How to Stay Alive in tbe Woods

O 1956bV Btdford Angb

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Angier, Bradford.
Fow to stay alive in the woods-

Oridnatly publisbed as: Livin g off the country.

l. dutdooi tife. 2. Wilderness survival. I-Title.
GV19I.6.A6295 1962 613.6',9 84m690
ISBN 042J28050-5
How to Stay Alive in tbe Woods gngircllu gp-peqred utder the tttlc Uvin8
Off the Country: How to Stay Alive in the Woods

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How to StayAlive
in the Woods


BRADFORD ANGIER

originallypublishedas
Living Off theCountry


Illustrated by Yena Angier

COLLIERBOOKS
MacmillanPublishingCompany
NEW YORK
COLLIERMACMILLAN PUBLISHERS

LONDON


To my friend

COLONEL TOWNSEND WHELEN

who early began making marginal notes
on the book of nature, some of whose
most valuable chapters he is still writing.


Conlents
Chapter

PART ONE-ASUSTENANCE

1. Every NecessityIs Free
2. Living Of The CountrY
3. ScienceOf Staying Alive
4. Food In The Farther Places
5. Yours For The Eating
6. Go And Get It
7. Always A IVay
8. No Dishes To Wash
g.
Thirst

PART TWO_IVAITMTIT

10" Facts Of Ughting Fires

11. SpeakingOf Warmth
12. Shelter For The Makirg
13. Wilderness Homes
14. Choice Of Clothing
15. Keeping Covered
PARTMRIENTATION

16. Staying Found
17. Ifuowing TVhereYou Are
18. Afoot In Big CountrY
19. Camping And Sigpaling
20. Getting Out By Yourself
11
13
23
31
4T
51
67
79
89

IO7
lr7
I27
135
r45
1s5

167
177
191
195
209

7


Contents

I I

PART FOUR-SAFETY

21. KeepingOut Of Trouble 221
22. Getting Out Of Trouble 233
2,3. EmergencyAid 245
24. Backwoods Medicine 253

25. Survival Kit 265

26. Being Ready 273


PART ONE

SUSTENA[SCE

"A party living off the country
must know how to get full value
from everything available especially
in the way of f66d."-ft oyal
CanadianMounted Police


Chopter I

Every Necessifyls Free

AlwoNB AT ANy rrMB can suddenlyfind himself dependenton
his own resourcesfor survival. It costs very little time, money,
and eftort to be ready for such an emergency. If you are not
ready, it may cost your life.

You may becomelost or strandedin the woods. Thouaands
among North America's more than 30 miltion annually licensed
fshermen and hunters do eachy€tr, many fatally. Yet
almost invariably where such individuals suffer and all too
often succumb so needlessly,wild food is free for the picking
meat for the taking, fire for the lighting, clothes for the
making, and shelter for the satisfaction of building.

You may be in an automobile that is stalled by mishap or
storm in an unsettledarea, a not uncommon occurrencethat
frequently results in unnecessary hardship and tragedy. Perhaps
you'll be a passenger in an aircraft that has to make a
forced landing. Perhaps you'Il be shipwrecked.

It may even happen that you and yours will be compelled
to seek sanctuaryin the wildernessbecauseof those ever increasing
threats to civilization itself-an atom bomb catas'
trophe or the even more terrible microscopic foes of germ
warfare,

l1


12 | How to Siay Alive in the Woods

"Man'$ capacitieshavenever beenmeasured;nor are we to

iudge what \ile can do by any precedents,so little has been
tried," pointed Thoreau. "Slhat people say you can not do,
you try and find you can."

No hard and fast nrles can be laid down for survival anywhere,
particularly in the farther places.Conditions vary. So
do localities. Especialtydo individuals. Initiative on the other
hand may be guidedby a eonsiderationof general principles

such as tbose we can here absorb.

Many of the pitfalls, too, may be so recognized and evaded
that otherwisemight have to be learnedby unnecessarilyhard
and often dangerouspersonalexperience.It will be far more
satisfactory to deal with natural difficulties by adaptation and
avoidancethan by attempting to overcomethem by force.

Using the ways of living oft the country discussedherein
as a foundation for ingenuity and common sense' anybody

who suddenly finds himself dependent upon his own f€'

sourceswill have a better chanse both to keep living and to

walk away from any hardships smiling.

The wilderness is too big to fight. Yet for those of us
who'll take advantage of what it freely offers, nattre will
furnish every necessity.These necesstuiesare foo4 warmth,
shelter, fltd clothing.


Chopter2

Living Cff The Counfry

Olre DAYYou may be boating down the PeaceRiver near the
start of its more than 2000 rnile journey, inland to Great
SlaveLake and thenceas the Mackenzie to the Arctic Ocean.
Soon after the headwatersof this wildernesshighway mingle
in the Continental Trough, the river turns abru-ptly lastward
to flow with surprising tranquility through the entire rangd of
the Rocky Mountains. If you witl watch the left shore after
chuting tbrough the minor turbulence known as Finlay Rap.
ids, your eyes will tikely as not catch the platinnm gleam of

Lost Cabin Creek.

Here it was at the tunr of the century, during those apical
days on the world's gold-fever chart, that four prospectors
shared the cabin from which the stream has taken its name.

Their grubstake dwindling, three watched with growing help.
lessnessthe first of their nunrber die, by which time the survivors
themselveshad become so feeble that they lacked the

vigor to open the frozen ground outside.

They buried their eompanion in the only spot they could
find earth still loose enough to dig. A secondprospector died
and had also to be there interred. Before the fornth succumbed,
he had by himself managedto scoop orrt enough of
a grave so that a third emaciatedbody cciuld join the others
already beneath thE cabin floor.

13


14 | How to Stay Nive in the \iloods

Yet as you will be able to testify from what you can see
while boating past Lost Cabin Creek, and as I can substantiate
from having camped there on several occasions, the
vicinity abounds the year around with wild edibles.

Sustenance in the Silent Places

Stalvation is not a great deal more pleasantthan most of
us would expecl The body becomesauto-cannibalistic after a
few foodless hours. The carbohydratesin the systemare de'
voued first The fats follow.

This might not be too disagreeable,inasmuch as reducing

diets seek to accomplish much the same result, but then proteins
from muscles and tendons are consumed to maintain
the dwindling strength their loss more gravely weakens.

No reasonablenourishmentshould therefore be scorned if
one needs food. ThE Pilgrims derived considerable nutriment
during their first desperateMassachusettswinter from gfoundnuts
which are similar to small potatoes. Somenorthern GX'
plorers including Richardson,Fratlklin, and membersof their
parties lived for weeks and sometimes months almost entirely
on the lichen knou'n as rock tripe.

Wild turnips kept up lohn Colter's strength when the ffiourttain
man made his ndtabte escapefrom thc Indians.-Beaver'
meat was a main item on the menu while Samuel Black explored
the Finlay River. IVhen regular rations on the l"ewis
and Clark expedition had to be reduced to one biscuit a day,
it was the sweet yellow fruit of the papaw tree that kept the

men going.

There is no need to explain why if any of us are ever
stranded and hungry in the wilderness, we will want to start
while our sEeptgh is near its maximum not to passup any

promising sourcesof sustenance.

Food Prejudices

Few will disagree, at least not when the moment of decision
is at hand, that there is a point where luxuries as such
become relatively unimportant"


Living Off The Corrntry I fr
one of the luxuries which we esteemmost highly is the
freedom to indulge our taste prejud.ices.These t*tl prejudices,
a better understanding of which may one day prove
beneficial, are conrmonly based on two factors.

First: there is a human tendency to look down upon certain
foods as being beneathone's social station Where grouse
have been particularly thick in the Northeast, I've seenthem

scorned among backwoodsmenas a "poor man's dish' The
same season in the Northwest where therc happenedto be a
scarcity of grouse but numerous varying har;, &e former
were esteemedwhile I heard habitants apologizing for having
rabbits in their pots. As it is everywhere in such matters, the
lower the often selfdesiguated station in life is, the more pro.
nounced sush evaluationsbecome.

Second: it is natural to like the food to which we become

accustomed. We in the United States and Canada have our
wheaL The Mexican has his corn, the Oriental his rice. These
grains we like also, but it would seem a hardship to have to
eat them every day as we do wheat bread.

our fastidiousness,too, is perhaps repelled by tho idea of
a Polynesian's eating raw fish, although at the moment we
may be twirling a raw oyster in grated horseradish. The
Eskimo enjoys fish mellowed by age. Many of us regard as
choice some particularly moldy, odoriferous eheeses.

What About Frogs

Frog meat is one exarnpleof often disdainedfoodstuffs, so
expensivein the sometimesmore fashionable dining salonsof
the world, that nafirre furnishes free for the taking. The srrrphibians
can be hooked with fishing tackle and small fly.
They can be caught with string and bit of clotb, the former
being given a quick tug when the latter is taken experimentally
into the mouth.

Frogs can be secured with spears of varioun types.A sharlr
ened stick will do. They can be so occupied at night by a
light that you'll be able to net them and, even, occasionallyto
reach cautiously around and clarnp a hand over one.

Most of the delicately flavored meat is on the hind legs


16 t lfow to Stay Alive in the Woods

which can be cut off, skinned, and in the absence of cooking
utensilsextendedover hot coalson a greenstick for broiling.
If rations were scant, you'd usethe entire skinned frog after
probably removing or at least empfying and cleaning the en'
trails, perhapsboiling the meat briefly with somewild greens.

Letting Predators Hunt For Us

If one of us is ever strandedand hungrryn it may not be
amiss to watch for owls, for spying one roosting in a quiet
shadowyspot is not unusual, and it may be possibleto steal
close enough to knock it down. Although not as large and
plump a$ would seem from outward appearances,an owl
neverthelessis excellent eating.

What is more likeln however,is that we may scare an owl
from a kill and thus secure ourselves a fresh supper. \Me may
also have such good fortune, perhapsearlier in the duy, with
other predatorybirds such as hawks and eagles.It is not un'
common to come upon one of thesewhich has just captured
a partridge, hare, or other prey that is proving awkward to
Iift from the ground, &Bd by running to drive the hunter away
with its talons empty.

Can Live Meat Be Overheated

Wolves,coyotes, and foxes may also be suqprisedat fresh
kills that are still fit for human consumption.Such carnivora
will seek new whereabouts at the sight or scent of an 8p


proachinghuman being.
One often hears it suggestedthat when any bird or animal
has beenunduly harassedbefore death,as may be considered
to be the caseif for example it has been relayed by wolves,
its meat is not fit to eat. Such conclusions, however corlmendabletheir
interpretation, ariseusually from fashion more
than from fact, although it is true that the appreciable
amountsof lactic acid in such tissuesdo increase the rate of
spoilage.
But it was because of this very characteristic,the fact that
acids released by such stimuli asprolonged fatigue and fright


Living Off lte Country / 17
make meat more tender, that not so long ago it was atr utrpleasantcustom
of tle civilized world to make sure that animals
killed for their meat died neither swiftty nor easilywhen
either could be prevented.

flow About Bears

Comingup to a bear'skilt mny be somethingelse again. A

wild bear probably won't dispute your presence.Then again

it may, &od although the chancesare very much againstthis

latter possibility, that is all tle more reason not to take dis.

proportionate risks.

rf you are unarmed and really need the bear's meal, you

will want to plan and executeyour campaign with all r€Er


sonablecaution.This will probably nlean, first of all, spotting

with tbe minutest detail preferably at leasttwo paths of escape

in casea fast exit should becomeadvisable.This should,not

be too difficult where there are small trees to climb.

You'll then watch your opportunity and if for instance the
kill is a still warrn moosecalf perhapsbuild a large fire beside
iq discreetlygathering enough fuel to last for several hours;
until morning, if night be close at hand. You will take care

in any event to be constantly alert until well a\ilay from the
Iocality, realizing that bears, especially when tbey have
gorgedthemselies,have a habit of dropping down near their
food.

If you haveI gutr,you will be able to judge for yourself if
the bestproceduremay not be to bag the bear itself. Fat for
several reasons, later discussed,becomesthe most important
single item in most survival diets, and the bear is particularly
well fortified with this throughout most of the year. Except
usually for a short period in the spring, bear flesh is therefore
particularly nourishing.

Many, .most of whom have never tasted bear meat nor
smelled it cookiog, are prejudiced against the carnivore as a
table delicacy for one reason or another. One excuse often
heard concerffi the animal's eatinghabits.Yet the most ravenous
bear is a finicky diner when compared to such offerings
as lobster and chicken,


'l

I.8 IIow to Stay Alive in tbe Woods
It is onty natural that preferences should vary' and if only
fs1 this reason it may be interesting to notes

(a) That many of our close acquaintances who live on
wild meat much of the time relish plump bear more than any
other North American game meat with the single exception
of sheep,
(b) *a that, furthermore, theseindividuals include a sizable
number who after long professing an inability to stomach
bear meat in any form found themselves coming back for
thirds and cven fourths of bear roast or bear stew under thE
impression that anything so saYory must be, at the very least'
choice beef.

Getting Birds Without Guns

Game birds such as ptarmigan and grouse promise feasts
for anybody lost in the wilderness, especially as a few stones
or sticks are often the only weapons needed,If ons missesthe
first time, such fowl usually will afford a second and even a
third fry. When they do fly, they generally go only short dis


tances and may be successfully followed, particularly if this
is done casually and at such a tangent that it would seemthat
one were going to stroll on past.

Although it goeswithout saying that no sportsman will find
any amusemeniin indiscriminate kiiling, it followi with equal
reason that under sruvival conditioffr when wild meat may
mean life itself such otherwise distasteful procedrres will be
iustified by their success, even though regfetsfor their neses.
sity may rcmain.

Any bfud, as a matter of fact, reil furnish god eating in

an emergency. The only difference is that some are tenderer,

plumper, and to different palates better flavored than others.

Colonies afford particular opporhrnities, soms of which are

considered in Chapter 7. Even the riper eggs often obtainable

should not be overlooked when one needsfood"

Why Porcupines fue Given Reprieves

Porcupines, like thistles and nettles, axe better eating than
it might seem reasonable to expect. The slow moving, dull


Living Ofr The Countqp | 19
witted rodent is in human estimation often a nuisance,being
so ravenous for salt that practicalty anlthing touched by human
hands will whenever possible be investigated by sharp
inquisitive teeth.
IVhen shooting the rocky headwaters of the Southwest
Miramichi River in New Bnrnswick, I've had to hunch out of
my sleeping robe a halfdozen times a night to switeh determined
brown porkies away from my canvas canoe. Several
yearslater, King Gething told me how when boating mail in
the Canadian Rockies he'd solvedwith better successa sirnilar
problem, looping wires harmlesslyaround the yellowish necks
of offending western hedgehogsand hitching them to poplars
until he was ready to go the next morning.
The sluggish porcupine is the one animal that even thE
greenesttenderfoot, though weak with hunger, can kilt with
a weapon no more formidable than a, stick. All one usually

has to do thus to collect a meal is reach over the animal,

which generally presents the raised quilts of back and ta4

and strike it on the head. Being so low in intelligence, the

hedgehogreguires a lot more killing than might be expected.
Porcupines can not, of course, shoot their guills, but any
that are stuck in the flesh by contact should be pulled out

immediately,for their barbed tips causethem to be gradualty
worked in out of sight. Dogs are courmonvict"ns. I had a big
hish Wolfhound who becameso infuriated at the genrn that
with no regard for himself, until later, he killed every porgupine
he could find.

If you're alone in the bush with a dog in such a disagrecsble
predicament for all involved, you'll probably have to do
as I did; lash the pet as motionless as possible againsta tree,
and use your weight for any necessary additional leverage.
Pincerscan be improvised by splitting a short branch, At any
rate, eachof the perhapshundredsof quills has to come ouf
or death may be the least painful result.

This danger from quills is one reasonwhy it is a poor practice
to cook a porcupine by tosslng it into a small fire. Very
often all the quills are not btrned off. Even if they are a corsiderableamount
of fat will no doubt be consumed as well.

The best procedure is to skin out the porcupine, first tum



20 | IIow to StaYAlive in the Woods
ing it over so as to make the initial incision along the smooth
underoeathportion. Many who've dined on this meat consider
the surprisingly large liver uncon}monl5ftoothsosle.

The Most Widely Hunted Game Anirnal

In the spring particularly thoseyears when rabbit cyclesare
near their zeniths, the young lie so fearlessly that a dog will
stepover one without scentingit, and all an individual has to

do, if he wants, fu to reach down and pick the youngster up.
Adult rabbits themselvesdepend so much on camouflage
that at any time if you pretend not to see one and continue
sffstling as if going past, it is frequently possible to come
closeenough to do some immediately accurate throwing with
a ready stone.
Ttrlaremia is occasionallya threat in some localities and in
one respect the diseaseis a little harder to avoid when not

huntins with a firearm, for one precaution can be to shoot
only rattits that appear to be lively and in good health. The
germsof rabbit fever are destroyedby heat, however, and an'

other safeggard is to handle the animal with covered hands
until the meat is thoroughly cooked.
-Rabbits-areunusually easyto clean. One method you may

alreadyuse is commenced by pinchiog up enough of the loose
back skin to slit by shoving a knife through. Insert your
fingers and tear the fragile skin apart completely around the
rabbit. Now peel back the tower half like a glove, disiointing
the tait when you some to it and finally cutting off each hind
foot Do the samething with the top section of skin, loosening
it finalty by severing the head and two forefeet. You can thenn
asyou'vs very possibly found, pull the animal open iust beJow
the ribs and flip out the entrails, retrieving heart and liver.

You may also want to cut out the small wa;y gland between

each front leg and body.

Starvation Next to ImPossible

"It is next to impossible to starve fu a wilderngssr" says
George Leopard Herter, of Herter's, Inc., sporting goods


Living Ofi The Corrntry | 2L
manufactrrer, importer, and exporter. "lf no game,fisb mol.
lusk, etc. are present,you are still in no danger.
"Insects are wonderful food, being mostly fat, and far Inore
strengtheningthan either fish or meat. It does not take many
insects to keep you fit. Do not be squeamish about eating insects,
as it is entirely uncalled for. In parts of Mexico, the
most nutritious flotrr is made from the eggsof small insects
found in the marshes.In fapan, darning needles or dragon
flies are a delicacy. They have a delicious delicatetaste, so bE
sure to firy them.
"Moths, mayflies,in fact about all the insects found in the
oods, are very palatable.The only onesI ever found that I
id not care for were ants.They contain formic acid and have
a bitter taste. A small light at night will get you all the insects
ou need to keepyou in good condition. If the weather is too
old for flying insects, kick open some rotten logs or look
nder stones and get some gnrbs. They keep bears fat and
ealthy and will do the same for you""

Odd Meals

Grasshoppers are edible when hard portions such as wings
,dlegs have been removed.So are cicadas.Termites,locusts,
rdcrickets are similarly eaten.
Both lizards and snakes are not only digestible but are


ften considered delicacies for which some willingly pay
any times the amount they expend for a similar weight of
rime beef. The only time snake meat may be poisonous is
hen it has suffered a venomous bite, perhaps from its own
angs. This also holds true with lizards, the only poisonous
nes on this continentbeing the SouthwesfsGila monster and
exico's beaded hzard. To prepare the reptiles; decapitate,
kin, remove the entrails, and cook like chicken to whose

hite meat the somewhatfibrous flesh is often compared.
Some aborigines have capitalized on the ants' acidity by
ashingthem in water sweetenedwith berriesor sapto make
sort of lemonade. The eggs and the young of the ant are

so eaten.
An ancient method for securing already eooked insects,
eptiles, and small animals is to fire large tracts of grassland


22 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods
and then to comb them for whatever may have been roasted
by the conflagration.

A RuIe for Survival

Although it is true that under ideal conditions the human
body can sometimes fend off starvation for upwards of two
months by living on its own tissues, it is equally certain that
such auto+annibalism is seldom necessary anywhere in the
North American wilderness.

A good nrle is not to passup any reasonablefood sources
if we are ever in need. There are many dead trIen who,
through ignorance or fastidiousness. did.


Chopter3

ScienceOf Stoying Alive

SoMe NATTITEsRoAsr the bland young anflers of the deer
family when theseare in velvet. Others esteem the stomach
contents of herbivorous mammals such as caribou, for such
greensmixed as they are with digestive acids are not too -un

like salad prepared with vinegaro

Some aborigines,as desirous of wasting nothing as those
,ackers who can whole sardines,do not bother to open the
maller birds and animals tley secure, but pound them to a
ulp which is tossedin its entirety into the pot. Other peoples

"ather moose and rabbit exsrement for thickening boiled
ishes. Even such an unlikely ingredient as gail has, among
ther uses,utility as a seasoning.

Nearly every part of North American animals is edible. An
ccasionalexceptionis polar bear and ringed and beardedseal

'ver

which becomeso excessivelyrich in Vitamin A that they
e poisonousto somedegree at certain times and are usually
s well avoided. All freshwater fish are likewise good to eat.
When natives refuseto partake of any or all of such fauna,
he reason is often involved with tribal superstitions rather
han edibility. Across the Peace River from otu home site, to

've

an example, Dokie was returning to Moberly Lake with
arry Garbitt. The weather-rusted fare of the onetime chief

2rg


24 | How to StaYAlive in the Woods

corrugatedwith increasing dismay, &s he watched the souf'
dough trader begin to cook the eveningmeal"
No eatum whitefish," protestedDokie, and in the next
breath, he explainedwhy. "Whitefish me!"
"Okayr" the philosophical Scotsman agreed, "Supper's
over.tt

Why Blood Should Be Saved

Animals shouldnot be bled any more than can be helpedif
food is scarce.Whether they should be so handled at other
times is a matter largely of circumstancesand of personal

opinion.

Blood, which is not far removed from milk, is unusually
rich in easilyabsorbedmineralsandvitamins.Our bodies, for

illustration,neediron. It would requirethe assimilationof ten

ordinary eggs,we are told, to supply one mannsnormal daily

requirements.Four tablespoonsof blood are capableof doing
the sameiob.

Fresh blood can be securedand carried, in the absence of
handiermeans,in a bag improvisedfrom one or another parts
of the entrails. One way to use it is in broths and soups'
enlivenedperhaps by a wild vegetableor

Leather and Rawhide both Edible

The skin of the animal is asnourishingas a similar quantity
of lean meat. Baking a catch in its hide, although ordinarily
both a handyand tasty methodof occasionallypreparingcamp
meat, is therefore a practice we should not indulge in when
rations are scarce.

Rawhide is also high in protein. Boiled, it has even less
flavor than roasted antlers, and the not overly appealing and
yet scarcelyunpleasantlook and feel of the boiled skin of a
large fish. When it is raw, a usual procedure naturally enough
adoptedin emergenciesis to chew on a small bit until mastication
becomestiresome and then to swallow the slippery
shred.

Explorers speak of variancesof opinion among individual

membersof groups as to whether or not leather, generally


footwearorotherbodyr"":ff*","riliJ;:tir#r:u*"

are so situated that to reach safety we will probably have to
walF, foot protection should of coruse come first. If we are
cold as well as hun W, we will stay warrner by wearing the
rawhide than we could by sacrificing it to obtain momentarily
a little additional heat via the digestive system. If the article
in question is made of commercially tanned leather, the ?nswer
will be simpler indeed, for such leather generally has
scant if any food value.

Bones ilIay Mean Salvation

A lot of us, when we have the time, capitalize in two dit

ferent ways on the food value inherent in bones.Small bones
go into the pot to thicken stewsand soups, and we may also
like to ehew on the softer of these, particularly if we are

lounging around a campfire. Larger mrurow bonesare opened
so that their soft vascular tissue can be exffacted"
The mineral-rich marrow

found in the bones of animnfu
that were in good physical condition at demise is not surpassed
by any other nahrral food in caloric strength. IVhat is, at the
same time, the most delectable of tidbits is wasted by the
common outdoor practice of roasting such bones until they
are on the point of crumbling. A more conservativeprocedure

' is to crack them at the onset, with two stones if nothing
handier is available. The less the marrow is then cooked, the
better it will remain as far as nutrition is concerned.

Atl this is something to consider, assuredln if any of us
when desperatefor food happens upon perhaps temporary
salvation in the form of the skeleton of a large animal.

Rare or Well Done

When food supplies are limited, notbing should be cooked
longer than is considered necessary for palatableness.The
only exception is when there may be germs or parasitesto be
destroyed.

The more food is subjected to heat, the greater are the
lossesof nutritive values. Even the practice of makirg toast
diminishesboth bread'sproteins and digestibility. The greatest


26 t Eow to StaY Alive in the Woods

single universal error made in preparing venison and similar
game meat for the table is overcooking which, in addition to

'lVhat

drying it out, tends to make it tough and stringy. this
practice does to the flavor is a matter of opinion.

Scurry Easily Prevented and Cured

A very definite dangerrisked when fresh food is habitualty
oversookednespeciallyunder survival conditioos, arises from
the fact that oxidation destroysthe inherent yilamin C' lack

of which in the diet causesscurvir.

Scurr4yhas gatheredmore explorers,pioneers' trappers, ood
prospectors to their fathers than can ever be reckoned, for it
fu a debilitating killer whose lethal subtletiesthrough the centuries
have too often been misinterpreted and misunderstood.

Scurv5r,it is known now, is a deficiency disease.If you have

it, taking Vitamin C into your systemwill ctue you. Eating a
little Vitarnin C regularly will, indeed, keepyou from having
scurvy in the fust place.

Free Vitamins

Spruce tea can be made, by steepingfresh evergreen needles
in watCr, thm will be aspotent with the both preYentativeand
curative ascorbic acid as the ordinary orangeiuice. This vita'
min you can get evenmore directly by chewingthe tender new
needles,whose starchy green tips are particulady pleasant to
eat in the spring.

Fresh meat will both prevent and cure scurvy. So will fresh
fish. So will fresh fruits and vegetables, wild or otherwise.So
will lirne juice and lemon juice but, no matter how sour, only
if they too are sufficiently rrew. The Vitamin C in all theseis
lessenedand eventually destroyed by oxidation, by xge, and
incidently by salt.

How Rabbit Starvation Really Happens

A man can have all the rabbit meat he wants to eat and
still perish. So-called rabbit starvation, as a matter of fact, is
particularly well known in the Far North.


SeienceOf Staying Alive | 27

An excltsive diet of any lean meat, of which rabbit is a

practical example,will cause digestive upset and diarrlea. Eat


ing more and more rabbif as one is impelled to do becauseof

the increasing uneasinessof hunger, will only worsen the con


dition.

The diarrhea and the general discomfort will not be re.

lieved unless fat is added to the diet. Death will follow,

otherwise, within a few days. one would probably be better

off on just water than on rabbit and water.

Ihe Tremendous Importance of Fat

Why is fat so important an item in a survival diet? Part of
the answer, as we have seen, Iies in the fact that eating lean
fleshwithout a sufficient ?mount of fat will kill us, an actuality
that may seem astonishing, for in civilization we obtain DU.
merous fats from a yery grcat number of often rnrecognized
sources. These include butter, oleomargarine, lar4 milk,
cheese,bacon, salad oil, mayonnaise, various sauces,candn
nuts, ice crearll, and the fatty conten8 of such staplesas bread.,

If in an emergencywe have to subsist entirely on meat, the
fat of course will have to come from the meat itself. The
initial consideration in a meat diet, therefore, is faL \[re'regoing to get enough relatively of the lean. our best day by

day guide as to proportions will be our own individual appetites,
for after we have in the coursE of not too hurried
meals eaten sufrcient fat, no more will taste good.
Yet history tells of supposedtyexperieoera men who, al.

though starrring, have burned vital fat to give nutitively inferior
lean meat what seemed to thern a more appetizing
flavor-a suicidal error of which w€, having learned better in
an easierway, neednever be guilty.

Cannibalism

It has always been, among all social levels of all peoples,
tbat famishing human beings left to their own resoruceswill
devour everything even snspected of having food valuE and
eventually will resort to cannibalism.

"It is rare, except in fiction, that men are killed to be eaten.


28 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods
There are caseswhere a member of a party becomes $o Uosocial
in his conduct towards the rest that by agreementhe is
killed; but if his body then is eatenit is not logrcally correct
to say that he was kilted for food," Vilhialmur Stefansson
says."What does happen constantly is that those who have

died of hung€f, or of another cause'will be eaten. But long
before cannibalism develops the parfy has eaten whatever is

edible."

Somescientists,who point out that obiectio$l ars psychological
and sociological, declare abstractly that animal Pfo'
teinsare desirablein direct ratio with their chemical simila.rity

to the eating organism, and that therefore for tbe fullest and

easiestassimilation of fleshmaterials,human meat can hardly

be equaled.

Wbat to KiIt for Food

Some member of the deer family is what anyone really
boggeddown in the North American wilderness is most apt
to turn to for sustenance.The adult males, as any sportsman
knows, arc fattest iust before the mating seasonwhich, varying
according to speciesand climate, coutmencesrougbly in
early autumn. The male then becomesprogfessively poorer.

At the end of the rut, the prime male is practically without

fat even in the normally rich marrowtt.

The mature female is the choice of thE meat hunter once
the nrtting seasonis well under way. She remains the preference
until approximately early spring. Then the male once
more somes to the fore. Generally speaking, the older animals
have more fat than the younger.

Tidbit of Otd-Time Trappers

Beaverwas something I bad very much wanted to eat ever
since reading when a boy Horace Kephart's regretful observation:
'"This tidbit of old-time trappers will be tastedby few of
our generation, nrore's the pity." It was a lean black-haired
trapper, Dan Macdonald, who gaveme the opportunity some
yearslater, and as beaver are one of the principal ftu animals


ScienceOf StayingAlive I Zg

along the upper PeaceRiver I've beenfortunatE enoughto be

able to enjoy amisk miny times since.

The meat is so sustaining that anyone lost and hungry is

markedly fortunate to secure it. Beaver cuttings, indieating

presenceof the amphibian, are easily recognized by the marks

of large sharp teeth that have kept on gnawing around and

aroun4 biting continually deeper until the wood.was severed.

Becausebeaver donotknow how trees will fall, the animal It

occasionally found trapped beneath trunk and branches.

If you have a gttn and enough time at your disposalto wait

for a sure shot, an often productive campaign is to steal to a

concealed vantage on the downward side of a beaver pond.

The furry may then be seenswimming perhad and

?oirulr

shot in the head. If you have a choice and not much immuni.

tion, wait to bag the biggestone you can. Beaver,the largest

rodents on this continenf weigh up to fifty pounds and more.

Beaver quarters seem almost incommensurably delicious
when you're hungry from outdoor exertion, although with the
larger adults the meat does,eventhough you may be reluetant

to heed it, have a tendency to become somewhatfibrous and
stringy when cooked. The meat has a distinctive taste and
odor somewhatresemblingthat of plump turkey. A sound idea
in an emergency is to supplement it tith lean flesh suct as
rabbit, so as to take the fullest possibleadvantageof the faL

A beaver tail, as anyone will be able to testify upon seeing
one, Iooks surprisingly like a scaly black fish whosChead has
been removed. Tails may be propped or hung near a cooking
fue whose heat will eausethtrouen black hide to puff and to
separate from the flesh, whereupon it can be peeled off in

large flakes.
The beaver tail is so full of nourishing oil, incidentalln that
if set too closeto a blaze it will burn like a torch. The meat is
white and gelatinousr,and rich enough that one finds himself
not wanting too mush of it at a time.

What Parts of Meat to Eat

We will probably want to eat most of any animals we can
secure if short of food. This in a way may be a boon if only


30 | IIow to StaYAlive in the Woods
becawe it will place some of us, perhaps for the first time, in
a position to determine personauy if amolg the parts ordias
many claim, the most delicious

discarded are not,
"ui1y

portions

Somesegments,as for example the liver whose abundance
of vitamin A hascausedit to be recognizedevenamong some
primitive tribes as a specific cure for night blindnossr contain

in more concentratedform certain of the necessaryfood elementg.


But any section of plump fresh meat is a complete diet in
itself, affording au the necessaryfood ingredients even if we
dine on nolhiog but fat rare steaksfor week after month after

yeaf.


Chopter4

Food ln The Fcrrther Plcrces

Acruar. HUI{DREDSof wild foods enhance as might be €x.

pected the fields and woodlands, mountains and canyons, the

deserts, shores,and certainly the swamplands.

Adding from seasonto seasonthe recognition of a fEw more

can be, as you've perhaps already discovereq an engrossing
and practical hobby, as well as a way both thrifty and healthful
of pleasantly introducing new delicacies to the table. Such
acquired knowledgecan evenmean, in someunforeseengner.
gensy, the difference between eating bountifully and starving.

How to Obtain Birch Synnp

"Ifeavenly concoctionr" Dudley Shaw promised one spring
day up on the Peace River. 33l'llstow a gimtsl in my paek
when I prowl up the first of the week to retrieve a couple of
traps that got frozen in. Noble l"p, birch syrup is. Glorious on
flippers."

The old trapper, who as mentioned in At Home in the
Woods is the happiest man Vena and I have ever known, left
instructions about preparing some containers. These could
have been improvised from birchbark itself, but tomato cans

31



32 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods
to which we attached wire bails worked out handily enough.
Hung ss aails driven aboveeachtiny hole Dudley made with

his gimlet, the bright buckets echoedwith the dripping flow of
watery sap. Wooden pegs could have securedthe containers
below ax gashesor holes bored with a knife.

"You'd better anrbleout this way regularly to see that these
dorft overflowr" Dudley Shaw cautioned,eyes6linking good
htrmoredly behind thick spectacles."Keep the sap simmering
cheerfully on back of the stove.Tons of steamhave to come
ofi."

TVouldthe procedurehurt the trees?

"No, IlO," OtU nearest neighbor shook his head. "The
plunder will begin to bog down when the day cools, anlrway.
then wCll whittle out pegs and drive them in to close the
blinking holes.Everything will be noble.'n

Everything was, particularly the birch syrup. It wasn't as
thick as it might have been, not even after a great deal of
cooking. There also seemed to be an unfortunately small
amouni. Yet what remained was sweet,delicately spicy, and
morc than ordinarily delicious. If one is ever seeking elllergencysustenancein
the spring, birch syrup may be well worth

the time and effort if only for its psychologicallift.

A Spaghetti That Grows on Trees

uses.

The inner bark is especiallysweetand susfnining,being cred


ited with saving actual hundreds of lives under emergency

conditions on this continent alone.This cambium is enioyable

raty. It is also bland enough either to chop into bits or to cut

into spaghetti-like lengths for adding to soups and stews. It

retains its aromatic spicinesseven when dried for storing or

carrying.

Yotrng leaves and twigs, the soft formative tissue between
wood and bark, and the thin bark covering the roots are all
steepedin hot water to make a favorite backwoods tea. When
we sip this beverage,which has the perfume and flavor of
wintergreetr, and are perhaps thus stimulated to recall the
other vifiues of the birch, it is difficult not to agree that p&r-

The widely distributed birches have other culinary


Food In The Farther Places | 33

ticularly where civilization is near it is unfortunate whenever

this harmonioustree is unnecessarily disfigured.

Its bark, enough of which can be pulled harmlesslyoff in

small dry wisps by the fingers alone, is unexeelledfor start


ing campfires under every sort of adverse condition. Great

sections of the bark are valuable in the farther places as a

flexible €mergency waterproofing material. It will and does

serve for utensils, shelters,tbat most gracefuI of watercraft,

and even for clothing.

Forests of F'ood

The lodgepolepine, togetherwith otherpines,hasan eatable

inner bark that is preferred fresh by someand sundried by

others. There are even those among us who claim it is at its

best only when scrapedfrom the south side of a young tree

while the spring sap is rising.

The poplar's sweetishsap layer is also eatenboth raw and

cooked.This, too, lies betweenthe wood and the outsidebark,

the latter being intensely biffer with salicin which for

some
reasonis relishedby beaverand mooseand which is an insedient
in

som.etonics concocted for the benefit of Dankind.

Pifion

Ever sincewe got the habit while living in New Mexico of
iFproving crisp fall afternoons by gathering pine nuts in the
bright Sangrede Cristo Mountains, piflons have beena favorite
of ours. Thesesoft delicate nuts, which resemble peanuts
in appearancebut which in comparison seem littte beavier
than solidified fluff, form in the cones of the short gnarled

pines of the arid southwesternhighlands. They are flavorful
ra% evenmore delicious roasted, and have a delicately nutty
sweetnesswhen pounded into flour and baked.

Why You May Choose to Avoid Mushroomsl

One concretefact, especiallywhen combinedwith several
other actualities,seemsenoughto warrant the conelusionthat


34 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

one should avoid wheneverpossibleturning to mushrooms for

emergency food. Mushrooms have very little general food
value. If you afe not already an expert, the incurred risks
will be far out of proportion to the possiblegain.

No single practical test is recognizsd, unfortunately' by
which all poisonousmushrooms can be detected. It is untrue
that if silver boiled with mushrooms doesnot ttun black, the
fungi are necessarily edible. It is a false presumption that
when the skin can be peeledfrom the cap, the specieis proved
wholesome. It is not true that pink gills are evidencethat the
mushroom is good. It is incorrect that if salt rubbed on some
part of the mushroom causesa color change,the fungus mrst
be suitable for the tablc.

FIo. 1. Rose Hips. Frc. 2. Raspberries.

Another dangerous fallacy, particularly under the stress of
a fight for survival, is the apparently reasonable but neverthe.
less wholly false presumption that any mushroom gathered by
animals and birds is suitable for human consumption. Among
the musbrooms ordinarily harvested and dried by squirrels
are some of the amanita group for which no antidote has been
discovered.


Food In the Farther Places 7 Br

So many myths are circulated, often by thosewho in their

own neighborhoodssuccessfullygather one or two types of

edible mushrooms year after year; that it can not be here re


peatedtoo strenuously: no singletest short of eating can dis


tinggish between a poisonousand a safe mushroom.

As for putrballs, although it is correct that puffballs which

are white throughout are edible when fresh, it is also true

that some lethal mushroomswhen young look like puffballs.

Mushroouls contain several different poisons. One small

poisonousmushroom in an overflowing packsack of edible

fung can be enoughto cause practically certain death, symp


toms tating so long to become evident that once they are

recognized,even the most immediate and complete hospital

attention is often powerless. In the case of the Deadly

Amanita, the individual may not ssalizs anything is at all

4missuntil he is doubled up with cramps and vomiting, per


hapsfifteen hours after eating the tatal toadstool.

Rose llips

You probably can't think back to a time when you did not
recognizethe thorny vines and bushesof the witd rose, particularly
when the frail flowers were achieving their sweetest

fragrancc. Can you remember when you weren't aware that
from these blossoms develops a reddish orange, berrylike
fruit that clingsfor months?Perhapsyou can evenrecall when
you first remarked how their delicate taste is reminiscent of
domestie apples, another member of the rose family.
Rose hips can be a particularly valuable part of a wilderness
diet becauseof their abundant Vitamin C which both
averts and remedies scunry. A lot of us get the habit, whenever
hunggy in the bush, of picking a few and nibbling the
skin and flesh from around the seed-filled senter.

Roses by Several Other Names

Other members of the rose family familiar by sight although
not necessarily by name to almost everyone include
blackberries, raspberries, salmonberries, dewberries, cloudberries,
ord thimbleberries. Even bstanists sometimes have


36 | How to StaYAlive in the Woods

trouble in ditrerentiating amongthe closely related species.All
are composedof clusters of iuicy tittle fruits, drawn together
like a cap over a central head at the end of a stem. Each
individual drupelet containsits own tiny seed.Ripened colors
vary from salmons and reds through blacks. There is also
considerablerange in taste.

Animals particularly relish the leaves,stems,and slalks of

certain speCiesdespite their barbs. In fact, a good place in
many areas to look fo: deer during the opening hours of the
r.aron is in a raspberry patch, and iust the other day we had
a favorite thicket prematurely pruned when I thoughtlessly

picketed our horseswhere they could nip at the bushes.

-

Anyone who'll take the trouble to peel and taste some of
the yogng shoots will discover whyn for they are a palatable
emergencyfood in themselves.Young leaves,tossedinto boil'
ing water and set away from the fire to steep,make 4rr it$ree'
able frontier tea-

Peculiarities of the High'Bush Cranberry

This rorrndish red berry, like some of the more expensive
hors d'oeuwes, usually requires a cultivated taste. You pop
one of the bright tittle ovals into your mouth and bite down
on it experimentally. The odd sournessperhapsconstrainsyou

FIG. 3. High-bush Cranberries.


Food In The Fartber Places | 37

to spit it out. The flavor which remains, however, is provocative.
You try again and, let us hope, again.

Then, as likely as not, you find yourself looking forward to
the unusual tartness of tbe fruit. You are apt to come to
appreciate it particularly when thirsty, for a

the iuice from
moutlful of high-bush cranberries quenchesdryness like no
other wild berry I know. The usual procedure,ESa matter of
fact, is to brust tle berry in the mouth and swallow the juice,
thereafter expelling skin and flattish seeds.
At least a few high-bushcranberriesremain on the bushes
the year around, puckering as they dehydratewith age. once
one recognizes the shrub, its nearnessis easy to detect by
reason of its peculiar sweetish-sourodor. On sub-zerodays,
the berries melt against the tongue like sherbet. They also
make a popular backwoodsjelly that has none of the bitternessof
the familiar vine cranberry.

One Drarvback of Familiar Vine Cranb erry

The firm red cranberry, whicb grows on thin vines which
creep over innumerable acres of marsh and moist woodland,

FIc. 4. Saskatoonor Serviceberry.

is a familiar sight on fruit counters particularly around the
Thanksgiving and Christmas holidays. The cranberry's only
drawback as an emergencyfood is its unpalatable bitterness.


38 t How to Stay Alive in the Woods

Stewedwith an added sweetsuch as the blueberries that are
often gfowing nearby, the cranberry'srightfully deservedpop'
ularity is morc easy to recognizs.

Frontiersmen still gather the wild fruit by the bushels' many
whittling flat-bottom scoopswith seriesof long V*haped teeth
so as to strip the vines more easily.It then besomesa pleasant
evetli.g occupation to help empty pails onto a stretched'
slanted blanket. Leaves, stems, and other debris are thus
caught and are later shakenaway, while the ripe cranberries
roll and borrnd into ready containersfor later use in a variety
of dishesranging from piesto bannock.

Blueberies Thicken Soups

There are rnore than a score of different speciesof blueberries,
also known in some localities as whortleberries and as
huckleberries,some crowding tall busheswhile others fill tiny
shrubsonty three or four inches from the ground.

Blueberries are historically one of the most valuable foods
of Indians who have long eatenthem as is, dried, with meat,
as a thickening for soups,and in numerous other ways. Bush'
men pick them by the bushel, often with the sarne sort of

toothed scoop used for cranberries.

Other lYild Fruits

Other wild fnrits are so obviously numerous that it is in1'

practical to do more than mention a few. All of us might well

make it our businessto learn what edibles abound in our

favorite woodlands and, if possible, in any wilderness area

where we may one day travel.

