorus

Description: Colors are variable. Adults are uniformly olive brown or black. The
young and subadults are strongly crossbanded with dark brown.

Characteristics: These dangerous semiaquatic snakes closely resemble
harmless water snakes that have the same habitat. Therefore, it is best to leave
all water snakes alone. Cottonmouths often stand their ground. An aroused
cottonmouth will draw its head close to its body and open its mouth, showing its
white interior. Cottonmouth venom is hemotoxic and potent. Bites are prone to
gangrene.

Habitat: Found in swamps, lakes, rivers, and ditches.

Length: Average 90 centimeters (35 inches), maximum 1.8 meters (6 feet).

Distribution: Most of southeast United States, particularly southeast Virginia,
west central Alabama, south Georgia, Illinois, east central Kentucky, south
central Oklahoma, Texas, North and South Carolina, and Florida (including the
Florida Keys) (Figure E-10, page E-17).


Figure E-10. Cottonmouth Habitat


Eastern diamondback rattlesnake
Crotalus adamanteus

Description: Dark brown or black, outlined by a row of cream or yellowish
scales. Ground color is olive to brown.

Characteristics: The largest venomous snake in the United States. Large
snakes can have fangs that measure 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) in a straight line.
This species has a sullen disposition, ready to defend itself when threatened. Its
venom is potent and hemotoxic, causing great pain and damage to tissue.

Habitat: Found in palmettos and scrubs, swamps, pine woods, and flatwoods. It
has been observed swimming many miles out in the Gulf of Mexico, reaching
some of the islands off the Florida coast.

Length: Average 1.4 meters (5 feet), maximum 2.4 meters (8 feet).

Distribution: Coastal areas of North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, and
Florida (including the Florida Keys) (Figure E-11, page E-19).


Figure E-11. Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake Habitat


Eyelash pit viper
Bothrops schlegeli

Description: Identified by several spiny scales over each eye. Color is highly
variable, from bright yellow over its entire body to reddish-yellow spots
throughout the body.

Characteristics: Arboreal snake that seldom comes to the ground. It feels more
secure in low-hanging trees where it looks for tree frogs and birds. It is a
dangerous species because most of its bites occur on the upper extremities. It
has an irritable disposition. It will strike with little provocation. Its venom is
hemotoxic, causing severe tissue damage. Deaths have occurred from the bites
of these snakes.

Habitat: Tree-loving species found in rain forests; common on plantations and in
palm trees.

Length: Average 45 centimeters (18 inches), maximum 75 centimeters (30
inches).

Distribution: Southern Mexico, throughout Central America, Columbia, Ecuador,
and Venezuela (Figure E-12, page E-21).


Figure E-12. Eyelash Pit Viper Habitat


Fer-de-lance
Bothrops atrox

There are several closely related species in this group. All are very dangerous to
man.

Description: Variable coloration, from gray to olive, brown, or reddish, with dark
triangles edged with light scales. Triangles are narrow at the top and wide at the
bottom.

Characteristics: This highly dangerous snake is responsible for a high mortality
rate. It has an irritable disposition, ready to strike with little provocation. The
female fer-de-lance is highly prolific, producing up to 60 young, all with a
dangerous bite. The venom of this species is hemotoxic, painful, and
hemorrhagic (causing profuse internal bleeding). The venom causes massive
tissue destruction.

Habitat: Found on cultivated land and farms, often entering houses in search of
rodents.

Length: Average 1.4 meters (5 feet), maximum 2.4 meters (8 feet).

Distribution: Southern Mexico, throughout Central and South America (Figure
E-13, page E-23).


Figure E-13. Fer-de-lance Habitat


Jumping viper
Bothrops nummifer

Description: It has a stocky body. Its ground color varies from brown to gray and
it has dark brown or black dorsal blotches. It has no pattern on its head.

Characteristics: It is chiefly a nocturnal snake. It comes out in the early evening
hours to feed on lizards, rodents, and frogs. As the name implies, this species
can strike with force as it actually leaves the ground. Its venom is hemotoxic.
Humans have died from the bites inflicted by large jumping vipers. They often
hide under fallen logs and piles of leaves and are difficult to see.

Habitat: Found in rain forests, on plantations, and on wooded hillsides.

Length: Average 60 centimeters (24 inches), maximum 120 centimeters (48
inches).

Distribution: Southern Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Panama,
and El Salvador (Figure E-14, page E-25).


Figure E-14. Jumping Viper Habitat


Mojave rattlesnake
Crotalus scutulatus

Description: This snake’s entire body is a pallid or sandy color with darker
diamond-shaped markings bordered by lighter-colored scales and black bands
around the tail.

Characteristics: Although this rattlesnake is of moderate size, its bite is very
serious. Its venom has quantities of neurotoxic elements that affect the central
nervous system. Deaths have resulted from this snake’s bite.

Habitat: Found in arid regions, deserts, and rocky hillsides from sea level to
2400-meter (7920-feet) elevations.

Length: Average 75 centimeters (29 inches), maximum 1.2 meters (4 feet).

Distribution: Southwest United States, particularly in the Mojave Desert in
California, Nevada, southwest Arizona, and Texas into Mexico (Figure E-15,
page E-27).


Figure E-15. Mojave Rattlesnake Habitat


Tropical rattlesnake
Crotalus terrificus

Description: Coloration is light to dark brown with a series of darker rhombs or
diamonds bordered by a buff color.

Characteristics: Extremely dangerous with an irritable disposition, ready to
strike with little or no warning (use of its rattle). This species has a highly toxic
venom containing neurotoxic and hemotoxic components that paralyze the
central nervous system and cause great damage to tissue.

Habitat: Found in sandy places, plantations, and dry hillsides.

Length: Average 1.4 meters (5 feet), maximum 2.1 meters (7 feet).

Distribution: Southern Mexico, Central America, and all of South America
except Chile (Figure E-16, page E-29).


Figure E-16. Tropical Rattlesnake Habitat


Western diamondback rattlesnake
Crotalus atrox

Description: The body is a light buff color with darker brown diamond-shaped
markings. The tail has heavy black and white bands.

Characteristics: This bold rattlesnake holds its ground. When coiled and rattling,
it is ready to defend itself. It injects a large amount of venom when it bites,
making it one of the most dangerous snakes. Its venom is hemotoxic, causing
considerable pain and tissue damage.

Habitat: It is a very common snake over its range. It is found in grasslands,
deserts, woodlands, and canyons.

Length: Average 1.5 meters (5 feet), maximum 2 meters (7 feet).

Distribution: Southwest United States, particularly southeast California,
Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona (Figure E-17, page E-31).


Figure E-17. Western Diamondback Rattlesnake Habitat


VENOMOUS SNAKES OF EUROPE

Common adder
Vipera berus

Description: Its color is variable. Some adult specimens are completely black,
while others have a dark zigzag pattern running along the back.

Characteristics: The common adder is a small true viper that has a short temper
and often strikes without hesitation. Its venom is hemotoxic, destroying blood
cells and causing tissue damage. Most injuries occur to campers, hikers, and
field workers.

Habitat: Common adders are found in a variety of habitats, from grassy fields to
rocky slopes, and on farms and cultivated lands.

Length: Average 45 centimeters (18 inches), maximum 60 centimeters (24 inches).

Distribution: Very common throughout most of Europe; northern Morocco
(Figure E-18, page E-33).


igure E-18. Common Adder Habitat


Long-nosed adder
Vipera ammodytes

Description: Coloration is gray, brown, or reddish with a dark brown or black
zigzag pattern running the length of its back. A dark stripe is usually found behind
each eye.

Characteristics: A small snake commonly found in much of its range. The term
“long-nosed” comes from the projection of tiny scales located on the tip of its
nose. This viper is responsible for many bites. Deaths have been recorded. Its
venom is hemotoxic, causing severe pain and massive tissue damage. The rate
of survival is good with medical aid.

Habitat: Open fields, cultivated lands, farms, and rocky slopes.

Length: Average 45 centimeters (18 inches), maximum 90 centimeters (35
inches).

Distribution: Italy, Yugoslavia, northern Albania, and Romania (Figure E-19,
page E-35).


Figure E-19. Long-Nosed Adder Habitat


JOHN H. TASHJIAN/BERND VON SCHROEDER

Pallas’ viper
Agkistrodon halys

Description: Coloration is gray, tan, or yellow, with markings similar to those of
the American copperhead.

Characteristics: This snake is timid and rarely strikes. Its venom is hemotoxic
but rarely fatal.

Habitat: Found in open fields, hillsides, and farming regions.

Length: Average 45 centimeters (18 inches), maximum 90 centimeters (35
inches).

Distribution: Throughout southeastern Europe (Figure E-20, page E-37).