The numerous gooseberriesand currants are widely PoPU'

lar. Indians utilized dried currants extensivelyto flavor pctlt'

mican, which is essentiallyequal parts by weight of dried

meat and rendered fat. The serviceberry is another fnrit that

was included in pemmican.

The younger one is, the more irresistible the various wild

cherries seem to be, especially when raw. Adults come to

prefer gathering the more astringent of these green for ielly


Food In Tbe Farther Flaces gg

/

making and

ripe for boiling with an added sweet for table

syrup.
Many of us have savored wild grapes and wild plums.

FIc. 5. Elderberries.

Elderberries are well known. The dry, bland, reddish bearberry
is ediblealthough practically tasteless.So are the equally
innocuousberriesof the kinnikinic whoseleaveshavebeenso
often used instead of or to supplement dwindling tobacco
supplies,that many other substitutes, such as the inner bark
of the flowering dogwood,are also called kinnikinic.

The first wild berry I remember gathering was the dryish
fruit of the little wintergreenwhich I used to find growing
beneath pine trees in New Hampshire, where they were so
scarcethat I soon learned the evergreenleavesof this tiny
plant have a similar flavor.

How to Test for Edibitity

fnnumerable ediblewild fruits, barks, roots, seeds,flowers,
pods, saps,gums, herbs, nuts, leaves,greens'and tubers are


40 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods
both nourishing and satisfying. The need for extreme discretion
unless one is sure of what he is eating can not be
overemphasized,howevernas we all realize.

FIG. 6. Bearberry.

The possiblc gain in an absolute emergencymight be important
enough,in ratio to risk, that we would be iustified in
trying a very small sample of a strangePlant, then if all went
well a slightly larger sample, and so on. This processshguld
be stretched over as long a period as reasonable,ceitainly no
lessthan twenty-four hours, becauseof the slownessin which
somepoisonsact.

During that time we'd be watching with as much detach'

ment as we could muster for any ill effects. If everything
seemedall right, w€ would then be iustified if the emergency
continued to consider the plant edible in at least small {u&n'
tities.


Chspter5

Yours For The Eeiting

"r LEARNEDTHATa man may use as simple a diet as the animals,
and yet retain health and strength.I have made a satisfactory
dinnsl off a dish of purslane which I gathered and
boiledr" Flenry Thoreau noted. "Yet men have come to suct
a pass that they frequently starve, not from want of recessariesbut
for want of luxuries."

The salad plants and potherbs growing wild on this cortinent,
among which the trailing purslane with its yellow
flowers is often regardedlesshighly than others, are so abun.
dant that when one stays hungry for very long in the silent
spacesit is not always with good reason.

No Charge for This Coffee

Very often in the spring, especiallywhen this season follows
a winter passedin the sub-zerotightnessof some north
ern wilderness,we awake with the hankering to eat something
new and green.

On many such days,in broadly separatedparts of the continent,
we've left at dawn with little aim except to find as many
wild green vegetablesas we could and perhapsto savor, at
least until the sun rose higher, the good humor of Thoreau's

4L


4t, I l{ow to Stay Alive in the Woods

contention: "Some would find fault with the morning red, if
they got up early enough." Upon our return, there would
likely as not be at least a few dandelionsin my pack.

Almost all of us know this memberof the chicory family,
if only becauseof its persistencyin dotting lawns with hollowsteqmed
yellow flowers. The entire young plant is relished
both raw in saladsand, especiallywhen older, after it had
been boiled iust long enough to becometender. The clean
bitter tang is to many stimulating.Thosewho do not carefor
it can throw away the first water and finish the boiling in
fresh fluid.

FIG.7. Purslane, FIc.
FIc.FIc. 8.
8.8. Chicory.
Chicory.Chicory.

You may also ciue to gather a pan of roots, dry them, roast
them in the oven, and finally grind the shriveled results.It is
a universally used coffee stretcher and coffee substitute.Even
more widely known in tbis respectare the similarly processed
roots of the closely related chicory. Especially when young
this is often mistakenfor dandelion,as there is then little differencebetweenthe
two exceptthat chicory insteadof being
stemlesshas a stalk. Chicory later has a large, usually blue
flower.


Yours For The Eating | 43

Pigweed By Several Other Narnes

Just as the succulentdark meat of the muskrat is sometimes

better preferred when seryed as swamp rabbit, so is pigweed
more attractive to many when called wild spinach or lamb's
quarter. Its mild flavor and widespread prolificness make it
one of the more important wild greens.The stem is covered

with longish pale green leaves with irregular edges, whose
shapehasgainedthe wild vegetable the additional cognomen
of goosefoot. The small green flowers appear in long thick
clustersthat turn later to tiny dark seeds.

Stalk, Ieaves,flowers, and grains are all nsurishing both
raw and cooked. Even when a small vegetablegarden is in
full production near our wildernesshome, we often passit to
gather insteadyoung pigweed growing nearby. For ourselves,

FIc. 9. Dandelion. Frc. 10. Pigrveedor Lamb's Quarter.

we know of no domesticgreen that equals it in taste,and al.
though this is admittedly a matter of personal preference, it is
interesthg, to us at least,that many of our backwoodsneigh.
bors have similar opinions.

The seeds,Iike those of the greenarnaranthwhieh is also
called pigweed, go well to relieve whatever monotony there
may bein bannock and other breadstuffs, lending them a, cait?



44 | Ifow to Stay Alive in the Woods

way-seedeffect. They can also be dried and ground for use
as meal.

Flantain Is Good to Eat

An alnost universallydistributedweed that you no doubt
know but perhapsnever have considered as a food is plantain.
This is the shortstemlessplant with broad greenleaves rising,
directly from the root, abouta straightcentralspike. This projection
blossomswith minute greenishflowers that later turn
to seeds. The leavesof the herb cook up into greens.

Tea Xs Also Free

Fireweed is another herb difficult to mistake, especially
when the single multileaved stalks brighten with purplish flowers.
Thousands of acresof burnt lands turn to magenta so
thickly does fireweed bloom there when frost leaves the

\r\

Frc. 11. Plantain. FlG. t2. Ftreweed.

ground. The young stemswhen they fust appear are tender
enoughto cook like asparagus.More mature stalksare peeled
and their sweetishinteriorseatenraw. The youngleaves make

passablegreens.
Dried, fireweedleaveslike tboseof plantainand many other
eatablesfind their way into lone boiling kettlesfrom which,


Yours For The Eating | 46

after they have been infused, are poured beverageswhich
their imbibers drink as tea.

AII These and Nettles, Too

Nettles, possibly becausethey are such unlikely candidates
for culinary endeavors,have becomemy favorite witd green
vegetable.The nettle is another tall green her! hard to mis.
take, particularly as many who do not already recognize its
food potentialities are all too well aware of the stinging hairs

that ordinarily make this additional tea substitute something
to be avoided.

Because of the nettles' irritating proclivities, the hands
should be protected when nettles are gathered, preferably
when they first appear in the spring. Leather gloves and a
knife make the task easy. You can get along all right, too, by
using two sticts as tongs.

It would be reasonableto expect that nettles would require
lengthy cooking. As a nratter of fact, you only have to drop
the young shoots into a container of boiling water that may

FIo. 13. Nettle. FIG. 14. Mustard.


48 | IIow to StayAlive in the Woods

be then set away from the heat.As soon as the dark emerald
greenshave eooled enough to be eaten, they nay be forked
out and seled.

Table Mustard for the Making

Mustard, which thrives wild throughout most of the world,
is familiar because of its brilliant yellow flowers that become
almost solid masses along many fields and hillsides duing
spring and summer,and which in California fve seenequaling
telephonepoles in height.

Mustard is best as a greenwhen it first appears. The young
statk.tfrom which leavesgrow directly are not hard to recog

FIc, 15. Clover. Frc. 16. Miner's Lettuce.

nize,particularly as older mustard in bloom is often growing
in the samepatch. Theseslightly peppery leaves are enioyed
raw. So are the young yellow flowers. The entire plant goes

well when cooked.
Table mustard can be made from the seedsby grinding
them betweentwo stones and adding enoughwater to make a
paste.Commercially preparedcondimentsoften contain such


yours For Ite

Eatirg | {l

additional ingredients as flour, vinegar, salt, various spices,
and occasionallyhorse-radish. The seeds are also used primitively
for mixing with various meals and flours for flavoring.

Clover But Not Buttercups

Probably everyonehas at some time suckedhoney from the
white, yello% or reddish flowers of the clover, The sweetish
roots are also appreciated, sometimesafter first being smoked
over a fire.

But iust becaue a flowering plant may be familiar and to
all external appearancesnot obnoxious,it doesnot necessarily
follow that it is edible. A number of the equally familiar and
apparently equally innocent buttercups are poisonoult.

Minet's Lettuce

This salad planf whose crisp leaves and stemsmay also be
boiled as gree$i, is notably easy to distinguisb. Anyone who
doesnot know it already only has to look for a small green
plant with flower stemsggowing from a short mass of leaves
at ground level The clinching feature is that partway up each

Frc. 17. Fertilc Horsetail. Frc. 18. Infertile Horsetail.

stem a pair of leaves grow together so as to form a sort of
cup through whose middle the stalk continues.


48 I IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

The plant got its name because of a deservedpopularity
dwing gold nrsh days in Califoruia, when it was one of
the fresh vegetables eaten to crue and to avert scurvy. We've
enjoyed it here in the spring, gathering it in damp locations
beneath the coastalpines.

Ilorsetail for Eating and Clea'.ing

Another virhratly foolproof wild food, being especially easy
to identify, is the horsetail. You've piobably noticed this small
green plant that flourishes in cool abundance about brooks,
along shaded corduroyed toteroads, and in other darnp locations;
giving often the impression of a miniature evergreen
forest and, again, of grovesof whimsically dwarfed bamboos,
for it existsin tv*o different forms.

The infertile horsetail consists of a single stem, which resembles
the trunk of a tiny pine tree all the more because of
the green shoots that branch out from it in series of levels.
The fertile horsetail thnrsts up in one straight stem which
ascends in joints which a lot of us have found ourselves pulling
aparq iunction by junction.

The fertile horsetail is also known as the scorrring rush because
the gritty surfacesof the older plants make them excellent
articlCsto grab by the handful for use as scouring pads,

The outer tissuecan be removed from the young shoots of
the horsetail and the blandly sweetinteriors eatenraw.

Cacti Fumish Food and Drinlc

The fruits and the fleshly sectionsof North American cacti

are cdible raw, boiled, roasted,stewed,and even fried. It is
only important, as quickly becomes self-evident, that every
caution be exerted in fust removing the bristles and spikesn
usually by heat or by cutting off the outer tissue.

A few of the larger and thicker plants are filled with enough
watery sweetish'juiceto be vital under survival conditionsfor
quenching thirst. If only becauseof this characteristic, tempered
perhapsby the considerationthat in rocky and sandy
habitats a cactus takes so long to grow, it can be appreciated


YoursFor Tte Eating I 49

that the prickly plant shouldnot ordinarly be damaged in arid

country exceptin an emergency.

FrG, 19. Rock Tripe.

I{early AII fuctic Vegetation Eatable

All arctic vegetationis edible exceptfor somemushrooms.
This lethal species,which has white gills and a bulbous base,
has a smooth top usually some three or four inches across
when mature, and rangesin color from white and greenish
white through greyishbrown. To avoid poisonousmushroouls
in the Arctic, one way is to shun any with swollen bases and

white underneaths.

Perhapsthe most widely known of the wild foods of the Far
North is the lichen called rock tripe, whose growth reactes
into the southernstates.Rock tripe resembles a leathery dark
lettuce leaf, up to about three inches wide, attached at its

center to a rocky surface.tlnless the day is wet, rock tripe is
apt to be rather dry. It can be eateilu*, but you'll probably
prefer it much of the time boiled to thicken soups and stews.

Reindeer moss, whose range also extends into the United
States, is another edible lichen. It resembles moss,however,
being a low greyish-greenplant with a quantity of rnsnybranchedstemsinsteadof
leaves.Iceland moss, another edible
lichen and not a moss,is found as far south as the States.
Iceland moss is comparable to reindeer moss, being a brownish
greenplant whose numerous flat branches turn in to create
a tube effect.

"Lichens are low, variously shaped,gr€y, brown, or black
plants that are found throughout northern Canada and the


50 | Ifow to Stay Alive in the Woods

Arctic. They are edible," state Royal Canadian Mounted Po'
Iice sources.'"ThesElichens grow on both rocks and soil and
are best colleetedwhen moist after rain. None of the lichens

appearing in the Far North are poisonous, but most contain
an acid that is bitter and sometimes nauseousand may cause
severe internal irritation if not first extracted by boiling or
ssaking in water.tt

FIG. 20. Reindeer Moss.

A bitter lichen such as Iceland Mossis first boiled or soaked
to remove this acrimoniousness. After being dried' it is Pow'
dered, perhapsby being nrbbed between the palms' The re'
sulting flogr is sometimesusedto stretch ordinary flour, and it
is often utilized as is for making breadstufts.Ths flour is also
sometimes resoaked and finatly reboiled to gruel-like and ielty'
like consistencieswhich by themselvesare short on taste but
surpassinglylong in nourishmenl

Vegetarianism

"One fafmer saysto mer" Thoreau recounted, 'YOU Cannot
live on vegetable food solely, for it furnishes nothing to make
bones with'; walking all thE while he tatks behind his oxen,
which, with vegetable-madebones, ierk him and his plow
along.tt


Chopter6

FnssHLv cAUcHTFISHalsoprovide a completely balanced diet
when sufficienttyfat and not overcooked.The main difficulty
with subsistingexclusivelyon fish arisesfrom the fact that in
calories they are often far less nourishing than one might
expecL

There are not many of us who will disagreeit is with reason
that rainbow trout are regardedas a delicacy hard to equal,
nor that a rainbow weighing one pound when landed is a favorablesizefor
the pan. Two or three such trout, most would
be willing to consur, should afford the fisherman a reinonably

substantiallunch.

Fateful Decision

Supposethere comes a time when you actually do have
nothing to eat but trout? You're stranded in the wilderness,
let us assume,about two days east of the Alaska Highway. No
one knows you're missing, and therefore no one is searching
for you. You know the generallay of the country well enough

'l

to be confident of cutting the Alaska Highway.

The areaseems barren of game,but by really working at it
you may reasonablyexpectto averagecatching a hatf dozen

51


52 I lfow to Stay Alive in the Woods

one-pound trout daily. Should you remain here a few days
and live on fish, with the idea of building up your dwindling
strength for the journey that still lies ahead?

An office worker undergoing very little physical exertion
requires some 2AAA b 25A0 calories daily. It is reasonable to
generalizethat a man living a rugged outdoor life needs at
least twice as many of these energy units. Any not supplied
directly by food will be taken from the body's own carbohydrates,
fats, md proteins.

A one-pound rainbow trout when iaught, Canada'sDepartment
of National Health and Welfare has ascertained,cortains
only slightly more than 20A calories. So to eat some
4500 calories daily, you'd have to catch twenty such trout
each day. Instead of gaining vigor on six pounds or so of
fresh trout dailn youndbe very gravely losing strength. You'd
do better to fnish the iourney as soonas possible.

Other considerations, of course, could alter the situation.
You might have unlimited fish. You rnight be able to supple.
ment the fish with sufficient other wild nutrient. The fish
might be some more nourishing speciessuch as, in somE localities,
fat satnon averagingcloser to 900 calories per fresh
raw pound.

Too, the wild food available might be yours so eagily that
you could conservea decisive amount of enerry by relaxing
most of the t'me beside a warm blaze, for although thc basal
enerry requirements of the human system decline but little
evenwhen one is staningt fl man lounging comfortably before
a campfire may consume only about 100 calories per hour,
whereasstruggling through the bush he san burn six times as
much.

Wholesale Fishing With Bare Hands

Fish such as salmon and herring throng up streanrsin such
numbers at certain times of the year that one can catch and
throw ashore large numbers of them with the bare hands. It is
alsopossibleon occasionto secureby hand alone quantitiesof
such fish as smelt, when schools come up on beaches to
spawn in the surf.


Go Anit Get It | 53

Night Lines Work for You

A baited night line, affixedfor its own protection to sofil€thing
limber such as the end of a sapling,is often productive
when daytimefishing however arduouscontinuesto be unsuccessful.
Such a tactic in northern streamssuch as the Feace
often yields the fresh-watercod known as the ling an ancient
speciestermedby somescientistsa living fossil.

Those of us skinningand eatingthe uncomelyling for the
first time are almost invariably surprisedat the quality of its
firm, rich savoriness.The vitamin*ich liver is widely €steemed,
somecosmopolitesconsideringit to be the greatestof
all delicacies.

Sharks But Not Barracuda

Sharksare edible,althoughsomemay object to their taste.
This can be notably improved if the meat is sectionedand
then soakedin salt water for twenty-four hours. Barracuda,
on the other band, are sometimespoisonous.

All SeaweedsEdible

All seaweedsare good to eat.We munch them raw, simmer
them in fresh water to make souprboil them with meat and

FIG.Zl.It will often payoff to weave,twist, or knot
together a gill net.

other vegetables,and even dry them for a number of other
future uses. Algae, of which seaweeds are one type, are in fact
regardedby researchscientistsas potentially valuablesources
of the gigantic amounts of protein-rich food that may be


54 | How to StayAlive in the Woods

neededif the increasingworld population becomes so curnbersome
that presentsuppliesare inadequate.

Cucumbers That fue Alive

Seacucumbersare eatableboiled, stewed,fried, and raw.
Actually an animal, the sea cucumber is also dried and
smoked by some natives. The easily recognizableorganism, so
cofirmon along seashores, has a rough and flexible body about
six to eight incheslong when contracted and about twice that
Iength when expanded. The five long white muscles, which
are left after the insides have been discardedand the slimy
outer skin scraped a\ilay, are what is used.Their taste is not
unlike that of slams.

AII the Eggs You Want for Nothing

The sea urchin, a marine animal relatedto the starfish,is a
principal sourceof nourishment in many localities. Safe when
found in the temperate and arctic waters of this continent
wherethey can be gatheredin quantity at low tide, sea urchins
are shaped like slightly flattened balls and have a thin fragile
shell that bristles with movable spines.The lengths of eggs
inside the top shell are edible both raw and cooked.

The Abalone Furnishes Its Own Bowl

The abalone,a large rock-clinging mollusk, is particularly
well known along the Pasifiq coast of North America where
hundreds at, a, time are revealed by low tides attached to
boulders and ledges.They are also occasionally seen floating
free in seaweed. Their flattened shells, which vary from black
and gleen to red, are fantasticallylined with mother-of-pearl.

By abnrptly inserting a long thin instrurnent such as a

sheathknife or stick between the abalone and the rock and

prying quickln the shellfish can be detached usually with little

trouble before it has a chance to adhere morc tightly. The

operation otherwise requires a heavier tool and considerable

pressure,


GoAndtuIt t 55
The abalonecan then be leveredfrom the shell, which not
infrequently has a diameter of ten inches or so and therefore
considerableutility as a bowl. Or the shell can be cracked with

a

FIG.22. Seacucumber.

a rock and picked off. The hard white meat is what is retained.
This may be sliced into thin steaks and tenderized by
pounding with the flat edge of a stone, then fried, broiled
over open coals, or diced and simmered into chowder.

Other Free Lunches

Any time we may be up againstit for food, there will be in
general no more promising areas in which to seek nourishment
than those near water. Piles of shells beside a creekmay
be the clue to clamsthat often can be seen in clear water or
felt beneaththe bare feet.

Salt water clams, although not so easily dog, may be
securedat low tide, one indication of the bivalves'presence
being their elongated siphons or the marks left by the with'
drawals thereof. Along Pacific shores below the Aleutians, all
dark portions should be discarded for the six months begin'
ning with May and ending with October becauseof possibly
dangerousconcentrationsof toxic alkaloids thereir, the white
meat alone then being eaten.

Snailsare edible and by somepeoplesparticularly relished.
So are seallops,shrimps,and oysters.Eels are alsoescubnt,in
many localities being regardedas superior to any other fish.
Mussels,with one important exception,may be safely eaten


50 | How to StayAlive in the Woods

if care is taken to avoid any that do not close tightly when
touched.The smallbluish-blackmusselfound attachedusually
in clustersto seashorerocks becomespoisonousat certain
times of the year along the Pacific coastbelow the Aleutians.

FrG. 23. CommonSeaurchin, without and with spines.

The poison,which being an alkaloid cannot be destroyed by
heat, is the result of a diet which includesvenomousorgEIIIismsthat
drift shoreward from about the end of April through
October. If there is any doubt whatsoeverabout when in any
particular area thesemusselsare fit for food, they should be
avoided entirely.

Crabs are all good. They can usually be immobilized with
a stick for a long enoughtime for oneeither to crush them or
reach behind and pick them up. They will attach themselves
readily to flesh lowered on a line. Although salt water varieties
may be eatenraw, land crabs are sometimes infected with
parasitis and shouldbe droppedinto boiling water for at least
twenty minutes.

What About Turtles?

Turtte fat, from which as you may have observed no more
heat than that from the sun renders a clear savory oil, is so
nutritious that the reptile is an unusuallyvaluable food source

Btood and juices are often used to relieve thirst.


Go And Get It | 57

It is sometimespossibleto back track a female to a fresh

nest of eggs, generally buried in sand or mud not far from
water. Although not gfeatly esteemedfor tasteby those more
accustomed to hen's €Egs, these are nourishing in all stages.

The turtle can be killed by concussionor by decapitation,
care being taken even after it is dead to avoid both iaws and

Frc. 24. Abalone.

claws. If it is convenient,the turtle can then be scaldedfor
several minutes by being dropped into boiling water. The
under shell may then be quarteredand the entrails removedn
whereupon the meat can readily be simmered free of the
upper shell.

Cleaning Fish

Fish can be slit from vent to throat and the visceraremoved
easily and cleanly, in the case of pan fish often with a single
stroke of the thumb. Many tike to scrape away the blood
vesselsand,kidneys which form dark lines next to the back'
bone: If the fsh has scales,it can be held by the tail and these
scrapedoff with the back of a knife or something sim'ilar.

You may not want to bother with head, tail, and fns of
small fish exceptto eat around them, for boneswill then hold

together better and will not be so much of a nuisance. Fur'
thermore, a few choice tidbits witl be thus savedwhich would
otherwise probably be wasted. If you ever have a number of


58 | How to Stay ^Alivein the YYoods

heads,you may care to fnd out, perhapsby essaying a chowder
with them, why these are regarded by noanyas the most
delicious part of the fish.

Freserving Fish

Fish can be preservedfor a day or two and longer by immediatelycleaning,
cutting into thin ships, and hangingthese
latter preferably in the wind and sun to dry. Any fish that are
going to be retained should be killsd immediately &od, preferablynthen
kept dry.

If you have the time and want to keepfish for considerable
periods, clean the fish, cut off the head, and then split each
into two fillets so ioined by the tail that they will bang over
wooden racks, Build long fires beneaththeseracks. Keep the
fires smoldering day and,night with some gfeenwood suchas
alder. The fish must be protectedas much as possiblefrom

darnpness for the several days until they are dehydrated.

Makeshift Fishing

Just becauseyou don't happen to have a hook and line,

thit, as you very well realize, doesn'tmean you can't catch
fish. Unravel a bit of sweater, for instance.Tie on a small
strip of bright cloth. The corner of a handkerchief will do.
When the fish closeshis mouth over the cloth, give the line a
tug, There is a reasonablechance,especiallywhere fuhing is
virgin, that you'll flip the quarry out on the bank. This doesn't
always work, of course. Fish wonntalways take regular bait,
either.

Hooks Made On the Spot

You can devise almost any number of different types of
hooks. A bent pin really works, as many a youngster has
learned,the only trick being to maintain pressureso that the
fish won't slip off. An open safety pin is a somewhat larger


Go And Get It | 59

hook of the same variety. Bent nails have been usedwith con


siderablesuccess.

'

What follows, therefore, is that hooks can be made out of

practically any workable metal of sufficient rigidify. If you

want a really ntgged one, lash the blade of a pocket knife

partly open against a wooden wedge. A second blade, so

opened at an opposite angle, can if available form a barb of

sorts.The knife, so prepared,can then be hidden in a gob of

bait.

You can also cut hooks from wood, preferablywood that is

hard and tough. Whittle out the shank first. Lash one or more

sharp slivers so that they slant upward from the lower end.

You can evenadd a barb by lashing another sliver evenmore

acutely downward from the top. Thorns if available san be

utilized. Fish bones,too, will furnish both serviceablepoints

and barbs.

Primitive F'ishing Device

One of the most primitive fishingdevices,still used succ€ssfully
if not sportingly, is made by tying the line to the middle

A


hi

t /,,

fitr

tt, t

, tr

R aap
\\\\-. lh D

\\\ IfF
t\\l , ,t


\\\v /f
\)ttY

Flc. 25. Improvised fishhooks and a spear.


60 | , How to Stay Alive in the Woods

of a short pieceof bone or wood that has been sharpenedat
eachend. Hidden in bait, this is swallowed by the fish, whereupon
a ierk of the cord pulls it crossways.

How to Make Fish Lines

Fish lines can be improvised in numerous ways. One
method is to unravel a piece of fabrie and to knot lengths of
four or so threads together at frequent intervals. Another is
to cut around and around a section of leather, forming a
continuouslace.

Line can be more scientificallymade,after cutting or raveling
any fabric or fiber that may be available so a$ to procure
a number of long strands. Take fou of these threads and

FIc. 26. Catching fish and scavengers.

fasten them at one end. Hold two threads in each hand. Roll
and twist eachstrand clockwisebetweenthe thumb and forefinger
of each hand, while turning those held in the right hand
counterclockwisearound those secured in the left. This twisting
and winding must be done tautly, so that the completed
line will not unravel.

Dependingon the lengths of thread, conclude each of the


Go And Get It | 61

four strands about two inchesapart so as to make the splicing
on of fresh strands easier.About an inch before any thread
stops, twist on a new strlnd to repl aeethe one iust ending.
This procedurecan be continued, so long as materialshold
out, to make a line of any length. The same operation that
will provide a small cord for ordinary fishing can be employed
with a dozen or more strandsto manufactr:re a fish line capa.

ble of landing a tuna or big lake trout.

Buttons and Spoons

A button is often successfulas a lure. So is any small bright
bit of metal. In its emergency kit the Hudson's Bay Company'
with characteristicatty cornmendatory frugality, includes a
tablespoon with a hole drilled in it so that a hook can be
wired in place for trolling or gigging.

Gigging So Deadly It's IIIegaI

Gigging, which is illegal in many localities and not without
reason, is the practice of catching fish by hooking them arfwhere
in the body. An Eskimo method is to dangle a long
smooth hook above which are suspendedbits of bone that
shine and flutter in the water. When a fish approachesto

investi gate,the line is suddenlyierked up the iltervening two

or three inches with a good chance of being driven into the
prey which is at once hauled up before it has a chance to
work loose. Giggrng is often resorted to in waters where fish

can be seenbut not readily induced to bite.

Finding the Best Bait

Various insects,and even fuzzy seeds resemblingthese,will
catch fish. Widely efficacious are grasshoppers,which when
available can themselvesbe gathered with particular easeat
night with the aid of a light.

"Experiment with baitr" the Hudson's Bay Companyadvises
any of its employeeswho may be in distress. 'ol,ookfor bait
in water, for this is the source of most flsh food. Insects'


62 | IIow to StayAlive in the Woods

crayfish, worms, wood grubs, minnows, ?nd fish eggsare atl
good.After catchingyour first fish, examinethe stomachand
intestines.Seewhat it was feeding on and try to duplicate it.

If it is crayfish (form of fresh water crab)' turn over the
rocks in the streamuntil you get one."

If you succeedin finding many crayfishincidentdy' thereos
your meal, for once they are cooked by being dropped into'
boiling water, the lower portion is easily sucted free of the
shell. One way.to catch these is by driving a school into a
restrictedpool and dipping them out with a net made either:

( 1) by tightly interlacing foliage to a frame consisting of a
bent greensapling,
(2, or by dtashing someporousarticle of clothrngto such
a loop.

Getting Fish With Bare llands

One spring vacation in the Berkshires,when I wasn't much
older than ten, the fish at the bottom of a dam were biting
so disinterestedly that I hid my rod and started wading
around the bouldersof the fast little river. I sloshedback that
eveningwith a pretty good string of perch and trout after all.
I'd found them wedgedamong the rocks.

StiU anothei way to capturefish Witn the bare hands,I discovered
later that same week, is by feeling carefully among
the nooks and cavities in stream banks.You can cven catch
flsh, strange to s&y, by forming a sort of cave with your
cupped hands beld motionlessagainst a bank. Trout in particular
will investigate, whereupon by the acquired art of
closing the hands quickly enough but not too hurriedly younll
have them.

Emergency Measures That Procure Fish

When rations are short one can sometimessplashup shal


low brooks, driving any fish aheadof him. When these are
corneredin a pool, he can if he must block their retreat with
piled stones and go in and kin them with a club. Small
streams,too, can often be diverted so as to strand fish in
pools.


Go And Get It | 63

If one is really up against it in beaver country, it is occasionally
possibleto strand a life-susfainingcatch by prying an
opening in a beaver dam. Another technique is to wade in,
riling with the feet the muck that amassesbehind such a dam
and catching with bare hands the temporarily mud-blinded
fish.

Malcing A Fish Trap

Fish can often be trapped with considerable success in
casesof emergency.One such basic trap recommendedby the
Hudson's Bay Company for use under survival conditio$r can
be made by driving sticks and branches into the bottom so

Frc, 27. Fish traps can be improvised from wile, vines,
or branches.

that their tops protrude above the water. The trup, as the
drawing shows, consistsof a narrow-mouthed encloslue into
which the fish are led by a wide funnel-like V.

Attracted by some such bait as spoiled fish or decomposed
meat, the prey guided into the pen tntorgh the slit at thtapex
are in enough casesunable to find their way out.

Materials used in making such a trap vary. Sfretching a net
around stakes will, if the former is available, conservecor.
siderableenerry. Stones can be utilized, perhapsleading into
a natural freshwater or tidal pool.

Spears and Spearing

You may have already experimented with making spears,
perhaps sharpening a long dry stick for the ptupose and
hardening this point over the embers of a campfire. You've
even fashioned a barbed spear possibly, whittling thE point


M I IIow to StayAlive in the Woods

in this instance at the joint of an inverted crotch, an inch or
two of whose angle you have sliveredinto a sharply restraining
proiection. You may have also tested the efficacy of barbs
and tips of bone, metal, or stone that you have lashed into
place.

%r*oo@ooo@@ 6 s sa6seg

bE
bE
sss
F

"*

"T"-@ssoseossoo@@sso8

,-gB6oot

FIc, 28. Fish trap.

One procedure is to thnrst the spear very slowly through
the water toward the target, often to within inchesof the fish
before making the final iab. With the help of a light, possibly
a torch of flaming birchbark or a burning pine knot, you can
many times spot a fish at night lying practically motionlessin
shallow water. By advancing the spear cautiously, aiming low
enough to counteractdeceptive refraction, it becomes increasingly
easywith practice to pin a majority of such fuh against
the bottom.

Drugging Fish With Local Vegetation

"Certain Indian methods of fishing may prove life savers
for the hungry wayfarer," as noted in Venans and my How to
Build Your Home in the Woods."one procedure is to crusb
the leaves and stalks of the mullein or fish weed, croton
setigerus.These are dropped into a still pool or temporarily
darnmedbrook. The fish therein, rnomentarily narcotized,will
float to the surfacewhers they shoutdbe immediatelysecured.

"The bulbousroot of the so-called soapplant, chlorogalumpomdeidianum,can be similarly used.So can the seedsof the


Go and Get It | 65
southern buckeye, aetsculus pavia. Fish caughtby theso €rnergency
means are as wholesome as if merely dazed by concussion.
tt

Frc. 29 Spear.


Chopter 7

Alwoys A Wqy

*You yarloosrIAvE it too easy," it is the good-naturedhabit
of Biu Carter,sorudoughPeaceRiver trapper,to grumble
experimentallywhenthe occasionprornisesto be productive.'Tllhen I ioined the MountedPolice,all the equipmentwe
got was a paper bug and a pointed stick. We used the bag to
boil tea The stick wasfor killing game.And if you lost either
one, son, you got chargedwith it."

Outfitted with even less initial equipment one can actually
exist very comfortably;q';16 ingenuity, perseverance, and a
fundamental understandingof how to go about iL

The fdeal Survival Weapon

Few who go into the matter will dispute that the ideal diet
for the average individual stranded in the North American
wilderness with inadequate food supplies is meat. Fat, rare
meat will keep the human body supplied with all the vitamins,
minerals, ond other food substances necessaryfor the fullest
enjoyment of peak health. Other wild foods will also &CCOtD'
plish this, but none in most instances as easily or as satisfactorily.


trT


68 | flow to Stay Alive in the Woods

The challenge of survival will therefore in all likelihood be
easier to meet if you have a firearm and ammunition. Sup'
poseyou have some choice in those two matters?Should you
take a revolver, automatis pistol, shotgUn, or rifle? What

caliber?TVhattrue of ammunition?

You're considering the extremeproblem of securingenough
food to maintain strength indefinitely under primitive condi.
tions, let us remember, perhaps for weeks and possibly for
months without any-outside help. Ths Erestion viewed in that
light becomes largely a matter of mathematics. What weight
ammunition used with how heavy a firearm can reasonably
be depended upon, pound for pound, to give you the most
food?

Handguns, you will proba.bly agree after following such
reasoninga littte farther, are not worth their weight and bulk

'

as survival wcaponsif you have any choicein the matter' You
can kill with them, certainly. The point is, because of inade'
quacies in such frearms themselves,no matter how cxpert
yoo may bc you cannot be reasonablysure of killing with
them. You can hunt a month, evenin ordinarily good country'

and see only one moose. Yotu life can depend on your Sccllf'
ing that one moose.

The best survival weapon, it follows, is a flat lqd hard
shooting rifle. There is no need to append that it should be
rugged, accurate, and durable. Neither is it necessaryto add
that a shotgun is no fit substitute, for atthough having about
the same displacementand heft as a rifle, it shoots bulkier
ammunition at much smaller prcy.

Although it is tnre that something could bs saved by pro'
curing a carbine instead of a rifle, the extra weight and
length would seem to be entirely irstified by the increasein
potential accuracy. As a matter of fact, it would be hard to
beerudgethe additional few ounces of a good telescopicsight
if only becarue of the often vital minutes one adds to the
most productive hunting periods of cvery day. You will proba


bly want to include a light shg, such as a TVhelen' if only for
puqposesof carrying.
As for anrmunition, for several cvident reasons,you'll want
one shot to do the iob whenever possible. You are thereforo


AlwaysATtzay | 69

apt to prefer the explosiveeffect of a high velocity, hollow

point carhidge.

Survival Weapons for Group

Suppose two or three of you eachhas an individual choice
of survival weapoqs. Should one selecta revolver, another a
scaffer gun, and the third the flat shooting and hard hitting
rifle?

Some such diversification,at first thougbt, would not seem
urueasonable.However, the sameobjectiofft to handguns and
shotgunswould still prevail. You can see, upon consideration,
that the probability of success would be greater if atl had a
rifle apiece,enabling you to spreadout and hurt separately.

Theserifles should all be identical, so that the parts of one
or eventwo could be used to repair the third.

What and Where to Shoot

The first axiom of surviving by hunting, following the
weight for weight formula to its inevitable conclusion, is to
rely on big game. You will want to aim from the steadiest
position possiblefor the vitat region which affords the most
margin for error, usually the chesl

Different Problems and Different Places

The faet that a variety of different types of firearms are included
in the strrvival kits issued in quantity by various
groups doesnot conflict with the preceding statements. Particularly
assuch outfits are madc up en massewith the knowl'
edgethat only a very minor percentageof them will ever need
to be used, qualifications such as expenseand weight out'

weigh far more other considerations than they would other'
wise.

The basic problem is different, however, in country such
as the interior of Panama where there is abundant small game
but little or no big game animals. In such a region a functional
weapon for living off the country is a rifle for a load


70 | How to Stay Alive in the Woods

like the .22 Hornet. If onc wanted to diversify his ammunition
so as to be in a position to destroy a minimrrm of meat,
he could also carry an anrount of reduced loads having bal.
listics similar to those of the .22 long rifle cartridge.

The Extreme lnportance of Glasses

Just the other afternoon I sat on a bltrff, sunlight giinting
into my eyes from the meandering Peace, and surveyed an
open hillside a little more than a mils away. It seemed ulrtenanted,
and yet when I directed my Wollensak Minoscope
on it I could see a medium sized cinnamon bear gorglng
himself on saskatoons.

If I had neededmeat, which I didn't, or wanted the glossy
fur, which as a matter of fact I preferred to see on the bear,
it would not in all likelihood have been too difficult to circle
to within easy shooting distance. Yet although visibility was
as good as could be expectedwhere mountains rise in high
wilderness as untouched as themselves,the berry bushesso
camouflagedthe bear that even knowing where he was I still
couldn't make him out without the telessope.

The point is that when binoculars and other such glasses
are fully capitalizedupon, they are surpassedonly by the firearm
itself in importance in the matter of securing gamevital
for survival. If knocking down a meat animat can mean the

difference between life and death, and particularly if your

own life is not the only one so dependent,younre going to

attempt a needlessly dramatic offhand shot. The same prin


ciple holds true in glassingthe country for game. You'U find

yourself holding the glassesas steadily as possible, utilizing

any available suppoft, sitting if you can, and even sprawling

prone with the lensesresting on a log if afforded that oppor.

tunity.

An anea, as one soon appreciates,is best scrutini-ed SeC


tion by overlapped section. Any object that may conceivably

be some part of an animal is patiently watched for minutes

for any sign of movement. Even if none is distinguished,

before shifting the field of vision you'll probably fix that par


ticular spot in mind so as to study it later to see if any detail

has changed,


AlwaysAWay | 7L

Youlll get the habit, likely as noL of carefully scanning
game trails for as far as you can seethem. you'll

Sve p&rticular
notice to the types of cover where you know an ani


mal may be lying and to the particular vegetation on which

you ffie aware one may be feeding. Shoresas everyone knows

are especially well travele4 while in the water itself you too

have perhapsmore than onse spotted moosedipping ungainly

heads to uproot lily pa&, and have spied bears and maybe

even mountain goats swimming.

Ihe Law of Survival

Few will not agree that practices ordinarily contrary both

to game regulations and good sportsmanship are iustified in

extreme emergenciesby the more ancient law of stuvival

Under ordinary circumstancesmany of the methods of se


curing food herein deliberated are itlegat practicalty cvery


where and reasonably so, for a certain repugnance Sccorr


panies eYen the contemplation of some, while at best their

successful sernrnission in moments of stress will not be

ioined by any satisfactionexceptthat resulting from the thus

answered instinct to stay alive.

jacking

one of these generally forbidden practices is iacking, in

part the act of attracting and holding an animal's eyes at
night by the beam of a lighr Deer are among the big game
creatures that can be readily spotted and held in this fashion
long enough to be shot. Bear, on the other hand, will sorl€times
fall backwardsin their hasteto scramble out of the way.

Likely places for jacking are on the downwind sidesof well
usedgametrails and water holes. Licks are occasionally found
where the ground is so tremulous that one may sleepin brush

or tall grass until awakened by the quivering caused by the
animal's weight. Strategically located trees are particularly
favored locations, both becauseof the deceptive way one's
scent is dissipated and becauseof the often increasedvisibility
afforded by a seat high amid branehes.


72 | How to Stay Alive in the Woods

Procedure for any reasonablecontingency should be well
thought out ahead of time, for it will be necessary to move
and hold the light so as to seeboth animal and sights. The
darker the night is, as a matter of fact, the better in many
respectsit will be for jacking. During nights when the northern
lights are bright or when the moon is large, on the other
hand, one may be able to distinguish and shoot a gameanimat
without additional illumination, particularly if he has a good
light-gathering telescopic sighl

Suppose You tr{ave No Gun

The Hudson'sBay Company recommends the use of deadfalls
by any of its employees who may be stranded without
adequatefood in the northern wildernesseswherensome have
claimed, man writes in vain a little history and nattue buries
it in a blir.zard. The Company of Adventurers' pattern of the
deadly Figure Four Trigger is here reproduced.

Essentially, you might prepare a deadfall by lifting one
end of a heavyobject such as a log. This end you would prop
up with a stick, doing so with such studiedinsecurity that any
animal or bird who moved the support would knock it loose.
You would probably encourage this latter by affixing some
bait to the prop. You might go evenfarther, arranging a fe'ey
branches so that to reach the bait, the victim would place
himself so as to receivethe full weight of the dislodgeddeadfall
back of the shoulders.

Making A Death Pit

If you may be in one place long enough to iustify the effort,
you might prepare a pit in a heavily traveled gametrail
and cover it as deceptively as possible with branches and
leaves.Aborigines, to make sure that no animal will escape
from such a hole, often implant sharpened sticks in the
bottom of the trap to pierce anything that tumbles in.

Snares are Simple and Effective

Even if you do have a firearrn, you may want to set a few
snares,the principles of which are as simple as they are primi



AlwaysAWay | 73

tive. With a strong enough thong or rope, you can snare deer
and larger animals. With nothing huskier than horsehair or
Iight fish line, squirrels and rabbits can be caught

-------.


b.


-

Jf--

-

FIc. 30. Deadly figure four trigger holding deadfall.

A snareis, in effect, a slip nooseplacedwith the oblect of
tightening about and holding a quarry if the latter inadvertently
moves into it.

"The size of the snare depends on the size of the animal
you are trapping," as the Hudson'sBay Company notes in the
instructions it enclosesin its own emergency kit. "For exartr


ple, on a rabbit trail the loop should be about four inchesin
diameter and hang from ore-flnd-one-half inches to three
inches above the ground."

Let us assume, for the sake of illustration, that we want
to snare a rabbit for the pot. We can see that they, like other
animals,follow regutar paths.We will endeavor, therefore,to


74 | IIow to StayAlive in the Woods

hang the slip nooseso that the rabbit will run headfirst into
it and quickly choke himself.

We may want to go one step further and narrow the trail
at that particular spot. This we can accomplish in one of
several ways. We can drop a branchor small tree as naturally
aspossibleacross the traclg making a narrow slit in it in which
to suspendthe noose. We can shove a few sticks into the
ground to serve as a funnel. We can block the bottom, top,
and sides of the runway with bnsh except for a small opening
where the loop awaits.

All possible guile will be bent to make everything seemas

congruous as possiblenan achievementwhose necessityincreases
in direct proportion with the intelligence of the prey
sought. Trappers customarily prepare snares months ahead
and leavethem, with the nooses harmlesslyclosed until fur

season,to blend with the sruroundings.Small pot animals,
however,can usually be snared by beginners with a minimum
of artifice.

l.---n

b*-


-a-F


rqa

h-

FIc. 32. Bent-branch snare. FIG. 33. Snare.

A quick way to collect squirrels,for instance,is to lean a
pole againsta conifer under which thereis considerablesquirrel
signand at six or so pointson the pole attachsmallnooses.
A squirrel scanrpering the incline runs his head into the"p

waiting loop and faUsfree. Its dangling there doesnot seri



AlwaysAWay | 75

ously deter other squirrels from using the same route and
being so caught themselves.

We san tie one end of the snare to a stationary object such
as a pole or tree. W'e cELn tie it, particularly if snow makes
tracking easy, to a drag such as a chunk of deadwood. Preferably,
as shown in the following illustrations of snares that
have proved particularly effectual,we can bend a sapling and
arrange a trigger so that the animal will be lifted off its feet
and, if not choked as humanely as is possibleunder the gorditions,
&t least rendered unableto exert direct pressure.

Besieging A Burow

Distastefulas it may be to him, a starving man is occasion.
ally forced to smoke small animals from places of concealment.
Sometimesan animal can also be driven to within reach
of a club by quantities of water being poured into a burrow.

The opening may be such that it will be possibleto impale
the,creature on a barbed pole or to secure it by twisting a,
forked stick into its hair and skin. One is frequently able to
dig with some success. One may also have some luck by
spreadinga noose in front of the hole, hiding a short distance
away,and when the quarry ventrues out jerking the loop tight

I-,enaming for Emergeney Diets

Lemming have been found valuable as an emergency food
by members of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police on ex.
tended patrols. Lemming are the littte stub-tailed mice that
when reaching the ocean on their migrations, occasionally
start swimming in the possiblebelief it is iust another pond
or lake.

"Trrwinter they nest on or near the ground, deepin snowdrifts,"
say Mounted Police sources, "and you will haveto dig
for them. In summer, you can find them by overturning flat
rocks. You can get them by setting snares of very fine wire
along the runways. Lemming are constantlypreyed upon by
shrews, weasels, foxes, and owls."

Theseare edible, too.


7S I How to Stay Alive in the lVoods

Other Weapons

Both slingshots and bows and arrows iue so familiar that,
inasmuchas we will be limited in any event by the materials
at hand, there will be no need to do more probably than to
suggestthernassurvivalweapons.As for their successfuluse,
this will dependlargely on individual practice. You will do
the bestyou can and, if you have the ingenuity and resourcefulnessnecessary
anyway fer survival under extreme conditions,
you are likely to do extremelywell.

All Birds Are Eatable

All birds are good to eat. When they are molting and uo'
able to fly, it is not difficult to corner them on foot. Large
flocks may be occasionally captured by driving them into nets
or traps.Roosting or nestingbirds can be secured by a noose
fastenedto the end of a pole. Birds can also be caught in
fine snares placedwherethey nest,feed,or congfegate. Deadfalls
immobiize them, too.

Even the riper eggs, or any eggs it may be possibleto
secure,are nourishing.If one has continued accessto a large
colony at nesting time, one way to be assuredof fresh eggs
is to mark whateveris alreadyin the nests,perhapsremoving
all but a few if conditions seem to iustify it.

Successful Bfud Traps

Traps alsowork well with birds. A stick fenceput up in a
narrowing spiral and baited will sornetimes catch,in its center,
fowl such as quail. Geesecan be bagged in a ditch sornefour
feet deepinto which they are led by bait such as wild grain.
When one rushessuddenlyat the geese,they try to fly but are
unableto spreadtheir wings.

Turkeys are also taken by the use of bait, one ruse corsisting'ofattractingthem
headdown unclera low fence.Once

turkeys so pen themselvesand, upon finishing their pecking,
raisetheir long necks,it often takes them too lon g a time to
figure how to retreat.


AlwaysAWay | 77

Making And Using A BoIa

One can improvise a bola, a missile weapon consisting
primitively of stones attachedto the ends of thongs.Aithough
the Spanish people are generally most often thought of in
connection with the bola, Eskimos use a device of this type
consisting of several eords about a yard long with a small
weight at the extremity of each.

The bola is grasped at the center from which all cords
radiate, and the weights are twirled above the head. Twirled
at flying birds, the spinning strings often twist around one ol
rlore and bring them to the ground.

Scavengers Easily Caught

Gulls and other scavengerbirds can be easily although urlpleasantlycaught
by a man who is desperateenoughfor food.
A short stick or bone sharpened at both ends is securedin
the middle by a lins, preferably tied to something limber such
as a sapling and is then concealed in some bait such as a
d.ecomposedfish"

Mexican Stratagem With Numerons Possibilities

An ancient stratagem for capturing ducks, and one which
can be varied almost indefinitely to flt the circumstances, had
when Vena and I saw it enactedin old Mexico been set into
motion by the tossing of dozensof gourds into a lake. The
water fowl had become accustomed to them by the time a
small dark native stole into the water, head hidden in a gourd
which had been perforated to permit seeing and breathing.

The hunter advaneed slowly toward a flock at, about the
same speed with which the shell might drift. Starting at the
outside, he pulled ducks quickly downward by their feet"
twisted their necks so we found out later, and shoved them
one by one into a bag at his side.


ChopterI

Ns Dishes To Wssh

EneN rF wE DoN'Thappen to have a frying pan along when
on our own in the woods, the oversight need not necessarily
be fatal. Actually the too often sanctified skillet is, particularly
when loaded with gfease, one of the deadlier weapons with
which the wildernessis inflicted.

A few cooking utensils will make the iob of preparing
meals easier.Yet not only is none necessatT, but the oftener
the majority of us feast on such repastsas fat red sirloin that
on a forked gFeenstick has been broiled over the embersof
a campfire, the more sueh primitive methods of cookcrf cotrtinue
to please.

Tidbits of meat skewered on a green wand, thrust briefly
into licking flames to seal in the iuices, and then cooked not
too near the steady heat of glowing coals--with the deliberateness
as necessary for proper anticipation as for rightful
succuleass--fiave been a favoritc noonday repast of some of
us for years.You may be numberedemotrg those who like to
gnaw each bite*ize morsel oft the stick as wanted, returning
the spit to the warmth in betweentimes so as to keep any
remaining kabobs si;zliag.

79


80 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

Broiling on a Stick

A fish, bird, or small animat may bE cleaned and then impaled
in whatever way may be most convenient on a green
hardwood stick. The top of the stick itself can as a matter of
fact be split &nd, reinforeed if necessaryat either or both
endsof the cleft by its own twisted and tied bark, clamped
over the food. Many of us find it preferable to sear meat by
shoving it momentarily into the blaze and then to hold it over
a bed of embers, scraping a few to one side of the fire if
flames are stiil lifting ardently. For the prime secret of such
campfue cookery is, if it is to be most successfd, to cook
unhrrrriedly with the uniform hotnessof hardwood coals.

If we've other matters to attend to before eating, we can
lay the spit between two crotched uprights, prop it over a
stone, or merely push one end into the ground, thereafter
pausing only to examine and occasionallyto ttrn the meat
until the meal is ready,

Baking on a Stick

Baking on a stick is so handy, especially when we're preparing
only small amounts to be eaten hot, that you may
already be in the habit of preparing bannock in this fashion
while kabobsare sputtering,having carried the dry ingredients
ready mixed so that nothing remained but to add enough
water to make a stiff dough.

The basic recipe for this backwoods bread consistsof one
cup of flour, one teaspoonof baking powdernond one-fourth
teaspoonof salt. To this may be added,dependingon tastes
and availabilities, a variety of spices and fruits as well as
sugar and one or another shortening.

You'll be heating a peeled green stick of hardwood, which
may be about as thick as the forearm of a hunting rifle. The
dough you will mold swiftly, so as not to lose too much of
the carbondioxide gaswhosefunction it is to make the breadstuff
rise, quickly fashioning a wide ribbon to twist around
the stick. A few stubs on the latter, left by not trirnming it
too smoothlyrwill help keep the soft mass in place during the
baking.


No Dishes To Wash 7 81

Coolcing on Individual Plates

Fishcan be peggedonpreheatedhardwoodslabs and leaned
before a bank of glowing coals. If after they are opened and
cleanedthere is any difficulty in making them lie reasonably
flat with their skin againsl the wood, the backbone may be

removed. Turning the slab a tirne or two will give the flesh
a better opportunity to becomeflaky throughout.

The reasonfor recorlmending hardwood in these instances
is well understood, particutarly by tbose who have learnedby
experieneehow the pinesand other evergreenscan flavor food
strongly enoughto hide the often preferable natural taste.

The motive for specifying green wqod is equally evident.
The wet green hardwood that grows beside streams is in
generala particularly functional choice, being evenlessprone
to burn. Birch does burn readily when green, although the
slight amount of extra care thus necessitatedis more than
rewarded in this instance by the impaitation of a delicately

sweetaroma.
Such a slab, and a flat rock as well, can also be heatedand
used like a hot plate.

Steaming in tr{ole

The hole is most easilyscoopedout of sand. A fire should
already be blazing and in it heating a few stones,care being
taken that these a.re not of the streambed variety which may
contain water that, turning to steam, can cause a perhaps
dangerounexplosion.

Shove the hot stones into the hole, press a thick layer of
some wet green growth such as seaweedor damp grassover
them, lay on the food, add an upper sheathing of similar
damp vegetation, and then fill in the rest of the cavity with
sand or loam. Open enough of an inlet with a stick to allow
some additional water to be porued on the rocks, and then
starnp the topping down compactly"

The food can then be safely left to steam until you're ready

for it, the length of the cooking processdependingas might
be expected on a nunber of variablesbut usually requiring at
least severalhotttt.


82 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

Baking in CIay

TVhat amounts to small individual ovens can be provided
by covering a fsb bird, or small animal with stift moist clay
about an inch thick This clay may be worked into a sheet on
the ground and then shaped around the food like dougb, or
the article may be dipped and redipped as often as necessary
in a tt inner mixttue.

Most of us will probably want to remove enhails firsf but
ae sgaling,plucking or skinning should be done, for this will
be accomplished in a single operation when we break open
and strip oft the hard adobe made by laying the whole thing
in hot ashes above which a fire is burning.

Timc required for cooking will vary according to individual
taste, A half-hour beneath ashes and embers readies a one.
pound rainbow to my own personal satisfaction, but very
understandablyyou may like trout cooked morc or possibly
even less. At any rate, when done it will be ready to serve
with all the iuices sealed in, an often pleasant relief after
the dryness unnecessarilyassociated with so mucb outdoor
cookery.

Oven in CIay Banlr

If the chances are that we will be in one place long enough
to merit the effort, we may elect to make an oven in a clay
slope or bank. One \ilay to commence this is by hammering a
sharpenedpole, about as thick as the forearm, shaight down
into thc bank about three feet back from the edge.

Then a foot or so doum the side of the bank, far enough
to allow a sttudy ceiling, let us scoop out the size oven wc
want A usual proccdure is to shapc it liks a beehive, with a
narrow entrance. \Me will dig back as far as the pole, of course,
which wCll then pull out to form the chimney. We san grve
the interior a hard coating by smoothing and re$noothing it
with wet hands. A small blaze rnay then be kindled within to
harden this lining.

It is very possiblethat we will be able to find an old bur



No DishesTo T[ash t 8g

row to serve as the basis for such a contrivaltce. Or, at the
other extreme'we can do asI have in New Mexico: constnrct
a rough form of arched greensticks and daub the wet clay in
thick layers over this. Thesesuccessivelayers may be allowed

to dry in the sun,or eachsucceeding process can be quickened
by small fires lit within.

Baking in such an oven is simplicity itself. The oven is pre.
heated by a fire kindled inside. Fire and ashes are then
scrapedout. The food is laid within on stones,or leaves,or
whatever may be handy. Both flue and front opening are
tighfly slosed. One then goesabouthis business.The meal will
cook without further attention.

Cooldng in Ashes

The maiority of us have at onetime or another roastedveg.
etables in the ashesof a campfire, perhaps merely dropping
or shoving them out of sight or, more scientificdy, baring
a heated bit of ground where the vegetablescould be de


positedand warm ashesand finally emberspushedover them.
Timing is, as with most such cooking, a matter of sorre ex.
perimentation.

'

Not so many have also baked breadstuffsin this latter fashion,
with surprising cleanlinessincidentally, first rolling them
a little more heavily than usual in flour. When we remember
that the white of hardwood ashes can be substituted in equal
quantities for baking soda in preparing dough, this practice
may not seemso unusual.

Barbeque

Anyone having sufficient fat meat to warrant the sacrifice
of some nutriment in exchangefor the psychological stimulus
of a barbequemay want to allow a hardwood blaze to crumble
to embers in a pit, over which gf,eenpoles san then be
spread and slabs of meat lain.

These chunks should be turned after a minute or two to
sear in the juices, which will be ftuther guarded if during


U I flow to Stay Alive in the Woods

subsequenthandling the meat is not cut or pierced. The flavor
will be the better if any flamesthat lick up from time to timen
particularly when g[ease begins to &oP, are immediately
quelled.

Containers

Supposewete without gssking implements and want to
heat a liquid. Some large shells may be lying about, of pefhaps
we can find a stone with a hollow in it. ff the stone is
small enough, let us build a fire around it. If it is too ponderous
for that, then why not preheat it by lighting the conflagra.
tion in the cavity itself?

We ean fold a large rectangleof moist birchbark inward at
eaeh of its four corners and hold the resutting receptacle in
shape with wooden skewers.A long wide strip of bark can
also be fotded in at thc two endsto make a container shaped
outwardly,like a split log. A round piece of bark, first soaked
if necessary to render it sufficiently pliable, sarl be tucked in
once to provide a conical cuP.

It is usually a matter of some wonderment, when we try it
first, to find that water can actually be boiled in something as
unpretentious as birchbark if flames are kept from touching

this above the water level. It is also easyenough to drop some
clean pebbles into a large inflammable container and then
add hot stones from a campfire, handling them with tongs
made by bending a limber green stick.

Malcing a Soup HoIe
You've just kitled a moose.flungfy, you've a hankering for
psthing quite as much as some hot soup, flavored perhaps
with witd leeks whose flat leaves you see wavering nearby.
Why not take the sharp end of a dead limb and scoop a small
hole in the ground? S/hy not line this concavity with a chunk
of fresh hide? Then after adding the water and othcr ingredients,
why not let a few hot clean stonesdo your cooking while
you finish dressingout the animal?


No Dishes To Wash

I 85

Butchering

Butcheringas we know offersno particularproblems-i
anyone with a sharp knife. If without a knife, as sometimes
happens,we can onty do the bestlve can, puncturing and tear'
ing more than cutting, otrdimprovisingaswell as possible with

a thin-edgedrock or the iaggedend of a deadlimb-

Birds, we learn, can be dressed in a few moments with the
bare hands alone. The feathers can be pulled out with the
leastdamageto the succulentskin when the fowl is still warm.
If we have more birds than time, we may strip off skin and
feathersin one smooth oPeration.

If we see a small pouch near where the neck disappears

into the body, we puil that offn perhapsexarniningit to see
what the spe.i.* is eating, for it iJ the crop. Then we pull the
bird opeo, graspingit ubovt and below the ribs' lVhen we
take out -the viscerathus revealed,most of us will save the
heart and liver. The gizzatd is good, too, once it has been
openedand emPtied'


86 | Ifow b StayAlive in the Woods

Food animals, experienceteachesus, are often most easily
skinned when hung by the separated hind legs.We cut around
eachankle. We slit up the inside of the leg to join a long cut
made from the vent up the abdomen of the animal to the
throat. We do the samewith each foreleg. Then we pull down
the skin, usingthe cutting edgewheneverit becomesnecessary
to free the hide from the bodY.

Animals are carefully opened from vent up through the
ribs and all the innards pulled out with as little cutting and
puncftring as possible.Liver, kidneYS,and heart are the parts
most often saved.The flavor of small creatures such as mrlsk'
rats is improved when carE is taken to cut out the strinry

white ssent glandsfrom the insidesof the forelegs and thighs.

How to best Blowf,ies

Meat can be protectedfrom the big-egg-layingblowflies by
keepingit in a dark cold place such as a dry cave' by hanging
it cl.ar of foliage upwards of four yards above the gfound,
and to some extent by suspending fresh chunks in the smoke
of a small fire until a protective casinghardens around them.

Preserving Meat bY DrYing

One of the easiestprimitive ways to preservemeat is by

dryine. This we can do by cutting it into long thin strips and

hangingthem apart in the sun, whereuponthey will eventually

losernost of their water content and becomedrn hard, black'

and incidentally both sustaining and delicious.

The strips can be soakedfirst, if one desires, either in brine

'sea

water. One method is to boil down ocean water until

or

it becomes extremety salty and, while it is still simmering, to

dip the ships in this. If there is no place handy to hang

thl meat, it can be laid on sun-heated rocks and turned every

hour or so'
The processthat Cslonel TownsendWhelen describesmay
become your favorite as it has mine.
',Jerky is lean meat cut in strips and dried over a fire or in


No DishesTo Wash gz

I
the sun. Cut the lean,fresh red meatin long wide strips about

half an inch thick. Hang these on a wood framework about

four to six feet off the ground. under the rack, build a small,

slow, smoky fire of any nonresinouswood. Let the meat dry

in the sun and wind. Cover it at night or in rain, It should dry

in severaldays.

"The fire shouldnot be hot enoughto cook the meat at all,

its chief use beingin keepingflies awayfrom it. \4&en jerked,

the rneatwill be hard and more or lessblack outside,aod will

keep almost indefinitely away from darnp and flies.

"It is besteatenjust as it is; just bite oft a chunk and chew.

Eaten thus, it is quite tasty. It may also be cooked in stews.
It is very concentratedand nourishing,and a little goesa long
way as an emergencyration, but alone it is not a good food
for long-continued consumption,asit lacksthe necessaryfat."

The fat, which would turn rancid, should be trirnmed off
before the drying operation is commenced.A conservative
procedureis to renderit, either for later useasa food supplement
or for more immediate employment in the manufacture

of pemmican.

Pemmican

"To make pemmicanyou start with jerky and shred it by

pounding," suggestsColonel TownsendWhelen."Then take a
lot of raw animal fat, cut it into small piecesabout the size
of walnuts, and try these out in a pan over a slow fire, not

letting the greaseboil up. When the greaseis all out of the
lumps, discard theseand pour the hot fat over the shredded
ierkn mixing the two together until you have about the consistency
of ordinary sausage. Then pack the pemmican in
waterproof bags.The Indians used skin bags."

The ideal proportions of lean and fat in pemmican is by
weight approximatelyone-half well dried lean meat and otre'
half rendered fat. It takes about five pounds of fresh lean
meatto make one pound of dried meatsuitablefor pemmican.

Suchtrue pemmican,extremelyseldornobtainablecoffirrlef'
cially, will afforrJ practically every necessaryfood element with


8S How to StaYAlive in the Woods

t

c. This you can probably get along
the exceptionof vitamin
without for at least two months, however, if already in good
on

health. supptementingthis pemmicanwith fresh food will,
the other hand, supply the Vitamin C necessarTto prevent

scurvy.


Chopter9

Thirst

TVHeI'swooD smoke lifts among spruce in patterff; as primitive
as those formed there other days by frost crystals, have
you sometimesfound yourself wishing you could.taste peace
and quiet and solitude long enough to find out how good

they-and you-really are?

Maybe you've evenput into words this natural yearning of
that portion of our most primitive ancestor which survives
within us. You've addedperhapsthat circumstancesnoay cooceivably
be such for anybodn whether becauseof misadventure
or storm or man-Ioosed disaster, that tomorrow he will
be alone in the wildernessand compelled to rely solely on his
own ingenuity and resourcefulnessfor survival.

What is the first doubt that besetsmost individuals at such
a suggestionbut the worry that, if forced to shift for themselvesin
the unfrequented Farther Places, they would starrre?

The truth of the matter is, as we have learned, that a.
healthy human being can get along entirely without food for
a month or two under favorable conditions. Anyone would do
well to stay alive for much more than a week if he did not
have water.

There fortunately need not often be a shortage of drinking
water, especially when we understand how to locate some of

89


90 | How to StayAlive in the Woods

the more unusualsourcesnow recognized by only a very few"
The much more common problem lies fu1 making sure that
water so come upon is fit for human use. Comprehending a
minimum of fundamentals,this we can also solve with reassuring
certainty, for it is only the most basic conunon senss
never to take the slightest unnecessaryrisk with doubtful
water.

Any of us can generallyget along a while longer without a
drink. Just moistening our lips in water one drop of which is
contaminated can, on the other hand, so sicken us that if
nothing worsewe'll becometoo weak to travel.

The Safest Principle Regarding Purity

How can we tell then if water is pure?Short of laboratory
tests we can not, for even where a mountain rill bubbles
through sheer mbuntain fastnesses,the putrifying carcassof a
winter-killed animal may be lying a few yards upstrearn.

The folklore that any water a dog will drink is ptue enough
for his masteris unfortunately asbaselessas it is charming, as
even the fondest owner must testify upon recalling a few of
the potions his pet has assimilated with impunity. The more
reasonableassumptionthat anything your horse will drtnk ls
safe for humans is likewise at fault, inasmuch as pollution
may be entirely odorless,whereasan equine's basis for rejection
or acceptanceis familiarity of smell.

The fact that nativesmay asserta water source is pure may
mean, instead,that either they have built up a certain degree
of immunity or that becauseof familiarity they can not believe
the water is tainted. A domesticwater srrpply usedby the

inhabitants and guestsof a Montana ranch foi

some twenty
years was found to have been infecting not only present but
previous userswith tularemia, the gemu of which can be carried
to water by pets such as dogs and domesticbeastssuch
as pigs even though they themselves may seem perfectly

healthy.
Even the loneliest wild streamcan be infected with this socalled
rabbit fever by such wild

animals as muskrats and
beavers-Yet taking a chance with drinking water in a well



fhirst | 91

settled community is in one sense a lot less dangerous than
laying ourselvesopen to a small fraction of similar risk in
wilderness where medical help may be hours and perhaps
weeksaway. The safestprinciple in any event is to assumeall
water is impure until it has been proved otherwise,positively
and recentlyo

Making Sure it's Pure
'Water


can be rid of gerrrs by boiling. The exact time required
to accomplish this depends on altitude, the nature of
any impurity, and several other factors that altogether are so
elastic that although a shorter time will often suffice, a safe
generalntle is to boil questionablewater at leastfive Jninutes.

If there iS any reasonable doubt that water may be contaminated,
it would be hard for the most hurried and hanied
of us not to agreethat it should be purified before human use
although such a processmay be expectedto require both time
and trouble. A gteatdeal more inconvenienceand delay can
result from using iust any water indiscriminately.

Nor doesthis apply only to water that is actualy drunk. It
is applicable with equal gr:avntyto any water a drop of which
may enter the human body; examplesbeing, os may be appreciated,
water in which the toothbnrsh is dipped, water in
which food utensils are wtrshed, and water used fu1 seeking except
when kept at a high enough temperatue for a sufficient
time to insure puity.

Boiled water, 4s everyone knows, tastes flat because air has
been driven from it by heat. Air and therefore taste can be
restored by pouring the cooled water back and forth between
two utensils or by shaking it in a partialty filled jar or canteen.
Or if one is in a hurry and has salt, it is a sommon prastice
to add a pinch of that

Simple Chemical Puriffcation

One can pruchaseat most sporting goodsand drugs stores
for about fifty centsa small two-ounce bottle containing one
hundred balazone tablets. Since their purifying action depends


92 | IIow to Stay Alive iu the Woods

upon the release at the proper lir e of chlorine gs, these

should be fresh and the container kept tightly closed and its

eontents dry.

No purification of water by chemical meansis as depend


able as boiling but two halazone pills will ordinarily make a

quart of water safefor human consumptionin a half-hour. If

the water is muddy or if its integity seemsparticularly ques


tionable, it is good insuranceto double at leastthe amount of

halazoneand preferably the time as well.

Care should be taken with chemical purifiers so employed

to disinfect all points of contact with the container, so that

the water once sterilized will not be easily reinfected.If a jar

or canteenis being used togetherwith halazone,replacethe

cover looselyand wait two or three minutes so that the tablets

can dissolve. Then shake the contents thoroughly, allowing

some of the fluid to spill out over the top and lips of the

holder. Tighten the cover then and leave it that way for the

desiredtime before using any of the liquid.

You Can Use Chloride of Lime

Chlorine in someform is regarded as the most dependable

disinfectant for drinking water. When introduced in' proper
quantitiesit destroysany existing organisms, and for as long
as enough remains in the water it preventsrecuring contamination.
It is better to err moderately on ttre side of overdosageif
at all, for waters of varying chemical and physical
composition react differently to equal quantities of a given
disinfectant, just as two individuals are to some degree di


verselyaffectedby like dosesof an antibiotic.
Emergencychlorination of drinking water may be occorrrplishedin
threesteps:

( 1) dissolvingone heaping tablespoonof chloricleof lime
in eight quarts of water,
(2) adding one part of this solution to one hundred parts
of the water to be disinfected,
(3) and waiting at leastthirty minutesbefore using.
The stock solution should be kept tightly corked in preferably
a cool, dark place, and eventhen it should be frequentlyrenewed.


Ihirst | 93

Iodine as a G€rmicide

Tincture of iodine can be used as an emergency water purifier.
A drop of this fresh antiseptic, mixed thoroughly with
one quart of water in the same manner as halazone, will
generally make the water flt for human consumptionin thirty
minutes. Both the amount and the time may be doubled if
this precaution seems warranted.

fodine Water Ptrriffcation Tablets

Chlorine-releasing compounds can not be relied upon in
semi-tropical and tropical areas.Neither there nor anywhere
else, incidentally, does the addition of liquor to water or ice
rid either of the latter of genns. Water in these aforesaid
regions should be boiled or when this is not feasibletreated
with Iodine \Mater purication Tablets. Containing the active
Tetraglycine Hydroperiodide, these have been adopted as
standard for the armed services of the United States.

The tablets have beenproved effective againstall the cont
mon water-borne bacteria as well as the CYsts of Endamoeba
Histolytica and the Cercariae of Schistosomiasis. Manufactured
by the Maltbie Laboratories Division of Wallace &
Tiernan, Inc. of Belleville, New fersey, fifty tablets are pack
agedin a glassbottle with a wax sealed cap. Each tablet, 7/ 32
of an inch in diameter, weights approximately I2O mitligrarns.
Added to water, each tablet frees eight milligrams of
iodine which acts nsi a water purification factor. One tablet
will purify one quart of water.

Thesetablets, too, must be kept dry. The bottle, therefore,
should be recapped tightly after being opened.Directions for
use are:

( 1) add one tablet to quart of water in container with oalP,
(2) wait three minutes,
(3) shakewater thoroughly, allowing a little water to leak
out and disinfect the screw tlreads before tightening eolr.
tainer c&p,
(4) wait ten minutes before drinking or adding beverage
powders, and if water is very cold, wait twenty minutes,
(5) if water contains decaying vegetation or is murky and
discolored,use two tablets for every one quart,

94 | IIow to StayAlive in the YPoods

(6) make certain that the iodine disinfects any part of the
container which will come in contact with the drinker's lips.
How to Recognize Poisonous Water l{oles

_
A few water holes, as in the southwestern desertsof this

continent, contain dissolvedpoisons such as arsenic. One is

usually able to recognize such a water hole easily, partly be


causebonesof unwary animalsmay be scattered abouL but

mainly becausegreenvegetationwill be conspicuouslyabsent.
The safestgeneralrule, therefore, is to avoid any water holes
around which gleen plants are not thriving.

Hard Water

If in the section where we may be traveling there is hard
water to which we are not accustomed, severedigestiveupsets
may result if while getting usedto it we sip more than small
amounts at any one time, Boiling may be of some help, inasmuch
as when magnesiaand lime carbonates are held in solution
by carbon dioxide, these hardening agents can be partially
solidified by tbe driving oft of the gasby heat.

How to Make a Filter

Water can be cleared by fiItration, although this proces$
will neither materially affect any dissolvedminerals, nor will
it assure purity. Water is polluted by animal and mineral mat


ter, rather than by discoloring vegetablesubstances such as
grassroots and deadleaves.The first two can not be removed
with any sruenessby ordinary filtering.

The function of the makeshift filter is to clear water by
straining solid materials from it" you may be canoeing up
near the Yukon border on the Sikanni, for example, which is
so muddy that somerivermen savetime and effort by tuggingkegs of drintcipg water with them. Filtration will serye i,l


stead,however.

A wildernessfilter can generallybe madewithout too much
trouble, particularly in sand, by scooping a hole a few feet
from the souce of supply and using what water seepsinto it.


Thirst | 9E

A lVay to Sweeten Water

one svening we may make camp in a swamp or by a pond

which has an unpleasant odor. It will be handy in such a

contingency to know how to sweeten and purify water in a

single operation.

This we can usually accomplish by dropping several bits
of charred hardwood from the campfire into the boiling pot.
Fifteen or twenty minutes of sirnmering will usually do the
job. One of us can then skim a\Maymost of the forergn matter,
and then either strain the water by pouring it through a
clean cloth or, if we've plenty of time and utensils, merely
allow it to settle.

Where to Find Water

One is always learning from nature, if indeed he will learn
at all, and not the least pleasruableof these gifts is the widening
ability to determine with little if any conscious effort
where water lies in a wilderness area Several principles servE
to aid one in this discernment, and these everyone knows
already: that water flows downhilt, that it grooves the face of
the world while so doin& and finally that it encouragesvegetation
and partieularly somc types of vegetation.

IVe are not surprised in high country to find water near
the tops of mountains, perhaps indicated by a comparatively
lush area or, sometimes, by a thread of green verdancy unraveling
doqm a slope. Perhaps, too, a glacier or pennanent
snowbank may furnish refreshmenl

TVater is also pronc to lie near the base of hilts, where it
can many times be distinguished in distant ravines and canyons
by the intensity of vegetation. The main problem, as a
matter of faet, often becomesless the discovery of water than
the finding of a sufficiently gradual descent to it.

TVhencountry is flat and open, long meandering tangles
of such brush and shntbs as alder and willow tell us all their
familiar story.

When to Follow Game Trails

Game trails very often indicatethe presenceof water,a


96 | Ifow to Stay Alive in the Woods

usually reliable indication being a marked increase and a

progressivedeepening and widening thereof. If w€ want water,

what we will do of course is follow these.

If howeverwe are traveling in the north with the object of
making time, we will come to recognize that such trails corr.monly
mean a muskeg lies ahead and that the easiest procedure
will very possibly be the following of the animal thoroughfaresaround
it.

Locating Water on a Seacoast

One often successfulprocedurefor locating drinking water
on an ocean beachis to wait until low tide and then dig below
the high water mark. There will generally be some object
suchas a shell availablethat can either be used by itself as a
scoop or lashedto a length of driftwood to provide a shovel.
Fresh water, if there is Btry, will remain atop salt water becauseit
is lighter. The hole for that reason should not be
deepenedbeneaththe first signs of seep&ge,at least not until
a reasonable water supply is asstrred.

Desert Water

Water seeksthe lowest levelsavailable,and on the desert
thesemay be underground. If there seems to be no particular
direction in which you should travel and you can see hills,
head toward them, for the likeliest place to locatewater will
be at their base.

Perhaps you'll come across the thin shallow bed of a
stream. Even though it is dry, water may lie beneath the surface.
Hunt for a low placein the cut and dig. The sameprocedure
may be followed in the caseof dry lake bottoms. The
presenceof any water will soon be indicated by dzunp sand.

Game trails in desertcountry usually lead to water. Follow
them downhill if the land so slopesthat you can do this with
certainty. Otherwise,scout until you can make sure in which
direction the paths have becomemore frequented,and this
will be the'way to go.

If you happenupon a palm, you candependon water being


Thirst g7

I
at hand, generallywithin several feet of the base of the hee,
Reedgrassis also a sound sign that m.sisture is near.

Rain trVater

Whenup againstit for water, it is sometimespossibleto
find rain that has accumulatedin the large leaves of plants
and trees or that has been trapped in natural basins such
as are frequent in rocky terrain.

Moisttne From Vegetation

Discovering water in vegetation is most spectacular in
desert regions, where the various cacti are able to thrive because
of an ability to store fluid in the form of thin watery
sapwhich, in turn, can furnish a human being with &o €rn€rgency
d1ink.

If you needthat iuice, you'll cut off sectionsof cactus and,
being continualty wary of spines, nnash them in a container.
You'll either drink any resulting fluid on the spot or pour
it into a secondcontainer, and then you will repeatthe process
as often as necessary or expedient.If you have no utensils,
you'll mash segrnentsof the cactusone by one and suck the
pulp.

Sorneof the larger cacti such as the barrel cactus, which
looks about like what might be expectedfrom the narne,will
provide their own utensils. The top can be sliced off if neces'
ssry, the soft interior crushed to pulp, and the watery sap
either scooped out with the cuppedhand or imbibed from a
hole tapped in the side.

Snow

Clean snow may be eaten any time one is thirsty. The only
precaution that ever need be taken is to treat it like ice
cream and not put down too much at once when overheated
or chilled. One of the pleasantestwilderness desserts,as a
matter of fact, is ice cream made with snow. You iust pour
milk into a gslfniner, add sugar and some flavor such as


98 / How to StayAlive in the Woods

chocolate, and stir in preferably fresh light snow until taste
and texttue are satisfactory.

Sno% after all, is in flake form the purest of distilled water
obtainable from the atmosphere. Its only drawback is that
a considerable amount is required to equal a glass of water.
One soon learns to break ofi sections of crust when this is
available.Healy granular snow from former storms is usually
better yet. Most concentrated,of course,is ice itself.

One finds out about low water content very quickly when
rnelting snow in the noon tea pail. Particular care has to be
taken not to burn the pot, first of all, the bestprocedurebeing
to melt snow in small quantitiesuntil the bottorn of the utensil
is safely covered with severalinehes of water. Secondly,
the container must be filled with more snow and refllled
probably a time or two more if anything like a capacity
amount of liquid is desired.

This nuisance is compensated for by the fact that snowfall
makeswater readily availablethroughout the wilderness. All
one hasto do is scoop up clean handfuls while walking along,

a. valuable convenience inasmuch as one requires a lot
more water in cold weather than he'd ordinarily expect, the
kidneys then having to take over much of the process of
elimination otherwiseacsomplishedby the sweat glands.
fce

The winter water supply of many an Arctic establishment

consists of what is adjudged to be a sufficient number of

blocks of laboriously procured ice. The task of melting these

is sufficiently inconvenient,however, that when it is feasiblE

most prefer to chop or chisel water holes in lake or stream

ice. Such holes may be kept covered to discourage their

refreezing.

As far as purity is concerned, ice and the water obtained

from rnelting ice differ in no respeet from the water originally

frozen. Although heat kills germs,cold does not.

With the danger of germwarfare not becominglessin this

civilization, it is at least indicative of what wE may be up

againstto review the following facts:


gg

Thirst I

(a) thousandsdied from an especiallyvirulent contagion
of influenzathat followed TVorldWar I,
(b) recently bacteriologistswanting to study the flu organismsjourneyedto
the Arctic to disinter Eskimoswho had died
during that epidemic,
(c) the scientiststhought they might be able to secure live
culturesfrom the cadaverswhich had beenbnried in the cold
regions for more than a quarter of a century,
(d) they were successful.
Salt Water fce Becomes Fresh

"The soundestreasoningleadsto the wrongest conclusions
when the premisesare false," as Dr. Vilhjalmrn Stefansson
points out. "There are few things considered more certain
than that the ocean is salt, and there is no inference more
logical (although no inference is ever really logical) than that
the ice of salt water must also be salt."

It so happens, notes Stefanssonwho is often called the
greatestliving explorer, that sea ice becomesfresh during the
period intervening between its formation and the end of the
first surrrmerthereafter"

If durin g fueezingweatheryou are ever in a position where
you haveno other sourceof water but salt water, as a matter
of fact, you will want to catch small amounts of the available
brine and allow ice to form in it. The slushand any remaining
liquid should then be removed. The ice you'll fild fresh
enoughto use in the emergency.

Ocean ice loses its salt so rapidly that ice one year old is
nearly fresh, and ice formed two or more yearsbefore can not
be distinguishedas far as taste goes from river ice unless
waveshave been breaking over it recently or spray has been
dousingit. Melted hotlows, otherwise, will usually be found to
contain ample fresh water.

Finding Drinking Water on Ocean

Rain will often furnish drinking water at sea if, when
starts to fall, the precaution is immediately taken to let


100 | flow to StayAlive in the Woods

wash any accumulatedsalt from everything that is to be used
for catching and storing iL

Dew is healy enough in some localities to merit being
caught in a sail or tarpaulin stretched with sufficient sag to
allow any condensation to collect.

One may be out of sight of land and yet so near the mouth
of some great river that even far at sea the water will still be
fresh. If such may be the case, it may not be a profitless
procedureto test the water from time to time by touehing the
tongue to a moistenedfinger.

"lf all other rneans of obtaining drinking water have been
exhausted,any metal container and lighted lantern may be
used to obtain water by condensationr" suggeststhe United
States Air Force. "Removeone end of the container and submerge
the closed end in a foot or rnore of salt water. Place the
lighted lantern inside the container, on the bottom. Cover
the open top, allowing only enough air to enter to keep the
lantern burning. The heat will causemoisture to form on the
insideof the container. This can be soaked up with a rag and
squeezedinto a cup.nt

Obtaining Water From Fish

The proportion of water in fish runs so particularly high
that at sea, except when large enough ernergency water supplies
ca^nbe secured from ice or rain, fish are the most dependable
source. These can be caught in numerous different
ways, many of which we have already considered in Chapter

6. In somc waters a plenitude of fish will even leap freely
aboard at night, especiallyif a light is shown to attract them.
Most sea life can be uued, although crabs and sharks are
excessivelysalty unlessthere is ample fresh water. Sea snakes,
which unlike eelsbave no scales,are edible but have poisonous
fangs. Unless the fish you catch has ordinary scales and
looks like most fish you are accustomed to seeing, a
good rule especially in wann waters is to leave it alone. Jellyfish
should neither be handled nor used. Even the very tiny
ones are disagreeablybitter.

Water can be obtained from freshly caught fish in several
different ways. The most fundamental method is to divide the


Ihirst I I01

fleshinto small portionsand to chew eachof these tboroughtn
expectorating all solid matter before going on to the next
morsel. The fish cao also be sectioned and twisted within a
clotb, the thus freed juice either being suckedup or caught.

One primitive way of dealing with a large fsh is to haek holes
in its sidesand allow moisture from the lympbatic vessels to
ooze into these.

If you like the juice of raw clams and oysters, you're apt to
find all this surprisingly pleasant.At any tate, you'll thus be
able to satisfy thirst for as long as you caa catch sufficient
fish.

Quenehing Thirst at Sea

The blood from any birds you can sectuewill help quench
thirst. So will the blood of firrtles. If drinking water is lackiog,
the flesh of both can also be cheweduntil all moisture is
extracted, and then expelled.

SaIt Water

One characteristic of salt water making it totally unfit for
useas dlinking water is its cathartic propert5r. An example of
this, occasionally capitalized on in the backwoods,is that

a
quart of warm water in which a rounded teaspoon of table
salt has been dissolvedwitl ordinarily passthrough the diges'
tive systemin about half an hour if taken on an emPty stomach
upon rising.
When there is a scarcity of fresh drinking water' every

effort should usuallybe made to discourageanyonds drinking
salt water, fe1 this will not only give rise to tormenting thirst
in part by diminishing moisture already in the body, but it

one' causeactual poisoning, and if

wid proglessivelywrulrt
continued withqlt relief inflict eventual madness'


Salt Intake in EIot Weather
There is a time, however, when the drinking of some salt

water is to be recolrunended.On hot days when the normal

supply of salt in the human body is depletedby perspiration


102 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

and when no amount of fresh liquids will seemto sate the
thirst, what the system often needsis salt. This can be supplied
by making every cup of drinking water frorn one-flfth to
two-fifths sea water, or by adding a salt tablet or one-fourth
teaspoonof table salt to each cup of fresh water.

Other Things to Avoid When Thirsty

When one becomes extremelythirsty, any liquid is a temptation.
If you should ever be in such a plight, you'll want to
warn any companionsagainst drinking alcoholic beverages
which, aside from other possiblydangerousefiects,will only
further dehydrate the body.

Medicines, it will be realized, cannot be substitutedfor
drinking water either. Most compassfluids are poisonous
antifreezes.Body wastes eontain harmful by-products and at
best will only increase thirst. Smoking, incidentally, is dehydrating
and heightensthe need for fluid.

Sluggishnessof the digestivesystemis a natural collsequence
of going without normal amounts of water and
nourishment.This condition neednot causeconcern,asit will
adjust itself when regular eating and drinking habits are
resumed.One should very definitely not take any laxatives
under such conditions, as such medicationdepletesthe system
of moisture alreadyin it.

What to clo if Water is Scarce

If we haveample water at the moment but may havelittle
or none later, the soundest procedure will be to drink asmuch
as lve reasonablycan before quitting the sourceof supply.
We shotrlcl fill up, for example,if we havethe opportunity to
do so before abandoning * ship or plane.If we are in dry
country, it will be a good idea unlessthere a-reextenuating
circumstancesto drink a lot while at and just before leaving
a water hole.

Every eflort should be made to take adequate water with
us when we are leaving what rnay be an isolated supply. This
water we may want to ration and drink a little at a time,
merely wetting the lips and rolling a sip around the mouth


?hirst | 103

before swallowingit. Carrying somethingsuch as a button or

small cleanpebblein the mouth will help to decreasethe sen


sation of thirst.

The remainder of a small supply should not be heedlessly

consumeduntil we actually have more water, for that spec


tacle of sparkling lake may be a mirage, that plane may not

have spied us, and a dry culnyon may lie hidden between us

and that river which gleams nearby.

Conserving Body Moisture

An often unbelievableamount of water is exudedthrough
the pores of the skin, and the rate of perspiration is markedly
increasedboth by heat and by exertion. The need of water
intake can be lessened,therefore, by our keeping as quiet as
possible and as comfortably eool as we can.

Keeping the clothing wet will help at sea in hot weather,
although it may prove desirable to rinse the clothing during
the latter part of the afternoon to prevent too much salt from
accnmulating and to dry out before eveningif the nights are
chilly.

If in arid emptinesswithout sufficient water and obliged
to depend upon our own resourcesto get ouf our best chance
will be to stay as relaxed and cool as possible during the
torrid hours. Traveling can be done during the respites of
dawn and dusk atrd, particularly acrossopen sands, at night.

If on flat shelterlessdeser! we can always scoopout I rrsrrow
pit in which to lie while the sun is blazing down. The
urrnost shadewill be secured,as everyone appreciates, if this
trench extendseast and west. TVo or tbree feet of depth can
result in as much as 10Oo difference in temperaturebetween
its shadowybottom and ground level. Before we take to sucb
a refuge, we rnay want to leave some sign of our presencein
case help passesnearby. lVeighting a shirt over one of the

excavated piles may serve.