Figure E-20. Pallas’ Viper Habitat


JOHN H. TASHJIAN/BOTEJE FLARDH

Ursini’s viper
Vipera ursinii

Description: The common adder, long-nosed adder, and Ursini’s viper basically
have the same coloration and dorsal zigzag pattern. The exception among these
adders is that the common adder and Ursini’s viper lack the projection of tiny
scales on the tip of the nose.

Characteristics: These little vipers have an irritable disposition. They will readily
strike when approached. Their venom is hemotoxic. Although rare, deaths from
the bites of these vipers have been recorded.

Habitat: Meadows, farmlands, rocky hillsides, and open, grassy fields.

Length: Average 45 centimeters (18 inches), maximum 90 centimeters (35
inches).

Distribution: Most of Europe, particularly Greece, Germany, Yugoslavia,
France, Italy, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania; northern Morocco
(Figure E-21, page E-39).


Figure E-21. Ursini’s Viper Habitat


VENOMOUS SNAKES OF AFRICA AND ASIA

JOHN H. TASHJIAN/CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Boomslang
Dispholidus typus

Description: Coloration varies but is generally green or brown, which makes it
very hard to see in its habitat.

Characteristics: Will strike if molested. Its venom is hemotoxic; even small
amounts cause severe hemorrhaging, making it dangerous to man.

Habitat: Found in forested areas. It will spend most of its time in trees or looking
for chameleons and other prey in bushes.

Length: Generally less than 60 centimeters (24 inches).

Distribution: Found throughout sub-Saharan Africa (Figure E-22, page E-41).


Figure E-22. Boomslang Habitat


Bush viper
Atheris squamiger

Description: Often called leaf viper, its color varies from ground colors of pale
green to olive, brown, or rusty brown. The viper uses its prehensile tail to secure
itself to branches.

Characteristics: An arboreal species that often comes down to the ground to
feed on small rodents. It is not aggressive, but it will defend itself when molested
or touched. Its venom is hemotoxic; healthy adults rarely die from its bite.

Habitat: Found in rain forests and woodlands bordering swamps and forests.
Often found in trees, low-hanging branches, or brush.

Length: Average 45 centimeters (18 inches), maximum 75 centimeters (29
inches).

Distribution: Most of Africa, particularly Angola, Cameroon, Uganda, Kenya,
and the Congo (Figure E-23, page E-43).


Figure E-23. Bush Viper Habitat


Common cobra or Asiatic cobra
Naja naja

Description: Usually slate gray to brown overall. The back of the hood may or
may not have a pattern.

Characteristics: A very common species responsible for many deaths each year.
When aroused or threatened, the cobra will lift its head off the ground and spread
its hood, making it more menacing. Its venom is highly neurotoxic, causing
respiratory paralysis with some tissue damage. The cobra would rather retreat if
possible, but if escape is shut off, it will be a dangerous creature to deal with.

Habitat: Found in any habitat: cultivated farms, swamps, open fields, and human
dwellings, where it searches for rodents.

Length: Average 1.2 meters (4 feet), maximum 2.1 meters (7 feet).

Distribution: From southeast to southwest Asia, including Indonesia (Figure E-24,
page E-45).


Figure E-24. Common Cobra or Asiatic Cobra Habitat


Egyptian cobra
Naja haje

Description: Yellowish, dark brown, or black uniform top with brown crossbands.
Its head is sometimes black.

Characteristics: It is extremely dangerous. It is responsible for many human
deaths. Once aroused or threatened, it will attack and continue the attack until it
feels an escape is possible. Its venom is neurotoxic and much stronger than the
common cobra. Its venom causes paralysis and death due to respiratory failure.

Habitat: Cultivated farmlands, open fields, and arid countrysides. It is often seen
around homes searching for rodents.

Length: Average 1.5 meters (5 feet), maximum 2.5 meters (8 feet).

Distribution: Africa, Iraq, Syria, and Saudi Arabia (Figure E-25, page E-47).


Figure E-25. Egyptian Cobra Habitat


Gaboon viper
Bitis gabonica

Description: Pink to brown with a vertebral series of elongated yellowish or light
brown spots connected by hourglass-shaped markings on each side. It has a
dark brown stripe behind each eye. This dangerous viper is almost invisible on
the forest floor. A 1.8-meter-long (6-foot-long) Gaboon viper could weigh 16
kilograms (35 pounds).

Characteristics: The largest and heaviest of all true vipers, having a very large
triangular head. It comes out in the evening to feed. Fortunately, it is not
aggressive, but it will stand its ground if approached. It bites when molested or
stepped on. Its fangs are enormous, often measuring 5 centimeters (2 inches)
long. It injects a large amount of venom when it strikes. Its venom is neurotoxic
and hemotoxic.

Habitat: Dense rain forests. Occasionally found in open country.

Length: Average 1.2 meters (4 feet), maximum 1.8 meters (6 feet).

Distribution: Most of Africa (Figure E-26, page E-49).


Figure E-26. Gaboon Viper Habitat


Green mamba
Dendraspis angusticeps

Description: Most mambas are uniformly bright green over their entire body.
The black mamba, the largest of the species, is uniformly olive to black.

Characteristics: The mamba is the most dreaded snake species of Africa. Treat
it with great respect. It is considered one of the most dangerous snakes known.
Not only is it highly venomous but it is aggressive and its victim has little chance
to escape from a bite. Its venom is highly neurotoxic.

Habitat: Mambas are at home in brush, trees, and low-hanging branches looking
for birds, a usual diet for this species.

Length: Average 1.8 meters (6 feet), maximum 3.7 meters (12 feet).

Distribution: Most of Africa (Figure E-27, page E-51).


Figure E-27. Green Mamba Habitat


Green tree pit viper
Trimeresurus gramineus

Description: Uniform bright or dull green with light yellow on the facial lips.

Characteristics: A small arboreal snake of some importance, though not
considered a deadly species. It is a dangerous species because most of its bites
occur in the head, shoulder, and neck areas. It seldom comes to the ground. It
feeds on young birds, lizards, and tree frogs.

Habitat: Found in dense rain forests and plantations.

Length: Average 45 centimeters (18 inches), maximum 75 centimeters (30
inches).

Distribution: Much of south and southeast Asia, particularly India, Myanmar,
Malaya, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, China, Indonesia, and Taiwan
(Figure E-28, page E-53).


Figure E-28. Green Tree Pit Viper Habitat


Habu pit viper
Trimeresurus flavoviridis

Description: Light brown or olive-yellow with black markings and a yellow or
greenish-white belly.

Characteristics: This snake is responsible for biting many humans, and its bite
could be fatal. It is an irritable species ready to defend itself. Its venom is
hemotoxic, causing pain and considerable tissue damage.

Habitat: Found in a variety of habitats, ranging from lowlands to mountainous
regions. Often encountered in old houses and rock walls surrounding buildings.

Length: Average 1 meter (3 feet), maximum 1.5 meters (5 feet).

Distribution: Okinawa and neighboring islands and Kyushu (Figure E-29, page
E-55).


Figure E-29. Habu Pit Viper Habitat


Horned desert viper
Cerastes cerastes

Description: Pale buff color with obscure markings and a sharp spine (scale)
over each eye.

Characteristics: As with all true vipers that live in the desert, it finds refuge by
burrowing in the heat of the day, coming out at night to feed. It is difficult to detect
when buried; therefore, many bites result from the snake being accidentally
stepped on. Its venom is hemotoxic, causing severe damage to blood cells and
tissue.

Habitat: Only found in very arid places within its range.

Length: Average 45 centimeters (18 inches), maximum 75 centimeters (30
inches).

Distribution: Most of northern Africa and the Mideast (Figure E-30, page E-57).


Figure E-30. Horned Desert Viper Habitat


King cobra
Ophiophagus hannah

Description: Uniformly olive, brown, or green with ringlike crossbands of black.

Characteristics: Although it is the largest venomous snake in the world and it
has a disposition to go with this honor, it causes relatively few bites on humans. It
appears to have a degree of intelligence. It avoids attacking another venomous
snake for fear of being bitten. It feeds exclusively on harmless species. The
female builds a nest then deposits her eggs. Lying close by, she guards the nest
and is highly aggressive toward anything that closely approaches the nest. The
venom is a powerful neurotoxin. Without medical aid, death is certain for its
victims.

Habitat: Dense jungle and cultivated fields.

Length: Average 3.5 meters (12 feet), maximum 5.5 meters (18 feet).

Distribution: South and southeast Asia, particularly Thailand, southern China,
Malaysia Peninsula, and the Philippines (Figure E-31, page E-59).


Figure E-31. King Cobra Habitat


Krait
Bungarus caeruleus

Description: Black or bluish-black with white narrow crossbands and a narrow
head.