Tflhen TVater is Replenished

When inadequatewater suppliesare eventually replenished,
it will be inadvisable to drink a great deal at once. If the


I04 | How to StayAlive in the Woods
satisfaction is extended over several hours, the body will
utilize the intake to the fullest possible extent instead of
sluicing it through the systemand dissipatinga considerable
amount wastefully in rapid elimination. Even when there is
st}ddenty all the water we can possiblywant, partaking of it
too rapidly and in too large amountswill causenausea.

If We Are to Survive

Bark may be used as suggested in the preceding chapter
to fashion numerous types of water-holding containers.To
make a primitive basin, one handy way is to scoopa hole in
soft ground and to line that with a piece of waterproof corrvas,
plastic, or something similar. Do we want hot water?
Then we alreadyknow about scatteringa few clean pebbles
along the bottom of the water-filled receptacleand placing
on these, perhapswith temporary tongs made by bending a
green stick back up itself, stonesthat have been heating in
the campfire.

The point is: no ordinary problem will stump any of us
for very long if we possesssuffi.ciententerpriseand ingenuity
to have a reasonablechanceof surviving at all.


PART' TWE

WA RFdTFfl

"There is usually little object in
travelingtough just for the sake of
being tough."

-fi[sdson's Bay Company


Chopterl0

Fscts Of !.igh*ing Flres

Fsw Acrs are so immediatelyindicative of an individual's
woodsmanshipas the way he goes about lighting a fite,
especiallywithout the help of matches.

For firescan be so ignitedby any of us, anclif one method
does not succeed there is alwaysanother, but the very fact
that successis often elusive and to be achieved only laboriously
is all the more reason for exerting every reasonable
precautionalwaysto have dry matchesat hand.

What ilIatches to Catry

If we are going to make an effort to have matchesreadily
availablewhenever in the wilderness, it follows that we may
as well make a point of carrying the most practicalmatches
for suchpurposes,and these are the long wooden variety.

Papermatchesare too often an abomination in the bush.
If we ever do happen to find ourselvesin the SilentPlaces
with nothing more substantial,we will want to bend every
effort toward keeping them as intact from dampnessaSPos'
sible; and frOm the effects of perspiration as well as from
outerTvetness.Wrappingthe folder in soinething such as foil

or a handybit of plastic will serveto protect heads and stems
aswell asthe integralstrikingsurface.

107


108 | How to Stay Alive in the Woods

What About Match Cases

A waterproof matchcasewill hetpto assurethat a store
of matchescarriedon the personwill remain dry, particuiarly
if this containeris also unbreakable. For several years I carried
onemadeof some hard black composition, and then one
afternoon while taking Arctic grayling on a Black Gnat I
slipped in midstream.What happened to that match holder
wasone of thoseinevitabilitiesthat, as soon as they do occur,
you wonder why you never considered before.

The most practical waterproof mateh caseon the market
that I have been ableto find is the very well known one long
put out by the Marble Arms and Manufacturing Company
and retailed for less than one dollar. Any match casefor
woodsuse should have some provision by which it can be
fastenedsafely to the person, and l\{arble's is built with a
mobile metal ring at the top through which it can be pinned
or tied. The lid is attachedin such a way that it can be unscrewedeasily
when the handsare cold or slippery and yet
eannot be mislaid.

With any match holder, anotherdangerto eschew is the
accidentaligniting of the matcheswithin. That I once managed
to accomplishalso by ioo carelessly screwing on the
unyielciingcap of that sarne composition case, on the other
edgeof the continentthis time on the Southwest Miramichi
River" The sound \ilas tike that of a gun going off. It was
after noticing my right hand was blackenedand that the
particular batch of matcheswascharredthat I realized what
had happened.The black washedofi all right, not revealing
evena burn, and I had more matches.

Sincethen, even though the top of Marble's waterproof

nratchbox hasa protectiverubber linirg, I havebeencareful
to stow about hatf with the butts up and to keep the heads
of all as much apart as possible.It is thus possibleto pack
away more, too.

Ways to Maintain Reserves

If you spend much time back of beyond, you probably do
like most of our acquaintances who are so privileged and


Facts Of Lighting Fires | 109

scatter several watertight containers filled with matches
throughout your duftel for possible emergency needs. You
may alsotake the additional precautionof either sealing these
holders or encasing the matchesthemselveswith paraffin.

Becausecaution becomes second nature when one continues

to follow wilderness trails-where a misstep that in civiliza


tion would be only temporarily annoying can, with no help at

hand, totter one on the edge of disaslss-]ou likely aggeeit

is no more than pnrdent to carry an extra filled waterproof

case on your person.

The Prineiples of Fire
There is no single way by which the campfire must be
built. The principles, however, are always the sarne.
Firewood does not burn directly, of course. Rather it is a
gas driven from the wood by heat that, in combination with
the oxygen in the air, flames.
We have to start, therefore:

( 1) with fuel inflammable enough,
(2) to give off gas sufficiently combustible,
(3) to be lit by the heat we are able to concentrateon it.
This burning kindling, in turn, must be amply hot and
Iong-lived to release and inflame more and more gas from
progressivelylarger amounts of fuel.

The heat necessary for the initial reaction is ordinarily ob.
tained most convenienfly by striking a match.

il,Iaking Fire By Striking Spark
Campfirescan be lit without matches, iust as game animals
can be bagged without guns, cleaned without knives, and
cooked without utensils. For those who have never yet had to
resort to primitive measures,supposewe try the direct spark
technique which is the easiest of the ancient methods.
That a suitable spark can be made by striking the back of
a hunting knife against a piece of flint is well known by
everyone who has read of the pioneer Lrsesof flint and steel.
Not so generally realized, except by those of more experi'
mental natures, is that other hard stones such as quartz,
iasper, iron pyrites, agate, and native iade will serve instead
of the traditional flint.


110 | IIow to StayAlive in the Woods

Nor need a knife or even steel be used. hon, for example,
will do instead. Ftuthermore, if only by the processof trial
and error' two rocks can generally be found that when strnck
together with a brisk stroking motion will grve oft sparks. The
familiar foofs gold, iron pyrites otherwisenamed becauseof
the sometimes exciting yellow flecks it contains, is a favorite
in this respect 4rnongEskimosmany of whom carry two fistsize
chunks with them.

rf you happen to be by a down plane, sparks for starting a
fire may be secured by scratching together the negative and
positive wires from a live storagebattery; suggestingpossiblc
methods of procedue whenever electrical power is at hand.

WE must spread a preferably generous wad of tinder to

catch the sparks, so that when these shower into the bed of

hishly inflammable matter, the area can be blown to a glow

and then to flnme. If the tinder is placed in the wind, natgral

air currents may be enough to take carc of this step.

Once tinder is in flames,all we haveto do is shoveit under

fuel already laid as for any outdoor fire.

Tinders are Numerour

Tinder is highly combustible substancein which a spark
can be bloum into flame, and innumerablE materials of this
sort have been poputar in different localities since rnan came
groping out of the cold of firelesseons. Many of thesetinders

were caried' and some are still borne, in special containers

such as tinderboxes, pouches,horns, ord other characteristis

receptacles.

Birchbark can be detached in the thinnest of layers and

these shredded to make tinder. The barks of some of the
cedarscan be similarly utilized. Dry moss, lichen, grss, and
dead evergreenneedlesare among the additional substances

pulverized for tinder. Other suitable dry materials so used are
obtained from nests.
The dry fuzz from pussy willows is a well-knoryn tinder.
so

is wood which has dry rotted and can be nrbbed to &
powder. A number of mushrooms and other fungi are dehydrated
for such a purpose.The desiccatedpith from the inside


Facts Of Lighting Fires / 111

of elderberryshootswas employed by some Indians. So was
down from milkweed, fireweed, and IikE vegetation.

A handful of very dry pine needles often works. You san
use the flufi of the so-called cotton grass,that of the cattails,
and the downy heads of such flowers as mature goldenrod.
Divers dry vegetable fibers serve as tinder. So does the
powdery dry droppings of bats. So does the down found in
some nests and on the underneathpartsof somebirds.

Lighting Fires with Water and Ice

A small magnifying glassis a convenientdevice with which
to start a fire when there is sufficient sunlight. Similar lenses,
such as those used in telescopic sights and binoculars, are
likewise used. A piece of ordinary glass, perhaps from a
broken jar, sometimespossessesin its distortions sufficient
qualities of magnification.

The magnifyingproperties of water can'be capitalizedupon
for fire nnaking bn for example:

(a) holding the crystals from two watches or pocket compassesof
about the samesize back to back,
(b) filling the space betweenwith water,
(c) directing this makeshift entarginglens so as to colrverge
the rays of the sun in a point sharp enough to start
tinder glowing.
It is possible with ingenuity to devise other such irn.
provisations.

A satisfactorylens can also be fashioned by experimentally
shaving,and then smoothing with the warm hand, a piece of
clear ice.

Starting Blaze with F'irearm

Pry the bullet from the cartridge,fust looseningthe case
if you want by laying it on a log and tapping the neck all
arouncl with the back of your knife. If you are carrying a
shotgun,uncrimp the top of the shell and removethe wadding
ancl projectiles.Have the campfire laid with a good bed of
tinder beneath.Pour some of the powder over this tinder.


tfg I llow-to StayAlive in the Tgoods

Stuft a small bit of dry frayed cloth into what remains of the
load. Fire the weaponstraight up into the air. The r?g, if it
is not already bruning when it falls nearby, should be smoldering
sufficiently so that when pressedinto the tinder it can
be quickly blown into flame.

Obtaining Fire With Bow and Drill

Fires bave long been made throughout the world from
glowing embersobtained by the combined use of bow, drill,
and fire board. Although the tecbnique is simple, considerable
diligence and cfiort are required, for its application
can be very laborious, Once you've started, in other words,
don't become too easily discor,rraged but keep going.

You'll need a bown with a thong long enough to toop
around the dry stick that is to serve as a drill. You'll need a
socket with which to hold the drill againsts hollow in the
fire board.

By moving the bow back and forth and so rotating the drill
in the fire board, you cause so much friction that a spark
starts glowing in tinder amassed to catch it. This spark you
blow into flame with which the campfire is lighted.

Socket

The only use of the socket is to hold the drill in place
while the latter is being turned. The socket, which for this
purpose is held in one hand, can be an easilygraspedknot
of wood with a hollow shaped in its underneath. It can be
one of the smoothstones,with a slick depression worn in one
side, often found near water.

The socketmay be oiled or waxed to allow the drill, whose
upper end should offer as little resistancea^spossible,to spin
more freely.

What Wood to Use

Among the North American woods that are favored for
making fire by friction are the poplar, tamarack, basswood,


Facts Of Lishting Fires I tlg

yuccaobalsam fir, red cedar, white cedar, cypressr cottonwood,
elm, linden, and willow. The drill and the fire board
are both often made of a siagle one of the above woods, although
this is not always the case.

W

k__,

-

r-S

->/2
Frc. 35. Fire-making bow and drill. The parts are, top to
bottom: sockets,dri[, fire board, and bow.

The Drill

The ddll rnay well be a straight and well seasoned stick
from one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch in diameter and
some twelve to fifteen inches long. The top end should be as
smoothly rounded as possible so as to incur a minimum of
friction. The lower end, where on the other hand a maximum
of friction is desired,is more blunt.

A longer drill, perhaps one nearly a yard in length, is
sometimesrotated betweenthe palms rather than by a bow.
The hands, maintaining as much downward pressureas Possible,
are rubbed back and forth over the drill so as to spin
it as strongly and as swiftly as possible.When they slip too
low, they must be shifted back to the top with as little delay


II4 | How to StayAlive in the Woods

in rotatation as possible.The method, as can be appreciated
once you try it, is not as eftective as using a bow and socket.

Fire Board,

The dimensionsof the fire board, which may be split out
of a dry branch, can be a matter of convenience. The board,
say, may be about one inch thick and three or four inches
wide. It should be long enough to be held under the foot,

Using a knife or perhapsa sharp stone,start a hole about
three-fourths of an inch in from the edge of the board. En
large this hole, thus fitting it and the end of the drill at the
sarne time, by turning the drill with the bow as later
described.

Then cut a notch from the edge of the fire board through
to the side of this cup. This slot, which is usually made wider
and deeperat the bottom, will permit the hot black powder
that is producedby the drilling to fall as quickly as possible
into tinder masseC at the bottom of the notch.

And the Bow

The bow is sometimesmade from an easily handled stick

such as thoseused to propel arrows.Other peoples,believing
that the bow should have no resiliency, employ a stout sec'
tion of branch with a bend already in it.

One end of the bow may have a natural crotch to facilitate
the tying of the thong. The bow may merely be notcted for
this purpose, however, or perhaps drilled if heavy' enough
not to split. The bow string, which may be anything from
a shoe lace to a twisted length of rawhide, is tied at both
enclsso as to leave enough slack to allow its being twisted
once around the drill"

Llsing Bow ancl,Drill

The variouscomponentswhen ready will roughly resenrble
the set shown in the drawing, They are used as illustrated,
the campfirefirst being made ready to ignite.


Facts Of Lighting Fires I r15

The tinder is bedded under the slot in the fire board. If
you're right handed,you kneel on your right knee and place
the left foot as solidly aspossibleon the fire board.

Take the bow in the right hand, looping the string over
the drill. The drill is set in the cavity prepared in the fire
board.

FrG. 36. Using fire bow and drill.

Pressurefrom the socket,which is graspedin the left hand,
holds the drill in position. You. czur gip the socket more
steadily, you will probably findo if you will keep your left
vnrist against your left shin and hug the left leg with that
arm. Fress down on the drill, but not enough to slow it,
when you cornmencetwirling the drill by sawing back and
forth with the bow.

Now start drawing the bow smoothly back and forth in
sweepsas long as the string will conveniently permit. Maybe
you've dropped a few gains of sand into the cup to increase
friction. At any rate, the hole will eventua[y colnmence to
smoke. Work the bow even faster now, never stopping the
swift even action. Pressdown more assertivelyon the driil.

Lighting the Fire

Hot black powder will begin to be ground out into the
'inder. Keep on drilting, for the heartier a spark you can


116 | How to Stay Alive in the Woods

start glowing there, the quicker you'll be able to blow it into
flame.

IVhen everything seems right, gently remove the drill.
Breath softly into the slot until you can actually see a gleam.
Then pick up both fire board and tinder if that is easiest.Press
the tinder carefully around the incandescence.When the
spark definitely begins spreading, get the board out of the
way so that you can fan the heat more freely. Carefully con'
tinue feeding oxygen to the area until the tinder bursts into
flame.

Natives often carry fire so won, igniting for this purpose
dry spongry wood.that, tike the punk sold for setting off fire'
worksnsmolders over long periods of time. Tbis fire stick

they transportwith them, ready to be blown into flame when
the next blazeis readY to light.


ChapierI I

Speaking 0f Wcrmth

How MUcH more interesting an event is that man's supper
who has just been forth to hunt the fuel tc cook it with.
The ability to build a swiftly and certainly in

gampfire

every $pe of weather that may one day beset us can, at a

decisive moment, also mean the difference between existence

and finality; and the way to acquire such skill is a bit at a

time over as long a period as possible, using on each occasion

only whatever natural materials may be at hand.

From this stems the principal objection, and as I think
you'll agree a graye one, against getting in the habit of unnecessarily
cutting corners with any of the flre kindlers that
are on the market. For there may come a blusterous winter
night when the trees are bent with sleet, and the individual
up against it may very well not have a cbemical tablet to
ignite instead of the bark and shavings to which, although
they have always been available as they are now, he has not
become accustorned.

Fountiful tsirchbark

Snow, certainly, imposesbut a scant handicap to starting
a campfire in birch country.No more does rain for that mat'
ter, asyou can substantiateif you haveever arbitrarily dipped

ru


118 | How to Stay Alive in the Woods

birchbark into a lake, touched the prongedflame of a match
to a frayed corner, and had the singularsatisfactionof watching
the strip still crackle into flame.

The gtaceful tree need not even be disfigured, for it is
sheathedwithl ayer after layer of tissue-thin bark, enough
shredsof which can be peeledfree by the fingersalone to
start under favorable conditions any fire we may want to
build.

Can one ever forget the first occasion when alone in
the murmurous forest he heaps that initial handful on a
clearedbit of ground,leans a wigwam of small dry softwood
self-consciouslyaboveit, addswith increasinghesitationnow

a few larger sticks, and then feels deliciously stabbinghis
nostrilsthe first sweetblack wispsof smoke when that single
match stirringly catcheshold.

When the Woocls are Wet

When you are in the deep forest and it's maybe drizzling,
you start with the sameinflammablewisps,but next to them
you lean and crisscrosslarger ribbons of birchbark.Thesecan
alsobe securedby the fingeralone,althoughit will be easier,
unless there may be a reasonfor not so doing,to cut the tree
lengthwise,pry up a long roll of bark, anct pull that around
and off. The thick sheetthus obtained can be then ripped to
narrow strips which will burn much more readily than would
the intact section.

In more extreme circumstanccs,you get so that you CoITI'
mencealmostautomaticallyto lay a broaclsheetof birchbark
in as sheltered a nook as appearshandy. Atop this go the
shredsand the stouter fragments,and theseyou may cover
rvith still larger portions. Tlie small and then the bigger
piecesof dry softwoodgo ttp in teepee fornration, fcrming a
compactbut well ventilatedpeak through wlrich the flames
can hungrily cliiirb. Rectangles of birchbark finally roof the
pileoblocking out wind storrn.

The tirne corncs to light the match. Yott realizeyou must

holclit so that r,vlrateverair currents rcach it vlill run the

flame clown the rnatch stem where will be the initial fuel


SpeakingOf Warmth I tlg

on which to feed. Perhapsyou'll facethe wind with your two
hands cupped in front of the match. Ferhaps you'll elect to
lie between the wind and the pile, using your body and p€rhapsthe
opened flap of a mackinawas a barricade.

Tnflammability of Evergreen Twigs

Except on those days when everybranch is slick with ice,

it is practicatly as easy to start a fire with 4 tight handful

of small dead evergreen twigs as with birchbark. Quantities

of thesedead,resinouslittle stubsangle scratchily from the

undersidesof all conifers.

They may be broken off in thick uniform fistfuls, lit if

desiredwhile turned most advantageouslyin the hand, and

finally laid down in such a way that the flames will spuffer

toward the center. Already gatheredfuel can then be quickly

angled and crisscrossedabove this blazing nucleus in well

aerated patterns through which fire will be able to ascend

quickly.

Making and Using Fuzzsticks

Some bushmen start all fires, indoors and out, with fttzz


sticks, for although in terms of initial effort they are often
rnore bother than a handful of dry pine twigs, this shortcoming
they counteract with the ingratiating characteristic
of dependability. Fuzzsticksare a solution, certaily, in that
most trying of weather conditions when every bit of fuel in
the forest is covered with ice. You may have to go to the
extra effort of splitting or breaking out firewood under such
circumstances,also.

Fuzzstick is merely the colloquialism for a piece of wood
to which a contrived cluster of attached shavingscling. One
is easily enough rnade by shaving a straight-gained stick
of dry, preferably split softwood with single knife strokes
until one end is a mass of wooden curls.

The usual procedure is to bunch no less than three such
fuzzsticks so that the flames will be able to eat into the
shavings, toss on any stray;rhittliogS, light the mass,and then


l2A I How to Stay Alive in the Woods
go through the usual procedureof adding progressivelylarger
firewood, allowing alwaysfor draft.

Differenees in Firewood

The differencebetweenthe so-calledhardwoodsand softwoods
is, as you already understand, a matter of botany,
having nothing to do with grain, texture, of weight; for is
not yew which is a softwoodtoughter than many a hardwood
oak? Softwoods come from coniferous trees such as pines,
tamaraeks,firs, spruces,and cedars.Hardwoods are derived
from the trees that, instead of needlesor scales,have the
various familiar types of flat leavcs.

The resinoussoftwoodswhen seasoned generallymake the
bestkindling. They catch and burn quickly. They are smokY,
however, short lived, and prone to throw sparks. They are
most valuable,in other words, when either we wish to start
a fire or when we desire a fast brief blaze.

The seasonedhardwoodsin most casesprovide both a

steadierand a longer lasting fire. They are particularly suit'
able for most cooking, as they disintegrateinto hot enduring
coals that afiord the intenseeven heat usually then desirable.
When we can, therefore we'll probably start most of our flres
with softwood and hold them wit6 hardwood.

What Wood to Use

We do not have to build many campfires before learning

that when dry fuel is called for, fallen wood that has absorbed

moisture from the ground should be avoided. About the only

time this is worth bothering with, unlessfuel is scarce' is

when it is desirableto keep a flre going for a long period

without very much heat.

Standingdeadwoodis what we ordinarily come to seek, and

we soon realize there are varying degreesof quality evenin

this. An upright stump that is rotten is of little value except

to hold a fire, althoughwe can occasionallyuncover a tough

resinouscore in decayedsoftwood that will burn as if long


SpeakingOf Warmth I lzl
soakedin oil. Dead birch, on the other hand, quickly loses
most heat producing ability if the bark remains intact to hold
in the moisture.
A few greenwoods, such as birch and white ash,burn best
when alive. By splitting out kindling and making fuzzsticks,
you find you can even start a fire with either one. Green
wood. in general,however, is best used.mixed with dry.
Some of the barks, such as that of hemlock, are valuable
for giving off steadywarmth. Experimentationwith what happensto
be at hand seemsusually to be the best teachero for
the same speciesof wood vary to some extent in different
parts of the continent because of soil and atmospheric coil.ditions.
Among eachfamily group, too, are often many separate
typeseach with its peculiar characteristics.
Hickory leads the North American firewoods in heat producing
ability. Oak is not far behind. Beech ranks next in
numerousareas,closely followed by the birches and maples.
Ash is a favorite with many of lls. So is elm. Then come
tamarack, yellow pine, chestnut, poplar, white pine, and
spruce.
Much dependson where we happen to be at the moment.
In some eastern localities we've burned mostly birch, while
the woodpiles that take us comfortably through sixty-belowzero
stretches in the CanadianRockiesare mainly poplar and
lodgepole pine. Some sections have to get along with the
poorer oaks, such as willow oak, which are among the least
effectivehardwoodsin caloric energy.
You'll naturally do the best you can, remembering the
generalrule that the heavier a wood is, the greateris its heating
potential.

Ways of Conserving Enerry

Although there are any number of often ingenious ways to
make little sticks out of big limbs without the use of either
knife or ax, the point remains that frequently it is easier,and
therefore at least under emergency conditions preferable, to
burn firewood in two instead of expendingenerry uffi€c€ssarily
in otherwise sectioningit. One other strength-conserv



12.2 | XIowto Stay Alive in the Woods
ing dodge is to lay the endsof long sticks in the blaze,goo


tinuing to advancethem as &ey are consumed.

Another pertinent factor often overlooked in this connection
is the fact that a long fire is very often preferable. If you
want an open fue to lie beside,for example, it should be at
least as long as your body.

Supposewe wish to cook with severalutensils at the same
time? Perhapswe'll want to suspendthese above a long slim
conflagration, fron a gfeen pole laid between two crotched
sticks,

Possibtywe will prefer to set them, instead,in somesteady
position where they'll get sufficient heat. Tlvo of the simplest
ways to go about achievingrhis will be to build a long narrow
fire, either in a narrow french or between two gfeen logs laid
closely enoughtogetherso that the pots can straddle them.

To take advantage of the best availabtedraft, a long fire

shoutd be laid in a line with prevalent air currents. TVhen the

fire is confined by two logs, these may be advantageously

placed in a slinn V with the open end toward the wind.

Sleeping Warm While Siwashi"g

lVe can build a long large fire, bnrsh it carefully to one
side when ready to retire, and then shech out on the warmed
ground.

We may also want to consider the merit of heating stones
in the fire for use as substitute hot water bottles, being wary
of any which have beenin or near water. Attractively smooth
rocks from stream beds are particutar offcnders, the fluid
often trapped within them expandingto steam and thus G&rrsing
sometimesdangerousexplosiorrs.

If the weather is at all cold, we will owe it to ourselves to
take the fullest possible advantagc of reflected heat, and
although it does not take anyone long to appreciate the efficacy
of kindling a night fire against Bome radiating surface
such as a flat boulder, to comprehend the value of having
such a reflector behind us is usually a matter of far greater
experience.

One of the ways in the Far North to distinguish a chee.


SpeakingOf Warmth / I23

chakofrom a sourdoughis to watc! how the stranger arranges
his heating fire. The newcomer kindles his blaze, however
expertlS againsta cliff and sits in front of it. The oldtime

Northerner builds his fire farther away from the rock face

and sits between the clifi and. the fire.

Night Fire

The nuisanceof being unexpectedly caughtout in the bush
overnight is that if we need a fire, we'll probably have to
rouseup a dozen times or so to add freshfuel. The redeeming
featureis that the chore is not as disagreeable in f.aet as
it may be in theory.

You sleep until deepening cold slowly awakensyou, and
then, Iikely asnot,you roll closerto the companionship of the
embers"Although you can thus win an extra few minutes of
repose,eventuallyyou have to stir sufficiently to draw sticks

from the pile you've heapedwithin arms' reach. Flames lick
around,them,sketchinga thousand flamboyant pictures while
returning heat bringswith it relaxing lassitude.

If you happento have an ax (you cen make a fairly efficient
iob of preparinga night fire. One satisfactorymethod is to
pound a couple of green poles into the ground behind the
fire from which they slant. You pile a single wa1l of green
logs againstthese.The theory is that as the lowest log disintegrates,
the one abovewill replaceit.

The operationseldomworks out this automatically, but you
should still enjoy a considerable quantity of reflected heat
which will needfeeding only a few times during the night,
and which at dawn will still boast enoughcoals so that over
them you can cook breakfast-or at leasttoast your hands
while coming awake.

Euilding Campftre in Extreme Colcl

During extremelycoid spells, one wiil ordinarily be advised
to find the bestshelter available and to lay up besidea f;re
until the frost moderAtes.

When vitality starts ebbing and a chill begins to spread


\24 | How to StayAlive in the Woods

throughout tbe bodn one needs nouisbment or rest, and
preferably both. It is poor policy to keep traveling on nenre
unless the distance to be traversed is short and the possible
gain to bE derived by covering it proportionatety large. The
best axiom, sourdoughs find, is to get a fire going and eat. If
food is lacking, the next best thing to do is to keep as warm
and asinactive aspossibleuntil the cold breaks.

Bverything shouldbe ready for the fre before the hands are
unsovered. The fingers will probablS be nearly stift, an5rryay.
If flames do not cosrmence licking upward almost immedi.
ately once hands are bared, they should be shoved against
the skitt to warm before another attempt is essayed.As soon
as the fuigers are limber enough to hold a match, the try can
be made again as swiftly and certainly as possible.

Other Fuels

If where we are no trees are growing, driftwood may be
your best fuel. If abovethe timber line, we may stitl be able
to flnd enoughstunted bushes to serveour purlroses.On the
plains we come to utilize small brusb roots of vegetation
such as the mesquite,knots of gFss, and the dry cattle refuse
which is the modern equivatentof the pioneer'sbuffalo chips.

In soms counhy we just natrrrally falt into the habit of
pocketing tinder for the next fire when we come across it,
while in a few regions we gather fuel itself whenever it is

happenedupon.

trn parts of the Arctic where there does not happen to be
driftwood, coal and pcat are occasionally to be secured.
Roots and brush are frequently available.The small heatherlike
evergreenknown as cassiopeis sufficiently resinous to
burn while wet and green.MosJ and lichen can also be used
as fuels. Au may be secured from beneath the snos, if

necessary.

To Burn or to Eat

Animal hair ancl hides will provide warmth. So will bones
and fat, the latter in some instancesbeirg laid in strips over


SpeakingOf Warmth / I25

a small pile of the former and the starting flame and heat
furnished perhapsby a mass of moss until oil begins to run
cver the bones and to burn.

Another way to burn animal f.at or oil is to place it in a
container, suspend or hang in it a wick of some dry vegetation
or perhapsof fishlinebraided for the purpose,and once
the latter has soaked up enoughfluid to light it.

A stove for burning oil can be made from a metal cortainer
such as a kerosene tin by:

(1) punching a hole in one side above the fuel level to
serve as an air vent,
(2) making a wick with a rag or by experimentingwith
plant and other availablesubstances,
(3) suspendingthis wick inside the container by meansof
a snarewire or a strip of metal cut from the can itself.
(4) and firlally lighting the wick once it has become
saturated with oil, first melted if need be by outsideheat.
None of these animalsubstancesshould be burnt, certainly,
when any may be neededmore for clothing or for food. This"
as we have seen,holds particularly true in the caseof faL


Chopter 12

S[retrrerFor The ftf,otr<ing

WHene wE are, with what we have, right now! A fallen tree
is often at hand, even when rre are looking for one, under
whoseroots a browse bed can be laid so as to benefit from
the luxury of a crackling night blaze, nor is it unusual to
come upon a dry indentation in a strearn bank that can be
quickly roofed with brush and cheered by a campfire in

front.

No canopy is more pleasantunder favorable conditions
than the open sky. The only refinements we want on such
nights, if indeed we desire &Ly, are a mattress of evergreen
boughs,a long hardwood fire, and maybe behind us a log to
refleet warmth onto those portions not turned toward the
friendly heat.

On other occasions-tvhen thereis storm, or cold, or when
the situation is such that our every reasonablelong range
eflort should be directed at conserving the utmost vigor-the
time and energy requiredfor throwing up a bivouacmay well
be returned several fold.

IJnder circumstances r,vhenit may be desirableor perhaps
obligatory to remain in one area,we may as well enjoy the
sanctuarythat for a combinationof reasons is the bestr€osor


I27


128 | How to StayAlive in the Woods

ably available. This will be especiallytrue if srrfficient food

is at least temporarily lacktng, for then we may expect

strength to be maintained in direct proportion to ow ability

to remain comfortably and warmly relaned'

Capitalizing on Caves

Not long ago I had the good fortune to spend part of a
srunmerin company with an anthropologist from one of the
gtreatmuseums,trying to find in the northwesternmountains
some irrefutable evidence of man's first arrival on this cortinent.
There are, as we all realhe, only clues and not proof
that he may have originally crossedfrom Asia to the Americas
in searchof food. It may have been the other way atound.

One theory is that during a glacial era sometwo hund.red
centuries Bgo, ocean levels were lowered perhapsa hundred
yards to reveal a dry land bridge in the vicinity of Bering
Strait. Any Asians traversing such a course to Alaska may
well have hunted southward for meat.

If there are any actual tracesof such a trek, these are hidden
+mid the valleys and rangeswrought by four Ice Ages, for
unrelieved cold such as that which now makes the Antarctic
a dead continent apparently soon again gripped the Arctic.
ft wasprobably about the time of Christ that the first relations
of the modern Eskimo came gropingtoward his presenthome,
out of the twilight of the most recent frozen era.

What we sought that trip were shallow caveswhere earlier
Americans could have taried in comparative easewith a fire
kindled comfortably in front. The most likely type of caves
we did locate were on my own land, as a rnatterof fact, a few
feet above the PeaceRiver which aboriginesmight well have
followed after traveling south down the Continental Trough.

Temporary shelterstoday are distinguishedby the same
qualities that would have made them desirablednring the
Stone Age. We want somewheredry, protected from wind,
safe, and preferably small enough to be easily heated.Such
natural bivouacs are happened upon everywherein the witd
and rural areasof North America.


Shelter For 1be Making | 129
Dangers From Csubon Monoxide

Carbon rnonoxide is a potentiat threat in any closed space,

be this cabin or hut or tent, where there is a fire of any kind.

Even a blaze in a tight new stove with adequate drafts may

be dangerous, for the heat-reddened metal itself can release

dangerous amounts of the poisonous gas.

Carbon monoxide-which is a product of incornplete cofli


bustion, being the ever present carbon dioxide except for one

missing atom of oxygen per moleculs-is a particularly in


sidious gas because of its characteristics of being odorless and

cumulative. The ill effects of breathing small arnounts of the

usually unsuspected poison day after day accumulate slowly

in the body until one more perhaps otherwise inconsequential

dose lays the victim low.

It seldom gives any recognizable warning. There is no

difficulty with breathing, for instance. What generally occurs

is that one is so suddenly overcome that when first he does

realize something is wrong, he is already nearly if not entirely

helpless.

Carbon monoxide has killed many in the wilderness. The
best preventative is to make sure of good ventilation. There is
even very real danger in a tent, for if the spaces in the weave
of the fabric are closed either by waterproofrng or by frost,
to give two common examples, a small heater can and in
many recorded cases has killed all occupants.

Danger is increased as cold deepens because of the human
tendency to restrict ventilation in favor of warmth. Poor circulation
of air not only permits the invisible and odor-free
gas to accumulate in a closed area, but the very fact that the
atmosphere becomes progressively more and more stale itself
tends to increase the formation of carbon monoxide by not
affording sufficient oxygen for complete combustion.

The Death Awaiting Parked Motorists

While on the subject of carbon monoxiden it may save lives
to draw attention here to the particular peril that arvaits
motorists stalled by snow and ice. The tendency under such


L30 | flow to Stay Alive in the Woods

conditionsis to keep windowstightly shut and the motor going
so as to heat the car. The dangerwhen any closedvehicleis so
parked, particularly if a white smother of flakes is building
up around the conveyance,is that carbon monoxide can and
many times does collect inside the unventilated automobile
in killing quantities.

Emergency Treatment

What is the emergencytreatment in remote areasfor cor.
bon monoxide poisoning?Get outdoors with the very least
possible delaynor at least get in a position where you can
breathe fresh air even if this means slashing or smashing
something.Keep warrn.

As soon asyou are able to do so without too much risk of
being overcoffi%eliminatethe cause.If for example this is a
wood stove whose drafts have been too tightly closed, open
the outlets as wide as possibleand, of course' get fresh air
into the shelter and from then on keep it particularly well

ventilated.

Drink somestimulant such as hot tea, coftee,or chocolate

if you have it. Take it as easy as you can for awhile, lying

quietly in blanketsor eider down if possible,breathingdeeply

to help rid the blood of the eftects of tbe poison.

Coniferous Shelters

No one needs have much difficulty in flnding sanctuary in

softwood countrynfor no ax is necessaryand, in fact, we can

get along very well without evena knife.

A heavy grove of big evergreensitself affords considerable

shelter. How many times during a sudden shower have wc

kept dry by lingering under a spruce or pine,andon how many

occasionsin snowbelts have we avoideddeepgoing by keep


ing as much aspossibleto tall thick standsof conifers?There

is usually sufficient small growth in such foreststo break off

and angle in lean-to form againsta protectivelog or trunk.

On those occasions when we may find ourselves among low

spruce and fir, few tbings are simpler than to make a niche by


Shelter F'or The Making I l.3L

stripping off a few lower branches from a well situated tree.
These boughs, augmented by others from nearby trees, will
quickly floor and thaich the shelter. Such a nook is particularly
easy to heat with the plethora of fuel almost always
available in such terrain.

If a blazard is scuffing or rain dripping and some easily
handled bark such as that frorn birch trees is available, we'll
probably want to insert a few sheets at least overhead. For
bedding a soft mass of additional boughs sandwiched between
such waterproofi,ng bark can furnish surprising comfort
even when the world is restless with wet and cold.

14&at if There's Snow?

Snow can makethetaskof bivouackingeveneasier.Supposewe're
traveling along a wildernessriver. There may be
boulders along the shore between which snow walls can be
heaped and over them several young evergtreensspread.
Among the driftwood likely at hand, there's apt to be some
largectrysnagswhich, when a conflagration is kindledagainst
them, will themselvesburn with the help of enough occasional
extra fuel to keep them going.

Another way to get by is to tunnel into sufifrcientlydeep
sno% taking care to do this at right angles to the wind so
that there will be less chanceof the opening's being choked
by drift.

Still another procedurewhen snow lies heavyis to open a
crude hole from the top down. Such a trench can often be
madeby stamping. It may be in the shape of a rough triangle
with the wider end, roofed and flooreCwith evergleen,large
enough to sit or curl up in and with the narrower part rs'
flecting a small fire.

Precautions With Snow

We'll naturallYwant to avoid making a snow camp where
there may be dangerfrom rapidly forming drifts, from overhang,
or from slides.

If in open countrY,we will beware of making the shelter


L32 / Ifow to Stay Alive in the Woods

on the side of an elevation that is protectedfrom the wind.
Taking such a precaution is exactly opposite from what \rye
would do in the forest, but in open terrain such lees gather
drifts that can bury and suffocate one.

Keeping dry is particularly important under such conditions,
inasmuch as clothing that becomes damp or frozen
quickly losesits qualities of insulation. Instead of our sitting
or lying in direct contact with snow,it will be safer to have
someprotectivematerial between, and this may be an oilskin
garnebag,sectionof plastic, mitts, or any handy bark.

I{ouses of Snow

An easyway to go about constructing a snow house in
very cold weather, as you rnay have already proved to yourself,
is to heap snow in a mound slightly larger than the
enclosure desired. Pack down the final surface. If the
weatheris well below freezingand if water is at hand, throw
that over the pile so that a glazeof ice will be formed. Otherwise,
let the mound harden as well as it will in the air for a
half-hour or so.

Frc. 37. Snow Burrow.

Then burrow into the pile at right anglesto the wind. Keep
scoopingout snow until as thin a shell as seems feasible r€mains.
Build a small blaee withinl Any melt will be blotted
up by the snow remaining. Drag out embersand ashes finalln


Sbelter For Ihe I\.Iaking I lgg
poke a ventilation hole through the dome, and allow the
shelter to ice.

A very small fire within such a snow house, augrnented by
body heat, will keep the temperature surprisingly comfortable.
The tendency, in fact, will probably be toward overheating.
Exffemely important in any event will be the maintenance of
good vcntilation.

Shelter for the Making

n'A comfortable house was once made here," said Thoreau,
"almost entirely of such materials as Nature furnished,"


Chopter13

WildernessFlomes

We FREeuENTLyHAvE the opportunity of camping where the
temperature is either warmer or cooler than that of the stlrrounding
country. The reasons permitting this freedom of
choice are well known to everyone who considers the result
of air's becoming beavier as it loses heat, and who, perhaps,
can even visualize it flowing as it does like water into low
hollows ancl through ravines ancl canyons.

If we are traveling in mountainous country without bedding
when nights are chilly, we're apt to be able to sleep more
comfortably in a sheltered. spot partway down the lee slope
of a hill than in a valley. On the other hand, the currents of
cool air that follow streams are particularly agreeable in
warrner weather when instead we are seeking relief from heat.
Such breezes, too, are valuable in blowing away annoying
insects.

Where Not to Camp

Selecting a suitable camp site is not too eomplicated a prob'
lem when the main objective is less one of pleasure than of
survival. Comrnon sense is the principal deterrninant, for it

135


136 / How to Stay Alive in the Woods

is no rnore than reasonable to expectdrinking water and,firewood
ordinariiy to be at hand. If we are stranded or in some
other dfficulty where \Mewill appreciateany help that may be
along, we'il naturally pick a spot that is as conspicuousas
possible.

We will not decide upon a site in any event that may be
inundated by a suddenly rising stream, particularly not if we
areawareof the disastrous resultsin some areas of storms not
even visible locally. Warning tokens to be considered.often
include scarsand debrisleft by previoushigh water.

Lush growth may be not only rough and soggyunderfoot,
but it may presagetroublesomeinsects. We'll try to avoid
placeswhere there may be cave-ins,avalanches,or peril from
tumbling rocks. If there is any dangerof electrical storms,we
will also remember that solitary treeshave a tendencyto attract
lightning.

Particularly to be shunned will be jeopardy from falling
timber. Such treesas cottonwoodsand poplars are particular
offenderswhen it comesto unexpectedlytumbling limbs. The
fast growing coastalpines of California are extremely brittle
and, therefore, threats in every sort of weather. Whenever
there is any question,we'll bivouac amongsmall growth or in
the open. That is where we will make any winter camps in
treeleisnorthern regions, well away from leeswhere Arifting
snow can be an insidious hazard.

Anyone Can Build a Lean To

The lean-to built as an emergency shelterwill be essentially
a simple frame on which is hung, leaned, lashed, pinned,
woven, or otherwise affixedsuchcovering as may be available.

A lot of us, for example,may have goneabout putting up
a temporary shelter of this sort by driving two forked sticks
into the ground about seven feet apart and laying a pole between
the two crotches.Our secondstep would then have
consistedof making a pup tent-like enclosure by angling large
evergreenboughsfrom ridgepole to ground along each side.
Finally, we would have closed at least one end, perhapsby
laying several small firs against it.


Wilderness ltromes | 137

l\dore complicated frames are easily enough assembled,P&fticularly
when the joints are fastened if only by lashing them
with fine but tough spruce roots, or with wiry birch or willow
withes. Irlatural forks can be used instead, however. So can
braces. Although a knife will simplify the task, not even that
is necessary.

The skeleton can then be draped, interlaced, or otherwise
covered with green branches, bark, moss, grass, reeds, Ieafy
vines, and other such materials.

The few basic principles are self evident. V/hen thatching
a roof, as we may do with bark, we will naturally start at the
eaves and lay the bottom of each succeeding layer across the
top of the thickness beneath, so that any water will tend to
flow unimpeded off the edge. If we happen to build a roof

with a double pitch, we'll further waterproof that by bending
bark over the ridge and fastening or weighting it down on each
slant.

-rrr.t-

FIc. 38. Lean-to frame.

When thatching the walls, we will of course commence at
the bottom as if shingling and work up, Iayer by layer, with
each higher series always covering the top of the one immediately
below. Water will then be more apt to run down the
outsicle of the structure instead of into it.


X38 | ft[ow to Stay Alive in the Woods
Ccing About the Construction

Frobably the most satisfactcry v,ray to describe a few of the
more cornmon types of lean-tos is by means of the following
self-explanatory illustration. From them, eveo the newest frequenter
of the woocls can figure out the most practical way to
use whaiever wilderness maierials happen to be at band.

If we've something such as a tarpaulin to stretch over a
pole framework, our work will be considerably lessened.This
will also be true to a considerable extent if only the roof can
thus be quickly rendereC waterproof. A large rectangle of
plastic, folded and carricd in a shirt pocket, is not a bad

FIc. 39. h{ore elaborate lean-to frame.

thing to take along at all times if only for possible emergency
use as a rainy day cover.

Why ltilot a IIutP

It maybe expedicnt to build an emergency shelterso substantialthat
its wallscan be aclditionallyinsulateclby heaping
sodor earthagainstthem.If these wallsare leaned in slightly
from the bottom, gravity will tend to hold such reinforcementsmore
firrnly.

The roof can also be rendered warmer by coveringit with
severalinchesof vegetation,toppedby enoughdirt or preferablymore
durablesodto keepeverythingin place.An aninral
skin, soms contrivanceof woven vines, or perhapsan available
fabric may be hung over an openingto serve as a door.

An open stonefircplace can be made in the centerof the


WildernessHomes / Igg

dirt floor of sucha shelter.Althougha chimneyholewill then
have to be cut in the roof for ventilation, this vent rnay be
kept coveredwhen the fire is entirely out. It shouldnot be
closedotherwisebecauseof the threat of carbon monoxide
poisoning.

Door in Relation to lYind

when the wind is any problem,the openingof a temporary
shelter is usually placed on the side away from it. In .open
snow country where blocking drifts may form in that lee,
however,the entranceis bestbuilt crosswiseto the wind. This

---€

d

c€

-

FIc. 40. Thatching lean-to.

is also the most satisfactory compromise when one is camped
where air currents alternate up and down, as in canyons and
along mountain streams.

If we are putting up a structure that may be used for sev



140 | Itrowto Stay Alive in the lVoods
eral days or longer, we will not be governedtoo much in
this matter by the direction in which any breezesmay be
blowing at the moment.We rvill be more apt to look around
for natural signs,such as deadfall and leaning trees,which
will indicatethe quarterof the prevailing wind,

To Ditch or Not

We may want to ditch the sunrivalshelterso as to conduct

away water that, dependingon the terain, might otherwise

soak the floor. Any such drain should be placedso that in

addition to other functionsit will catch any moisturerunning

down the walls.

A channel several inches wide and as deep may be rnade
with a sharp stick in lieu of a handier tool. If this furrow is
in the way of foot traffic as it may be at the front, or if the
groundis such that it will crumbleeasilyn the drain's usefulnessmay
be maintained by filling it loosely with smallstones.

If our shelter is on a slope, water will of course have to be
shuntedonly from the upper sides. If we are camped on sand
or in forest so carpeted with vegetationtbat water sinks into
it almost immediately, no ditching at all may be necessary.

Browse Bsd

There are many wilderness materials on which it is pteasant
to sleep, If we want, we canmake a rectangular enclosure by
securingwith stakesfour polesin the shape we wish the bcd
to be. This form we can fill with aromatic pine needles, dry
moss,Ieaves,ferns,or sweet marshhay, The result, however,
will not be the famousbrowsebed about which most of us
haveheard;

We can simplify the matterand toss a fcw arrnfuls of evergreenboughsbeneatha
pine tree,after having first preparcd
the groundby kicking flat anyhurnmocksand by scoopingout
hip and shoulder holes.The result will still not be the re


nownedbrowsebed.
The constructionof that requiresa greatdealmore systematic
eflort. We'll need,first of all, a probablysurprisingquan



WildernessFfomes I L4L

tity of the softest available boughs. Among the best for the
purposeare the small young branchesof the heavily needled
balsam,but fir and even spruce will do nearly as well. These
boughscan in the absence of knife and ax be stripped off by
hand. They can be easily carried if laid one by one over a
long stick which has an upward angling fork at its bottom,
whereupon interlocking needleswill hold the light although
bulky load in place.

The operation is cornmenced by placing a thick layer of
resilient greenboughsat the head of the bed. These we lay
with their underneaths upward. They are placed, in other
words, opposite from the way they grow. The butts are kept
well coveredand pointing toward the bottom of the bed. The
browsebed is thatchedin this mannerwith row after row of
boughs until it is a foot or more thick, whereuponit is reinforced
and leveled by the poking in of soft young evergreen
tips wherever an opening can be found.

"The first night on such a bed is a sleep-lulling, aromatic
ecstasythat everyone should experience at least oncer" as
Vena and I suggested in How to Build Your Home in the
Woods. "The secondnight will be a bit bumpy. After the
third night, one will feel inclined to attempt renovations with
an ax load of fresh boughs."

Dome Structures

Even if no wood large enough for the ordinary lean-to is
available,we canstill make a very comfortable structure from
growth as slight aswillow.

Let us obtain first a quantity of the longestwands we can
find. We can then, after examining them, draw a rough out-
Iine of the house. This, at most, should not ordinarily be
much wider than the average length of the material.

The base of such a structure may be oval. It may be rectangular,
in which casethe final shelter may well resemblea
barrel split lengthwise.Whatever the general conformation,
in other words, we wilt find it advantageous structurally to
employ roundedsidesand roof.

Let us commence by securingthe larger end of one wand


I42 | trIow to Stay Alive in the trVoods

in the ground on the outline there scratched,which for purposes
of illustration let us assume is a circle. Oppositethe
first wand on the round line, let us setthe bigger end of tbe

second switch. We can then draw the two tops together in
the middle and tie them with roots, string, vines, rawhide,or
any convenient material.

3€

aFlD

FIc. 41. Dorne structure.

Let us similarly set and bend another two wands so that
above the centerof the circle they cros$the first arch at right
angles. At this apexwe will lash all four together. The cruve
of the dome roof, now defined,will governthEdecreasingsize
of subsequentarches.

A few inchesaway, or perhapsas much as a foot or so
if our coveringis to be canvasor light skins, we may rnake a
slightly lower arch parallel to the first. This we may crossat
right angles with a similar arch. This crisscrossing operation
we may continue in such a fashion except to allow for an

entrance,tying each of the numerousioints, until the frame
is sufficientlysturdy.

There needbe no particular methodicalness,however, for
functional variationsare as numerous as rnaterials and situations.
If additionalsupports are later needed,these can be
addedas nesessary,


WildernessHomes / 143

We may weave moss or grassthrough the final basketlike
framework in lieu of anything better, perhapslaying on a
secondcoat which can be both secured and insulated with a
thick plastering of mud and snow.

Serenity

"Most men are needlessly poor all their lives because they
think they must have a house as their neighbors have. Consider,"
suggested Thoreau, "how slight a shelter is absolutely
necessaty."


Chcpter 14

Choice Of Ciofhlng

THB NEcEssARTESoF LrFE are food, shelter, warmth,

and
clothing. When we have obtained these, it is claimed, there is
an alternative to struggling for the luxuries. That's

to adventure
on life itself, our vacation from humbler toil having
comrnenced.
With such philosophy not everyone will agree, although

r
was fortunate enough to find no reason for disputing it when
I went to the wilderness to live, and it may at least answer

the questions of a few to note that we have never regretted.
the decision not to waste what are called the best years of life
earning money in order to enjoy a questionable freedonn
during the least valuable part.

The seguence of events precipitated by this determination
included the resignation from an editorial position, departure
from a city which in my case happened to be Boston, and the
heading with duffel bags to where meat would be free for the
hunting, fish for the ca.tching, fuel for the felling, land for the
settling, and a home for the fun of building.

The wilderness will even furnish clothing, we found, although
the gift is in the sarne category as that involving the
ability to build fires without matches. Whenever possible in
some matters, it is expeditious to accept as much of an assist

r45


146 | I{ow to Stay.d.Iive in the Woods

from civilization asmay be available,without becominghelp'
Iesslydependenton anything that at some time may not be
obtainable.

WooI or What?

The chancesare that most of us will have had a certain
latitude of choicEas to the clothing we may be wearing if
everthrown upon our own resourcesto live asbest we can off
the country. We will certainly have a freedom of selection in

the matter of garb to be included in any survival kit we may
clecideto have ready for grabbing uP, if need be, at a rrlo'
ment's notice.
Tastes and circumstancesvary. So, assuredlyndo means.
There are certain generalconsiderations,however, that may
profitably be taken into account'
Virgin wool, to evaluatematerials broadly, is generallythe

safest choice for at least outer clothing if keeping warm is
likely to be any problem. Even during such an extremepfocedure
as tracking a canoe up through rapids too shallowfor
poling, wool clingswarmly as contrastedto the clamminess of

iynthetics and cottons.How healy the woolen fabric should
be will dependto a large extent on climate.

A Mistake to Avoid

It is not reasonableto say to buy this or to take that, for

body thermostatsvary, this being one reasonwhy someof us
can not seemto become adjustedto the tropics,while others
are in proportionjust asmiserablein polar regions.

An error to avoid in any eventis the very common rnistake
of dressingtoo warmly in cold weather. The body, as we all
know, regulatesits ternperature to a large extent with perspi


ratisn. Not only is the rate of such perspiring increased by
clothing that is too warrn,but unlessthe garb is loose and open
enoughto permit the escape of this moisturenit can in cold
climes freeze within the garments.The result at best will be
uncomfortable, while at worst it can so nullify qualities of
insulation as to be fatal.


* rorows, thar
thererore,,""r1;;TJi"i:t:l.'i ,,:l*,

should be shaken and brushed as free as possible of both

external ancl internai frost, as well as of any other moisture

congealed or otherw'ise, before one approaches heat. When an

individual can do so, clothing should ?urthermore under such

conditions be rernoved and clried each night.

lVateqproofs

Waterproof raiment, as for example an oil-silk shirt so thin

that it may be easily carried in a breast pocket, can if you are

at all active make you a lot more uncomfortably wet in a very

short time than you'd get by staying out in the rain for a

much longer period in an ordinary mackinaw.

Except in cold weather when such a result can be fatal or

under circumstances when by undermining strength it can be

dangerous, the matter has to do with individual idcas of corrr


parative disagreeablenessand is one of personal choice.

Footwear

It is not to be presumed that we do not all have our own

rightful preferences,but the subject of footwear is such a fundamental
one that perhaps a few specific observations may be
helpful for personal evaluation in the light of your own experiences.


The feet assume an unusual importance when one is in
rernoter regions, and this becomes even more apparent if
they are the only means of transportation on which one can
depend to reach safety. Feet, too, are especially vulnerable.
They are more sensitive to cold, for example, than other parts
of the body:

( 1) because of poorer circulation,
(2) and becausethe frigidity which reachesthem by collduction
is not only directly chilling, but is also indirectly so
as a result of the condensation it causes.
Under ordinary conditions You, too, will probably prefer


148 | How to Stay Alive in the Woods

either rubber or composition soles, particularly if you've had
much experience with the way leather slips all over the place
in the bush.

As for footwear itself where a gteatdeal of walking is involved,
sneakers can neither be depended upon to afford suffi.eient
protection in rough going, nor to hold up under €tnergency
conditions. At the other extreme, leather knee boots
have never worked out for most of uS, being heavier and
clumsier than we have found functional. Seven inches from
bottom of heel to top of back is norrnally just about the
maximum functional height for footwear to be worn while
coveringlong distances across wild terrain.

Particularlyunsatisfactory for much walking are the shorter
rubber boots sold for hunting, and not only because of their
tendency to be either too hot or too cold. It has always
seemedless uncomfortable, to me at least,to risk getting the
feet wet from the outside rather than scaldinglyand inevitably
from within.

Although there is admittedly no one ideal foot covering to
go over the alwaysdesirablebestquality wool sox,that which
I have most worn in widely separated parts of the continent
throughout all seasonsare lightweight rubberbottom boots
with leather tops. The height of thesetopshasrun ashigh as
ten inchesin wet country,but alsoaslow as six incheswhenever
the terrain has made this practical.Suchbootskeep the
feet reasonablydry. By varying the spacingand the tightness
of the lacing you canmaintaindifferentdegreesof ventilation.
The uppers protect ankles from brush and snagsand, even
when loosely tied with the tops of light woolen stockings
folded down over them, they keep out debristhat would soon
cause blisters. Suchboots seldomrequiremuch if any breaking
in, althoughwith some models the unaccustomedpressure
on the largeAchilles' tendon at the heel may be a temporary
problem which can be met, incidentally,by inserting a stiffener
sueh as birchbark, moss,or folded paper.

Perhapsas many of us do you'll want innersoles,leather
ones with steel arch supports that can be adjusted by the
fingers.Two pairs of sox may be desirablefor their warmth
and for their cushioningeffect,TVhenwe're ready to hit the


Choiee Of Clothing I l4g
trail, boots should fit so comfortably that feet and toes can
move freely.
Good light leather boots with six or seven inch tops and
rubber or composition soles are widely popular, too, being
preferable to rubberbottom leathers when *.1tt.rs is no problem
and when rocky going and temperatures very much below
zeto are.

A Crippling Error

A'

Sizesproper for the comparatively sedentary and smoothly
paved city life will cripple you in the foot-swelling exertion of
wilderness walking. Hiking footwear should be one full size
Ionger and wider than ordinary sboes when combined with

thin or medium-weight wool stockings.

Heary wool stockings will add an additional half size to
each of these aforesaicl measurements;a full size if fractional
graciations are not obtainable. \,Vith the often extra socks of
cold weather travel, the same ratio of looseness should be
maintainedn and this you can best determine by trial fittings.

Leather footwear should then be broken in, preferably well
in advance of regular use. The quickest satisfactory way of
going about this is to stand in four inches of water for a
quarter of an hour, and then to hike until the leather dries

on your feet.

Stoekings

Wool is what most of us want when it comes to stockings.

ther materials, including nylon and similar durable syn


hetics, have a tendency to slip uncomfortably on the feet,

hile at best they will not absorb perspiration. If wool does

of happen to agree with an individual, however, light socks

f one of tbese latter rnaterials will do for wearing next to the

kin.

Only a good quality wool is worth taking into the bush, for
oosely twisted yarns and slackly knit weaves soon wear out,
hile cheaply processed wool is also apt to be rough with


I50 / How to StayAlive in the Woods

burrs and other impurities that can cause sore feet. Cheap
woolens tend, also, to shrink and mat excessively when
washed, and this is a particularly grievousfault inasmuch as
putting on cleanstockingsat leastonceeachday is sucheasy
and effectiveinsurance against foot troubles.

If you don't have a sparepair along and the weather isn't
too cold, you can still havecleanstockingsdaily. Lf your feet
are becomingwet anyrvay, YoUmay as well wash the stockings
as best you can once or twice during the duy, then
squeeze(not wring) them as dry as possibleand put them
back on. Or you can wait until ready to turn in before such
launderingandnif you have no better woy, draw them back
on until dry.

So many dyes run during the harsh treatment to which
stockingsare commonly and necessarilysubjectedthat it is
safestto pick a white or naturalgrey.

A Hancly Dodge

Wyndham Smith, husky bushman who when Vena and I
methim was camyingthe back of a pieceof rnining maehinery
while four ordinary men were toting the front, told us over
a bear mulligan that evening that his solution to the stocking
problem was to purchaseapparelof this sort by the yard.

What he bought, Scottyexplained,was woolen tubing similar
to elongated stocking.legs. All he then had to'do wastie
piecesof string around the bottoms of two such tubes and
draw thern on like ordinary stockings.

Whenwhat amounted to the heel of onetube wore through,

Scotty remarked that he twisted it around so that the hole

was over his instep.He had found with true Edinburgh coil,


ninessthat by using the initial hole as a guide and subse


quently turning it first to one side and later to the othern he

couldwear each tubein four different positionswithout mend


ing. Nor, imparted Wyndham Smith, was that all. He finally

cut off the entire section that had served as the foot, retied

the string, and beganthe processanew.

Becausethe same principle can also be employedwith


ordinary stockings,it is not a bad dodgeto remember il all
emcrgency,

3'rousers and Such

The most satisfactory course to follow with all clothing to
be worn in the wilderness is to obtain, whenever possible, raiment
that has been especialiy and conscieatiously made for
hard use under primitive conditions. The harder weaves pick
up less debris and withstand severe usage longer and more
satisfactorily.

A primary rule with trousers and similar vesture is if we
are going to be afoot to avoid tightness, particularly at the
knees. This weighs the evidence against riding breeches and
jodhpurs, although particulariy for wornen, who as a sex do
not have as large a seiection of outdoor garb to choose frorn,
ski wear affords many satisfactory choices both as to style
and function.

Breeches made especially for the woods fit rnore functionally
inside boots than do some other garments. They are thus
out of the way where they can not hook on a snag anci throw
orle. The legs do not become draggled in wet going, anrJfurthermore
they afford much more complete protection against
insects.

If the ordinary type of trousers is worn, the majority of us
will soon agree that cuffs serye no useful purpose in the bush.
Neither do long trcuscr legs, and furthermore they can cause
bad falls by catching in undergrowth. A common procedure
in the forest is to slash off these tubes about halfway to the
knee. This is what is known as stagging.

A great many individuals especially in horse country prefer
levis and similar dungarees, with long underwear beneath
varying accorcling to the weather, and such hard weaves stand
up best in mountainous rocky going.

The fabric chosen may well be water resistant, not water'
proof, if only to keep it from becoming too heavy with

wet


t*rr. lVhether hunting or not, most of us like a soft enough
material to permit quiet progress without a lot of noisy

scratching and scraping.


162 | How to Stay Alive in the Woods

The BeIt to Buy

to desire every articleselected

use under survival conditions to be functional in as many
ways asfeasible.An exampleis the belt which, although sus'
penders are admittedly more comfortable for supporting the

Leavier loads one pocketsin the woods,most of us chooseto
retain trousersand breeches.

A light dressyband will servethe primary purpose' but a
more rugged article with a stoutly attachedbuckle may one
day be invaluablefor lowering one safely from a precarious
foothold, for suspendinga deer out of the way of bearsby
strappingits neck to a temporarily bent sapling,and for the
numerousother odd tasksthat arisewhen one is in the wilder'

It is reasonable for possible

IleSS.

One, Two, and Three Shirts

Preferablytheyshoulclbe shirts madefor thejob andwith
pockets,both capaciousand capableof being securelyfastened,
which will make it easier to carry safely the numerous
small items one is alwaysneedingin the farther places.

You may prefer a shirt that fits snuglY,althoughonethat is

looseaffordsmoreprotection from insects.A convenientplace

to stow a small bundle,tooois between such an ample shirt

and the back; unlessthe shirt has a gamepocket which, of

course,is more convenientstill.

A ruggedcottonshirt is what you'Il perhapswant in certain

regions*a during particular seasons.A resilientvirgin wool

garment, closely wovrn of tightly and uniformly spun fine

yutttt, with two large bigh pocketsthat have buttonedflaps

is excellent for cooler going.

In cold weatber, you can wear two of these shirts, For

windproofing, a loosely fitting top garment of finespunufl'

bteachedcoitoo will afford sufficient ventilation to deter the

collectingand condensingof body moisture.

Becauseof the insulationaffordedby confined air, two or

threelayersof light clothing are more comfortableand effec


tive than a single garment containing the same weight of


ChoiceOf Clothing | 153

materials. There is also the adcledadvantage of adaptability.
You can always unbuttonor remove shirtsoneby one, BSyou
may desire to do during a wann afternoon or when you begin
perspiringtoo rapidly soonafter the start of a sub-zero trek.

Shirts on Desert

A light woolen shirt will not be out of place under most
desert conditions, being valuable for combating the abrupt
coolness that often arrives at sunset, as well as for knotting
around the abdomen during the day to prevent the chilling
otherwise threatened by unusually fast eyaporation of perspiration.


Wearing the clothing otherwiseopen and loose will help
maintain the even rate of evaporation necessary for maintenance
of normal temperature.

Pockets

All pockets should be kept buttoned, snapped,pinned, or
otherwisefastenedshut. It also is a good idea, particularly
when pushing through thick brush, to check periodically to
rnakesurethat pocket tops remain safely closed over contents
whose value, if selection has been careful, wil increasein
proportion to the distance one is away from sources of supply.

If you sleepin your clothes,you will rest more comfortably
if you first carefully empty the pockets, keeping the items
safelytogetherperhapsin a handkerchief.

Mosquitoes Prefer BIue

TVetclothing is aboutfour times as appealing to mosquitoes
as dry. Clothing moist with perspirationattractsat leasttwice
asmany of the winged biters asthe same garmentsdampened
by rain or dew. Although deerand similar animals,being apparentlycolorblind,
do not seemto notice hues except 0s var!ing
degreesof brightness, a mosquitohas definite preferences'
bluebeingparticularly attractive to the pestiferous squadrons.


I54 | Ifow to Stay Alive in the lVocds

]'aciret

If you can locate a light down jacket that is not too bulky
and which is built ruggedly enough for bush use' you'll have

a particularly adaptable garment for all seasons.One I found

has been comfortable throughout the year in latitudcs as far
apart as Alaska and Mexico, and it is light' enough to shove
into a game pocket or under the lashings of my dog's pack"
Most of the few such genuine articles on tbe market, however,
are because of cost and fragility better suited for country club
wear.

Gloves or L{iits

You may want a light pair of leather or woolen gloves to
protect the hands. If warmth is an important factor, woolen
mittens will be more satisfactory, especially:

( 1) if they extend high enough to shield the particularly
rrulnerable wrists,
(2) and if their tops also fit sufficiently close to exclude
snow and debris which otherwise might necessitate frequent
removals,
If you have had much reason to use mitts in the wilderness,
you have probably found it as suitable as I have to have a slit
made in the palm of one and a knitted flap added to sover
that opening when it is not in use. With such a mitt on the
master hand, one is enabled to bare the fingers quickly whcnevcr
this may become expedient, as for exarnple wben game
is sighted.

In very colcl lyeather, you may care to add outer mitts.
These may be of some windproof material such as tightly
woven cotton, light and porous enough to maintain a circulation.
of air adequate to keep perspiration from collecting. An
especially handy technique in this instance, in reasonably open
country, is to join these mitts with a cord long enough to
loop around the neck. Then, protected against loss by the
cord, you can yank either hand bare in an instant with your
teeth.


Chopter15

Keeping Covered

Tnar ouR Tw-o FEETmay one day be our only means of
reachingsafetytherecan be no dispute, and if in such a crisis
footwear shouldgive out, who will not agreethat whenever it
may be advantageousother clothing should be sacrificed to

protect thesevital and yulnerableparts.
Yet numerouslost individuals have been, when found, still
well garbed except for long since bare feet actually torn
through to the bone in places.
Pieces of heavy cloth can be torn from a mackinaw and,
once they are stood upon, drawn up around the ankles and
there tied. Strips ripped from a shirt and wound around the
legs like puttees,covering the tops of the footwear can be
invaluable in protectingthe feet from sandand debrisin some
typesof going.
Any time we can no longer keep our feet in reasonably
good condition, the best stratery will almost always be to
camp and if seeking help to set out distresssigns.

Saving What We Have

The worst enemyto which man subjectsleather is heat so
excessivethat it hardens, shrivels,and cracks.Far more outdoor
apparel of all typesis ruined by attempting to dry it too
rapidly than by any other single error, and this is particularly

r55


156 | I-Iow to Stay Alive in the lVoods

true in the caseof fcotwear. For very often leather becomes
too warm when suspended anywhere near the top of a small
heatedshelter although perhapstwenty feet from a stove.

Whenever leather is dried, the processshouldbe carried out
asgraduallyaspossibleat as low a temperatureasfeasible,any
rnistakes being on the side of conservatism. Better than setting
wet shoes near a fue, for example,is wiping them clean and
then hanging them where they will be iust within the outer
influencesof gently circulating warm air.

You havE probably already found. it helpful to stuff wet
shoes with something such as dry moss or grass,both to maintain
shapeand to absorb dampness.A satisfactory way to deal
with rubberbottom boots, as it is likely you have also discovered,
is to suspendthem upside down and to wipe out the
moisture accumulatedin the feet before putting thern back
on. Oncethe leather is dry, a profitablehabit is to recondition
it by lightly rubbing in a small arnount of somethingsuchas
neat's foot oil.

Water Repellent

Oil driven from animal fat by heatis widely usedfor greasing
footwear to make it more water repellent. Among the
better tallows procurable for this purpose in the wilderness
are those which can be renderedfrom the hoofs and feet of
anirnalssuch as moose,antelope,and mountain goats.

It is not uncommon for individualsto make such garments
as stag shirts water resistent by rubbing them with bands
dipped in oil of one kind or anotber, but if intensecold is a
threat, such a practice can be dangerousin the extremeand
this for two reasons.Greaseboth directly and indirectly re


ducesthe efficiencyof.a garmentworn for warmth:

( I ) by itself conductingbody heat rapidly away,
(2') and by filling the inert air rpo*m in a fabric which
otherwise provide most of its insulatingcharacteristics.

Bmergcncy Foot Protection

one way to protect our fect, if solesprove too thin or if
disintegratingstockings perhaps worn double and even triple


Keeping Covered I.S7

/

finally give out, is by beddingthese extremitiesin dry grass
or dry moss. The wild material chosen must be carefully
selected so asto exclude any harshor irritating matter such as
bark or twigs.Footwearshouldbe taken oft and suchpadding
painstakinglyrenewedwheneverwe feel the advisabilityof it,
a reserve supply perhapsbeingcarried in the pocketsfor this

purpose.

As for innersoles, thesemay be provided asreadily asmight
be expectedby the employmentof birchbark and similar substancesfree
for the taking.

Fur and Feathers

The fur of such an easily snared.animal as the rabbit is
extremelysoft but, unfortunately,also so extraordinarilyfrag
ile that when used in lieu of something better it needsall
possible protection. Rabbit skins tied around the feet like
duffels rvil, if worn alone,Iast scarcelylong enoughto justify
the effort. Used in conjunction with other materials, say betweenstockingsand
boots,the pelt's gentleness canbe enjoyed
while its fragitity is being guarded.

other skins can be similarly used, generally with the fur
turned in toward the foot. More durable bird skins, particularly
the breastsof water fowl, are warm and resilient when
worn betweenfeet and outer covering. These latter can be

improvised if need be from bark or even wood, held on by
wide straps or similar bindings. Slhen possible in such an
exigency, it is preferable to cushion the feet directly with
wool or some other substancethat will absorb and dissipate

perspiration.

Moccasins

rf we have animal skinsnwe can make moccasins.We can
also fashion moccasinsfrom such fabrics as blankets, but
under ordinary circumstancesthese will seldom wear long
enough to merit the trouble. Nor are excessively perishable
hidesworth bothering with for moccasins.

Soft tanned leather providesan easily worked and cornfortably
light material for moccasin making, but it soon wears


15S I IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

Flo. 42. Pattcrns for making moccasins, mittens, and gloves.


KeepingCovered I l5g

out in rough or wet going. In such placesas the Continental
Northwest where this type of foot covering is worn a great
deal, the ordinary practice even among aboriginesis to protect
them from dampnesswith store rubbers and overshoes.
For a more enduring moccasin that would give the feet
stancher protection we would, especiallyunder survival corditions,
use as stiff and tough a chunk of hide as possible.
when it cameto preparing the greenskin, wo would not take

any stepsto soften it. Not only would we not tan i! but we'd
scrape it only enough to smooth out any irregularities that
might hurt the feet. The hair could be left facing inward.
One rnoccasinpattern which 'has
the virtue of being rui

practical as it is simple is shown by the following iltustraiion.
You will find that you can fit the pattern to your size bystanding on the material to be used, or on a more easily

manipulated sample,and first drawing an oval around the

foot. You will not attempt to trace closelyto the endsof the
toes probably, preferring no doubt to allow an arc that will
provide sufficientroom for free movement.

You can then add about three inches all around for the
sidesof the moccasin.or if you have plenty of leather, you
may want to bring thesehigh around the ankle in two flapswhich can be tied by wrapping them with severalturns ot io
of lacing.

We can saveourselveswork in the beginning,if suchfit?llu-

KEY FOR DRAWINGS

A.
Match numbers
B.
Match numbers
a.
When joining, pucker to fit.
b.
Sewin stretchedelasticif available. Drawstringmay be substituted
to afford means of tightening.
C. Match numbers
a.
Fold under.
b.
Fold up.
D. Match numbers
a, Fold under.
b.
Fold up.
c.
Glove gusset (fit in between fingers to allow freedom of
action).


L60 | How to StayAlive in the lYoods

facture hasnot been among our previous pursuits, by making
to start with a trial moccasin frone as correspondingly thick a
pieceof fabric as may be available. Two of these can be later
used, incidenbily, as linings or slippers.

Once the piecesof the moccasinare cut, you'll punch or
slit holesaround the edges as shown in the drawing. Thongs
can easily be made from odd bits of leatherby cutting them
around and around as later described.Theseor some other
lacing you'll run througb the holes so as to ioin the parts as
marked.

flow to Make Lacing

A thong or lacecan be cut from something such as an old
moccasin top or odd piece of rawhide.If we have a sharp
knife, one method is to find a smooth log with a branch or
stub stickingup that can be usedas a guide.

Let us assuffi€, for those who havenevertried this way before,
that we want a laceone-quarter inch thick. First, Iet us
round any square corners from the leather. Second, let us start
the lace,making one or two inches by severing a narrow strip
from the main stock.

Frc. 43. Making lacing.

Now comes the mechanics. IJsing a biilet of wood, we tap
the knife point-first into the log

so that the blade is facing
away from us one-fourth of an incb from the projection. we


KeepingCovered | 161

then placethe lace betweenthis guideand the knife. Then by
pulling the lace and turning the leather, we can cut around
and around, manufacturing as long a thong as there is material.


Tanning

Tanning is simple enough, like startinga fire with bow and
drill, but asyou nlay be willing to agreeit requires considerable
work and infinite patience.If we do need leather instead
of rawhide, if we have just secureda suitable animal such as
a deer, and if we are campedin one place without too much
else to occupy us, here is one of the primitive ways to go
about the task.

Skin out the animal carefully, taking care to nick and cut
the hide no more than necessary. With a sharp knife or similar
instrument, working over your knee if you want, remove
as much flesh and fat aspossible.Then weight the skin down
in water for several days, until patchesof hair slip out when
you give them an easy tug.

Upon retrieving the hide, lay it on a log, the bark of which
you haveremoved if that is necessaryfor smoothness. Scrape
one side and then the other, removing hair and grain. IVIany
considerit best to completethis processin one operation before
the hide dries.It can be redampened,however.By driving
the point of the longestknife you have into a smooth knot
of wood, you can provide an additional hold for manipulating
the graining tool with both hands.

when this labor of eradicating hair and grain is completed'
the still moist hide may be thoroughly rubbed with a mixftue
of, for instance, the animal's fat and brains that have been
simmered together in equal amounts.The hide is allowed to
remain in this statefor severaldays.Then it should be washed
as clean as possible.Wring it as well as you can' perhaps by
solling it looselyaround two polesthat are laying parallel and
then turning thesein oppositedirections.

The skin must then be pulled, rubbed, and stretchedwhile
drying if you don't want it to becomestiff. If you plan to use
it for footwear, however, any rigidity will be a virtue.

The hide may finally be smoked by hanging it wEll away


162 I IIow to StaY Alive in the Woods

from the campfire for a few days, within reach of smoke but
not of heat. Or you san make a specialsmudgewith gfeen or
rotten wood, faking the sameprecautigns regarding warmth.
The ss'eetoily fumes producedby birch achievea particularly

pleasingeffect.

Rawhide

Rawhide is prepared more easily. You can dry the green

skin in the shade,-at odd moments scraping the flesh side as
clean as possible with any dult instnrment such as a piece of
rock or bone flattenedon one side, The skin may bE conveni'
ently held by stretshing across the knee that portion that is
being worked, or like many of us you may prefer to leave it
tacked or peggedto somesmooth surface where hnngty birds

will in all probability aid your efforts.

If you want the rawhide to be soft, you will probably have
to wit the flesh side, allow it to dry, and then fescrape the
skin, doing this as many times as may be necessaryuntil the

hide is satisfactorilY pliable.

Care must be taken not to dampen the other side if reten'

tion of hair or fur is desired. If this is too long, it may be

clipped. If you want it off entirely, that can be easily enougb

accomplished when the pelt is first secured by wetting the

coat untit it starts to slip, whereupon you can scrapeit oft in

great clurtps.

Repairs

If we pocket onty as large a repair kit as can be carried in

a screw top plastic container about the size of a t}-gauge

shotgun shellr we can solve as they arise a multitude of minor

clothing problems.Sucha kit may well contain severalneedles

of assorted sizes, a few lengths of tbread rolled on bits of

cardboard, safety pins, and any odds and cnds we may care

to tuck in such as nylon fish line, wire, ntbber bands, snaps'

and perhaps severalassortedcoPper rivets.

Buttons, certainlyn will be no problem anywhere. A short

bone or piece of wood, attachedby the middle, will serve. So

will a bit of leather such asmay be cut from the end of a belt"


KeeBingCovered | 163

The dogbane which grows in sandy placesis among the
wild growths, discoverableby experimentation, which have
furnished many a frequenter of the farther placeswith thread.
Thin strips of dried rawhide are generally handier for ordi'
nary wildernessuse, how.ever. Strong thread can be made from
fibers raveled from clothin& especially by twisting and winding
them as describedunder the subject of improvising fish
lines. If we secure meat to eat" we will also bave at our
disposal the sinewsof the animal.

Keeping Wam With Feathers

When one is short of warm clothing in the wilderness, the
down and feathersof any birds that can be secured shouldbe
saved for warrnth. If we haveno better way of utilizing these,
we can merely shove them beneath the clothing. Birds may
also be skinned and the plumagemade into crude garments,
preferably by basting it to some garment that san be worn
beneathregular garb.

Hair of the various members of the deer family has corsiderableinsulating
worth. It may be distributed beneaththe
clothing, or a skin may be scrapedas clean as possiblqdried,
and worn. Vegetablesubstancessuch as grass,leaves,and dry
moss stuffed within the clothes will also a^fforda great deal of
warmth.

Furs

The more perishablefurs are under survival conditionsbest

used for warmth when sandwiched within protective coverings.
One way that northern Indians accomplishthis today is
by covering a piece of brulap or other material with skins of
the varying hare, overlapping them like shinglesand sewing
them in place.The layer is usually later coveredwith a second
sectionof fabris to form a blanket.

Another method, also stilt employed beneaththe Northern
Lights, is commenced by cutting and sewing the skins together
in long ribbons. These strips are sometimesloosely
wovenasis, while on other occasionsthey are first givenbody
by being wound flatly around and around a leather thong


L64 I How to Stay Alive in the Woods

which the maker may know as babiehe or shaganappie.In
either event, the final slackly interlaced robe is commonly
basted between two outer coverings, on the weather side a
husky section of water repellent canvas perhaps and on the
other o thrn woolen blanket.

Emergency Waterproofs

We can even improvise emergencywaterproofs. Large sections
of birchbark, held in place by thnrsting them under
outer clothing, will ttrrn considerablewater.

C?ude bark garmentsare somet'mesput together. A threa
made by Indians particularly for use in sewing birchbark is
prepared by sirunering in water the fne roots of the spruc
tree. Punchesare used instead of needles. The root is pulle
through the cut and fastened to itself by a cross-stitch. Spruce
gul& incidentily, is often relied upon for sealing bark seams
when this is adjudged necessary.

Some aborigines make waterproof garmentsby opening th
dried intestinesof large aninnalsand sewing the strips together
vertically with sinew.


ORIHNTATIO N

"If for any reasonyou leave emergency
camp, even if only for a short period
leave a note in an obviousplace
stating in detail your plans and where
you a.regoing."

-fluflson's Bay ComPanY


Chopter16

Stoying Found

Jusr e,s coLD is actually the lack of heat, and as what we

know as darkness is no more than the absenceof light, so is

getting lost an entirely negative state of affairs. We become

lost not becauseof anything we do, but because of what we

Ieaveundong.

It is when we realize this that all the mysteries imputed to
the procedureof finding one's way througb wildernessvanish,
and in their placeappearsa positive and ever intriguing prob.
Iem of distances and angles. For there is just one method to
keep from getting lost, and that is to stay found.

We stay found by knowing approximately where we are
every moment, nor is this as cornplicated as it may at first
seem,for any one of us can keeptrack of his whereabouts by
means of a" ilEtp, compass, and pencil. Every ten or fifteen
minutes, or whenever direction is changed,will not in the be'
ginning be too often to bring that map up to date. Suppose
we do not have a map? Then we draw one as we go.

The sagest old sourdoughusesthe same system,whether he
realizes it or not. His map is in his mind, thafs all. Sun, stars,
prevailing wind, vegetation, landmarks, and numerous other
natural factors may be the veteran woodsman's compassunder,
it should be well noted, favorable conditions.

By timipg ourselves or by otherwise measuring distances,

t67


168 I How to Stay Alive in the Woods

and by making either a written or mental record of all angles
of travel, we get so that we can alwaystell just about how far
away in what direction lies the spot from which we started.

What About Following Streams?

The more you and I learn about the wilderness,the more
poignantly do we realize that no way of thinking or doing,
however venerable, can be trusted without proof. Although
innumerable widely accepted opinions sound reasonable
enough in theory, too many of these have the often fatal tendency
of not working out in practice.

An exampleis the counselthat following a sEeam downhill
will eventually lead us back to civilization. In well settled
country it will, usualln if we take the sometimesunmentioned
precaution of keeping to the higher sides of any swamps. In
a retrsonablypopulous area it will, ordinariln if we can keep
going long enough through the comparatively heary growth
and downfall which characterae \ilatercourses.

In real wilderness, particularly under the stresses imposed
by emergency conditions either real or imagine4 followin g a,
strange stream with any assuranseis something else again.
Nor is keeping well to one side so as to have easier walking,
and cutting back often enough to rnaintain contact, the solution.


For supposewe manage to detour impassablegorges?Supposewe
are successful in circumventing morasses and marsh- .
lands? Supposewe can continue to twist and batter our way
perhaps a dozen exhausting miles through alder and willow
for every mile gained? The flow may very well end in an
isolated pond even farther back of beyond.

Who Should Carry a Compass?

Even the most experiencedfrontiersman doeswell to carry
a compass, as well as matches, whenever in the brlsh if only
to save tirne and energy. For instance, you and I are on a

Gaspe psninsula knoll.

The sun has sel Wb can glimpse
smoke curling up a mile away from the tents where all day


StayingFound | 169

Vena has had a mulligan simmering. !treading directly there in

the straightest possible line can mean the difierence between
arriving easily and safely during the remaining daylight and
taking the needless chanceof getting a dead branch in the eye.

So we sight over a compass. The tents lie exactly south by
the needlE. Once we've dropped down to thE flat, we're in
small thick spruce so densethat some of the time we have to
get down and crawl. We can not see far enough aheadto line
up a straight route without a lot of time-consumingcare, but
checkingthe compassoccnsionallyassures our keeping headed
in the shortestdirection.

Or wete on the other side of the continen! atop a Yukon
mouutain. A cloud swirls about us, blotting out atl landmarks.
Camp, we've ascertainedduring the climb, Iies east down
what is the only safe slope. The weather is thick by now.
Which way is east?If we have a compass, we neither have to
wait on this exposedpeak for the atmosphereto clearonor
need we risk any undue or unnecessarilydangerousscrErr[,


bIing.

How Tenderfeet can be Superior to Natives

What is often regarded as a natural senseof direction is
instead almost alwaysthe result of either (a) acquired skill
apparently so efiortlessas to appear instinctive, or (b) familiarity
with the surround.ings.

The settler who lives on the edgeof a clearing can be expected
to become as closely acquainted with the woods surrounding
as the city boy with the streetsof his o\iln neighborhood.
The ruralist in a strange-countryside and the rubanite
in an unfamiliar metropolis will if depending solely on familiarity
both become lost.

Knowledge of locality becomesless and less valuable the
farther we travel, for few of us can make a very long jouney
without leaving the region we know. This is a maior reason
why explorers the world over have beenrepeatedlyptaguedby
the desertionsof aborigine guides.Natives, althoughthey may
have spent their entire existence in primitive places,and in
fact to an imFortant extent because of the psychological


170 | IIow to StayAlive in the lVoods

handicapsimposedby these very limitations,havealwaysbeen
in the main characteristicallyterrified to ventue very far beyond
the particular area ea_ch hascome to know.

The greenesttenderfootamongus who learns anduseseven
the small amountof wilderness lore set forth in this book will
be able to find his way as surety in one forest as in another.

The Essentials of Getting Back

If camp lies againstsome long and easily followed landmark,
such as a sub-arctic river with a smooth hard shore,
returning there after a day afield can be practicaltyfoolproof,
It is in such a place that an experienced man will whenever
possiblebe careful to locatehis carnp, for he will still be able

i,;r

itunrrBAcK

Jt flili

,Jfi::lii,",gffYuq


M,Ui9i,9&ru

tr%leieq"
#,,

t t-tty'A

,, -/nt

"{fu9':ff#i"


Rtveq,

FIG. 44. Camp Lies East.

to find it although the weatherbecomesstormy and the night
black' Where I've lived for someyears in the still largely uomapped
and unexplored primitiveness of uorthern Britisb


StayingFound I l7l

olumbia, becoming lost could be seriousin the extreme.We
ould walk from our homesitefor veritably hundredsof miles
nd never cross a road nor see the most meagersign of habiation.
It would very likely be weeks,furthermore, before anyne
even realized we were missing.

That would have concerned us a lot more than it actually

id, particularly at first, if it were not for the fact that the

eace River cuts from west to east through these mountains

rd foothilIs. Our home in the woods is on the sunny north

ank. Any time we keep on traveling south while on this side

ete bound to reach the great waterway. If we happen to

e on the south shore instead,it's merely a matter of reversing
he direction and heading north.

After even the roughest generalreckoning, therefore, we'd
e halted by the Peace River and guided by it to our log
ome. The country alterssufificiently, becoming more precipiotrs
upstream and leveling to eventualplains toward the east,

o that at worst we'd then have no excusefor proceedingin
e wrong direction for very far.
%\

^-a -.t t.Jr--tl

<"affitrtrfi lt

'\/

zh fEL h'\Jgulrouf

-ra^|-v

'i2 'W

i GENERALLf
({q itr'j rb4, Ar,t .N0RTtl

X itn

,,Z#'dW

8fvEtr

FIG.45. Which way is camp?


I72 | Ifow to Stay Alive in the Woods

Why Experts Bear to One Side

Theproceedingis admittedlya broad example, for all of u
will generally want to keep sufficient track of our whereabout
to be able to intersect a broadside such as a road or rive
within a reasonable distance of the spot desired. The ques
tion of which way then to ttun should not ordinarily be lef
to chance, however.

Coming upon an unrnarked destination directly involve
such a disproportionate percentage of chance that rarely is i
wise even to attempt it. Unless there are guiding factors suc
as landmarks on which we can rely, the most expert techniqu
by far is to bear definitely to one particular side of the target

Then upon reaching the trail, shore, or whatever the latera
may be, we will know at once which way to follow it; knowl
edge that can save time, energy, and therefore one day per
haps life itself.

Picking Up Trail Going Away

Somewhatmoredfficult is pickingup a deadend trail tha
somewhereahead comes into being by running directly awa
from us, Dy adaptingthe lore we have just beenconsidering
however,this problemwe canalso solve handily and certainly

We are in a level pine forest, let us assumefor the sakeo
interest.Farlier we came to the end of a long fire lane tha
slashesdue north and south. For three hourssincethen we'v
continuedto hike northward by comptrs,the day beingcloud
and the country more enhanced by animalsand singingbird
than by landmarks.

we have boiled the noonday kettle, you and I, and now i

is the halfway time when we shouldhead back to camp. W
would prefer becauseof distanceto return there by the faste
going of the fire lane. How shouldwe proceed?

Do we hike back southward by compassat the samepac
with the idea of rejoining the trail in about the same thre
honrs?The flaw in that procedure,we realize,is that straighlines are only a manner of speakingin ordinary bush travel
The most that we will reasonablybe able to count on in tha


StayingFound I Li}
respect is that variations will roughly balance one another if
by mark or compasswe compensatefor drift and keep headed
in the samegeneral direction.