Characteristics: Kraits are found only in Asia. This snake is of special concern
to man. It is deadly—about 15 times more deadly than the common cobra. It is
active at night and relatively passive during the day. The native people often step
on kraits while walking through their habitats. The krait has a tendency to seek
shelter in sleeping bags, boots, and tents. Its venom is a powerful neurotoxin that
causes respiratory failure.

Habitat: Open fields, human settlements, and dense jungle.

Length: Average 90 centimeters (35 inches), maximum 1.5 meters (5 feet).

Distribution: Much of south and southeast Asia, particularly India, Sri Lanka,
and Pakistan (Figure E-32, page E-61).


Figure E-32. Krait Habitat


Levant viper
Vipera lebetina

Description: Gray to pale brown with large dark brown spots on the top of the
black and a “ “ mark on top of the head.

Characteristics: This viper belongs to a large group of true vipers. Like its
cousins, it is large and dangerous. Its venom is hemotoxic. Many deaths have
been reported from bites of this species. It is a strong snake with an irritable
disposition; it hisses loudly when ready to strike.

Habitat: Varies greatly, from farmlands to mountainous areas.

Length: Average 1 meter (3 feet), maximum 1.5 meters (5 feet).

Distribution: Much of Asia Minor and southwest Asia, particularly Greece, Iraq,
Syria, Lebanon, Turkey, Afghanistan, lower portion of the former USSR, and
Saudi Arabia (Figure E-33, page E-63).


Figure E-33. Levant Viper Habitat


Malayan pit viper
Callaselasma rhodostoma

Description: Reddish running into pink tinge toward the belly with triangularshaped,
brown markings bordered with light-colored scales. The base of the
triangular-shaped markings end at the midline. It has dark brown, arrow-shaped
markings on the top and each side of its head.

Characteristics: This snake has long fangs, is ill-tempered, and is responsible
for many bites. Its venom is hemotoxic, destroying blood cells and tissue, but a
victim’s chances of survival are good with medical aid. This viper is a ground
dweller that moves into many areas in search of food. The greatest danger is in
stepping on the snake with bare feet.

Habitat: Rubber plantations, farms, rural villages, and rain forests.

Length: Average 60 centimeters (24 inches), maximum 1 meter (3 feet).

Distribution: Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Java, Sumatra, Malaysia, Vietnam,
Myanmar, and China (Figure E-34, page E-65).


Figure E-34. Malayan Pit Viper Habitat


McMahon’s viper
Eristicophis macmahonii

Description: Sandy buff color dominates the body, with darker brown spots on
the side of the body. The nose shield is broad, aiding in burrowing.

Characteristics: Very little is known about this species. It apparently is rare or
seldom seen. This viper is very irritable; it hisses, coils, and strikes at any
intruder that ventures too close. Its venom is highly hemotoxic, causing great
pain and tissue damage.

Habitat: Arid or semidesert. It hides during the day’s sun, coming out only at
night to feed on rodents.

Length: Average 45 centimeters (18 inches), maximum 1 meter (3 feet).

Distribution: West Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan (Figure E-35, page E-67).


Figure E-35. McMahon’s Viper Habitat


Mole viper or burrowing viper
Atracaspis microlepidota

Description: Uniformly black or dark brown with a small, narrow head.

Characteristics: A viper that does not look like one. It is small in size, and its
small head does not indicate the presence of venom glands. It has a rather
inoffensive disposition; however, it will quickly turn and bite if restrained or
touched. Its hemotoxic venom is potent for such a small snake. Its fangs are
exceptionally long. A bite can result even when picking it up behind the head. It is
best to leave this snake alone.

Habitat: Agricultural areas and arid localities.

Length: Average 55 centimeters (22 inches), maximum 75 centimeters (38
inches).

Distribution: Most of sub-Saharan Africa (Figure E-36, page E-69).


Figure E-36. Mole Viper or Burrowing Viper Habitat


Palestinian viper
Vipera palaestinae

Description: Olive to rusty brown with a dark V-shaped mark on the head and a
brown, zigzag band along the back.

Characteristics: The Palestinian viper is closely related to the Russell’s viper of
Asia. Like its cousin, it is extremely dangerous. It is active and aggressive at
night but fairly placid during the day. When threatened or molested, it will tighten
its coils, hiss loudly, and strike quickly.

Habitat: Arid regions, but may be found around barns and stables. It has been
seen entering houses in search of rodents.

Length: Average 0.8 meter (2 3/4 feet), maximum 1.3 meters (4 feet).

Distribution: Turkey, Syria, Palestine, Israel, Lebanon, and Jordan (Figure E-37,
page E-71).


Figure E-37. Palestinian Viper Habitat


Puff adder
Bitis arietans

Description: Yellowish, light brown, or orange with chevron-shaped dark brown
or black bars.

Characteristics: The puff adder is the second largest of the dangerous vipers. It
is one of the most common snakes in Africa. It is largely nocturnal, hunting at
night and seeking shelter during the day’s heat. It is not shy when approached. It
draws its head close to its coils, makes a loud hissing sound, and is quick to
strike any intruder. Its venom is strongly hemotoxic, destroying bloods cells and
causing extensive tissue damage.

Habitat: Arid regions to swamps and dense forests. Common around human
settlements.

Length: Average 1.2 meters (4 feet), maximum 1.8 meters (6 feet).

Distribution: Most of Africa, Saudi Arabia, and neighboring countries of
southwest Asia (Figure E-38, page E-73).


Figure E-38. Puff Adder Habitat


Rhinoceros viper or river jack
Bitis nasicornis

Description: Brightly colored with purplish to reddish-brown markings and black
and light olive markings along the back. On its head it has a triangular marking
that starts at the tip of the nose. It has a pair of long horns (scales) on the tip of
its nose.

Characteristics: Its appearance is awesome; its horns and very rough scales
give it a sinister look. It has an irritable disposition. It is not aggressive but will
stand its ground ready to strike if disturbed. Its venom is neurotoxic and
hemotoxic.

Habitat: Rain forests, along waterways, and in swamps.

Length: Average 75 centimeters (30 inches), maximum 1 meter (3 feet).

Distribution: Equatorial Africa (Figure E-39, page E-75).


Figure E-39. Rhinoceros Viper or River Jack Habitat


Russell’s viper
Vipera russellii

Description: Light brown body with three rows of dark brown or black splotches
bordered with white or yellow extending its entire length.

Characteristics: This dangerous species is abundant over its entire range. It is
responsible for more human fatalities than any other venomous snake. It is
irritable. When threatened, it coils tightly, hisses, and strikes with such speed that
its victim has little chance of escaping. Its hemotoxic venom is a powerful
coagulant, damaging tissue and blood cells.

Habitat: Variable, from farmlands to dense rain forests. It is commonly found
around human settlements.

Length: Average 1 meter (3 feet), maximum 1.5 meters (5 feet).

Distribution: Much of south and southeast Asia, particularly Sri Lanka, south
China, India, Malaysian Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and surrounding
islands (Figure E-40, page E-77).


Figure E-40. Russell’s Viper Habitat


Sand viper
Cerastes vipera

Description: Usually uniformly very pallid, with three rows of darker brown spots.

Characteristics: A very small desert dweller that can bury itself in the sand
during the day’s heat. It is nocturnal, coming out at night to feed on lizards and
small desert rodents. It has a short temper and will strike several times. Its
venom is hemotoxic.

Habitat: Restricted to desert areas.

Length: Average 45 centimeters (18 inches), maximum 60 centimeters (24
inches).

Distribution: Most of northern Africa and southwest Asia (Figure
E-41, page E-79).


Figure E-41. Sand Viper Habitat


JOHN H. TASHJIAN/FORT WORTH ZOO

Saw-scaled viper
Echis carinatus

Description: Color is light buff with shades of brown, dull red, or gray. Its sides
have a white or light-colored pattern. Its head usually has two dark stripes that
start behind the eye and extend to the rear.

Characteristics: A small but extremely dangerous viper. It gets the name sawscaled
from rubbing the sides of its body together, producing a rasping sound.
This ill-tempered snake will attack any intruder. Its venom is highly hemotoxic
and quite potent. Many deaths are attributed to this species.

Habitat: Found in a variety of environments. It is common in rural settlements,
cultivated fields, arid regions, barns, and rock walls.

Length: Average 45 centimeters (18 inches), maximum 60 centimeters (24
inches).

Distribution: Asia and Africa, including Syria, India, Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia,
Pakistan, Jordan, Lebanon, Sri Lanka, Algeria, Egypt, and Israel (Figure E-42,
page E-81).


Figure E-42. Saw-Scaled Viper Habitat


Wagler’s pit viper or temple viper
Trimeresurus wagleri

Description: Green with white crossbands edged with blue or purple. It has two
dorsal lines on both sides of its head.

Characteristics: It is also known as the temple viper because certain religious
cults have placed venomous snakes in their temples. Bites are not uncommon;
fortunately, fatalities are very rare. It has long fangs. Its venom is hemotoxic,
causing cell and tissue destruction. It is an arboreal species and its bites often
occur on the upper extremities.

Habitat: Dense rain forests, but often found near human settlements.

Length: Average 60 centimeters (24 inches), maximum 100 centimeters (40
inches).

Distribution: Malaysian Peninsula and Archipelago, Indonesia, Borneo, the
Philippines, and Ryukyu Islands (Figure E-43, page E-83).


Figure E-43. Wagler’s Pit Viper or Temple Viper Habitat


VENOMOUS SNAKES OF AUSTRALIA

Australian copperhead
Denisonia superba

Description: Coloration is reddish brown to dark brown. A few from Queensland
are black.

Characteristics: Rather sluggish disposition but will bite if stepped on. When
angry, rears its head a few inches from the ground with its neck slightly arched.
Its venom is neurotoxic.

Habitat: Swamps.

Length: Average 1.2 meters (4 feet), maximum 1.8 meters (6 feet).

Distribution: Tasmania, South Australia, Queensland, and Kangaroo Island
(Figure E-44, page E-85).


Figure E-44. Australian Copperhead Habitat


Death adder
Acanthophis antarcticus

Description: Reddish, yellowish, or brown color with distinct dark brown
crossbands. The end of its tail is black, ending in a hard spine.

Characteristics: When aroused, this highly dangerous snake will flatten its
entire body, ready to strike over a short distance. It is nocturnal, hiding by day
and coming out to feed at night. Although it has the appearance of a viper, it is
related to the cobra family. Its venom is a powerful neurotoxin; it causes mortality
in about 50 percent of its victims, even with treatment.

Habitat: Usually found in arid regions, fields, and wooded lands.

Length: Average 45 centimeters (18 inches), maximum 90 centimeters (35
inches).

Distribution: Australia, New Guinea, and Moluccas (Figure E-45, page E-87).


Figure E-45. Death Adder Habitat


Taipan
Oxyuranus scutellatus

Description: Generally uniformly olive or dark brown, with a somewhat darker
brown head.

Characteristics: Considered one of the most deadly snakes. It has an
aggressive disposition. When aroused, it can display a fearsome appearance by
flattening its head, raising it off the ground, waving it back and forth, and
suddenly striking with such speed that the victim may receive several bites
before it retreats. Its venom is a powerful neurotoxin, causing respiratory
paralysis. Its victim has little chance for recovery without prompt medical aid.

Habitat: At home in a variety of habitats, it is found from the savanna forests to
the inland plains.

Length: Average 1.8 meters (6 feet), maximum 3.7 meters (12 feet).

Distribution: Northern Australia and southern New Guinea (Figure E-46, page
E-89).


Figure E-46. Taipan Habitat


Tiger snake
Notechis scutatus

Description: Olive to dark brown above with yellowish or olive belly and
crossbands. The subspecies in Tasmania and Victoria is uniformly black.

Characteristics: It is the most dangerous snake in Australia. It is very common
and bites many humans. It has a very potent neurotoxic venom that attacks the
nervous system. When aroused, it is aggressive and attacks any intruder. It
flattens its neck, making a narrow band.

Habitat: Found in many habitats from arid regions to human settlements along
waterways to grasslands.

Length: Average 1.2 meters (4 feet), maximum 1.8 meters (6 feet).

Distribution: Australia, Tasmania, Bass Strait islands, and New Guinea (Figure
E-47, page E-91).


Figure E-47. Tiger Snake Habitat


VENOMOUS SEA SNAKES

Banded sea snake
Laticauda colubrina

Description: Smooth-scaled snake that is a pale shade of blue with black bands.
Its oarlike tail provides propulsion in swimming.

Characteristics: Most active at night, swimming close to shore and at times
entering tide pools. Its venom is a very strong neurotoxin. Its victims are usually
fishermen who untangle these deadly snakes from large fish nets.

Length: Average 75 centimeters (30 inches), maximum 1.2 meters
(4 feet).

Distribution: Pacific Ocean coastal waters of Australia and southeast Asia;
Indian Ocean coastal waters. (Figure E-48, page E-93).


Figure E-48. Banded Sea Snake Habitat


WAIKIKI AQUARIUM

Yellow-bellied sea snake
Pelamis platurus

Description: Upper part of body is black or dark brown and lower part is bright
yellow.

Characteristics: A highly venomous snake belonging to the cobra family. This
snake is truly of the pelagic species—it never leaves the water to come to shore.
It has an oarlike tail to aid its swimming. This species is quick to defend itself.
Sea snakes do not really strike, but deliberately turn and bite if molested. A small
amount of their neurotoxic venom can cause death.

Length: Average 0.7 meter (2 feet), maximum 1.1 meters (3 1/2 feet).

Distribution: Throughout the Pacific Ocean from many of the Pacific islands to
Hawaii and to the coast of Central and South America (Figure E-49, page E-95).


Figure E-49. Yellow-Bellied Sea Snake Habitat


POISONOUS LIZARDS

Gila monster
Heloderma suspectum

Description: Robust, with a large head and a heavy tail. Its body is covered with
beadlike scales. It is capable of storing fat against lean times when food is
scarce. Its color is striking in rich blacks laced with yellow or pinkish scales.

Characteristics: Not an aggressive lizard, but ready to defend itself when
provoked. If approached too closely, it will turn toward the intruder with its mouth
open. If it bites, it hangs on tenaciously and must be pried off. Its venom glands
and grooved teeth are on its bottom jaw.

Habitat: Found in arid areas, coming out at night or early morning hours in
search of small rodents and bird eggs. During the heat of the day it stays under
brush or rocks.

Length: Average 30 centimeters (12 inches), maximum 50 centimeters (20
inches).

Distribution: Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, northern Mexico, and
extreme corner of southeast California (Figure E-50, page E-97).


Figure E-50. Gila Monster Habitat


JOHN H. TASHJIAN/FORT WORTH ZOO

Mexican beaded lizard
Heloderma horridum

Description: Less colorful than its cousin, the gila monster. It has black or pale
yellow bands or is entirely black.

Characteristics: Very strong legs let this lizard crawl over rocks and dig
burrows. It is short-tempered. It will turn and open its mouth in a threatening
manner when molested. Its venom is hemotoxic and potentially dangerous to
man.

Habitat: Found in arid or desert areas, often in rocky hillsides, coming out during
evening and early morning hours.

Length: Average 60 centimeters (24 inches), maximum 90 centimeters (35
inches).

Distribution: Mexico through Central America (Figure E-51, page E-99).


Figure E-51. Mexican Beaded Lizard Habitat


 Dangerous Fish and Mollusks

Fish and mollusks may be one of your major
sources of food. Therefore, it is wise to know
which ones are dangerous, what the dangers of
the various fish are, what precautions to take,
and what to do if you are injured by one of these
fish.

Fish and mollusks will present a danger in one of
three ways—by attacking and biting you, by
injecting toxic venom into you through venomous
spines or tentacles, and through eating fish or
mollusks whose flesh is toxic.

The danger of actually encountering one of these
dangerous fish is relatively small, but it is still
significant. Any one of these fish can kill you.
Avoid them if at all possible.

FISH THAT ATTACK MAN

The shark is usually the first fish that comes to mind when
considering fish that attack man. Other fish also fall in this
category, such as the barracuda, the moray eel, and the piranha.

SHARKS

Sharks are potentially the most dangerous fish that attack
people. The obvious danger of sharks is that they are capable of
seriously maiming or killing you with their bite. Of the many
shark species, only a relative few are dangerous. Most cases of
shark attacks on humans are by the white, tiger, hammerhead,
and blue sharks. There are also records of attacks by ground, gray
nurse, and mako sharks. Figure F-1, page F-2, shows various
sharks and their sizes.

Avoid sharks if at all possible. Follow the procedures
discussed in Chapter 16 to defend yourself against a shark attack.


Figure F-1. Sharks


Sharks vary in size, but there is no relationship between the
size of the shark and likelihood of attack. Even the smaller sharks
can be dangerous, especially when they are traveling in schools.

If bitten by a shark, the most important measure for you to
take is to stop the bleeding quickly. Blood in the water will
attract more sharks. Get yourself or the victim into a raft or to
shore as soon as possible. If in the water, form a circle around the
victim (if not alone), and stop the bleeding with a tourniquet.

OTHER FEROCIOUS FISH

In saltwater, other ferocious fish include the barracuda, sea
bass, and moray eel (Figure F-2). The sea bass is usually an open
water fish. It is dangerous due to its large size. It can remove
large pieces of flesh from a human. Barracudas and moray eels
have been known to attack man and inflict vicious bites. Be
careful of these two species when near reefs and in shallow water.
Moray eels are very aggressive when disturbed.