,tL l(EH;t.tTfifte erl

80rL l(ET!19

ial

Mt aalb

ti

t
ttt

6
66t

I

,
,,lrr

t
tt

iI{1

,
,,
t
tt 3-'H

I
IIa
aa 9:

t,:

ie


f
ff)

I

t
tt

I
II l€

I
II
Il.€l.

Lsrf FIRE TAilE

r t-|Ne I

?ooarf

"re

IANESugUesf

l-6--s$tE

N

r+e= aa

?

h*'*,f

THFTORES,

r+Ea

+


FIc, 46. Picking up trail going away.

But supposewe do travel south for three hours, and then
for one more hour, at the samepace we've been watking aU
day? Unless we have already encountered the lane by that
time, we may be as sure as one is of anything that the lane
now lies either west or eastof us.

What at that hlpothetical point would be the desirableprocedure?
To try going due west, say, for up to fifteen minutes,
with the knowledgethat if we hadn't cut the lane by tlat time,
we should cross it within a half-hou by hiking back due
east?Or to begin zigzaggrngmethodieally southeastand southwest,
increasing'theselines until the lane is reached?

AII such approaches,you rightly decided,Ieavea gteat deal


174 | How to StayAlive in the Woods

unnecessarilyto chance. Percentagesfavor our reaching the
trail with less time and bother by aiming at it from one
definite side. So we don't proceeddue south at all. Instead,
because for example the going is somewhatmore open that
w&y, we chooseto bear slightly east of due south. Then after
traveling for the samesafe four hours,we can swing west with
the assurancethat the fire lane lies broadside a short way oft
in that direction.

Rehrrning to a Blind Camp

Now let us supposethat a small party of us have pitched
our tents beside a spring in flat dense wildernesswhere there
areno roadsor landmarks.Everyonehas to leavecamp separately
each day to carry on prospectingoperations.How do we
all find our respectiveways back each evening?

The reasonablesolution will be to make a mark at which
to aim. One way to do this is by blazing four lines, each perhapsa
mile long dependingon the circumstances,north, east,
south, and westfrom camp. To savetime that would later be
wastedin following any of theseradii in the wrong direction,
some informative system can be used such as cutting ths
higher tilaze on each tree on the side nearer camp,

Maps

Maps, be they but memorized before or during a iourneyor delineated druing the progressthereof, are necessitiesfor

intelligent wilderness.travel. It is sound procedur€r for this
reason, to study whenever possible during the couse of anytrip maps of the areaand to comparethem to what we can see
so as to obtain at least a generalpicture of the vicinity.

There a^remaps available to the passengers of most cornmercial
planes, for example, or a supply can be picked up at
terminals. seeing where we are makes any flight more enjoya


ble for most of us, and even rough knowledgeof this sort mayhelp us to decide more surely what to do and perhapswhere
to head in

case of L forced landing under circu6stances in
which decisionscan be vital,


Staying Found I I75

Making Stne of Topographical Facts

If we don't have t'ryle to procure a map or the opporhrnity
to copy one before taking to the busb some native can often
be found who will take pleasurein sketching a practical chart
of the countryside. It is a profitable habit in any event to
ask old habitants to correct and supplement local maps if we
are in extreme wildernesswhere the hardest working and most
conscientious suryeyor can do only a sketchy iob in the few
weeks when it is possiblefor him to hack, blaze, perspire,and
swat his way through the bush.

In any event, we should either be sure of the basic topogfaphical
facts, or we should not depend on them. Skid, tote,
and other roads cometo deadends. Prominent ridges melt into
level counfiry. Even large streams disappear underground,
sometimesfor milss at a time.

Where to Get Maps

Good maps are in general extraordinarity easy to obtain.
Even the small-scalemaps distributed free by gasoline stations
grve enough of a general picfire to enable a lot more
individuals to go into the woods from parked automobilesand
to find their ways safe$ back again than, as you may have
obseryed, manage to accomplish this feat.

Sectional maps, particularly those governmental publications
which are sold below cost, are inexpensive in the €xtreme.
Furtherrnore, most suppliers will furnish upon request
free detailed lists of exactly what they have available.

Maps of these portions of the United States east of the
Mississippi River may be secrrred from the U. S. Geological
Srrrvey, Washington, D. C. For maps of areas west of the
Mississippi, contact the tf. S. Geological Surven Federal
Center, Denver, Colorado.

For maps of national forest areas, write the Forest Service,
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Maps of the
Great Lakes and connectingwatersmay be obtainedfrom the

U.
S. Lake Survey, Federal Buildhg, Detroit, Michigan.
Canadian maps may be secured from provincial publicity

176 | Ifow to Stay Alive in the Woods
officeslocated in the variousprovince capitols,from the Government
Travel Bureau in Ottawa, and from the Map Distribution
Offi.ce,Departmentof Mines and Technical Stuveys,
which is alsolocated in Ottawa, Ontatio'
For governmental maps of Mexico, write: Direccion de
Geogfafiay Meteorologia,Tacusayo,D. F., Mexico. Two pri


vatesourcesfor foreign mapsare: The National Geographicat
Society,16th and M StreetsnWashington,D. C.; and the InternationalMap
CompmY,90 West Street,New York, N. Y.

Wlry Contour Maps are Preferable

Contour maps when availableare by far the most valuable
for wildernessuse, indicating as they do valleys, canyons'
mountains,and other such geogaphical featuresin terms of
elevations.Consultingsucha map in strangecountry can save
one an exhaustingamount of unnecessary climbing' descendhg,
and then scalingagain.

Traveling by compass in a straightline is, evenwhen possible,
often no more advisable than might be expected.In
mountains, for example, we soonlearn that on more tban onc
occasion both time and strengthcan be conserved by circling
severalmiles along an open ridge insteadof striking a small
fraction bf that distance straight aciossa deep ravine to the
samedestination.


Chcrpter17

Knewing Where You Are

It rsN'r so MucH a question of whether or not we can get
along without a compass.That most of us can learn to do, for
evenin the strangestsurroundingsthere are numerousrecognizable
signs that indicate directionnand some of these are
more accurate than the wavering magnetized needle. But
traveling through unmarkedplaceswithout a compass is in the

sameunnecessarilyarduouscategoryas lighting a fire without

matches.

i\,Iaking a Temporary Compass

The compass-which along with gunpowderwas one of the
wondersbrought from the Orient to Europe nearly seven c€rturies
ago by Marco Polo-was, some four thousand years
earlier, a chunk of magnetic iron ore suspendedby a rawhide
lace. Today the most simple compass is a maguetized needle

mounted on a pivot so that it ean rotate freely.

We can make a temporary compass, in fact, by first stroking
an ordinary needle in a single direction with a piece of silk
or with the pocket magnet we may have with us if prospecting.
The next step will be to place the thus Fagnetized needle
so that it will be free to turn. This we can accomplish a little
more easily,, than otherwise if now we rub the needle with oil,

t77


178 t How to Stay Alive in the Woods

the small amolrnt that can be collected by passing a thumb
and forefinger over the nose and forehead being sgfrcient.

Then let us take two thin bits of grass,or some other fibern
and dorrble then to form two loops in which to suspendthe
needle.Holding it thus, let us lower it carefully into still water
such as a tiny pool trapped by a stump or rock If we are
careful, the top of the water will bend noticeably. under the
needlEbut the surface tension will still float it. The support
may then be cautiously removed.

The floating needle, once freed, will turn until it is aligned
with the north and south magueticpoles unless,as is the case
with any compass,some metal is near enough to distract it.
If we have stroked the needlefrom the head to the tip, the
head will point north.

Nortfr Pole or MagneticPoIe

Compassesas you atready know do not point tnte north
toward the North Pole unlessit be by chance, for they are
governed instead by the so-called Magnetic Pole. This rlog'
netic field, which is energized by the earth's whirling on its
axis, is situatedsome 1400 miles below the North Pols near
where the shallow Northwest Passagewinds icily aboveHudson
Bay.

Even the compassline to the Magnetie Pole is not constant,
inasmueh as this magnetis center is all the time drifting' For
all ordinary puqposesof deternrining direstion, however, a
small ptain compasscan be usedwith sufficient accuracy,The
only comection usually necessaryis to allow for the general
declination in a particular seetionso as to read more exactly
the maps of that area.

Compass Declination

Compassdeclination is the difference,if any, betweentrue
north and magnetis north. This variance is customarily indicatedon
most local maps.

The compass points due north in the United States and
Canada only in a narrow strip, which passesthrough the


'Where

Knowing You fue | 179

Great Lakes, where the North and Magnetic Poles happento
be in line. In parts of Maine, the indicator tremblesto a rest
twenty-five degreeswest of north. At the other side of the
continent in British Columbia" the angle iS as great in an
easterlydirection.

So as to make this record a little more complete, let rxr
review how very simple a matter compass correction for map
reading is. Supposewe are scouting oyer the boulder-studded
hills aboveEnsenadain Baja California. The compius declination
where we are is about 14" east of north. Our compiuis, in
other words, here points t4o too far east.

watching out for eaeti, we spread our map before us on
the semi-arid ground. An arrow marked N verifiesthat nortb
is at the top of the charf which unlessotherwiseindicated is
the casewith most maps; the bottom then being south, the
right side east,and the ieft side west. We move me map rrntil
the printed arrow, or until bne side of the upright rectangular
sheetif there is no such mark, points 14" west of compass
north. For all practical puqloses,we can now read the map in
terms of the countrysideabout us.

Perhaps on the map we have there is a second arrow
marked M to indicate magnetic north. AII we have to do in
this case is move the map until this second arrow and our
compassneedleboth head in the stlme direction.

Compass Degrees

AII circles no maffer what their size are divided into 360
degrees,illd so it is with the compassdial where these degrees
may perhaps be most easily visualized as 360 possibleroutes
fanning out like wheel spokes from wherever we happen to
be. Compassdegreesare customarily numberedin a clockwise
direction starting at north.

East is one-fourth of the way around the eompass dial. East
in terms of degree is, as can be seen, one-fourth of 360o
which is 90o. The distancebetween each of the four cardinal
points-north, easLsouth, and west-is the sarne 90o. South
is therefore often designated as 180" and west as 27Oo.

Northeast is halfway between north and east. Northeast in


I80 I How to Stay Alive in the Woods
terms of degreesis, then, half of 90o which is 45o. Half of
that agatn,ot 22.5o, is north-northeast.

./nNy

N

1.rn

t":

/;

sssfv-

FIc, 47. Compassdial,

Compass Points
IVe usually learn while youngstersthat when by standard

tirne we stand facing the sun at noon' south is direct$ in
ftont of us and north is at our back" And if we are to lift our
arn6 straight up from our sides to shoulder height' our left

hand will point east and olu right hand will point west.

Hatfway between north and east is called, loEcalln northeast.
The other corresponding points are similarly determined
and named; southeast,southwest,and northwest.

There will be occasions when we will want to figure direc'
tion even more finely. This we can do by using the divisions
balfway between each of the already consideredeight points.
ThesE additional eight points are named with equal logic.
Halfway betweennorth and northeast is north-northeast. Halfway
between northeast and east?East-northeasbEach of the
four cardinal points always comes first. Halfway between
south and southwestis, therefore, south-southwest.

What Kind of Compass to Buy

It is possible my assertionthat any compasscarried for
ordinary wildernessuse should have a luminous indicator will


KnowingWhere You fue I I81
be questioned,but not, I believe,by anyone who has been
forced to sacrifice time and increasingly precious matchesto
maintain a compass course at night.
It is also no more than reasonableto expect any compass
we buy to be rugged enough to stand up under rough usage,
and to havesomeprovisionso that it can be attachedsecurely
to the person.
The handiest and altogethermost practical compass f've
personallyfound for day by day travel in strange wilderness is
the small !.uminous Marble's Pin-On Compass. This fastens,
when desired,to the outsideof the clothing where it is constantly
availableas is for quick examination,and the fact that
the entife dial moves makes this consultation even easier.

Do You Need a Second Compass?

Not a few of us carry a second compass, and the practice
is a sound one, for even if you or tr never do lose or damage
the first, the bulge of a spare fastenedsafely in a pocket is
ever reassuring.

Many can also testify to being plaguedby the doubt that
the compass on which they are relying may be no longer in
order, and an auxiliary will be welcomedat such momentsfor
checkingpurposes.If we everdo this, let us:

(I ) placeor hold the two compasseslevel,
(2) keep them well awayfrom each other and from any
metallicobjects,and
(3) makesurethat the indicator of eachis swinging freely
on its pivot. lf there shouldbe any rnarkeddiscrepancy,let us
go by the compass whose needle oscillates most freely in
gradually narrowing arcs before quivering to a stop.
Hours Not Miles

The special value of a watch in the wildernesshas to do
with our measuring distance in the farther places less often
by miles than by time. If we walk three hours along a beach,
to give an example, we may not be sure if we have traversed

six miles or nine milss. But we can be certain that if we return


182 | How to StaYAlive in the Woods

over thE same route at about the same pace, a similar three
hours will bring us close to our starting point.

Miles as such mean little in ordinary backwoods travel, for
although a trail may proceed tbrough level open country, it
may as readily dip and twist down couleesand through old

burns.
Supposeyou ask a trapper as I did once, "I{ow far is it
along this blazeto the mine road?"
His laconic reply, "Six milesr" may not give any realistic
I

indication of what lies ahead. If instead he says, "oh,
reckon six hours if you keep hustling,o'you also will probably
inquire if there isdt some easierapproach.

Using Watch as ComPass

A watch usedas a makeshift compassin the United States
and Canada can be relied upon to be true within eight de'

grees,dependingupon where we happen to be in any of the
time zones.Three factors are prerequisites:

lso'*iae

(a) the sun must be shining brightly enough to throw a
shado%
ts*

*'b.

]8d'

4F

FIG.48. Telling direction by watch and sllrl.

(b) the timepiece must be accuratelyset,
(c) it must showthe local standardGreenwichtime.
The watch we laY face uP with the hotrr hand pointing di

KnowingWhere You fue | 183

rectly toward the sun. This can be checked by our holding a

twig or pine needleupright at the edge of the dial, where


upon it should angle a shadow directly along this shorter

hand.

South will then lie sridway along the smaller arc between
the hour hand and twelve o'clock. If such a procedureis carried
out at eight o'clock in the morning, therefore, a line
drawn frorn the center of the watch outward through the
numeral ten will point south.

Setting Watch by Cornpass

By reversing the principle of using a watch to ascertaindirection,
we can tell time by the use of a compass. Whereas
previously the timepiece had to be accurate, now it is t}'e
compassthat has to be read exactly, and for this pury)ose
local magnetic variationsmust be taken into account,

If we are in the United States or Canada and want to set
a watch, Iet us ascertain by cornpasswhich way is due south.
Then using a shadow to help us keep the hqur hand of the
watch pointed at the sun,let us turn the hour hand until south
lies midway along the shorter arc betweenit and the numeral
twelve. The watch will then be set to within a few minutes
of the correct local standardtime.

If we are in the bush with a watch but no compss, we can
still proceedin the abovemanner by previously lining up two
stakesso that they point toward the North Star. Such a line
will run almost exactly north and south.

Detemining Direetion by Srur Alone

Supposewe've no watch. We've no compass.It's mOrning.
The sun is shining.We want to know preciselywheresoutft is.

Drive a shcrt pole into the ground. Observehow long a
shadow the pole casts.Loop a string, lace, piece of straw, of
something similar around the pole. Keep this taut and, hold'
ing it at the desiredlength to a sharp stick draw an arc that
exactlytouchesthe end of the shadow.Mark this point with a
stake.


184 7 How to StaYAlive in the Woocls

The shadowof the pole will keep shorteninguntil noon, at
which time it'll commencelengthening. Watch until it once
tnore meetsthe arc. Mark that spot with a secondstake.

Flc, 49.Teiling exact direction by sun.

A line connecting the center with a point halfway between
the first and secondstakeswill point due south.
Unless we use some such devise, it is difficult except after

tong experienceor very painstaking attention to do more than
estimatl airection by the sun alone. The sun rises in the east,
we are told. It setsin the west, we learn.

The trouble is that the sun keeps rising and setting in
widely different positions, appearing exactly in the east and
disappearinghrrly in the west only two days eac.hyear. These

are known as the equinox and fall approximately on March

2L and Septembet 23. Even on these two annual occasions,
when the sunns center crossesthe equator and when night and
day are therefore both twelve hours long, true east and west
gan be determined'with certainty only over flat areas.

Polaris

There is no more reliable way to pinpoint north if the
North Star is visible than by consulting this orb known

as
Polaris. The bright polestar seeursto thE naked eye to be by
itself in the heavens.It is most easily loeated by following an
imaginary line up through the two stars that form the outer
edgeof tbe big dipPer.


Knowing Where You fue | 185
Polaris is such an infallible signpost that if we are close to
anyone who doesnot already know its whereabouts well, wo
may want to show that individual with the leastpossibledelay

s

81tr ?iWFeR r


5L

^H ^d:

^y B


E-!

G,

IE1

ClF


-ra_a**^

-t

i
HONTH TAB

-

E&{ -^8

:*-f;

GAggIOFEIA

FIG. 50. Locating the North Starby means of the "Pointers"
of the Bie Dipper,

*

how always to recognize it. Not only can sueh knowledge be
of help on inestimable occasions when there may be a doubt
about direction, but on times innumerable it has saved lives,
and the next life so involved may be that of someoneespeeially
important to us.

Longitude and Latihrde

Longitude, depicted by the vertical lines nrnning from pole
to pole on maps is representedeither by degreesor by time,
both reekoned from Greenwich, England. Latitude, marked
by the horizontal lines parallel to the equator, can be determined
in North America by observiqg the North Star, knes{



180 | Ifow to Stay Alive in the Woods
edge that for someone shipwrecked or down in a plane
disaster may greatly increasehis chances of reaching safety.

tfonTrttt^*,s $oRTH ?otE, t{oRrnsTAR

,o ?r'#

A.
Weighted string.
B.
Level can be established by still water or by rigbt angle from
plumb line, such as corner of this book.
C. North Star sighted over two stakes,
Frc. 51. Determining Latitude.

This determination of latitude is possiblebecause of two
factors:

(a) the North Star is located almost directly above the
North Pole at a 90o angle,
(b) 6t the equator the North Star lieS shaight ahead on the
horizon at 0o.
If we are halfway between the North Pole and Equator on
the 45th parallel, we will therefore flnd upon sighting the
North Star that it lies almost exactly at a 45o anglefrom us.

At whatever degreeangle the North Star when visible lies
away from us, that is within a single degree also the degree
of latitude.The diagram showsa practicalway of making this
estimationwhich, if only makeshift devices are at hand, crln

be but an approximation.

MorW

Most of us know that, dependingon what time we look at
them, the five stars known as cassiopeia appear either as an
M or a W. This northern constellationis always on the op



ositesideortheNorth#HLHT## k";",

he same distance away. By memorizing the relationship be/
een Cassiopeia and the North Star, we can use the former
.or finding north when the Big Dipper is not visible.

#€ *

ry&&
#sFs .s
&&

BisfsgtnOa the Settingl

&E east ueridian ln the west

Frc. 52. Three positions of Orion.

)ireetion by Arry
Star

Because of the way the earth is continualty revolving, stars

eemsto swing from east to west in gteat arcs, forming the
hite streaks that puzzle some first looking at time€xposure
ictures of the night sky. The way in which any star seems to

cao33
#urHEntt

4w

qW' 6nosg

gAsf

rc. 53. Southern Hemisphere where North Star is not visible.


188 | How to Stay Alive in the Woods

move can furnish us, therefore, with a general idea of direc

tion.

We haveto take first of all a sight, for the movement is too
gradualto detect just by glancingat the heavens.We will need
two fixed points over which to watch, and these may be th
sights of a stationary riflen or two stakes driven into th
ground for the purpose and their tops lined up carefully. I
we will so observe a star for several minutes, it will seem t
rise,to move to one side or the other, or to sink.

If the star we are observing seems to be lifting in th
heavens,we are looking approximatelyeast. If it appearst
be falling, it is situatedgenerallywest of us. If the star ha
the appearance of looping flatly toward our right, we ar
facing rougbly south. If it $ves the impression of swingin,
rather flatly toward.our left, then we are heading iust abou
north.

Other Ways to TeII Direction

Moss does grow thickeston the shadiest side of the tree.
a particular tree happens to be in the open where the sun ca
reach it unimpededthroughout the day, the shadiest side w'
be nofih. Also to be taken into consideration is the fact, how
ever, that certain growths resemblingmosstnrive best on th
sunniestportion of the tnrnk.

The growth rings exposed in standing stumps have a tend

ency to be widest on the sunniest side which, under ideal con
ditions, will be on the south. If we will examine a number o
such trunks and take into account the influence of suc
natural factors as slope and probable shade dr,ring growth,
we canmake a rough approximation of where south is located
Another valuable sign if read correctly is that indicated b
downfall. Trees generally fall in the direction of the stron
prevailing wind. Such things as freak storms and wind devia

tions causedby mountains and canyonssometimes give wha
would seemto be false pictures, however.
The tops of such trees as hemlocks and pines naturall
point toward the rising sun. They lean generaliyeast,that is
unlessthe wind turns them in another direction.


Knowing Where You Are I l8g

Sand dunes and snowdrifts build up in such a way that they
are nrtrTower and lower to windward. The phenomenonis indicative,
therefore, if we know from what direction the wind
was blowing when the drift was formed. This can usually be
detemined by a combination of signs, but iust asusually does
it require calm e4perienceand cool sonfidense.

Growth also relates its own story, being larger and therefore
more open on a north slope, and smaller and cors€quently
denser along a southern exposure. But when in the
absence of handier means such as a compasswe travel by
North Star or by sun, we do not have to do a great deal of
averaging and rationalurng.


Chopter t I

Afoot In Big Counfry

TVsr{atrELEARNEohow to tell direction by consulting various
natural signs, and the way to keep positivetrack of our whereabouts,
and if suddenly plummeted into strange wilderness as
by a crashing plane how to find out in what part of the cortinent
we may be. But much as our enjoyment and awareness
have been enhanced by this growing knowledge, more rsmains
to be considered that will open the forest aisles to us
even more widely.

E{ow to Stay on A Trail

IVe soon discover that although it is easy to stray from the
ordinary bush trail, getting back on such a course eao be difficult
in tle extrene, and that the important and sometimes
mortal factor is not to lose the new starting point. Often some
landmark, such as an oddly shaped tree, is nearby which we
can use as a pivot while methodically searehingin widening
circles.

If there is no such signpost, a safer way to hunt will be in
straigbt lines from and back to this new beginning point;
breaking limbs, cutting blazes, and making any other rec€ssary
marls by which to return, aUthe time checking to make
sure the back trail is evident.

This laborious method can also be usedby a lost man p&rticularly
under conditions where tbe stakes may be so coosiderable
that every possibleprecaution againstfailure should

191


192 I IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

be taken, for ordinarily when ons first discovershe is not sure
of his whereabouts,he is not very far out of the way.

Ways to F'ollow Blazes

Staying on an old spotted trail is often tricky unless we pay
the closest attention to what are blazes and what instead may
be patcheswhere bark has peeledoabrasions made by fa[ing
timber, zod areas gnawedby such animals as moose and bear.

The apparent blaze can be examinedboth by touch and by
sight for flatnessand for other characteristicsof human rn&rufacture.
Most trails are spotted both going and corning, atrd
one simple way to determine whether or not a mark is a
blaze is to check the opposite side of the tree to see rt a chip
has been cut out of that also,

When one is traveling by the dimness of night, the surest
way to authenticatea blaze is by feeling it, and if there is the
slightestdoubt, this wc should do. One telttale clue is the little
flap sometimesleft at the bottom of the spot where the edge
of the ax or knife has driven into the bark but has not entirely
disengagedit.

Fire often makes a spotted trail difficult atthough not impossibleto
follow. Unless the trees are badly charred, some
impression of enough marks generallyremain.

If a trail seelnsto have stopped,the safest procedure is to
mark where we are at the moment. Not losing track of that
place, let us return as directty as possibleto the last blaze of
which we're sure.Then by looking back down the blazedtrail
in the direction from which we have come, we can usually
line up how it should and probably doescontinue. The diffi


culty immediately ahead may be that a tree has fallen. By
figtuing where any trail would most reasonablyhave gone,wo
will be able in most cases to ascertain where it actualtydoesgo.

Night Travel

Night travel is usually inadvisable. One will generally do
better under a multitude of circumstancesto stop about an


Afoot In Bis Country | 193

hour before darkness,get comfortable for the nighf ttrrn in

early, and then arise in time to hit the trail again as soon as

there is sufficientlight.

Desert travel in hot weather is, as noted elsewhere, ?o ex


ception. Ffere,particularly if one is short of water, his best

deal will be to keep as cool and asquiet aspossibledtuing the

heat of the day. If no shade is otherwise available, it will

usually be worthwhile to scoopout a narrow trench in which

to lie. To exclude asmuch heat aspossible,the stit if on a flat

should align itself with the rising and setting sun, so that

during midday it will be as nearly at right angles as possible

to the blazng rays.

The Values of Ganne Trails

The intriguing skeinsof trails worn by the feet of passing
animals often make wilderness travel easier,4s when we are
looking for a gradualway down from someheight. If we are
trying to hold a certain direction, however, the safest general
rule is to follow a game track only as far as it seemsto be
heading generallywhere we want to go.

It will be noticed in swampy country that occasionally we
will begrn to encor.rnter one game trail after another before
reaching a muskeg or morass.These are made by animals
seekingto avoidthe wet placesand to keepto easier going;In
dry country, such deeply worn ruts often indicate the more
welcome nearness of drinking water.

ffow Small Streams Can Be Deceiving

Using srnall streams aslandmarks in strangecountry should
be onty part of one's procedure of orientation. Brooks loop
around so much, for example, that when one does encounter
the rill for whish he has been looking, he may be thrown off
by its seemingto flow in the wrong direction. Or a similar
stream that runs into the first can be deceiving.

Particularty confusing is the good sized brook which occs'
sionally disappearsunderground. If one is following it, this
phenomeooJ is simple enough to allow for. But if one is de



194 I IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

pending on cutting such a strea^m, he may walk right over it
and not be the wiser. The safest nrle, then, is not to depend
on topography unlessone is sure of it.

What About Watersheds?

A general way to keep track of one's whersabouts in big
county is by watersheds. This is not a practice to prrsue
tightly; however, for flowages starting only a few feet apart
can and often do end up several thousand niles from each
other.

You're camped on a large river into whic;h, as far as you
knoq all nearby streams drain. Ons day you don't even hunt
as high as usual. You cross g,low saddle.It may be that all
the water on the other side of this gradient tiekles eventua[y
into a brook which has no connectionwith the river. So if you
have fallen into the habit of iust following some sfream back
down each day until it leads you to a recognizable part of the
river, you may becomeseriously conftrsedby attempting this
now. Where such divisions are apt to be extremely abrupt
are, of course,in niountainous regions,


ChopterI9

eamping And Signuling

n'IF cREENBoUcHs afe available, cut plenty," the Hudson's
Bay Company advises,"as when burning they make a lot of

smokeand a good sigRal."

Very often the best plan of procedureto adopt when lost
or stranded is to stay where we are; moving about as little as
possible especiallyif food is scarce,improvising the easiest
shelterif one is advisablefor dryness and warmth, and setting
about in the most efiectiveways availabletrying to attract aid.

When a human being afoot first realizesthat he is not sure
of his whereabouts,he is ordinarily not so far out of the way
that he can not be located-or if need be can not relocate
himself-within a safe time.

The trouble very often developswhen a lost man keeps
blundering along,usually to his own detriment and to the in'
creasedconfusionof searchers.Too many times he walks en'

his last

tirely out of an atea, exhausts himself, and with
t"**ioiog strength instinctively crawls into some dark nook
where his bones may not be found for years'

Stay With Aeroplane

..Except under extenuating circumstanceswhen it is ob'
viously onfy a very short distanceto a frequented route or
populatedarea,and there is a negligiblechanceof any individ'

195


196 t How to Stay Alive in the Woods

uat becoming lostrn'Hudson's Bay Company emergency instruction
specifn "always stay near the aeroplane.It is much
easierto locate an aeroplane that may havc been forced down
in Northern Canada than an individual walking through the
North."

If for any reasonwhatsoeverone goesaway from a downed
aircraft even for a short period, he owes it to himself and
searchersto leave a note in an obviolts place stating in detail
his plans and where he is going.

A plane that has crashedor been forced to land will be
easier to spot if brightly hued and highly reflecting objectsare
placed on and about it. The Hudsonk Bay Company has
found it efficaciousto remove cowl panelsand to place them.
with their unpainted surfacesupward to act as reflectors.

Colored wing covers, the nearly three century old trading
combine had determined,make it easier to locate down o€roplanes
from the air. All such items, as well as the aircraft
itself, should manifestly be kept clear of snow, frost, and
debris.

TVhen flying over isolated areas' especially in a private
plane, it is no more than a conservativeprecaution to have
along clothing and particularly footwear that will enable
one to f-end for himself in the event of a forced landing.

In such an emergency,it is often possible to become EerI'
erally familiar with the terrain while still airtrorne. To a
more limited extent this is often feasible even after bailing
out, an important factor then being to establish if possiblea
lins to the wrecked plane if only becauseof its wealth of
usually actual and, even after fire, certainly potential suf'

vival equipment.

In case of an impending crash landing, what can be atl
important is to be braced at the moment of severestimpact
and not to relax at what may be an initial minor shock caused
by the tailnstouching. Actual continuous bracing must not be
started more than a couple of minutes too soon, or faltering
muscleswill be unable to maintain their tension. A maior
dangerin many instancesis that of the head'sbeing snapped


CampingAnd Signaling | 197

disastrouslyforward. One precaution is to swath the head
in coats and in any other protective material that may be
available.Another precaution,in the absenceof belted seats,
is to sit with the back toward the front and with the head
held down by firmly claspedhands. Urination is advisedto
help lower the chancesof internal injury.

Signal Fires

A fire, in addition to its warmth and good fellowship,
makesone of the better signals, and in fact if we are in any
of the nurnerous areas where regular watches are being maintained
from towers and observationplanes, we will in an
emergency often have only to kindle a blaze to attrast necessary
help.

One way to send up the smoke that will make a conflagration
most conspicuousduring daylight is by throwing evefgleen
boughsinto a hot fife. Black smoke can be obtained,
too, with oil from a wrecked plane or disabled outboard
motor. This is one reason why in cold country the sump oil
may well be drained oft before congealing, while the plane
engine is still warilt. Not only does this make a hot fire,
particularly when mixed with gasoline,but poured on a hearty
blaze it rolls up a tretnendous surge of black fumes.

Water will give a white smoke, although as everyonereal'
izes too much dampnesswill drastically quell and even €x'
tinguishthe fire. A long lasting smudgecan be built, however'
by covering hot toult with [umid green foliage, wet dead
leaves, slowly burning gfeen wood, moist decayed wood,
damp animal dung and similar substances.

If there is any siarcity of fuel, it rnay be preferableto keep
only a small fire going if that is necessaryfor comfort and to
concentrateon heapingup signal pyres to be lit at a moment's
notice.

The smoke from a strong smudgefire can' incidentally, be
invaluable for indicating wind direction to the pilot of a res'
cue plane.


I98 | Ifow to Stay Alive in the Woods

Three Smokes

The distress signal most commonly usedis made with three
fires or tbree smokes.If these are built in a conspicuous location
in a straight line, their intent will be the more apparent.
IVe can also send smoke signals from a single conflagration
by momentarily cutting off the smoke with something such as
a wet blanket and releasing series of three pufis.

Ingenuity

TVhen no natural fuel at all is available, a possibility for
instancEif we are in an aircraft forced down in a desert,some
improvisation can generally be made such os, under those
particular circumstances,scraping a sign for help in the sand
and when a plane is nearby filling the depressionswith gosoline
and igniting that.

Distress Signals

The most universally recogniied distresssignals are based
on the number three; three flashes, three shots, and so forth,
even to the three dots, three dashes, three dots of the familiar

sos.

There is, unfortunateln no general agreement as to how
sigpal shots ought to be spaced. Some advocate firing the
three btasts as rapidly as possible, although obviously it is not
unusual for a hunter to let drive in this fashion at game. The
practice of separating each shot by about five secondsis more
logical, especiatly as this gives an expbrienced listener the
timE he Inay need to determine where the sigUal is coming
from. In any event, an understanding on this point may well
be reachedin advance by members of a group.

Party Signals

One of the simplestand most valuable precautions a party
in a wildernessarea can take is to agreeupon a set of signals
for its own use. These should be both brief and uncompli



Camping And Signaling | 199

cated, and sbould take into account all reasonable contin


genciessuch as the possibility that any member of the group

may be short of ammunition. It will be well to set this code

down on paper,so that eachindividual'can carry a copy with

him at all times, possibly rolled within his waterproof match

casg.

!tr&istIe

A whistle can be particularly handy for signaling in remote
regions. The Hudson's Bay Company includes a whistle in
its survival kits with the succinct instructions: "IJse your
whistle to gain or keep contact with other members of your
party. It may also be used to notify anyoneclose enough to
hear of yotu position.Don't shout or call. Blow the whistle."

Dots and Dashes

Knowledgeof a dot-and-dashcode will enablethe sending
and receiving of messages with flashlight, minor, whistle,
smoke, radio, and numerous other devicesincluding the primitive
thumping of a hollow log.

In caseyou everundertaketo mem orize such a code,ffioY
I suggestin the interestsof saving your time that you do not
make the error I did of thinking in terms of dots and dashes.
When you heara dit-dah,for example,you'll savean unn€ceSsary
mental processby recognizingthat directly as "4" with'
out having to go to the trouble of figuring that dit-dah is
really dot-dashwhich, in turn, is the first letter in the alphabet.

Wigwagging

Suchsignals transmitted by flag can be seenfor miles under
favorable conditions, particularly if the senderplaceshimself
in ao unobsfiucted spot against a contrasting backgfound.
Readingwith the help of glasses,we have thus sent messages
frdlii :tnountain to mountain.

'fi16.flag

may be somethingsuch as a large handkerchiefor


200 | How to Stay Alive in the Woods

shirt, knotted to the end of a light pole some six feet long so
as to exposean easily distinguishable area. It can usually be
most easily manipulated if the base of the sta.ff is held at
waist level in the pah of onE hand and the stick gripped a
dozen inches or so higher by the master hand.

AII letters start with the staft held straigbt upward. The dot
is made by swingiug the flag down to the right and then back
again. A way to fix this in mind is to remember that the
word "right" has a dot over the "i." ft will follow that the

The International Morse Code which is the most widely understood
follows:


Flag I-etters Intervals

right-lgft.. r... or... r......A.. r........o...... o short-long
left*ight-right*ight . . . . . . a. .B . . . . . . . . . long-short-short-short
left-right-left-right . . ., . . o . . .C . . . . . . .,, long-short-long-short
left*ight*ight . . . . . . . . . . . . .D . . . . . . . . . . . . . Iong-short-short
fight ...... r............ r..E..........,... ! r....... Short
right-right-left-right ., . . . . e . .F . . . . . . . . . short-short-long-short
left-Igft*ight.. .. . ..,... o.,.G.......,,. . . . . long-tong-short
right-right-right-right o . .,. . . ., II . . . . r . ., short*hort*hort-short
rigbt-right....... r...... r.,I.........r... .,. . . short-short
rigbt-Ieft-lgftJeft r . . . r . . . . . r .f . . . . . . . . . e short-long-long-long
left-right-lgft. . . . ....,.... .,K. . .. r..., o.. . . long-short-long
right-left-right-right ., . . . . . o .L . . . . ., . . . short-long-short-short
left-Igft........ r... ! o.... .M..........,........ Iong-long
lgft*ight.. o..... r r.. r. o..,N....,..,..,.r. r... long-short
left-left-lgft. . . .. ... ... o.. . .O . ............ . . . long-long-long
rigbt-Ieft-left-right . r . . . . . . . . p,, . . . . ., . short-long-long-short
lgft-lgft-right-left o . r r . . . . . . .e ., . . . . r . r . long-long-short-long
right-left-rigbt. . ,...,. .. ... .R. .......,.... . short-long-short
rigbt-right-right . . . . . . . . . eI r .S . . . . . .. . . . r . . short-short-short
Ieft ". ' '..... t. r..........T.............. r o..,.... long

right-right'left . . . . . . . . ., . . .(J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . short-short-longrieht-right-rigbt-teft . . . . r . . . . v ., . . . . . . . short-short-short-longright-lgft-lgft, ... .,W. . ... o... o.,. . short-long-long

. . ......
left-rigbt-rigbt-left . . . . . . . .. .x . . . . . . . . . long-short-shori-longteft*igbt-lgft-Ieft . . . . . . . . . . .y . . . . . . . . . . long-short-long-longleft-left*isht-rigbt . . . . . . .,, .2. . . . . . . . . long-long-short-short


Camping And Siepaling | 201

dash is made by swinging the flag in a similar arc to the left
and back. You'll find that tbe easiest way to keep the flag flat,
for maximum visibility, will be to move it in tight loops. To
send the letter '6n" swing left and back and then right and
back in what is, when you look up' at the tip of the stafi, a
narrow figure eight.

Hold the flag upright a moment to end a letter. Lower and

raise it in front of you to finish a word. Swinging right-teftright-
Ieft-right will signify the conclusion of a message, although
the imFortant factor in any kind of emergencysignaling
is not correctnessof form but courmon sense.

Uses for a Mirror

A mirror may certainly be included with good reason
among the equipmentto be carried on the personin the bush,
if only for the assistancethus afforded in removing the bits of
bark and other particles that alwaysseem to be getting in the
eyes. A surface of ordinary metal, such as the back of a
watcb is a poor substitute in this respect. Furthermore, an
adequate mirror can be vital if one ever needs to attract attention
in an emergency.

The substantial Emergency Signating Mirror available for
a few cents at many surplus stores is a particularly useful
article to have in a pocket. Its range under ideal conditions is
limited only by the curvature of the earth, and with it in
bright weather you have a good chance of attracting anyone
you can see.

Even if no rescueris visible, the practice of sweepingthe
horizon with an aimed beam of reflected sunlight is recofitmended
for, as most of us can testify, the way in which even
a distant tiny flash from something as shall as a dewdrop can
catch the eye is startling.

The Hudson's Bay Company includes such a doubledaced
mirror in its emergency kits, with the following advice: "If
the angle of the sun and the aeroplane or surface ship is not
too ggeat(90" maximum), Iou can hold the mirror tbree to
six inches from your face and sight at the plane through the
small hole in the center.


202 | How to Stay Alive in the Woods

If you see an aeroplane or surface ship during the day when the
sun is shining, your double-facedmirror nilay be used for signaling.

#


1, If the angle of the sun andthe aeroplaneor surfaceshipis
not too great(90" max.),you can hold the mirror threeto six
inchesawayfrom your face and sight at the planethroughthe
small hole in the senter.The light from the sun shining throughtheholewill form a spot of lighton yourfaceandthis spot wifl 6e
reflectedin the rear surfaceof the ndrror. Then,still Cighting on
theaeroplanethroughthehole,adjustthe angle of the mirror untit
the reflectionof the light spoton the rear of the mirror coincides
with theholein themirror anddisappears.The reflected light will

now be accuratelyaimedat theplana

FIc. 54. Signalingby mirror,

"The light from the sun shining through the hole will form
a spot of light on your face, and this spot will be reflected
in the rear suface of the mirror. Then, still sighting on the

aeroplanethrough the hole, adjust the angleof the mirror uotil
the reflection of the light spot on the rear of the mirror
coincideswith the hole in the mirror ancldisappeArs.The reflected
tight will now be accuratelyaimed at the plane,

"If the anglebetweenthe target and the sunis great (morethp 90" ), sight the aeroplanethrough the hole,lnen adjust


Camping And Signaling | 203

W,


K

b. If the anglebetweenthe target and the sun is great (more
than 90"), hold the mirror as shown,sigbtthe aeroplanetbrough
the hole,thenadjustthe angle of the mirror until tbe reflectionof
the lieht spot on your hand coincides with the hole in the mirror
and disappears,This method will work where the aeroplaneor
ship is atmoston one horizon and the sun almost 180" awayon
the opposite horizon.
FIc. 54. Signaling by mirror (continued)

the angle of the mirror until the reflection of the light spot on
your hand coincides with the hole in the mirror and disappears.
This method will work where the aeroplane or ship is
almost on one horizon and the sun almost 1800 away on the
opposite horizon."

The Hudson's Bay Company illustrations herein reproduced
otherwise speak for themselves. The double-faced
emergeneymirror issued for the armed forces of the United
States,made with a small open cross for facilitating aiming,
can be employedin the same manner.

Any reflecting surface, even a flat piece of wood that is
slick with moisture, can be used instead of a mirror. By
punching a small hole in the center of something such as a


2A4 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

flattened can, sufficiently shiny on both sides, you will be able

to improvise a sight for aiming a reflected beam.

International Silent Periods

rf you should happen to have a radio, the most likely

tirnes to senddistresssignalswill be during the tbree-minute
international silent periods which commenceat fifteen min


utes beforEand at fifteen minutes after each hour Greenwich
f ime.

Body Signals

There ari certain establishedbody signalsthat will be
fecognizsd bY most airmen.

fr
fr
Do you require urgent medical assistance?
Then as you probably already know, lie on your
back with arrns stretched straight behind you.
Another widely used signal indicating severeiniury
is the crossingof the arrns across the body.


Standingerect with the left arm banging at the
sideand the right arrn upraised signifies:..Everything
is all right. Do not wait."

T
T
oIf still leavingthe left handat the sideyou hotd
the right arm horizontal, that meansyou will be
able to proceed shortly and that the plane should

wait if practical,

t
t
If you continue to stand erect and lift both
arms horizontal, you need either mechanicalhetp
or parts, sJrd there will

be a long delay on your

part.

K standing and holding both arms straight above
your head means that you want to be picked up.


CampingAnd Signaling | 205

w
w
Swinging your hands sidewise back and
forth above your head meflns that the obserY'
ing plane should not attempt to land where

A you are.

,=9If you want to signal the pilot where to come
dom, squat on your heels and point in the diiec'
tion of the recornmendedlanding place.

Perhaps you have a radio. If so and the r€'
ceiver is workiog, this you can signify by cupping
your hands conspicuouslyovef your ears.

fr<'

6 If instead you want the pilot to drop a messd1a,
swing the right hand down in front of you to
shoulder height several times.

q,?

To signal in the affi.rmative, wave ,o6sthing
such as a shirt or handkerchief up and down in
front of you.

To signal in the negative, wave suchv an article back and forth in front of you.