Figure F-2. Ferocious Fish


In fresh water, piranha are the only significantly dangerous
fish. They are inhabitants of the tropics and are restricted to
northern South America. These fish are fairly small, about 25
to 60 centimeters (10 to 24 inches), but they have very large teeth
and travel in large schools. They can devour a full-grown hog
in minutes.

VENOMOUS FISH AND INVERTEBRATES

There are several species of venomous fish and
invertebrates, all of which live in saltwater. All of these are
capable of injecting poisonous venom through spines located in
their fins, tentacles, or bites. Their venoms cause intense pain
and are potentially fatal. If injured by one of the following fish or
invertebrates, treat the injury as for snakebite.

Stingray
Dasyatidae species

Stingrays inhabit shallow water, especially in the tropics, but in temperate regions
as well. All have a distinctive ray shape, but coloration may make them hard to
spot unless they are swimming. The venomous, barbed spines in their tails can
cause severe or fatal injury.


Rabbitfish
Siganidae species

Rabbitfish are found predominantly on the reefs in the Pacific and Indian oceans.
They average about 30 centimeters (12 inches) long and have very sharp spines
in their fins. The spines are venomous and can inflict intense pain.

Scorpion fish or zebra fish
Scorpaenidae species

Scorpion fish live mainly in the reefs in the Pacific and Indian oceans. They vary
from 30 to 90 centimeters (12 to 35 inches) long, are usually reddish in coloration,
and have long wavy fins and spines. They inflict an intensely painful sting.


Siganus fish

The siganus fish is small, about 10 to 15 centimeters (4 to 6 inches) long, and
looks much like a small tuna. It has venemous spines in its dorsal and ventral
fins. These spines can inflict painful stings.

Stonefish
Synanceja species

Stonefish are found in the tropical waters of the Pacific and Indian oceans.
Averaging about 30 centimeters (12 inches) in length, their subdued colors and
lumpy shape provide them with exceptional camouflage. When stepped on, the
fins in the dorsal spine inflict an extremely painful and sometimes fatal wound.


Tang or surgeonfish
Acanthuridae species

Tang or surgeonfish average 20 to 25 centimeters (8 to 10 inches) in length, with
a deep body, small mouth, and bright coloration. They have needlelike spines on
the side of the tail that cause extremely painful wounds. This fish is found in all
tropical waters.

Toadfish
Batrachoididae species

Toadfish are found in the tropical waters off the coasts of South and Central
America. They are between 17.5 and 25 centimeters (7 to 10 inches) long and
have a dull color and large mouths. They bury themselves in the sand and may
be easily stepped on. They have very sharp, extremely poisonous spines on the
dorsal fin (back).


Weever fish
Trachinidae species

The weever fish is a tropical fish that is fairly slim and about
30 centimeters (12 inches) long. All its fins have venomous spines that cause a
painful wound.

Blue-ringed octopus
Hapalochlaena species

This small octopus is usually found on the Great Barrier Reef off eastern
Australia. It is grayish-white with iridescent blue ringlike markings. This octopus
usually will not bite unless stepped on or handled. Its bite is extremely poisonous
and frequently lethal.


Portuguese man-of-war
Physalis species

Although it resembles a jellyfish, the Portuguese man-of-war is actually a colony
of sea animals. Mainly found in tropical regions; however, the Gulf stream current
can carry it as far as Europe. It is also found as far south as Australia. The
floating portion of the man-of-war may be as small as 15 centimeters (6 inches),
but the tentacles can reach 12 meters (40 feet) in length. These tentacles inflict a
painful and incapacitating sting, but it is rarely fatal.

Cone shells
Conidae species

These cone-shaped shells have smooth, colorful mottling and long, narrow
openings in the base of the shell. They live under rocks, in crevices and coral
reefs, and along rocky shores and protected bays in tropical areas. All have tiny
teeth that are similar to hypodermic needles. They can inject an extremely
poisonous venom that acts very swiftly, causing acute pain, swelling, paralysis,
blindness, and possible death within hours. Avoid handling all cone shells.


Terebra shells
Terebridae species

These shells are found in both temperate and tropical waters. They are similar to
cone shells but much thinner and longer. They poison in the same way as cone
shells, but their venom is not as poisonous.

FISH WITH TOXIC FLESH

There are no simple rules to tell edible fish from those with
poisonous flesh. Figure 8-2, page 8-7, shows the most common
toxic fish. All of these fish contain various types of poisonous
substances or toxins in their flesh and are dangerous to eat. They
have the following common characteristics:

Most live in shallow water around reefs or lagoons.

Many have boxy or round bodies with hard shell-like skins
covered with bony plates or spines. They have small
parrotlike mouths, small gills, and small or absent belly
fins. Their names suggest their shape.

In addition to the above fish and their characteristics,
barracuda and red snapper fish may carry ciguatera, a toxin that
accumulates in the systems of fish that feed on tropical marine reefs.

Without specific local information, take the following
precautions:

Be very careful with fish taken from normally shallow
lagoons with sandy or broken coral bottoms. Reef-feeding
species predominate and some may be poisonous.


Avoid poisonous fish on the leeward side of an island. This
area of shallow water consists of patches of living corals
mixed with open spaces and may extend seaward for some
distance. Many different types of fish, some poisonous,
inhabit these shallow waters.

Do not eat fish caught in any area where the water is
unnaturally discolored. The discoloration may be indicative
of plankton that cause various types of toxicity in
plankton-feeding fish.

Try fishing on the windward side or in deep passages
leading from the open sea to the lagoon, but be careful of
currents and waves. Live coral reefs drop off sharply into
deep water and form a dividing line between the suspected
fish of the shallows and the desirable deep-water species.
Deepwater fish are usually not poisonous. You can catch the
various toxic fish even in deep water. Discard all suspected
reef fish, whether caught on the ocean or the reef side.


Ropes and Knots

TERMINOLOGY

To be able to construct shelters, traps and snares, weapons
and tools, and other devices; you should have a basic knowledge of
ropes and knots and some of the terminology used with them. The
terms are as follows:

Bight. A simple bend of rope in which the rope does not
cross itself.

Dressing the knot. The orientation of all knot parts so that
they are properly aligned, straightened, or bundled.
Neglecting this can result in an additional 50 percent
reduction in knot strength. This term is sometimes used
for setting the knot which involves tightening all parts of
the knot so they bind on one another and make the knot
operational. A loosely tied knot can easily deform under
strain and change, becoming a slipknot or worse, untying.

Fraps. A means of tightening the lashings by looping the
rope perpendicularly around the wraps that hold the spars
or sticks together.

Lashings. A means of using wraps and fraps to tie two or
three spars or sticks together to form solid corners or to
construct tripods. Lashings begin and end with clove
hitches.

Lay. The lay of the rope is the same as the twist of the
rope.

Loop. A loop is formed by crossing the running end over or
under the standing end to form a ring or circle in the rope.

Pig tail. That part of the running end that is left after
tying the knot. It should be no more than 4 inches long to
conserve rope and prevent interference.

Running end. The free or working end of a rope. This is the
part of the rope you are actually using to tie the knot.

Standing end. The static part of rope or rest of the rope
besides the running end.


Turn. A loop around an object such as a post, rail, or ring
with the running end continuing in the opposite direction
to the standing end. A round turn continues to circle and
exits in the same general direction as the standing end.

Whipping. Any method of preventing the end of a rope
from untwisting or becoming unwound. It is done by
wrapping the end tightly with a small cord, tape or other
means. It should be done on both sides of an anticipated
cut in a rope, before cutting the rope in two. This prevents
the rope from immediately untwisting.

Wraps (Figure G-1). Simple wraps of rope around two poles
or sticks (square lashing) or three poles or sticks (tripod
lashing). Wraps begin and end with clove hitches and get
tighter with fraps. All together, they form a lashing.

Figure G-1. Wraps


BASIC KNOTS

The basic knots and methods of tying them that you should
know for your survival are as follows:

Half-hitch. This is the simplest of all knots and used to be
the safety, or finishing, knot for all Army knots. Because it
had a tendency to undo itself without load, it has since
been replaced by the overhand.

Overhand (Figure G-2). This is the simple knot that most
people tie everyday as the first half of tying their shoes. It
can also be used to temporarily whip the end of a rope.
This knot should replace the half-hitch as a finishing knot
for other knots. This knot alone will reduce the strength of
a straight rope by 55 percent.

Figure G-2. Overhand Knot

Square (Figure G-3, page G-4). A good, simple knot for
general purpose use. This knot is basically two overhand
knots that are reversed, as in Right over Left, Left over
Right. It is used to tie the ends of two ropes of equal
diameter together (just like your shoe laces) and must be
secured with an overhand on both ends. It is easy to
inspect, as it forms two loops and is easy to untie after
being loaded.

Round turn and two half-hitches (Figure G-4, page G-4).
This is the main anchor knot for one-rope bridges and other
applications when a good anchor knot is required and where
high loads would make other knots jam and difficult to
untie. It is most used to anchor rope to a pole or tree.


Figure G-3. Square Knot Secured by Overhand Knots

Figure G-4. Round Turn and Two Half-Hitches

Clove hitch and end-of-the-line clove hitch (Figures G-5 and
G-6, page G-5). It can be used to fasten a rope to a tree or
pipe and also puts little strain on the rope. It is an easy
anchor knot but tension must remain on the knot or it will
slip. This can be remedied by making another loop around
the object and under the center of the clove hitch.


Figure G-5. Clove Hitch

Figure G-6. End-of-the-Line Clove Hitch

Sheep shank (Figure G-7). A method of shortening a rope,
it may also be used to take the load off of a weak spot in
the rope. It is a temporary knot unless the eyes are
fastened to the standing part of the rope on both ends.

Figure G-7. Sheep Shank


Double sheet bend (Figure G-8). This knot is used to tie
together the ends of two ropes of equal or unequal diameter.
It will also join wet rope and not slip or draw tight under
load. It can be used to tie the ends of several ropes to the
end of one rope. When a single rope is tied to multiple ropes,
the bight is formed with the multiple of ropes.

Figure G-8. Double Sheet Bend

Prusik (Figures G-9 through G-11, pages G-6 and G-7).
This knot ties a short rope around a longer rope (for
example, a sling rope around a climbing rope) in such a
manner that the short rope will slide on the climbing rope
if no tension is applied, and will hold if tension is applied
on the short rope. This knot can be tied with an end of rope
or bight of rope. When tied with an end of rope, the knot is
finished off with a bowline. The nonslip nature of the knot
on another rope allows climbing of ropes with foot holds. It
can also be used to anchor ropes or the end of a traction
splint on a branch or ski pole.

Figure G-9. Prusik, End of Line


Figure G-10. Prusik, End of Line and Center of Line

Figure G-11. Prusik, End of Line With Bowline for Safety

Bowline and bowline finished with an overhand knot
(Figure G-12, page G-8). Around-the-body bowline was the
basic knot used for rescue for many years as it provided a
loop, which could be placed around the body, that would
not slip nor tighten up under strain. It has been replaced
by the figure 8 in most applications as the figure 8 does not
weaken the rope as much.


Figure G-12. Bowline and Bowline Finished
With an Overhand Knot

Figure 8 and retraceable figure 8 (Figure G-13). This knot is
the main rescue knot in use today. It has the advantage of
being stronger than the bowline and is easier to tie and
check. Its one disadvantage is that when wet, it may be
more difficult to untie than the bowline after being stressed.
The figure 8 (or figure-of-eight) can be used as an anchor
knot on fixed ropes. It can also be used to prevent the end of
a rope from slipping through a fastening or loop in another
rope when a knot larger than an overhand knot is needed.

Figure G-13. Figure 8 and Retraceable Figure 8


VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION LASHINGS

There are numerous items that require lashings for
construction. Figures G-14 through G-16, pages G-9 and G-10,
show types of lashings that you can use when constructing
tripods, shelters, and racks. Refer to paragraphs 12-25 and 12-26,
pages 12-10 and 12-11, if using field-expedient rope.

Figure G-14. Shears Lashing

Figure G-15. Square Lashing


Figure G-16. Tripod Lashing


Clouds: Foretellers of Weather

About 200 years ago an Englishman classified
clouds according to what they looked like to a
person seeing them from the ground. He grouped
them into three classes and gave them Latin
names: cirrus, cumulus, and stratus. These three
names, alone and combined with other Latin
words, are still used to identify different cloud
formations.

By being familiar with the different cloud
formation and what weather they portend, you
can take appropriate action for your protection.


NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC

ADMINISTRATION

Cirrus clouds

Cirrus clouds are the very high clouds that look like thin streaks or curls. They
are usually 6 kilometers (4 miles) or more above the earth and are usually a sign
of fair weather. In cold climates, however, cirrus clouds that begin to multiply and
are accompanied by increasing winds blowing steadily from a northerly direction
indicate an oncoming blizzard.

NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC

ADMINISTRATION

Cumulus clouds

Cumulus clouds are fluffy, white, heaped-up clouds. These clouds, which are
much lower than cirrus clouds, are often fair weather clouds. They are apt to
appear around midday on a sunny day, looking like large cotton balls with flat
bottoms. As the day advances, they may become bigger and push higher into the
atmosphere, piling up to appear like a mountain of clouds. These can turn into
storm clouds.


NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC

ADMINISTRATION

Stratus clouds

Stratus clouds are very low, gray clouds, often making an even gray layer over
the whole sky. These clouds generally mean rain.

NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC

ADMINISTRATION

Nimbus clouds

Nimbus clouds are rain clouds of uniform grayness that extend over the entire sky.


NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC

ADMINISTRATION

Cumulonimbus clouds

Cumulonimbus is the cloud formation resulting from a cumulus cloud building up,
extending to great heights, and forming in the shape of an anvil. You can expect
a thunderstorm if this cloud is moving in your direction.

NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC

ADMINISTRATION

Cirrostratus clouds

Cirrostratus is a fairly uniform layer of high stratus clouds that are darker than
cirrus clouds. Cirrostratus clouds indicate good weather.


NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC

ADMINISTRATION

Cirrocumulus clouds

Cirrocumulus is a small, white, round cloud at a high altitude. Cirrocumulus
clouds indicate good weather.

NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC

ADMINISTRATION

Scuds

A loose, vapory cloud (scud) driven before the wind is a sign of continuing
bad weather.


Evasion Plan of Action Format

Properly planning for the possible contingencies
that may occur during a mission is a positive step
toward being able to cope successfully with the
changes in situation. The EPA is a critical
document to an individual soldier or to a unit faced
with evading enemy forces. First, it is a plan that
will provide evaders a starting point to begin
operating effectively once evasion has begun.
Second, it gives recovery forces the ability to know
what the evaders are planning to do, thus making
recovery operations easier. A well-thought-out EPA
that everyone can understand is an important
document to the evader.

Note: Upon deployment, you may carry with you
the information compiled in A through E of the
SITUATION paragraph only.

TASK ORGANIZATION (NAME AND RANK FOR EACH CREW
OR TEAM MEMBER)

I. SITUATION

A. Country Climatic Zones

1. Tropical Rainy Climate

2. Dry Climate

3. Temperate Climate

4. Cold Climate (wet/dry)

5. Polar

B. Climatic Land Zones (whatever is applicable)

1. Coasts—Seasons

a. Temperature

b. Precipitation

c. General wind direction

d. Cloud cover


2. Plains (refer to coasts)

3. Deserts (refer to coasts)

4. Plateaus (refer to coasts)

5. Mountains (refer to coasts)

6. Swamps (refer to coasts)

C. Light Data (BMNT, EENT, moonrise, moonset, percent of
illumination)

D. Terrain

1. Neighboring Borders

2. General Terrain Zones

a. Coasts

(1) General description and size

(2) Vegetation

(a) Natural

1. Tundra

2. Coniferous forest

3. Deciduous forest

4. Temperate grassland

5. Marshland swamp

6. Desert

7. Pastoral and arable land

8. Tropical forest

9. Savanna

(b) Cultivated

(c) Concealment (density)

(d) Growing seasons

(e) Edible

1. Food value

2. Procurement (young or mature)

3. Preparation

4. Cooking

(f) Poisonous

(g) Medical use

(h) Other uses

(3) Animals and fish


(a) Domestic

1. Food value

2. Procurement

3. Preparation

4. Cooking

5. Medical use

6. Dangerous

7. Poisonous

8. Other uses

(b) Wildlife (animals, fish, insects, and reptiles)
(see domestic)

(4) Water sources

(a) Procurement

(b) Potability

(c) Preparation

b. Plains (refer to coasts)

c. Deserts (refer to coasts)

d. Plateaus (refer to coasts)

e. Mountains (refer to coasts)

f. Swamps (refer to coasts)

g. Rivers and lakes (refer to coasts)