\\

f,

Although sigus vary with different groups, the plane can
make an afrrmative by dipping up and down the way the
head is nodded. It can show negation by a slight rigzaagmotion
comparable to shaking the head. Green flashes from a
signalinglamp or the aircraft's rocking from side to side is an
acknowledgmentthat the plane has understood &e message;


206 I IIow to StayAlive,in the Woods
red flasheson the signaling lamp or a complete right hand
circuit that it hasnL

Slmbols

Symbols designedto be seen and interpreted from the air
can be fashioned with boughs,stones,and lengths of various
materials such as strips of cloth. They can be formed by such

methodsas digging or scrafshing lines, and by trudgrng baek
and forth in snow until trenchesthat will loom up black to a
plane are made; these impressions being extendednorth and
south whenever possible so as to be most conspicuous in
sunlight strongenough to cast a shadow. Another way to capit:
ahze on constrastingdarkness in snowy terrain is to floor

such trenches with evergreen boughs and to heap shadow.
throwing snow on thc southern sides of the symbols.

Any such symbols will naturally be put down in as promi,.
nent and conspicuous a location as is available.You'll make
them largg perhaps an easily visible ten feet thick rrld, de.
pending on locality and expedieocy, possibly one hundred
feet or more long. Color contrast can be vital.

An arrow with the point heading the way you intend to go
will indicate you are proceeding in a particular direction.
Perhapsyou'll \ilant the plane to show you which way to go.
Then put out a large "K." The pilot will probabty take note
of it by waggling the wings, after which he'll head in the correct
direction for a Significant period of time.

A long straight line meansyou need urgent medical assistance.
T\vo long straight lines denote that althougb a, doctor
is not required, you do want medical supplies.A cross is the
sign that you are unable to proceed by yourself, perhapsbebecauseof
seriotu injtrry. A triangte: i'probably safe tJ hnd

here.t'

You can indicate negation with a big ..N.', yes is ..y." .,L
L" meansthat au is well. Are you hungry and perhaps thirsty?
Then make a big "F." A squarewill show that you would like
a map and compass.TWo v's,

one inside the other, is the
request for firearms and ammunitiou.


Camping And Sigpaling | 207

Coast Guard Signals

Certain distresssignalsare used by the IJ. S. Coast Guard.
A red lighg red rockeL or flare at nigbt indicates that you
havE been seen and that assistancewill. be forthcomi.g as

soon as possible.
Haul away is sigpaled by waving a red flag from shore
during daylight and by displaying at night a red light, red
rocket, or red roman candle.

Slack away is indicated when a white flag is waved from
the shore by day. TVavinga white light slowly back and forth,
firing a white rocket, or setting oft a white roman candle
mea'utthe sams thing by night. :

IVaving a white flag and a red flag at the same Fme from
the shore during daylight is a signat that landing in your own
boat ig impossible. Slowty waving a white light and red light
at the same time meansthe same thing. So does a blue light

at night
, The beckoning during daylight by a man ashore or the
burning of two torches close together at night indicates that

particular spot is the best place to land.
Any of these signals can be answered by the craft or individual
to which they are directed by the waving of a fl"g,

a shirt, a hand, or anything elsethat can be seenby daylight.
Reqponseat night may be by rocket, guo, blue light, or by
briefly showing a light over the ship's grrnwale and then hid


ing it

A Simple Way to Prevent Tragedy

An extremely simpte precaution that would savethousands
of horns of needless eftort, anxiety, and agony every seasonis
for each of us to make his plans known every t'me we are
about to head into the bush. U uo responsible individual is
presentto whom to entrust this information, we can do worse
than to note it briefly in a dated message and to leave that

*;ff;ffi-"Ti#ffi:T,3ffile

besidehishway

the with

the idea of perhaps fishing for an hour, it would take us only


208 | How to Stay Alive in the Woods

a moment or two to jot down that information and to wedge
the paper, in a sealed envelopeif desired,securelybeneatha
windshield wiper. No onewould be apt to disturb it unless we
failed to return for a disproportionatelength of time, and any
ons of us can think of numerous reasons why we might sornehow
be delayed and in need of help.


Chopter2A

Getting Ouf By Yourself

Ar.rvor.rewgo merely happensto stray from his way is seldom
faced with much of an external problem although iltternal
csnflists may becomeconsiderable,for the brain of

man can impose very alarming obstacleswhere none have
been placed by nature.

Thesemental and therefore all the more unnerving obstnrctions
are under such circumstancesmost often the immediate
resultsof either panic or pride, the first of which will sornetimes
setthe ordinarily most rational of men running crazily,
while the secondcan at the least spur him to continue blundering
aimlesslyafter dark when there may be real danger of
injury.

Finding Yourself

To staylost in comparativelywell settled country one would
reallp although perhaps subconsciouslynhave to work at it
H$ing in a straight line in any direction would bring him
out, and this he could do evenwithout a compass by continuing
to line up two objects aheadof him. These might be two
trees. TVhenhe had almost reached the nearer of these, he
would select another sight in line further ahead.

Sound will often lead one toward habitation. So will smoke.

209


210 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

A bare knoll or safely climbed tree may reveal a house. \ilalls
and fences generally lead somewhere' and although this may
be only to a long desertedfarm, the deep ruts of some ancient
path will then in all likelihood wind toward a more recently
traveled way.

Suppose It's Not Your Road

Although such a precaution would seem so elemental as
not to merit mentioning, if one is really lost no road should
be spurned iust becauseit may not seemto be the right road.

Yet even in Alaska Higbway counhry-a wilderness as
targs as all Europe west of prewax Russia and normally inhabited
until recently by scarcely enough people to fill the
Rose Bowl-trackers have seen where lost men trying to find
their way have crossed this engineering epic two and three
rimes. On each occasionthey've deliberate$ left the wilderness
road to blunder back into the busb where they could
easily travel in a sEaight line for as many weeks and months
as they could keep going before coming across another rll&rmade
thoroughfare of any description.

Gornmon Sense

IVhen someoneis lost, if there is one essential any more
important than another it is common sense, this to be €xercised
not only by the individual in difficulty but by his Gornpanions
as well. It \ilari when I was hunting with Charles
Ballou over one of his New Hampshire cuttings that this New
trngland lrrmberman mentioned the illushative episode.

A sportsman was late one evening in making his way out of
a rough patch of woodland about onc mils square.His frier 'q
started driving around and around the road that bounded the
are& blowing the horn more and more frantically every few
minutes. The hunter started out in one direction, corrected his
line, changed it again,began hastening still another way, and
finalty become so exhausted and confused &at he was not
able to get out until daytght.


Getting Out By Yourself I 211

Agree on Definite Procedure

Any Soup functioning in the farther placeswill do well to
agree beforehand on definite procedure to be used in any
apparent emergency. LJnless the individuals have been going
together into the bush for a long time, they may choose to
commit this plan to paper so that each can carry a copy. Sensible
courses of action will depend largely upon terrain, climate,
circumstances, and upon the experience and capabilities
of those involved.

Walking Out

Opinions naturally differ at least as often as do the viewpoints
from which they are formed, but few will disagree that
if we may have to cover a considerabledistanee,the pace to
take is one we will be able to follow all day and still have a
reserye of energy left over. IVe will be apt to end up wasting
time if we attempt to press.

Most of us find, too, that we can maintain better and therefore
safer balance by keeping the feet pointed as nearly
straigbt ahead as is comfortable, and that we are often able
to pick up an additional inch or two per step this waY, while
gsming up on tle toes will so use tbesemembers as to afford
both extra distance and impetus.

It usually requires a disproportionate amount of energy to
travel straight up and down hills, as the trails of animals reveal
they well know. We will generally do better in the long
run eitber to ngTag or to slant ofi at a graduat pitch' Enerry
will be conserved if you can proceed without cutting aeross

major drainagesystems.As for restiog, this is more beneficial
when enjoyed frequently for brief periods.Hurrying aheadf9r
long stretches and then taking prolonged breathing spells

tends, as ons discovers early in life, to causethe musclesto
stiffen

Anyons naking a forced hike will do well to change sox
abour the, middlelt tlr day if this is possible.The feet will
probably be the most wlnerable part of the body in zuch 1n
iventuaiity and.should, only logically, be attended to in ratio


212 | How to Stav Alive in the Woods

to their importanse. The best ordinary procedure is to carry
a number of small adhesivebandageswhenever in the bush
and to apply one of these without delay whenever any irritation
is felt.

A sensible formula finally to repeat to ourselves and there.
fore to heed whenever covering ground afoot in the wilderness,
I believe you will concur upon analyzing it' is: Never

step on anything you can step ovef, and never step over 8II1l'
thing you can step around.

If You'dRathernaft

Becauserivers are the gfeat highways of many vast wilder'

nessstretches,it may be the knowledge of how to build and
use a raft that will bring you tbrough hundreds of miles of
primitive regionsto safetY.

If you ever have to construct such a raft and have had no
previous experiencein such matters, you may bs interestEdto
know that ine reason three long logs can be used so satis'
factorily for such a iob is that a conveyancebuilt on such a
nucleus can be either readily paddled or poled, depending on

a long os3r sweep'

the water. Drifting, it can be steered with
Orsome other nrdder affangement. A short squaxeraft, on the
other band, has too much tendency to spin.

The raft should be made if possible of sound dry wood,

perhaps from deadffees that are still standing.In the absence

of spfues, the three logs can be lashed together with roots,

vinei, small limber withes, or fibrous bark. With an ax' how'

ever, you can do a really professional iob. A knife can bs em'

Frc. SS.|rfqfshing log for raft.

ptoyed instead although laboriously. In the absenceof such
tools, you might burn out the necessaryopenings.

The work may be commenced by laying the tbree logs in


Getting Out By Yourself I 213

position near the water. You are going to need two substan


tial crosspieces acrossthe top, one near each end. A couple of

tough, ruggedpoleswill do. Set these in placeand mark on

the logsbeneath where eachpole is to go.

Then cut the six notches so that eachis narrow at the top,

wideningas it goesdeeper into the log. When the two cross


piecesare finally driven through eachseries of three notches,

thefit should be snug.Once the raft has beenallowedto soak,

it will then become even more fumly interlocked.

Some Rules of Rafting

You will be only prudent if you take everypossiblepr€c&u.

tion when using such a raft, particularly under the stressand

uncertainty of emergency conditions. Keep listening and

watching as far ahead as possible,for some notable patches
of bad water such as the colloquially named parlez pos
Rapidsof the PeaceRiver giveno warning until one is almost
in them. For this reason,it is a sound idea to scout ahead
wheneverthis is at all feasible.

If you havea rope, you may be able to line the raft through
rapids while walking safely along or near shore. Otherwise,
you will probably do better to let the raft go with the idea of

retrieving it later if that is possible.
You will have to provide as well as you can for the safety
of anyoutfit you may havealong,perhapsin one of two ways:

(I ) either by tying it securelyto the raft, or
(2) by packing it in as waterproof a bundle as you can
managewith someprovision,such as the inclusion of a chunk
of light dry wood, so that it will float.
Make Yor:r Own Automatic Filot

Oneday you may find yourselffloating alone on such a raft
down a broad sluggish river like many in the Far North. A
rock, pail, or old coal oil container hung beneaththe corveyanceby
a short line affixed to the front center of the latter
will automatically tend to keep your carrier in a main chan'


214 I IIow to StayAlive in the Woods

nel. Besidesthus acting as a guide, this arrangement can also
conserve energy otherwise expended on dreary hours of
steering.

Finding an Outlet

An old sourdoughstunt usedto locate the outlet of a quiet
body of water is to float bannock crumbs or bits of some
other Ught substancesand to observe which way they drift.

Advantages of Winter Travel

Although the winter of fiction closesthe northern wildernesses,
the winter of reality opens much such counfi;r, freezing
streams providing highways that twine enticingly through
regions otherwise difficult to penetrate. Along the edges of
rivers, a smooth icy sidewalk is often repavedweek after week
by congealing overflow.

For those on snowshoes,the deepeningwhiteness becomes
a level carpet over jackpots of brush and tangled deadfall. Because
of both ice and snow, therefore, one is often able to
savehours and even days of travel by proceeding in sfraight
lines that otherwise would be impossiblEon foot.

Better Visibility and Audibility

There are other reasons why anyone who finds himsetf

stranded in the blanched wilderness of North America in

winter will in some respects have a better chance of getting

out than he would during any other season. Two of these

reasons arise from the fact that the colder it becam.es, the

farther it is possibleto see and to hear. Either phenomenon

may be of the utmost value to anyone stranded or lost,

When temperatures fall eighty and ninety degrees below

freezing on the PeaceRiver, the ring of axesat Hudson Hope

five miles downstreamresoundsdistinctly at our homesite.On

still days when the temperattue is close to the melting point,

I haven't been able to hear Dudley Shaw, our nearestneigh



GettingOut By Yourself | 2f5

bor, working diligently at from one-balf to one-third of that
distanceaway.

It is often difficult, especially when one is a stranger to
primitive regiors, to determinefrom vrhat direction a sound
is coming.This ability we can developwith practice, but in
the meantime one way to get a bearing when the noise is
proloqged enough is to turn the head until it seems loudest.
Holding a hand over one ear may makethis more perceptible.
Closing the eyesalso reducesdistractionsfor some individuals.
If you havean opportunity, of course, you'll standin an
open place as far as possiblefrom any broad reflecting stlrfaces
such as cliffs.

How to Make Emergency $nowshoes

You will do the best you can, and in a pinch this action
may hingeon the fact that one can often get along much better
than otherwiseby the very simple expediency of attaching
broad light evergreenboughs to the feet.

ffi --\*l

ffi
ffi
gtr

i
I


\

Qr

rbt! ??-tt

a@qD'

d it

g

I

t

K
K
't t

t\o\q

qre .;lDo t

hk qoog

-dge

_e+

r&

+i=i

i-_

FrG.56, Emergency snowshoes.

You may be able to travel without even these aids by sticking
to where snow lies tbinnest; along the edges of streams
scouredby wind, atop northern rims and benches where the
melting sun has made its influence felt, and in heavy €v€f



219 i trIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

gfeen groves where storms have not fallen so deeply. Warm,
dry chinook winds, which some Indians call sootv-eaters,are
so pleasanttyprevalentin nrany northern areasthat there one
seldom has to take to webs.

If you ever do have to improvise snowshoes,you will have
a rough idea of how to proceed if only from pictures that
y6u bave seen.Where obstructions are not too thick, the circular
bear-paw type will be the simplest to build and use.
A narrower and longer shoe will be essentialif you have to
follow a tighter trail.

Frames can be made by bending live wood into the shape
desired, gfeen saplingsbeing thawed first, of sourse' in sllr'
tight or near a fire if the sap is frozen.

Strips of rawhide will make satisfactory emergency web'
bing, Animals on the party are sometimes killed to furnish
this, as when a pack outfit is trapped in the mountains by
early autumn !li-zs3ds. You can use the gfeen strips. These

shoutd be heavier where the foot is directly supported. In
slick going, portions of hide attached beneaththe snowshoes
with the hair facing back lnay help to decrease slipping on
upgrades.

-
Ropo is also employed for webbing, although it is a nuis'

FrG. 57. An improvised bow drill may be used for drilling
snowshoe frames. The point nay be made from a nail or
wire.


Getting Out By Yourself | 2L7

--a

ance in frigid going because of the manner in which it continues
to stretch as cold deepens. It may have to be loosened
in slushy traveln on the other hand, lest it pull and break the
frames.Rawhidealsohappensto be an annoyance under these
latter conditiors, sagging and stretching as it does when wet.

One pair of emergency webs that got their wearer out of
the bush near our cabin was stnrng with snare wire, around
each strand of which moosehide strips had been twisted.

The size of any emergeney snowshoeswill be governedby
conditions. They will be preferably as small and as tight as
will support one on the snow over which he has to travel. lf
this forest covering is deepand soft, the shoesmay have to be
six feet long and one foot wide. The webping too, should
then be closer together.

Reaching Safety

Many northern trappers prefer to attach webs to their feet
with a simple harness made of some fabric, larnp wicking
being a favorite. You may also use a single broad strap, Iacing
it to the snowshoe so as to provide a loop into which the instep
can be thrust. In any event, you will want the front of
the snowshoe to swing up out of the way by its own weigbt
when the foot is lifted.

There is no intricate technique to snowshoeing.Just put
them on and start walking. Various improvisations will suggest
themselves accordirg to the particular circumstances.
When the going becomestough, some oldtimers help themselves
along sirntr'ly by knotting a line to the tip of each
snowshoe so that they can assist by hand the swinging
of the web up and ahead each step; susfsining the assertion
that half the confusion of the world comes from not sgalizing
how little we need.


PAR,T FOU R

SAFETY

is merely a question of

"survival
knowing where the dangers are
and how to recognize them, and
how to take advantage of the
resourcesoffered by the countr5r."

-Royal CanadianMounted Police


Chopter2l

Keeping Out Of Trouble

Oxcg oNts realizes though only subconsciouslythat circumstancesare
such that he can not afford to have an accident,
probabilities shift markedly againstany mishap befalling him,
and nowhere is this more apparent than under the drastic law
of the wild. For what may be but a self-punishing or attention-
getting, or a responsibility*elieving misstep where help
is at hand, can be fatal when one is alone.

The only reasonablerule in remote regions anSrwhereis not
to take unnecessary chances, weighing always the possible
loss against the potential gam, and going about life with as
wide a safety margin as practical.

"Nothing is so much to be feared as fearr" Thoreau noted,
but he added,"A live dog is preferableto a dead lion."

Center of Gravity

When we are descendinga cut bank or in fact any downgrade,
a basic safety principls---.1ilfoisftwe all reeogni-s but
sometimes overlook in the exhilaration of a descepf-is so to
control our center of gravity that if we do falt, it will be
backwards in maneuverablesliding position.

Such a precaution, we corne more and more to realize, is
of the utmost importanco during solitary travel over new

22L


2?.2 | IIow to Stay Alive in the lVoods

paths,wherelooseshale has not before beenby man disturbed
and where decomposinglogs have not been tried.
The identical principle holds even when we are traveling

among obstructionson a flat, for it is a sometimestoo costly

convenienceto let the body drop or swing forward so as to rest

a hand momentarily on a projection and vault ahead. The

untested support to which we will then be committed may
roll, slide, or givc away entirely. Even though this may happen
only one t'me in ten thousandin sucha way that we will
still not be ableto saveourselves, unless there are extenuating
cirsumstanccsthe odds will still be too far out of proportion
to warrant the taking of such a gamble.

Figure to F'all

A reasonably precautionaryattitude back of beyond is to
expect to fall at any moment, for so realizing the possibility,
we will be more likely to be prepared for it:

( 1) by avoidanceof an area,
(2, by extremecarewhen to bypa^ssis not practical,
(3) and most commonly by continually gauging beforehand
where and in what manner, if we do fil, we will be able
to let ourselvesgo most safely.
Deadfalls project an especialbalard, and one that is greatly
multiplied when the ground is at all wct. Dew can make a
fallen log so slippery that the feet will fly out from beneath
one so unexpectedlythat any control is at once gone.Frost

imposes gfaver danger,Especiallytricky is dead bark that all
of a suddenturm on the trunk itself.

It would be pointlessto indicate that all suchperils may be
avoided by keepingoff of fallen timber, for we often find that
a down tree is by far the most reasonableway over a ravine
or flooded creek. We occasionally come upon vast strctches
of old burn where the only way across is atop a maze of
deadfall. What we may logically choose to do, therefore, is

to test such footings as carefully as possibleand to proceed
with maximum caution, taking secrue hand holds whenever
they are offered, while limiting and when possible exclud.ing
any tightrope walking and leaping.


Keeping Out Of Trouble I n3

Fording
By studying the character of a stream we can often most
closely gaugehow best to cross it" for except in still water the
most shallow part is generally where the curent is wides[
It is not necessaryto e.xplain why a stout pole is useful
during actud wading, for most of us arE as reluc'tant as anyone
else to implant our feet blindly when it is possible to test
the footing ahea4 while even less effeCtivemearut of steadying
ourcelves against a tuggng torrent are not to be disregarded
lightty. Any packs, of course, we will hold loosely
enough to be swiftly disengagedif necessaxy.

Despite any nattrral reluctance to get wet unnecessarily, no
one wilt disagree but that it is often better to wet the feet
deliberately tban to attempt a bazardous passageacross slip.
pery logs or uncertain stepping stones.

If there is much of a flow to be crossed,we may decide
that the most comfortable procedure will be to remove clothing
with the idea of keeping it dry until it can be again
donned. Becausewe will want to afford our feet the utmost
protection, however, we will on occasion deen it advisable to
replace boots or shoesfor the fordilg. When wiped out and
put back oD, either over dry hose or over damp woolen
stockings that have been squeezed as free of water as Pos.
sible, most footgear suitable for the wilderness \ilin be no
more than momentarily uncomfortable.

Waves

In connection with wateri there is one especial precaution
that anyone venturing along a rocky open seacoastshould
heed. That is to hold fast at the first feasible spot upon the approach
of a big wave, deliberately choosing a wetting rather
than fnking the chance of nrnning across uncertain footing
and thus risking, in many exposedareas,the very real peril of
being iniured and even of being swept away and drowned.

Visibitity

Visibility is sometimes so deceptively restricted in dangerous
terrain that it is foolhardy to keep Boing,if to continue is


224 | IIow to Stay d,Iivein the Woods

necessary, without taking specialprecautions.A low hanging
cloud, sudden sleet, and the way snow and dust occasionatly
smoke up in stinging particles before an eye-watering wind
can make travel almost blind.

Dependingon where we a.ra, we may break off evergreen
tips snd keepone or two thrown always well ahead of us to
mark an apparently safepassage.This procedurewe may well
augmsal by cutting a long dry stick, Iight enough to wield
easilynand by poking about on all sides to minimize the possibility
of stepping off into rrndetected emptiness.

ffow to Malce a Torch

"Ite temptation to stay in good country as long as light
lasts is inevitable," as Colonel Townsend Whelen notes. "fn
the Northeast woods were white birch trees are plentiful, a
birchbark torch has often brought me safeand soundto cnmp.

"Strip a pieceof birchbark a foot wide and about three feet
long from the tree. Fold this in three folds lengthwisenmaking
a three-fold strip about four inehes by three feet. Split one
end of a three-foot pole for carrying, the split of the pole
engaging the bark strip about eight inchesfrom one end and
keeping it from unfolding. Ligbt the short eigbt-inch end.

"If you want more light turn the lighted end downward so
the fue will burn up on the bark. If it burns too fast, turn
the burning end upward. As the bark is consumed, pull more
of it through the sptit in the stick handle. Such a strip will last
fi.fteen to twenty minutes and will light all the ground, trees,
and busheswithin about twenty feet. When the bark is about
half consumed,look for another tree from which to get more
bark."

Exhaustion

When one is excited by the challengeof covering ground,
exhaustionoften creepson unrecoguized. This can be so much
more serious a problem in severe weather that particularly
when it is cold and stormy, one witl generallybe well advised


KeepingOut Of Trouble | 226

in strangecountry under survival conditionsto pick & csmp


ing spot earlyenough to be able to preparefor as comfortable

a night as possible.

For what interest it may hold, here is the way some of our

trappe,r friends gaugetheir strength. The trapper reaches one

of the cabinson his line. He is not conscious of feeling par


ticularly tired. Can he proceed to the next cabin? He stands

and looks up at the heavens.If the sky seemsto keep reced


ing before his eyes,he takes that as a suresign he is too near

the limit of his strength to risk going farther. So hE turns in

where he is.

Sh""p Tools
The generalprecaution you may observewhen using knife
and ax is to expect the cutting edgeto slip or drive untrue,
and so to handlethem that if this doeshappenno injury will
result.
TVe can also get into all sorts of unexpectedtrouble when
carrying sharp tools of this type, and the following two examples
may serve to indicate the lengths which precautions
may well extend. One sourdough thrust his bare ax' blade
downward, under the ldshings at the side of his dog sled.
When the dogs started nrnning at the sight of a moose' he
overturned the sled and flung himself acrossit as he had on
other occasionsto anchor the team. This time he suffered a
bad gash. Another old-timer drove his ax into a section of
firewood which he shouldered having finished that work for
the day. When he dropped the chunk off by his cabin, oo €x'
posed corner bf the blade slashedhis leg.
It is therefore no more prudent than anyone of us might
expect to keeppoints and edgtt of such tools strappedwhe,n'
are ade'

ever feasible witni" sufficiently healy sheathsthat
quately securedas by copper rivets.

Knots
not only

Knowing how to tie a few very simple knots will
serve on occasionto keep difficulties from developing, but it


226 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Y9oods
is not at all improbable if one spendsmuch time in farther
places that such knowledge may ons day be vital.
I(nots vary a little in desigR, depending on their uses,but
the princlples remain the sane, 8s any not knowing so already
can seo by the accompanying illustrations. What we want in
the maiority of instances is a knot that will not let go but
which, at the sametime, can be untigd in a hurry.
Basicatly important is the square knot that when improperty
tied becomes the disreputable gfanny knot which ssmmits
the double fault of jamming and slipping. The slightly differ'
ent sheet bend is effective for ioining two ropes of different
sizes.
OnE is always finding uses for the very simple two halfhitches.
The clove hitch, which is merely a pair of half'

Flc, 5& SquaroKuot Frc.59,GrannyK,not,

M^

tr

Frc, 60. $heet benfl ttc, 6I, GTovohitclb

&

3tc. 62. Two hnlf-lrltrfres. Stc. 6{1.Bswli!*


KeepingOut Of Trouble | 227

hitches made in oppositedirections, is handy for fastening a

rope to a tee trunk.

The quickly tied and untied bowline, which has raised and
lowered tensof thousandsof individualsto safetl, providesa
Ioop that will neither tighten nor slip.

A practical way to tie tle same type of knot by feel alone
if, as we often do, you want to picket a horse by a foreleg
at night, is first to make a loop near the end of a rope and
then to puil the standingpart of the rope through it in a
second, loop asshown by the drawing. Hold this second loop
in one hand and the rope end in the other. Pass the short
end not too snugly below the fetlock just above the hoof,
shovethe end into the second loop, and by pulling the second
loop back through the first work the knot into position. See
Page 228.

fce Never Safe

Ice travel can never be considered safe,inasmuchas even
when temperaturesdrop one hundred degrees below freerlng,
some parts of northern rivers not only always remain open,
but other portionsare sheathed with ice so thin it will scarcely
support its own weight. Overflow creates other hazardous
conditions. So does the dropping of water levels, leaving
great sheetsof ice suspended.As for cracks of variouswidths
and depths, they are ever characteristic.

Other dangersbuild up when an insulating rug of snow
shields ice from the hardening effectsof cold, while running
water beneath is eroding it. ll/hen ice is bare, its quality of
magnification-which makespossible the use of a lens of ice
to start a campfue-ran under the glare of sunlight create
temperaturesdangerouslyabove thawing.

Safety cannot always eonsist in keeping oft ice, for if \Pe

are making our way through a northern wildernessin winter'
particularty under emergency eonditions, ice travel may Yery
iitety open the most practical routes. The solution must lie
instead in taking all reasonablesafety precautions while on

ice.


WB I ffow to Stay Alive in the Woo&

[^,.

-o

FrG. 64. How to tie nonslipping and nonjamming knot by
feel alone.

Carrying a PoIe

An elementary safeguard to take wheneveryou ean drrring
ice Savel is to carry horizontally a long fieht pole whicb if
you plunge unexpectedlybelow the generallevel as is possible
anywhere at any moment, can serveautomatically as a bridge
both to check the descent and to afford a ready means of
extrication.

The practice of bearing a slender length of dry wood becomeslessa
nuisancethan secondnature,particularly as with
it you can conveniently jab at suspicious portions ahead such
as those hidden beneathsnow or under a frozen skim of over



Keeping Out Of Trouble | 229

flow. If with a companion, you may want instead or in addition
to travel some twenty feet or so apart in single fi.lewith
a rope betweenyou.

Reading Streams

We can read the characterof a strange stream to a certain
extent from the formation of its banks and tbus keep whenever
reasonable to shatlows. Sheerbanksare apt to continue
their steepness beneath water, as we all knoq making for
comparatively deep conditionsnearby.A gradualbank, on the
other hand, presupposesthe likelihood of shoals, although
there are numerous exceptions which vary for the most part
accordingto local geology.

Candte Ice and Seasonal Dangers

IVhen the congealedmoisture of winter begins musically
to seek the sea or to migrate to other climes in clouds, ice
along the shorethaws, making the immediate problem one of
reaching the still solid massesfarther out. The procedure
usually is to follow the shore until a jam or some other ap


'

proach, such as a series of rocks, is located.

Dangers of ice travel multiply rapidly at this time of the
year when the sinking swish of snow enlivensthe land, and
not the least of the hazards then arising is that imposed by
candle ice.

Ice will still seem solid to the inexperiencedeye when, as
a matter of fact, it has disintegrated to candleice so treacher'
ous that anyone not knowing better may step on an xP'
parently stable area and nink through it as if it were slush.
The unexpectedness with which this can happen may be bet'
ter appreciatedwhen we realize that ice several feet thick
often decomposesinto long vertical needles,and that among
these the testing pole can be driven all the way through in a
single iab.

Candle ice, which has causedthe drownings of numerous
sogrdoughsand natives, is best shunnedentirelY, particularly


230 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

becauseof the difficulty of regaining safety after one has got
into trouble.

Wolves

The wolf is so cautious that, aided by a high order of
intelligence, it will put forth every eftort not to be even seen
by man. Its sorrespondingly keen curiosityn however, will
sometimeslead to close investigations especially during protective
darkness,and this has stimulated some of the tales
about wolves trailing individuals with the alleged motive
of eventually attacking.

TVheneverI hear such accounts I think of many nights in
the Continental Northwest when I've gone to sleep wherever
in the wilderness I have happenedto be, many t:mes listening
as I dozed off to a wolf chorus and often as not hearing the
wild music when half-awakening during the night but<x'
cept for the thriU it still never ceases to arouse-having no
particutar emotion except the pleasnreof feeling more closely
attuned to the unspoiled places; not becauseof any daring
but becauseI soon realized,both from observationand from
what others told lrte, that no wolf will harm a human being.

Men Make Animals React Dangerously

Wild animals whs have been handled enough by men to
lose their natural fear of human beings, asfor example a fawn
brought up on a bottle, may occasionallybecome dangerous.

Males of the deer family as a whole sometimes prove

truculent duing rutting seasons,while later a mother may try
to send an intruder away if she thinks her young are threat'
ened. So, for example, will a, bear. So will a tiny swallow.
And if someonethen runs, apparently frightened, the often

followed impulse of both bear and swallow is to chase.

Sometimes,toonan animal will flee at a sound or odor andn
not seeing an individual, may appear to be charging him. Au
animal who is or believeshimself cornered may try to wipe a
man out of the way, As for wounded animals, even a tiny
squirrel will bite and scratch.


Keeping Out Of Trouble | 2gl

Supposeyou come face to face with a large animal that

shows no disposition to iitt into the shadows?The best thing

to do is to stand perfectly still and, my experiencehas been

although all may not agree, to talk in as calm and as even a

manner as possible.The choice of words makes no difference,

for any unexcited and not unfriendly human monotone &p


pearsto have a soothing effect on an animal. Any I have so

met in the open have, unless they bolted immediateln rs


garded me for a brief t'ne and then moved away, usually

slowly and in any event without sign of overmuchexcitement.

If you have a firearm, you wiil naturally get that in position
as calmly and as smoothly as possible, particularly if the
animal is at such closequartersthat any abruptnessmay provoke
a similar reaction.Any movement should therefore be
so extremely gradual as to be ahnost imperceptible. Unless
absolutelynecessary,it will seldom be wise under such corditions
to shoot,

Suppose the animal shows no indication that it witl give
ground? You may prefer to leave with as much of an appearance
of casualnessas you can manifest, continuing to avoid
any suddenmovementsand still talking quiet$.

Greater Living Hazards Than Beasts

Insects are considerablymore dangerous in the wilderness
than any wild animals,and in fact mosquitoes and black flies
become so thick in many regions of the United States and
Canada that they can actually tiU a full grown man in good
health who is lost or stranded without sufficient knowledge

or ingenuity to protect himself.

Modern insect repellents can solve the problem more
quickly and easilythan anything else, short of keeping inside
an enclosurewhoseopeningsare protected with fine netting.
Present compoundsare colorless, do not damage most clothitg,
and have an odor not at all disagreeable to most individuals,
whereasthe old pine tar products used to dirry ever]thing
and were not particularly effective to boot. These
newer repellents are being so continually improved that it will


232 7 lfow to Stay Alive in the Woods

be well to check with severalas informed sourcesas you can
contact as to what at the moment is best for yorrr purpose.

Smokg too, will help discourage the pests while one is
camped. Mud plastered on exposed parts will afiord pfotec'
tion during travel. Plugging the ears lightty with cotton will
often make br:rz;rriginsects a lot more bearable. Inadequate
clothing can be reinforced with somewild substance, a sheath
of birchbark beneath the stockings for example adding Pfo'
tection for the legs. The most cornfortable provision is to
keep wheneverpossibleto windy stretches such as bare ridges
and wide shores.


Chopter22

Getting Out Of Trouble

"A tvtex sits as many risks as he runsr" Thoreau pointed out.
'olhe amount of it is, if a man is alive, there is always danger
that he may die."

Upon Falling Through fce

One tool to have within eas]t reach during ice travel is a
sheath knifs, particularly when other safegUardssuch as a
pole are lacking, and on particularly dangerousstretchesyou'
too, may want to hold this ready in a hand. Then if you do
go through, you'll have the immediate chance to drive the
point into solid ice and with its aid to roll yotrrself out and
away from danger.

Another method in cold weather of then obtaining traction
is, Ers quick as thought, to reach out to the fullest extent of
your arus and to bring down your wet sleeves and gloves
against firm ice where, if temperatures are low enougb, they
will almost instantly fueeze,

If weather conditions are more temperate,you may have to
break avraythin ice with your hands so as to reach a surface
strong enough to hold your full weigbt. It is usually possible
in the meantime to support yourself by resting a hand or arm
flatly on fragile ice. Then if there seemsto be no better way'

233


234 I How to Stay Alive in the Woods

get as much of your arms as you can over the edge, bring
your body as nearly horizontal as is possiblewith the help
perhapsof a swimming motion with the feet, and get a leg
over and roll toward safety.

Snow as a Blotter

Upon breaking through ice into water and quickty scrambling
out again, as occrus not infrequently during travel in the
whitenedwilderness, it is usuallyadvantageousto roll at once
in preferably soft and fluffy snow. If the outer clothing is
somewhatwater repellent,the snow will blot up much of the
moisture before it can reach the body.

Any remaining dampness will in very cold weather freeze
almost immediately. One advantageof this will be that the
resulting sheath of ice will act as a windbreak.

Among the disadvantageswill be the weight thus added.
Another will be that this icen dependingon its thickness,can
turn the garmentsinto something not too gently resembling
armor. Most hazardouswill be the clothing's losing part or
most of its ability to keepthe body warm.

If a boot becomes immersed in overflow as is a common
occurrencs,often you can-as Dudley Shaw showed me my
first week in Peace River country-step into a, snowbank
quickly enoughthat sufficient water will be absorbed to prevent
any from penetratingto the foot. Sourdoughs, I learned
from my friend who is among the more famous of them,
occasionallyso treat their footgear deliberately.

What to do After Sub.Zero Drenching

We usually proceed on ice as we do when traveling any.
wherein the wilderness;with the assumptiotr,io other words,
that ice may give away beneathus any moment. The result
is that if wE do get wet, this doesnot usually extendbeyondthe outer gtsfhing except perhaps where moisture may run
down into the footwear.

We then change at leastour stockingsif we can. Othennise,


Getting Out Of Trouble | 235

we squeezethese as dry as possible,pour and wipe away perhaps
with dry moss any water that is inside the boots, warm
the feet if necessaryagainstsome other portion of the body
such as the thighs, dress, and continue as normally.

Supposethe more unusual happens and we becomethoroughly
denched? We roll as quickly as we can in the most
absorbent snow close at hand, but let ns supposethat not
eyen this action is sufficient. If extra clothing is available and
if the weather isn't too cold, we may be able to get tle wet
garments oft before they fteeze. Some of them, particularly
if a companion is there to help, we can squeeze reasonably
dry and put back orr. rf alone in extreme cold, however, it
will be safer first to build a fire if that is feasible.

If we are going to build a fire, this should be attended to
irnmediateln before hands becometoo numb. With a campfue
blazing and with plenty of fuel at hand, it follows that no
matter what we decide next to do we can take our time. We
may want to dry out thoroughly, in which casethe quickest
and most comfortable way to go about it may be with the
clotheson. or we may prefer to rig a windbreah employing
the dryins garments themselves.

I've done it both ways, but the most agreeablesuch occasionwas
when I happenedto have a light eiderdown in my
pack ashore. Viewed in retrospect, few days seem more errioyable
tlan those two I divided between replenishing the
woodpile and reading an old Dumas novel which I'd discoveredin
a prospectorosdesertedcabin-where its pageshad
been testedby packrats who'd found them wanting, although
I did not.

It is a slow and prolonged iob for one alone to dry an
outfit by an open campfire when temperatures are much
below zeto, particularly as the new danger to beware of is
that of damaging necessarygear by attempting to complete

he chore too rapidly.

What to do in Severe Weather

One will ordinarily be well advisedduring extremelysevere
weather to get into a shelter of sorts and to lay up besidea


236 | tr{ow to Stay Alive in the Woods

fire. If one has blankets or a warm sleepingbag, it will often
be prudent under such conditions to bivouae even if means
of easily making a blaze are lacking.

Individuals hatted by storm or other troubles when traveling
by motor vehicle often have enough coverings at hand to
keep them safe until help arrives. Too rnany add needlessly
and sometimes finally to their difficulties by running motors
so as to heat unventilatedcabs,thus risking carbon rironoxide
poisoning. Others, prompted by some inconsequential fear
such as that of starvationn leave in entirely inadequate clothing
what sanctuary they have and stake everything against
unreasonableodds in an attempt to walk they're not sure
where.

Freezing

We need to pay constantattention to all parts of the body
to prevent freezing during intensely cold weather,examining
exposedareas in particular to make sure they have not become
stift or devoid of feeling. Unprotected portions of the
head,especiallythe ears, are particularly vulnerable.

If the hands are kept warm, by shoving them inside the
clothing against the flesh whenever necessary, such a frostbitten
part can be thawed by holding the palm against it for
a few seconds.ff this is attendedto promptly, frost nip need
be no more seriousthan chappedskin.

If we were to ask almostanyone what is the most common
causeof accidentaldeathin the North, the reply we'd most
often get would be fteezing.As a matter of fact, the correct
answeris fue.

Frozen Feet

Every possible care shouldbe taken not to free ze the feet,
for although these are susceptiblebecauseof poorer circulation
and becauseof cold'sreachingthem by conductionand

thus speedingcondensation,once this vulnerability is recognized
it can be so offset that there selclomwill be any good

reasonfor such a predicament.


you ir:tr*"""rffi::::"r'r;rtJ"

Howshoutd act
all, do not delay. rf you can build a fire at once, do that. Then
you can very possibly thaw the foot in the heat of the blaze.
Better still, you may be able to keep yourself comfortable

while thawing the foot against some part of your orun body
such as the bare thigh. Or you may be able to wafin it suffcently
by contact with the abdomenof a human companion;
or with an animal, if necessaryone perhaps freshly killed
and openedfor that puqpose.

What Not to Do

Anyone not sure of the best procedure in any emergency
will probably do better to let common sense be his determin
ant rather than to follow blindly someunreasonableprocedure

about which he may have heard.

When we lack the personal experience that would enable
trs to make our own evaluation of a subject, it is natural for
us to accept the opinions of others, sltd the unforhrnate thing
about this is that many widely popular beliefs are definite and

positive in reverse ratio to their lack of foundation in fact.
When long accepted but nevertheless wholly false tenets increase
in assurancethe oftener they are repeated,many times
in highty regarded sourcematerial, they can not help but be


come the more dangerous.

Before anyone reading this nrbs snow on a frostbitten ear,
it is to be hoped that he will ask himself how the application
of one frozen thing to another can help but be a good way

to extend the freezing.

The way to tift the temperature of an area to above fteezing
is, reasonably enough, to apply warmth. To thaw an ear,
for example, we cup it with a warm palm.

We soon learn not to nrb, certainly. Chafing a frozen ear
with snow in very cold weather is, we fnd, comparable to
scrubbing a warm ear with sand and gravel. As for heating
frozen flesh by friction sufficiently to thaw it, this is not only
a slow process, but it can cause additional injury by tearing
the sensitivized skin.

The pain that particularly indoors follows severe freezing


238 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

may be relieved, however,by holding snow or ice againstthe

pilt, for heat at this stage increases the discomfort. One

should not carry this relief so far, of course, as to risk

refreezing.

Somedisastrous results havefollowed the attempts,incredible
as they may seem,of trying to thaw parts of the body
with alcohol, gasoline,oil, salt water, and other liquids whose
temperafirreshave beenbelow 32o Farenheit. The erroneous
theory hasbeenthat becausethese were not frozen, they were
iust the things to useto thaw somethingelse.All one has to
do is to glanceat the ordinary thermometeron a subzero day
to be reminded that althoughalcohol may not be frozen, it
can still be cold enough to be expectedto solidify in a very
brief time a foot immersed in it.

Fast or SIow

If part of the body is seriously frozen, shouldit be thawed
gradually or as quickly aspossible?Medical doctors disagree
on this, although at this writing opinion is shifting more and

'

more towards speed.

Thosefavoring rapid thawing,ns by soakinga foot in water
as hot as ordinarily could be borne comfortably, believethat
danger from gangrenebecomesmore of a possibility the
longer the circulation is shut off. They alsoare of the opinion
that the greater the length of time a part of the body is allowed
to remain gravely frozen,the deeperthe freezing may

extend.

Those authorities favoring gradual thawing, by heat not
much if any greater than normal body temperature, opinethat therc is less hazard of permanent damageto severelyfrozen tissuesif only moderateheat is applied gently.This is

the only treatment necessary,of course, in mild cases.

should You Keep Moving cold

in weatherp

A dangerousfallacynpractically as widespreadas the mistaken
idea that frostbite should be thawedby rubbing snow


Getting Out Of Trouble | 239

on the affected area, is the long pe{petuated theory that wc
should keep moving in cold weather lest we freezo. This universal
although mistaken belief is often expressed more specifically.
Don't fall asleep outdoors in very cold weather, you
too have probably been warned, or you'll never wake up.

The opposite is true, for why should we waste strength in
moving aimtsssly about when that energy can be better r&tioned
to keep us warrn? IVhy should we risk exsessive perspiration
that, freezing, will only make us colder and very
possibly dangerously so.

The best ttt;"g to do when caught out unexpectedtyon a
zubzero night" it will be generally conceded, is to hole up in
safe cover and get a fire going. If we can not do that" the
next bestprocedure is to locate as sheltered a qpot aswe can,
curl up on something dry even though it be but spruce boughs
or birchbark, and go to sleep.

You won't wake up? I'd heard the common admonition so
often in New England that when I first went North I was
apprehensive, also. But when the night furns cold at home,
don't you awaken if only to reach for more covers?Cold also
arousesyou in the bush. You stir around iust enough to get
wa^rm,which very often by changing position once or twice
is atl you do in bed, and then you draw yourself together
again,go back to sleep if you can, or at least relax to the fullest
extent possible.