3. Natural Land Barriers

a. Mountain ranges

b. Large rivers

E. Civilian Population

1. Numbers of Population

a. Totals and density (by areas)

b. Divisions of urban, suburban, rural, and nomads

2. Dress and Customs

3. Internal Security Forces

4. Controls and Restrictions (explain)

5. Border Area Security

F. Friendly Forces

1. FEBA/FLOT

2. Closest Units


3. Location of Friendly or Neutral Embassies, Liaisons,
Consulates

4. Recovery Sites (explain), LZs en Route

G. Enemy Forces

1. Doctrine

2. Tactics

3. Intelligence Reports

a. Identification

b. Location

c. Activity

d. Strength

e. Night-sighting devices

II. MISSION—Conduct Avoidance of Capture on Order From-To

III. EXECUTION (include planned routes and actions for
ingress and egress)

A. Overall Plan (discuss actions for first 48 hours and actions
after 48 hours)

1. When Do You Initiate Movement?

2. Location of Initial Movement Point

3. Actions at Initial Movement Point

4. Location of Hide Areas

5. Movement to Hide Areas

6. Actions Around the Hide Sites

7. Movement to Hide Sites

8. Actions at Hide Sites

a. Construction

b. Occupation

c. Movement out of hide site

9. Location of Hole-up Areas

10. Actions at Hole-up Areas

11. Location of Recovery Site(s)

B. Other Missions

1. Movement

a. Formation

b. Individual positions

c. Navigation


d. Stealth/listening

e. Security

(1) Noise

(2) Light

(3) All-around security

f. Cover, concealment, and camouflage

g. Actions at breaks

(1) Listening (5 to 10 minutes)

(2) Long

h. Actions at danger areas (enemy observation or fire)

i. Actions for enemy sighting/contact

j. Rally points/rendezvous points

(1) Locations

(2) Actions

2. Actions in the Care of Sick or Injured

a. Initial movement point

b. Along the movement route

3. Actions for Crossing Borders

4. Actions at Recovery Site(s)

5. Other Actions

6. Training and Rehearsals

7. Inspections Before Starting Movement

IV. SERVICE AND SUPPORT

A. Survival Aids

1. Health

a. First aid

b. Disease

2. Water

a. Procurement

b. Purification

c. Carrying

3. Food

a. Procurement

b. Preparation


c. Cooking

d. Carrying

4. Shelter and Comfort/Warmth

5. Fire Starting

6. Recovery

7. Travel

B. Survival Kit(s)

C. Special Equipment

D. Inspections

1. Responsibilities

2. Equipment, Survival Items, and Kit(s)

V. COMMAND AND SIGNAL

A. Chain of Command (list evasion team chain of
command)

B. Signals (include mission number, aircraft or team call
sign or identifier, crew or team position, type of
aircraft, call sign suffix, and additional information as
needed)

1. Frequencies

a. Primary

b. Alternate

2. Communication Schedule

a. Primary

b. Alternate

3. Codes

a. Letter of the week

b. Number and word of the day

c. SAR Dot

d. Load signal

e. Bona fides


Glossary

BMNT beginning morning nautical twilight

C Celsius

cGy centigray

cm centimeter

CNS central nervous system

CO2 carbon dioxide

COA course of action

CPR cardiopulmonary resuscitation

E&R evasion and recovery

EENT end evening nautical twilight

EPA evasion plan of action

F Fahrenheit

FEBA forward edge of the battle area

FLOT forward line of own troops

HELP heat escaping lessening posture

IEP initial evasion point

IV intravenous

kg kilogram

kph kilometers per hour

LBE load-bearing equipment

LZ landing zone

M meter

mg milligram

mph miles per hour

MRE meal, ready-to-eat

MROD manual reverse osmosis desalinator


NBC nuclear, biological, and chemical

POL petroleum, oils, and lubricants

RDF radio direction finder

RSSK rigid seat survival kit

SAR search and rescue

SARSAT search and rescue satellite-aided tracking

SERE survival, evasion, resistance, and escape

SMCT soldier’s manual of common tasks

SOP standing operating procedure

U.S. United States

USAJFKSWCS U.S. Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare
Center and School

USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics


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The Physiology of Cold Weather Survival. DTIC Technical Report AD 784268,
Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development Report No. 620,
Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Wright Patterson AFB, OH.
April 1973.

Russell, Findlay E. Snake Venom Poisoning. Philadelphia: J.P. Lippincott
Company, 1983.

Ryan, Chris. The One That Got Away. Washington: Brassey’s, 1998

SERE Guide, Soviet Far East, Fleet Intelligence Center-Pacific, Box 500, FPO
San Francisco, CA 96610. March 1977.


Sharks. Information Bulletin No. 1, 3636th Combat Crew Training Wing, ATC,
Fairchild AFB, WA.

Squier, Thomas L. Living Off The Land. Rutland, VT: Academy Press, 1989.

Summer Mountain Leaders Student Handout, Mountain Warfare Training
Center, Bridgeport, CA.

TC 21-3. Soldier’s Handbook for Individual Operations and Survival in Cold
Weather Areas. 17 March 1986.

TC 90-6-1. Military Mountaineering. 26 April 1989.

Tomikel, John. Edible Wild Plants of Pennsylvania and New York. Pittsburgh,
PA: Allegheny Press, 1973.

Toxic Fish and Mollusks. Information Bulletin No. 12, Environmental
Information Division, Air Training Command, Air University Library,
Maxwell AFB, AL. April 1975.

Werner, David. Where There Is No Doctor: A Village Health Care Handbook,
Rev. Ed. Berkeley: The Hesperian Foundation, 1992.

Wild Edible and Poisonous Plants of Alaska. Cooperative Extension Service,
University of Alaska and U.S.D.A. Cooperating, Publication No. 28, 1981.

Wilkerson, James A. Medicine for Mountaineering & Other Wilderness
Activities, 4th Ed. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 1992.

Wiseman, John. The SAS Survival Handbook. London: Collins Harvill, 1986.


Index

A

aches, pains, and sprains, medicinal
plant use for, 9-14

aircraft

acknowledgments, 19-11

pickup or rescue, 16-26

vectoring procedures, 19-12

airway obstruction, 4-8, 4-9

animals (specific types listed separately)

as signs of water, 14-6

dangerous, 11-1

for food, 8-1–8-10

antifungal washes, 9-16

antihemorrhagics, 9-13

antiseptics, 9-14

archery equipment, 12-9

arrow points, 12-8

audio signals, 19-8, 19-9

B

bait, 8-13

bamboo thickets, 6-4

banana tree, 6-5, 6-6

barter, 22-3

bats, 11-5

beaching techniques, 16-24

bees, 11-3, D-8

biological agents and effects,
23-17–23-19

birds, 8-9, 8-10, 8-37

bites and stings, 4-21–4-25, 11-2,
15-12

blast injuries, 23-3

bleeding

capillary, control of, 4-11

arterial, control of, 4-10

venous, control of, 4-11

body fluid loss, results of, 4-2

body signals, 19-10

bola, 12-10

border crossings, 20-9

bottle trap, 8-25

bow trap, 8-23

breathing problems, 4-8

burns, 4-31

butchering game, 8-37–8-39

C

camouflage, 21-2–21-4

Canadian jays, 15-24

carbon monoxide poisoning, 15-13

cardiopulmonary resuscitation
(CPR), 4-10

centipedes and millipedes, 11-3

channelization, 8-13

chemical agents, 23-22–23-24

cholera, 6-15

clothing and insulation, 12-13

clouds, types of, H-2–H-5

codes and signals,19-9


cold weather

basic principles of, 15-4

hygiene in, 15-6

injuries, 4-31, 15-7–15-12, 16-8

medical aspects of, 15-7

regions and locations, 15-1

colds and sore throats, 9-14

compass, improvised, 18-8

constipation, 9-15, 15-12, 16-27

contact dermatitis, 10-3, C-12–C-16

cooking and eating utensils, 12-14–
12-16

D

Dakota fire hole, 7-3, 7-4

debris hut, 5-16

decoction, 9-12, 9-14, 9-15

dehydration, 4-2, 4-3, 15-11

desert survival

camouflage, 13-5

environmental factors, 13-3–13-7

hazards, 13-12

need for water, 13-7

precautions to take, 13-11

shelters, 5-19–5-21

terrain, 13-1–13-3

digital ligation, 4-14

direction-finding methods

moon, 18-5

stars, 18-5–18-7

sun and shadows, 18-2–18-4

dislocations, 4-20

down at sea, 16-1

drag noose, 8-15

drying meat, 8-41

dysentery, 6-13

E

edged weapons, 12-4–12-8

edible and medicinal plants,
App B

electric eels, 11-8

environmental injuries, 4-32–4-35

expressed juice, 9-13, 9-14

F

fallout, 23-5

fevers, 9-14

figure 4 deadfall, 8-20, 8-22

fire

building, 7-6, 7-7

lighting, 7-8–7-10

cold weather, 15-17

principles of, 7-1

site selection and
preparation of, 7-2

laying, 7-12

materials for, 7-5, 7-6

wall, 7-2, 7-3

fire-plow, 7-10

firecraft, 7-1

fish

and mollusks, F-1

that attack man, F-1

venomous, 11-9, 11-10, F-4–
F-8

poison, 8-33, 8-34, 9-14

traps, 8-30, 8-31

with toxic flesh, F-10

fishhooks, improvised, 8-27, 8-28

fishing

chop, 8-33

devices, 8-27–8-30


hints, 16-20

flint and steel, 7-9

flotation devices,17-10, 17-11

flukes, 6-15

food

crustaceans as, 8-3

insects as, 8-2

plants as, 9-9, 9-10

sources of, 4-4, 4-5

mammals as, 8-10

mollusks as, 8-3–8-5, 16-29

reptiles as, 8-8

worms as, 8-2, 16-29

food procurement in

arctic and subarctic regions,
15-22–15-24

biological, chemical, or
contaminated areas, 23-25

sea survival, 16-18–16-20

seashore survival, 16-28

tropical areas, 14-7

fording a stream, 17-4

forests

rain, 14-2

scrub and thorn, 14-3

semievergreen seasonal and
monsoon, 14-3

fractures, bone, 4-18

freshwater swamps, 14-4

frostbite, 4-33, 15-9, 16-21

fuel, 7-5

fungal infections, 4-30

G

gas and cramps, 9-16

germs, 23-17

Gila monster, 11-7, E-96

gill net, 8-29

ground-to-air emergency code,
19-9

grouse, 15-24

H

health needs, 4-1–4-8

heat casualties, 13-10

HELP body position, 16-4

hemorrhoids, 9-15

herbal medicines, 4-35, 4-36

hide site, 20-6, 20-7

hole-up areas, 20-7, 20-8

hornets, 11-3, D-9

hospitality, 22-3

human scent, removal of, 8-10

hygiene, 4-5–4-8, 15-6

hypothermia, 4-34, 15-8, 16-8

I

immersion foot or rot, 15-10,
16-21

immunizations, 4-22

infusion, 9-12, 9-14

ingestion poisoning, 10-4

insect bites, 15-12

insects and arachnids, 11-2–
11-4, App D

insulation, field-expedient, 12-13

intestinal parasites, 4-35, 9-15

invertebrates, venomous, F-8,
F-9

itching, 9-7, 9-15

J


jungle types, 14-2–14-4

K

killing devices, 8-25–8-27, 12-4

kindling, 7-5

knives, 12-4–12-7

knots, App G

Komodo dragon, 11-8

L

lashing and cordage, 12-10

leeches, 6-15, 11-4

lice, 4-21

lifesaving steps, 1-20, 4-9

lizards

dangerous, 11-7, E-96–E-99

Mexican beaded, E-98

poisonous, E-96–E-99

M

meat, preservation of, 8-39–8-41

medical emergencies, 4-8, 4-9

medicinal plant use

remedies, 9-13–9-16

terms and definitions, 9-12

mosquitoes, 4-21

movement in hostile areas, 20-2,
20-4, 20-9

mushrooms, 9-3, 10-3

N

noosing wand, 8-19

nuclear effects

bursts, 23-3

injuries, 23-3, 23-4

radiation, 23-2

O

Ojibwa bird pole, 8-18

open wounds and treatment,
4-27–4-29

opossums, 8-11

owls, 15-24

oxalate compounds, 9-3

P

Paiute deadfall, 8-22

panel signals, 19-10

parachute hammock, 5-12

pig spear shaft, 8-24

piranhas, 11-8

plantain tree, 6-5

plants

air, 6-7

food uses of, 4-4, 9-8, 9-11,
App B

identification of, 9-3–9-6

poisonous, 10-1–10-3,
App C

platypus, 8-11, 11-9

poisonous snakes

of Africa and Asia, 11-7,
E-40–E-83

of Australia, 11-7, E-84–E-91

of Europe, 11-7, E-32–E-39

of the Americas, 11-6, E-10–
E-31

polar bear, 8-11, 15-23

political allegiance, 22-3

poncho, 5-3–5-6, 17-7–17-9

porcupines, 15-24

poultice, 9-12


pressure

dressing, 4-11, 4-12

point, 4-13

ptarmigans, 15-24

R

radiation, 23-2, 23-4–23-6

raft

Australian poncho, 17-7

brush, 17-6

building an expedient, 17-5–17-10

procedures, 16-9–16-14

ravens, 15-24

residual radiation, 23-2, 23-4

ropes, App G

rucksack, 12-12

S

saltwater

dangers, 11-9–11-11, 16-27,
F-4–F-9

sores, 16-21

swamps, 14-4

savannas, 14-3

scorpion, 4-23, 11-2, D-2

sea creatures, dangerous, 11-12, F-8,
F-9

sea urchins, 11-9, 16-28

sea survival

detecting land, 16-23

down at sea, 16-1

medical problems, 16-20, 16-21

raft procedures, 16-9

rescue procedures, 16-2

shark dangers, 11-9, 16-22,
16-23

swimming ashore, 16-25

seal

bearded, 8-11

blubber, 15-24

earless, 15-23

seashore survival, hazards of,
16-27

seaweeds, 9-10

secondary jungle, 14-3

sedatives, 9-15

sharks, F-1, F-2

shelters

beach shade, 5-18

cold weather, 15-13–15-17

desert, 5-19–5-21

fallen tree, 15-17

lean-to, cold weather, 15-16

lean-to, field-expedient, 5-12,
5-14

natural, 5-16

no-pole parachute tepee,
5-10

one-man, 5-10, 5-11

site selection, 5-1

three-pole parachute tepee,
5-6

tree-pit snow, 15-16

types of and building, 5-3–
5-21

twenty-man life raft, 15-17

shock, 4-9, 4-16

short water rations, 16-17

sign language, 22-2

signaling techniques, 19-1

simple snare, 8-14

skin diseases and ailments, 4-29,
4-30

skinning game, 8-37–8-39


smoking meat, 8-39

snakes

fangs, E-1, E-2

groups, E-2–E-9

poisonous versus nonpoisonous,
E-3

preparing for cooking, 8-36

sea, E-91–E-95

venom, E-2

snakebite, 4-24–4-27, E-1

snake-free areas, 11-6

snow, 15-10, 15-11, 15-14–15-16

soap, making of, 4-5

spiders

black widow, 4-23, 11-3

brown house (recluse), 4-23, D-3

fiddleback, 11-2, D-3

funnelweb, 4-23, 11-2, D-3

sprains, 4-21

squirrel pole, 8-17

stakeout, 8-28

stalking methods, 21-5, 21-6

standing operating procedures (SOP),
20-3

still

aboveground, 6-8

belowground, 6-11–6-13

construction of, 6-8–6-13

stingrays, 11-9

stress, need for, 2-2

sunburn, 15-11, 16-22

survival

attitude, 2-9, 2-10

kits, 3-3–3-5, App A

reactions, 2-6–2-9

stressors, 2-3–2-5

swamp bed, 5-14

swimming

ashore, 16-25

backstroke, 16-4

breaststroke, 16-3

dog paddle, 16-3

sidestroke, 16-3

T

tarantulas, 4-24, 11-3, D-5

tea, 9-12

thermal radiation, 23-2

ticks, 4-21, 11-4, D-10

tides and undertow, 16-35

tinder, 7-5

tisane, 9-12

tools, field-expedient, 12-1

tourniquet, 4-14, 4-15

toxins, 23-18

traction splint, 4-18, 4-19

trading, 22-3

traps and snares

channelization to, 8-13

concealment of, 8-12

construction of, 8-14–8-25

determining if run or trail,
8-12

removing or masking human
scent around, 8-12

using bait with, 8-13

travel, arctic and jungle, 14-4,
15-25

treadle spring snare, 8-20

trench foot, 4-33, 15-10

tropics, 14-1–14-4

turtles, 11-8


twitch-up, 8-15, 8-16

typhoid, 6-15

U

underground fireplace, 7-3

undertow, 16-35

Universal Edibility Test, 9-6, 9-7

V

visual signals, 19-2–19-8

W

wasps, 4-22, 11-3, D-9

water

crossing locations, 17-1–17-3

devices, 6-15

obstacles, 17-12, 17-13

purification, 6-13

sources, 6-1–6-3, 6-14

water procurement

arctic regions, 15-20, 15-21

biological, chemical, and
contaminated areas, 23-
20, 23-24

sea survival, 16-17

tropical areas, 14-5–14-7

weapons

clubs, 12-2–12-4

field-expedient, 12-1

rabbit stick, 8-26, 12-8

simple club, 12-2

sling, 8-27

sling club, 12-4

spear, 8-26, 12-7

throwing stick, 12-8

weighted club, 12-2

weather signs, 15-26, 15-27,
App H

whiteout conditions, 15-25

windchill, 15-2, 15-3

worms or intestinal parasites,
4-31, 9-15

wounds, 4-27


FM 3-05.70 (FM 21-76)

17 MAY 2002

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

ERIC K. SHINSEKI

General, United States Army

Chief of Staff

Official:



JOEL B. HUDSON

Administrative Assistant to the

Secretary of the Army

0213702

DISTRIBUTION:

Active Army, Army National Guard, and US Army Reserve: To be distributed in accordance with the initial

distribution number 110175, requirements for FM 3-05.70.


PIN: 078014-000

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