This procedure can be especiallyimportant if we are short
of food, as it stands to reason that the only \pay the body
can produce the extra heat necessaryto offset increasedcoldnessis
by burning additional calories. The supply of calories
readily available for this function will be greatly lessenedif
we're also consuming them by tramping up and down.

The weaker one so becomes, the less able he will be to
withstand what he is up against. When he slumps down exhausted,
that is an entirely different situation, especially as
therc is probably perspiration to rob the clothing of an important
part of its warmth. The reserve strength that would
otherwise have been available is too many times depleted.
From that sleep of exhaustion, there often is no u*4igning.


24$ | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

Another thing to bewarewhen combating cold is alcohol.
Although this may bring about a deceptivesensation of &gfeoable
warnth, it has the effect of disrupting the function of
the human thermostat,thereby drastica[y increasingin proportion
to the amount consumed the possibility of serious
effectsresulting from exposure.

Snowslide

That anyone caughtin a snowslidehas a good chance to
walk awayfrom it is certain, especialty if he can keep on top
of the swirling and billowing avalanche.One way to BCCoffiplish
this is by a swimming motion. The backstroke,particu'
larly effficacious if it can be managed, has saved numerou$
lives in such emergencies.

FIG. 65. Emergency goggles.

Snow Blindness

Snow blindnessis a painful and watery inflarnmationof the
eyes resulting from overexposure to certain ligbt rays particularly
when these are so diffused by water particles,frozen or
otherwise, that they seem to strike the eyeball from every
direction. The samesymptoms result from exposurc to glare
from sand.

Treatment lies in avoiding all sunlight as much as possible.
Eyes should be bandaged in a caseof severe irritation, as the


Getting Out Of Trouble | 24L

closed eyelids do not afford sufficient protection. This is

tnre eveninsidea tent, as those of us who at some time have

collected a sunburn through canvas can appreciate. Sour


doughsoccasionally use cold weak tea to bathe the eyes u&en

they first seem to be fiIled with harsh, gritty soap powder.

Some find cold compresses of tea leavessssfhing. Here, too,

is where the antiseptic,anesthetic eye ointment suggested for

the emergency aid kit will be really appreciated.

Snowblindnesscan be preventedby keeping excessivelight

from the eyes.The most convenient way of accomplishing

this is with sunglasses. Large lenses, well fitted not too far

from the face, are advisablebecauseof the additional protec.

tion they a.fford from side glare.

Cheapsunglassesare usually fragile, seldom grve sufficient

eye protection at any time, are frequently uncomfortablenand

are prone generally to have lens shortcomings and defects

that may injure eyesight.Plasticis not recommende4 particu


larly when replacement may be difficult, if only becauseof its

susceptiblenessto scratches and abrasions. Sunglasses that

clip into place may damage regular glassesand, furthermore,

do not exclude sufficient glare exceptfrom directly in front.

Eye protectors can be improvised from strips of wood or
bone in which narrow slia have been cut. These have tbc
advantage of not frosting under ordinary conditiolut. They
have the disadvantage of severely restricting the vision. When
the sun is high enough, shades such as those that can be
fashioned frorn birchbark will help to cut down light' especi'
alty if their insidesare darkened, perhapswith charcoalfrom
the fire. Darkening about the eyes, as with soot, will also
decreaserefle0ted light.

Mire

We occasionallyfind dangerousquagmireswhere mud, de'
water in propor'

caying vegetation, or both are mixed with
tions not solid enough to support our weight.
That is all there ls to it, for no inherent suction or evil
influence exists within to draw one downwards, and as a
matter of fact all that operates is gravity assistedby any


24A I IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

unwise stnrggling. If you try to pull one of two imprisoned
legs loose while taking all the resulting pressure on the other
leg, the action will of course force thig leg deeper.

At the worst, when you get very far into the nti'e your body
will probably be ligbter than the semisolid it displaces, and
you will stop sinldng. You will not go deeper, tihat is, unless
you wonn and tTttistyour way down, trying ineftectrrally to
get away. The thing to do, therefore, is to present as much
body area to the surface of the mire as may be nesessaryand
to do this with the uhost promptness.

A horse is caught quickln for example, because of the

comparativs smellnessof its feet, whereasa moose of similar
weiglt will walk across the same quagpire without difficulty
becagseof the way its hoofs spread apart to present a larger
sgrface. Ths hrrman foot is also a comparatively small area
pressed downward by a correspondingly heaqy weight.

If when you feel the instability you can get to solid land
by running, that will be the end of the matter. If you cannot
do this, fall to yorn knessr for you will generally be able to
make it that way.

If you arE still sinking, look around guickly to see if there

isdt some branch or bush you can grab. Or you may have a

pack or a coat to help support your wcight. If not flatten

out on your stomach with you,r limbs as far apart as possible

and crawl. You may have to do this, anJrway-

One finds quagpires in all sorts of coun85r. Areas where

water remains on the surface, and pafristtlarly where water

bas so lain may be treacherous,
'We
should watch out for tidal

flats, swamps, marshes, old water holes which trcmble be'

neath a topping of dried mud, and certainly for muskegp.

Quiclcsand

Quicksand is similar to quagmire, being sand that is sus.

pended in water. It may drop you a whole lot more quickln

but methods of extrication are similar. You do not have as

much time, however, and you're in more potential danger

unlessyou keep your head.


Getting Out Of Trouble | 243
unless help is nearby or there is some support to grtrp,
you may be able to throw yourself immediately full length
and either crawl or swim free. You may have to duck under
water to loosen your feet, digging around with the hands and

perhaps quickly sacrificing footwear. You will want to avoid
as much as possible any sudden and abnrpt motions that
would only seryeto shoveyou deeper.

Rest but do not ever give up, for quicksandsand quagmires
often occupy a hole no larger around than a sofa or large
chair.

Although I have been fortunate enoughnever to be seriously
caughtmyself, I once almost lost a saddle horse I was
riding when it spookedto one side, and on another occasion
a pack horse. The first I had to pull out backwards, head
over tail, with another cayuse, while the second wallowed to
firm ground herself once freed of loaded paniers. In both
widely separatedplaceswhere my animals wereboggeddown,
I was able to walk on sound footing close enough on every
side to assure them with a hand.

Another inch or two of progress,in other words, may very
well bring your fingerseither to solidness or to where you can
loop over a bush a belt or perhapsa rope made of clothing.
If you can reach where vegetation is growing, you will 4lmost
certainly find sufficient support to allow you to get loose.


Chcpter23

Emergen€yAid

AurHon's Nore: Thomas J. Gray, M. D", has kindlyansweredcountless questions and offered numerous suggestions
in connection with the medical information in
chapters 23 and 24; the responsibilityfor'which, however,
remains entirely the author's.

ftsali-ing the potential vitalnessof this subject to anyone
in remote regions, Major Gray has given'freely oi innumerableeveningsand
weekendsduring the severalyears

this book was in preparation, considerlng its possibilities
and probabilitiesfrom what is the viewpoint of a qualified

and experiencedmedical doctor who, widely experienced
in isolated areas,also comprehendsthe peculiar problems
of the farther places.

We both understandthat no one can prescribefrom a
distance.Much of the data herein, in other words, should
be considerednot as any final dictum but, rather, as a timesaving
meeting ground on which the individual may 8rrange
for his particular needs with his own physician.

MeN rs a contrary critter. A lot of us ate working harder
than we want, at things we don't like to do. Why? It figures!
In order to afford the sort of existence we don't care to live.
It also seemsan odd thing, until you begin to analpe it,
but an unhealthy proportion of accidentsoccur becausedowu

246


246 | IIow to Stay Alive in the TVoods

underneathsomeonewants them to happen.A mishap may be
a face-Cavingexcusefor some failrrre. Very often it is deliberately
willed becausethe individual believeshe should be pun


a misadventure because

ished. Occasionally someone has
that's the easiestway to draw attention to himself. Now and
then an accidentoffersthe simplestescapefrom responsibility.

Once anybody definitely realizes that he cannot afford to

have an accident, however, the percentagestine up heavily
against the probability of one overtaking hifii. This is espe'
cially noticeablein the wilderness' and loglcally so.

TVhatwould be a very minor incident in a ci&, with assist'
ance as near as the telephone, could be an extremely serious
and even fatal misstep in the farther places. Sonboth coo'
sciously and subconsciousln most humans are wholesomely
careful to sidesteptroublE when they are in remote areas.

Away from the masses,too, one is not so apt to becorlle elr'

tangled in the lapsesand shortcorningsof others.

Att this is a major reason \ilhy among able-bodiedmen the
probability of an accident or serious physical trouble in the
C.ep wildernessis extremely small. In the comparative clean'
Iiness of the silent places, ftrrthermore, there is correspond'
ingly little likelihood of infection. The exception to this latter
circgmstancehasto do with thE progressivclesseningof builtup
imnrunities while one is not in usual contact with the ills
of civilization. This is a gradual matter and, being important
only upon recontact, is at most a minor consideration unless
one is to remain in remote country for a period of months or

years.

What About Ready-Made Kits

Any one who goesover half a day from civilization and a

doctor should whenever possible be armed with an adequate

first-aid kit and a fair working knowledge of how to use it.

This precaution he owes, at the very least, both to himself

and to any who accompanyhim. No more than a reasonable

measure, it can sometimes mean the difference between an

easily repaireddisability and one that lastsa lifetime.

The ready-packedcornmercial kits, excellent as they are


Emergency Aid | 2{I

for many puqposes,seldomare satisfactoryfor the individuat

who wandersfar from beatentrails. One reason is that their

assembly is based more or less on the assumption that the

patient can be placedunder a doctor'scare within a somp&ra.

tively brief period. Furtherrnore, thesekits do not always in


clude provisionsfor those accidents most likely to occur in

wild country. As for the Army first-aid kit, this is designed

for the emergencytreatment of battle wounds.

It is not necessary that such an emergency-aidoutfit be car


ried on the person,although it should be readily available at

the camp, canoe, or other baseof operations, Even a small

and compact affair attached to the belt soon becomes an un

warranted nuisance,however,especiallyas at best one would

be useful in no more than a disproportionate few of the €rfier


genciesthat unconlmonly occur. Something can always be

extemporizedon the spotto do for a short time. Even a func


tional splint, for example,can be improvised frorn a thick

live roll of birchbark, peeledfrom a tree whose circumference

is similar to that of the injured limb.

Snake Bite Kit

Taking up only slightly more space than one of the larger
shotgun shells,one of the efficient little snake bite kits that
can be easily tucked into a pocket should always be on the
personin bad snakecountry. Especially handy are the Cutter
Compak SuctionSnakeBite Kits, eachcontaining: three sugtion
cups, a sharpblade,antiseptic,Iyrnph constrictor, and a
calmly presentedcompletenessof plainly illustrated direc.
tions.

The four kinds of poisonoussnakesin the United States
are the rattler, coral, moccasin, and copperhead.The danger'
ousnessof theseis in generalconsiderablyoverrated,mortality
from properly treated snakebite being lessthan one per
cent.Even without treatmentof any sort, mortality only runs
ten to fifteen per cent; hence the mistakenacclaimgiven such
uselessand often harmful "remedieso'as tobaccoiuice, whis'
k"y, kerosene, freshly killed fowl and, incidentally, the bril'

Iiant and effective looking potassium permanganate.Searing


248 | How to Stay Alive in the Woods

is likewise ineffectual and, exceptas it may in emergencybe
resorted to for stopping dangerous bleeding such as that
causedby imprudent slashing, most dEfinifely unwarranted.

ftems for the Pocket

A flat metal or plastic containerntalcrng up less spacein a
pocket than the ordinary folded handkerchief, will hold a
small amount of aspirin and laxative. There will alsobe room,
in case it is consideredthat you could one day need them, for
a few dexedrine sulphate pills or some other concentrated
stimulant suggestedby your doctor-to be used only in a
crisis when you, or someone elsen might require adAitional
sustainedenergy in a hurry. Comtnon and usually adequate
stimulants, if you have the makings on your person when
you needthem, are of course such caffeine-containingbever.
agesas tea, coffeenand cocoa.

It is not a bad idea, either, to carry an antiseptic for emergency
use on cuts and scratches.This may be in the form of
several tiny bottlettes of Merthiolate or individual iodine
applicators.

-

a tew small, individually wrapped adhesivebandagesscah
tered among the pockets are always coming in handy. The
prompt useof one wil, for example,ofttimes prevent chafing.

You, too, have perhaps also employed these for repairing
everything from slothing to knifE sheaths.
Nothing can spoil an outdoor trip more surely than houble
with the feet. This usually unnecessarydilemma can often be

relieved on the trail by the prompt use of the small readymade
gauzedressingscentered on bits of adhesive tape and
sold under various trade names.If you feel a spot starting to
becometender, stop and cover it with as many of these freferably
plain adhesive bandagesas may be necessary.one

is
usually sufficient, as you will

be able to tell best after you
have startedto walk again.
Frequently, the danger and the annoyanceof btistering can
thus be averted. Even after these vesicles have

a

properly applied dry dressing of this sort will "ppeur-d,

-e"y times
prevent further friction and, left otrr will allow thl ipot to


Emergency Aiil I Z4g

harden. It is a mistake to cover a blistered heel with adhesive

tape as many dq for .healthful air is thus excluded and the
area beneath is kept moist and soft without any chance to
toughen. If there are already breaks in the skin, an infection
has all the more opporhrnity to develop as we have seen happen
on more than one occasion.

Personal Kit

A small but comprehensiveemergency-aidkit should be no
farther away than your outfit whenever you are in an area
remote from medical coverage.This kit, whose composition
will be largely an individual matteg should be adequate both
for first aid and for those meaflres that may reasonably be
necessaryduring the time it would take a doctor to cont act a
patient. It should contain, too, medications that you know
from experienceyou may need personally.

How you pack sucb essentialswill depend to a large degree
on the way you travel. One metbod of keeping these items
sterile and intact is to stow them in a tin can with a tightly
fitting top. If it seems desirable, this cover may be reinforced
with a strip of tape. For years, fve used a small red ditry
bag that is convenient for hangtng within reach and, at the
same time, safely out of the way. This zippered red bag I
enclosein a waterproof container when there is danger from
dampness. Whenever rough hmdfing becomes a hazar4 I
fecure it within the protective softnessof my eiderdown.

Depending on where you plan to go and on what may be
your individual problems, your basic emergency aid kit may
includc some, most, or all of the articles listed in the table on
the following pages.

Such a kit you can augment with salt and baking sodafrom
the cooking outfiL Fill in with small adhesive bandages. Those
with plastic tape adhere better. Plain and untreated little gauze
pads are preferable, the ones medicated with antiseptics or
antibiotics not being recommended. Add anything else that
your experience indicates you wiil probably need or which
your doctor recornmends, perhapsafter consideration of some
of the possibilities mentioned in the following chapter.


250 | How to Stay Alive in the Woods

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262 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

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BcrckwoodsMedicine

IF you are going into extreme wilderness, perhaps on a
canoe or pack horse trip that will take you days and possibly
weeksbeyond the nearest physician, you may care to consult
your personal doctor on the advisabitity of including for
emergency use a vial of twenty t/+ grain morphine sulphate
hruo tablets to be procured and used as directed. These may
be invaluable for such uses as counteracting pain, as when a
frozen foot has been thawed and teated and when the victim
is warm and protected, for combating shock, and for cootrolling
severedigestive troubles as by breaking up a cycle of
vomiting. \

Better for administration in extreme shock, however, may'
be a box of five automatis iniectors of rnorphinE sulphate,
sterilized and ready for instant user or a smaller box of five
collapsible-tube syringes of morphine tartrate, injected as
directed"

Any of these preparationsmay be taken by placing loosely
under the tongue where, not swallowed, it will be absorbed
systemieally into the general circulation, the effect of one
dosensually lasting about forn hours.

Drnation and effect depend, of course, on the individual
and the circnmstances.rn any eyentnsimilar dosage should be
repeated only with the utmost care and caution and then ordi


253


254 I How to $tay Alive in the Woods

narily only once every four to six hours. A conservativepro.
cedure for the laSman on his own is to hoard his supply
sensibly, not using one until the need seerns absolutely
imperative.

Digestive Upsets

Ask your doctor, too, about a prescription of paregoric
tablets for possibleuse in quieting the system after a severe
digestive upset, once the body has had time to expel the
causes.Primitivs man was probably besetby few infectious
food-carried maladies.Such diseases thrive only in crowded
areas, and during those earlier eons there was no such urlnatural
crowding. You're not apt to have such trouble when
alone in the bush, therefore, but you can very easily contract
it on the way to the iumping off spot.

If you stop at any doubtful or overbusy eating places, it
will be wise neither to drink water there nor to order cold
or raw food, It witl be best, too, to eat only meat that is well
donc all the way through. Ground meat can bE especially
dangerous. Safest choices are bottled soft drinks, black tea
made on the spot with boiling water, and thoroughly and
freshly cooked foods served hot from the kitchen.

Food Poisoning

In severefood poisoningverglng on collapse, one trcatment
is to wash out the stomachwith a weak solution of sodium
bicarbonate, Y+teaspoon to a glassof cool water. Drink two
glassesof this right on top of each other. This may be
vomitedr or it may passright througb. Sometimesnothing else
is necessaryexcept,perhapsr& restricted diet of weak tea and
dry toast for the next day.

If the trouble does continue, it will be necessary.to retard
the intensity of the bowel movements so as to permit the
building up of a concentration of medication. One way to
accomplish this former is with paregoric which can be con.
veniently carried in outdoor kits in the form of tiny lO-minim


Bachroods Meficine | zfr

tablets, of which a vial of twenty-four occupies only a very
small spaee.An adult migbt take two or three of these tablets
every four to six horus for as long as the need continues.
If there were a moderate recrurence of diarrhea after a four
hotu perio{ for instance, one or two more tablets might do.
The desired effect is, of course, only gmptomatic; that is,
paregoric combats not the cause but the digestive irritability.

Vomiting at the onset night pose a problern. The individuat
might be able to hold down the initial dose of paregoric
long enough for suffi.cient to be absorbedto check the vomih
ittg. Otherwise,the cycle could be broken by holding under
the tongue until absorbed a r/a-gatn morphine sulphate hypo
tablet or the releasedcontents of one of the previously mentioned
automatic iniectors or collapsible-tubesyringes.

The trouble itself could then be attacked by one of the
Iargely non-soluble sulfas. Incidentally, the formerly widely
recommendedpurge of calomel or some similar purgative, is
no longer generally approved, the feeling being that sufficient
action of this sort ryill have probably already ensued, and that
faking a cathartis will therefore be sort of like whipping a
iaded horse.

Yoru doctor, as of this uniting, Itrey suggest that you include
in your outfit two or tlree dozen one-half gram tablets
of sulfathalidine or sulfaguanidine. You could then take four
tablets of either.

If the trouble continued, you might reasonably assume:

( 1) either the medication is not hitting,
(2) or it hasn't reached the affected area,
(3) or there is not sufficient concentration,
Normalln two more tablets could then be repeatedin 4 to
6 hours. If these still don't act, two more could be repeated in
another 4 to 6 hours. Tnthe bush you might gle three or four
tries, then go to something else such as penisillin if that were
available.

Once cured, it is often well to stay pretty much on light
rations such as weak tea and toast for a duy, while replenishing
in repeated small amounts of slightly salted water the


256 | I{ow to StayAlive in the Woods

often critically depletedfluid level of the body, dehydration
and salt depletion being maior dangers in such upsets.

psnisillin

Penicillin can now be taken orally and be iust as effective
if not more so than shots administered intramuscularly, which
is why your doctor may suggestyour taking along a supply of
oral penicillin, perhapsin combination with one or more of
the safer sulfa dnrgs. Becauseof their qualitiesof absorption,
some of these penicitliq compounds should as directed
be taken before meals.A bottle of fifty tablets does not oscupy
much room. The standard tablet contains about 250,000
units of penicillin, the average dose for infection with fevcr
then being one tablet, four to six horus apart, three or four
times a day.

In case of pneumonia,to grve an exilnple, a not unusual
treatment would be one tablet three or four times a day as
directed. This would be continued until there was a definite
response-a clinisal improvement, that is, particularly thc all
important one signifis4 by the dropping of fever. This is a
reason why a good thermometer belongs in the first aid kit.
As soon asthe temperature remained normal for twelve hours,
the dosage might be halved for two days. A reason for not
stopping it immediately is that when the infection is not adequately
treated but only suppressed, it may flare up again.

If some infection were likely as a result perhaps of a bad
cut, a soundpreventativestep might be to go on half dosage
for three days.A more serious situation, as in the instanceof
a compound fracture, would call for full dosage. Penicillin is
known to have someeffect in combating tetanus.It might be

preventatively used, therefore, if there seemedto be even a
remote possibilityof tetanusas from a gunshotwound or from
a deep puncture wound contaminated by soil, clothing, or

anything else.
It is not advisableto take antibiotics for long periods. A
week is usuallylong enough. If there is no rcspoor" uv then,
the particular antibiotic is probably doing no good and may


BaclcvoodsMeficine | %YI

as well be quit anyway. Antibiotics when effective work only
on a secondary mathematicalbasis. That is, they hold down
the multiplication of foreign bacteria and thus permit the system
to gain thc upper hand by urar:shalingits own forces of

resistence.

Bleedi'g

The cornmonest outdoor injuries are cuts followed by
sprains and strains, bruises, and then fractures. Hands and
fingers are hurt most often,-thenfeet and toes, and next legs.
One out of every four injuries coming to the attention of the
f,J. S. Forest Serviceis causedby hand tools such as axes and
kniv€s. These latter are the most immediately seriouswhen
ever accompaniedby heavybleeding,for this must be stopped
at the earliest possiblesesond.Even where a severed artery is
no larger than the graphite in a pencil, an individual can last
for no more than a few minutes at most if its bleeding is not
checked.

Pressing a clean and preferably slsgile dressing over the
wound will usually control the bleeding if srrfficient pressure
is applied. This usually can be done, especially with the assist'
ance if neccssary of elastic bandagesused as previously deseribed.
If not, pressfirmty and strongly against the nearest
pressurepoint. The blood supply to an entire arm can be shut
off by pressingjust behind the ridge to be felt on the inner
side of the armpit beneaththe raised arm.

The large femoral artery of the leg can be controlled by
gipping the leg near the body and drawing the fingers about
hattway down the inner surface where they will find a slight
depresrion at whose bottom throbs this gl:eatarterial trunk.
lnciOentalln the blood vesselsof the lower leg can often be
closed by pressing under the flexed knee between the two
major tendons in that area.

If the bleeding still continues dangerously, the next step
is to apply q toufoiquet to the elevatedtimb. Any preferably
flat wide material will do for this, but particularly efficacious
is a resilient two-inch-wide rubber strip, about five feet long'


258 t IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

qftieh may be cut from a live inner tube and carried for possible
emergency use.

Oncc the bleeding is stopped by the tourniquet, it will be
necessarTif medical assistance is not within easy reach to
control the wound so that the torlrniquet, which otherwise
would causegangrene,may be taken oft or at least loosened
once every twenty minutes. Elastic bandagesapplied at fult
stretch over compresseswill now rsually permit cautious removal
of the tourniquet. After allowing time for the blood to
clot in the gauze,loosen the tourniquet slowly until assured
of the efiects, controlling it like a turn-ofi valve.

There is also the Spartan but effectual procedure of a
harsher age-the stoppageof bleeding by the searing of the
wound, aswith the blade of a knife heatedred-hot in a campfire.


tsreath Stoppage

Immed.iate action is necessary wheneverbreathing stops as
a result of smoke inhalation, drowning, or electric shock as
from lightning.

Place victim face downwards with feet higher than head.
Loosen clothing. Bend elbows and place hands one atop the
other, TUrn face to side, chin up, cheek upon hands. Check
mouth and make sure air passageis not blocked. If tongue
bas been swallowed, hook it free with a forefinger.

I(neel on one or both knees at victimnshead, facing him.
Place heels of handsjust below line between arfir pits; thumb
tips touching, fingers downward and outward.

Rock forward on straight elbows, with steady pressure on
victim's back. Rock backward, sliding hands to other's arms
iust above elbows. Grasp arrns, continuing to rock backward.
Raise arlrls until tension is felt, then lower affns.

This completes the cycle, which should be repeated twelve
times a minute for several hours if necessary. Once victim has
been revived, fieat for shock. If possible,keep victim lying
comfortably in a quiet and warrn placefor twenty-four hours.


achpoodsMedicine | 259

Fract'res

Witdernessprocedurein case of fracture must often co[tinue
far beyond ordinarily recornmendedfirst aid practices
which, however, should wheneverit is feasible be adheredto
as closely as practicable.

It is often possible to make one's own way to help by
splinting a broken leg sufficientlyto immobilizethe region of
the break, slinging the leg up out of the way, and then proceeding
with the help of a crotched stick cut as a crutch.
Particular caution should alwaysbe taken not to shut ofi circulation,.
frequent re-examinationsbeing made as the iniury
swells.

If you were alone in deserted country whereit seemedimperativeactuallyto
set a l*g, the first stepwould be to secure
the foot as by tying it to a tree. You would then have to
apply traction, perhaps by pulling on another tree with a
crooked ann. This you would do very slowly, attempting to
reduce the fracturc by persistentpressurerather than by any
suddenyank. You might be able to help by shoving with your
free foot, all the time trying to align the broken ends with the
fingers of one hand. Muscle spasmsusually set up a terrific
pressure,but this may be capitalized upon later to help hold
the bones in place.

Dislocations

It is sometimesnecessaryin remote areasto attempt to set
a dislocation you'd ordinarily leave for the doctor. A friend
of mine, swept off his horse in thick Northern timber, got a

a poplar

distocated hip back into place by tying hiq leg to
and pu[ing with both arms on another sapling.
If; co-panion dislocatesa shoulder, it may be reducedby

having the victim lie down while you sit besidehim and place
a bared foot in his armpit. Pull the dislocatedafin out slowly
and steadily at right angles,turning it carefully from side to
side. So handled, it will often slip gently and easily back
through the original ligamentous tear



260 | [fow to Stay Alive in the \Moods

If possible immob rlize and rest reduced dislocations for
several weels, makirg sure at all times that subsequentswelling
does not cut oft circulation, for this, 3s can be appreciated,
can result in fas gXeatertrouble than any difnculties brought
on by tbe dislocation. Indications of a too tigbtly bandaged
arm, for example,are numb, cold, tingln or blue fingers.

Tnfected lVounds

For a local infection, io addition to first aid open and drain.
For an infection that extends over a wide area, apply hot
compressesor soak in hot brine in an eftort to localize it,

For actual or threatened infection in the critical facial triangle,
the baseof which extends above the eyebrows and the
apex of which encloses the lips, treat with continuously renewed
hot packs. Do not squeeze at any time. Do not even
attempt to lance until the infection becomes so exEemely 1ocalizedthat
it can be easily openedwith a sterile needle.

A felon occasionally must be widely opened. The raw lining
of an egg shell makes an eftectivepoultice. A functional way
to provide suction is by heating an open bottle which, applied
over thE felon, will draw as it cools.

Antibiotics, as suggested elsewhere, should be consideredin
connection with infections. If an individual happened to be
strandedwithout medicine and with an infection that was not
respondingto treatment, he might in a pinch elect to eat any
brea4 cheese, or similar rations covered with green moldthis
with the bope of introducing penicillin into the system. In
critical circumstances when not evcnsuch mold was available,
some doctors believe it might be worthwhile as a desperate
resort to try eating small .amountsof dirt in the hope of thus
obtaining life+aving antibiotics.

Poisonous Snake Bite

Keep as quiet and calm aspossible,thereby avoiding to the

greatest possible degree any unnecessaryquickening of the

circulation which would speed absorption of the poison into

the generalsystem.


Baclnpoods Meficine | 26L

Tie a band IYz inches above both bite and swellingif possible
to restrict the flow of the tymph vessels and vsins. A
handkerchief, torn strip of clothingr or lace will serve. This is
not a tourniquet, nor should that be applied. Loosen a bit if
the limb numbs or becomes cold. Remove band for a minute
about every ten minutes. Continue if you can to reapply
slightly higher.

Clean the skin aswell as possiblewhere any cutting is to be
done, so as not to complicate the situation by introducing
gernu or dirt into these wounds. If tincture of iodine is at
hand, paint with that, or wash with detergent or soap if this
can be done with a minimum of delay.

If nothing better is available, sterili-e the point o.f your
knife blade in a fue or over a match flame. Then make a Yn
inch cross to or slightty beyondthe depth of the bite through
eachfang mark.

During all cutting, be extremely careful to avoid arteries,
tendons, nefves, Bild large veids. Because of the very real
dangersall these impose, safer although more painful than
slashingis the spreadingand working of the tissue apart with
the sterilizedpoints of scissors or, evenbetter, splinter forceps.
Cut the skin iust enough to allow entry of the points. The
tissue beneath the skin can alsobe parted and disnrptedwith a
singlebluntish end.

Apply suction to the incisions.Lacking a suction pump or

ctpt, suck and spit out blood and venom. A warmed bottle
will as it cools alto provide suction. trf you can do nothing
better,pressand squeezeout blood and venom.

Ticla

Some ticks especiallyin certain areas carry Rocky Moun'
tain spotted fevein an infection formerly more dangerousthan
it is now. Immunization with spotted fever vaccine is soilr€'
times used as a preventative.Chloromycetin and aureomyein
have been found to control this heretofore too often fatal

feyer ryithin one day.
Tieks are usually only annoyances'fortunatelY. Penefration
the skull cfln be danger


of an egg-heavy female at the baseof


2BZ I How to Stay Alive in the Woods

olls, however, especially as she is apt to remain hidden in
the hair until perhaps an increasing stiffness of the neck
causes a closeinspection. If all parts of the tick are not found
and removed, respiratory paralysisand even death are serious
possibilities.

What can be developing into a bothersome tick bite may be
Ianced one-eighth of an inch deep and suction applied for
twenty rninutes. A hot salt or wet grain poultiee, if not too
irritating to the individual, may help if left on from half to
three-quartersof an hour. You can also apply some antisepticsueh
as fresh two percenttincture of iodine, allow to
dry, cover with a sterilecompress,and bandage.

An antihistamine ointment afiords relief to many if applied
early enough and if sensitivity exists, At the discretion of
yoru doctorn inclusion of a few antihistamines for specific
allergiessuch as poison oak, and for any aid they might give
in the alleviation of burns, might well be wa:ranted.

Ticks generallydo not dig their heads in and begin to suck
blood for a few hours and can be detectedby daily afternoon
inspectionand removedby stidinga keen knife between them
and your epidermis. The heat from a match or ember will
encouragethem to back out from the body, as will touehing
them with coal oil, gasoline, or something alcoholic even
though it's only shaving lotion.

Trying to pull or to unscrew them reversely or otherwise
unlessas with adequatelyapplied tweezers which do not kill
the tick is not so good, sometimesleaving parts of the head
behind to cause irritation if not serious infection. Ticks should
never be crushed during removal. Even after they have been
takenoft uninjured, the common technique of squashing them
with the fingers is dangerousbecauseof thus released organisms
that may be absorbedby the human system. Tossing
them into the campfire will explode them instantaneously.

Eye Ointment

If back in the bush anlrthing becomes lightty embeddedin
the cornea,that transparentouter coating of the eye through
which light is admitted to the iris and pupil, it can soon be



BaelnnoodsMedicine | 263

come so unbearablethat if skilled medical assistanceis days
away somecareful local action rnay be warranted. This is one
reasonfor including in the kit a small tube of an antiseptic

and anesthetic eye ointrnent suggestedby your doctor, which
will be of potential value, too, in soothing an irritated eye or
treating a iuperficial infection. A possibility, for example, is
a L/*ounce tube of 2To Butyn and Metaphen.

h the above instance, first deaden the eye by using the
ointment as directed. Then sterili-e a needle.Fire will accofii'
plish this, and if you keep the tip in the blue portion of a
match flame, carbon witt not form. If there is any lsrnsining
blackness,however,wipe the point cleanwith something ster'
ile such as cotton dipped in tincture of iodine. This is Paf'
ticularly important, as otherwisean obscuring fleck of black
might be left in the sornea.

Approach the foreign body very cautiously and steadily
from ttte side with the sterile needle,holding it parallel to the
eye rather than point first. Very often the object can thus bE
touched at its edge and flicked out, much in the fashion of
playing tiddlYwinks.

Oddments

There are other odds and endsthat you may want to put
as

in the emergencyaid kit, &sfor example something sucf
mentholatedsalve for chapped lips. Items available elsewhere
in the outfit can frequentty-U. made to perform double duty'
howevef.

water is medically

Half a teaspoon of salt in a glass of
regardedas equal to cogrmercial mouthwashes.No larger a
proportion of s*t should be usedthan one-half of a level tea'

spoonto every glassof water, for when a solution is employed
salt than the body fluid, its tendensy is to

that is stronglii"
draw natural moisture out of the body, dehydrating tissueand
causingirritation.


Baking soda, the medical and dental professionsassureus'

as most and far less expensivethan

is as good a dentifrice
any of the manufachrred Products'
A paste of baking soda and water apptied on insect stings


284 t How to StayAlive in the Woods

and bits will often help reduce.the gs/slling and irritation.
Soaking in water when possibleis even simpler. Daubing on
mud will do, too, in a pinch. The itching from hives, skin
irritation caused by chafing, allergies, and so on, can often be
relieved by patting on a pasteof baking soda and water or by
applying bandages or compresses soaked in a saturated solution
sf this samesodiumbicarbonate.

For indigestion Y+ teaspoon of laking soda in t/z glassof
water, not to be repeated more than two or three times any
day and definitely not to be used habitually, often helps ease
the discomfort of acid indigestion and hEartburn. If the nec€ssity
for an antacid is prolonged, one of the inert alkalies
should be used instead of sodium biearbonats. One-half teaspoonof
baking soda in a glassof water will serve as a garge
or mouthwasb.

Plain ordinary table salt, a rounded teaspoonin a quart of
warm water taken preferably before breakfast or at any rate
on an empty stomachwill serve as a purge. So in the wildernesswill
often a similar amount of cold spring water enjoyed
while one is washingup the first thing in the morning.


Chopter25

SurvivcrlKit

How READYwE may be to meet the challengesof living oft
the country cannot help but depend to someextent upon how
immediate the possibility of being so compelled may seem

to us.

Some already have compact survival outfits packed, and
with atom bomb havoc and the even more insidious carnagg
of man-loosedpestilence certainly not decreasingmenaces'
who can say that these perhapsmore foresighted individuals

are not actually being ultraconseryative?

Many of us in any event find it reasonable to carry some
sort of survival kit whenever traveling, for planes are still
forced down in uninhabited regions,watercraft both gfeat and

mall continue to be wrecked, while automobiles and entire
ains are stalledwith alarming persistencyby accident,storm,
and disaster.
The most casual of strollers, campers innumerable, v&ca'
ionists, and continually surprising proportions of this conti'
enfs more than thirty million annually licensed hunters and
hermen keep on losing their ways by the tens of thousands'
umerous others are thrown upon their own resourcesby
eing unexpectedlystrandedin remoteregions;often, it should
265


268 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

be added, because putting their own welfare last, they declin
to leave distressedcompanions.

Emergency Kit

What, dependingon its size, should suchan emergency ou
fit logically contain? Most of us will at least want matche
compass,knife, mirror, maps, and, in addition to the sever
items each of us uses everyddy, & few small adhesive bandage

We may want to add such other articles as the right kin

'a

of firearm and ammunition, the most satisfactory type of
sharpeningstone, rolled saw blade, fishhooks and line, safet
pins, fly dopen adhesivetape, binoculars or small light tel
scope,flashlight,fl few short stout candles,small magnifyin
glass,halazonetablets,rectangle of plasticfor overhead wate
proofing, sunglasses,and if prescription lensesare necessl
certainly an extra pair.

It is possiblewe will desire to go farther and include extr
clothing, toilet articles, a tarpaulin or light fly-proof tent,
carefully filled repair kit, light eiderdown sleeping robe, ai
mattress,canvas bucket, nested cooking outfit, eanteen,and

few books-perhaps even this volume.

We may spend some time choosing a few pounds of th
best possible emergencyfoods. And how about our fust ai
kit?

Quality

An axiom to be followed with painstaking nicety whe
selecting the compositesof any survival kit is to procure th
best we can afford. A poor knife, for example, can be e
pected to weigh as much asa good one. It is vJry apt to weig
more becauseof extra material neededto reinforce it and a

a result of ornamentation designed to draw attention fro
more obvious shortcomings.When we're really up against i
for a blade, the supposedbargain may fail us.

"There is hardly anything in the world that somemen can


Survival Kit | 267

of make a little bit worse and sell a little cheaper,"said John
sskin, "and the people who consider price only are this
an's lawful prey."

Cost cannot of coursebe consideredto be necessarily the

al indicator of desirability one way or the other. As a mater
of fact, the expensiveextras sometimes supplementing
therwise functional merchandise may add for onr puqposes
nwarranted bulk and weight. The soundest precautions to
ake when ln doubt are, as many of us do: to ascertainas

any facts as possible,to weigh them as finely as we can on
he scales of our own individual requirements,and finally to
ade with a reliableand an experience dealer.

he lYay to Compromise

Certain equipment,into which category suchitems as sleepg
robes often fall, may cost more than some of us may
ightly wish to expend at the moment. The wisest compromise

such an eventis not, to continuethe example, the selection
f a cheap heavy sleepingcontraption that will never prove
atisfactory, Much better will be the selection of a good

oolen blanket or two and, if you like the bag arrangernent,a
alf-dozen horse blanket pins.


he Probiems of Pactr<ing

A number of small, difierently colored cloth bagswill help

eepthe various elements of a survivalkit in order. Such corlainers
can be made easily enough at home so as to close
ither with draw strings or with slide fasteners. Tying I ra,wide
loop through a reinforced corner of each will enableits
eing hung conveniently nearby in camp, perhapson a limb
rirnmed so as to leavea few handy projectionsand stuck by
he head of the bed.

Each of us will graduallywork out a systembest suited to

's

own needs, perhapsalong the lines of my acquired habit
f keepingmedicinalsin a red sack,repair items in a green,


268 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

uniting and reading supplies in a grey, handkerchiefs an

shorts in a brown, and stockings in a long dark containe

whose shade does not matter as it can be located by feel. Th

toilet kit I use daily consistsof a smallrubberizedbag for we

articles, fitting within a larger oilskin sack into which also g

towel and such. Iove found it a sound practice, too, to wra

and tiE binoculars and all else that may be injured by damp

nessin individual sligbtly inflated waterproof coverings.

Everything I pack within a water repellentbag, distributin
extra clothing so as to protect the mors fragile essentials.

Stowing the Suvival Kit

It may be advantageous,if the outfit is small enough, t
arrangeit in a garment that has no purposeexceptto suppor
a large number of pockets.Such an arrangementis the Emer
gencySustenanceVest of the IJ. S,Army Air Forces, obtaina
ble at some strrplusretailers.

The vest, which is adjustableto the individual's size,afford
no less than seventeen pockets whose substantial flaps ar
firmly securablewith generally two snaps.This volume o
survival, incidentally, wil fit comfortably in the right insid
compartment.

Orrly Two Packs Satisfactory

For a larger outfit you may want to sectue a pack, espe
ciatly as long ago you have probably learned the inadvisabilit
of tiring one's self needlessly by awkwardly weighing dow
belts and pocketsnot designedfor the purpose,and as you n
doubt subscribe as well to the general rule never to car
anything in the hands that can be toted on the back.

Those who have had many years of packing experienc
who have studied the problem, and who have been fortunat

enough to be able to test the best _availableequipment hav

found that there are only two t1ryesof packsreally satisfacto
for allday back packing-&s differentiated from freight c
ries such as those acrossportagesand to base camps.

The bestin someways, and certainly the more accessibleo


Survival Kit | 269

the two, is the frame rucksack of the Bergans type, This
design which can be recogqioed by its seriesof pockets and
holdirg straps, is built around a large central pouch and supported
againsta light frame of metal tubing. This frame is held
coolly and welcomely from the back by means of straps or
webbing, so rigged that the load scarcely touches the body.

There is, therefore, a constant air circulation between the
impedimenta and the back. You have to lug the customary
shapeless,bulging pactrsackfor awhile to appreciate fully the
tremendous premium in comfort and in increased agility that
this balance and ventilation represent.

The paek board, the other suitable type of pack, is what is
preferred by a large number of trappers and prospectors. It
will, incidentalln carry unbelievably healy loads. Hard and
unwieldly artieles rangng from bags of quartz samples to outboard
motors are condmonlytransported on it without bruising
the back. There is no better article with which a man can
bring out a sectionedmoose.

The pack board consists of a light wooden or fiber frame
over which a canvas cover is doubled and tightly laced and
to which broad shoulder straps are attached. There is about
a two and one-half inch air space between the two sides of
taut caovas.The packer'ssensationis not unlike that of a cool
canvas cot being pressedagainst his back. Everything to be
sarried is wapped ordinarily in some cover such as a tarpautin,
useful in camp, and lashed to the back of the pack
board.

The pack board is comfortable, funetional, Iess expensive
than the frame rucksack, more adaptable in many ways, eapable
of being built without too much trouble by the individual,
and is therefore very popular among both astateur and professional
woodsmen. To get at anything in the pack en route,
however, you must undo the entire load.

Both of these packs should be carried not high, but with
the shoulder strapslet out sufficiently to allow the pack to sag
down stightly almost to the hips, until the pressure is brought
to bear almost completely on the top rather than on the front
of &e shoulders.


270 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

DuffeI Bug

Under many circumstancesa duffel bag is convenient,par
ticularly one that insteadof being secured at the throat opens
along its entire length, permitting the selection of whatever is
wanted at the moment without a lot of disarrangrng and un-

Packing.
Sucha duffel bag, which should be water resistant, will last
for years of healy usage,although if the fastening is one of
the slide type it may bavc to be renewed. It is a god idea to
obtain a bag that ean be locked shut, not that this will €xclude
anyone who is determined to get at the contents,but it
will thwart ordinary tampering. Handiest for locking the thing
will be a padlock that is openedby the correct dialing of a
combination,thus doing away with any need for keys.Sucha
duffel bag may well have at least one carrying strap that can
be slipped over a shoulder for transporting the load short distances.


H. B. C. Emergency Kit
The Hudson's Bay Company, drawing upon nearly 300
years of experience in the wild places,has prepared a watertight
emergency kit particularly for use on the trading gotrcern's
aircraft. This eleven-pound outfit, which is capableof
floating, measurestwelve inchesby eleveninches by three and
one-half inches.

The contents have been assembledwith a view of maintain
ing one individual normally for one week. If thE user cut
exertionand hardship to a minimum, the Hudson's Bay Com
pany with characteristic conservatism estimates that the suste
nance can be stretched about four times as far.

Provisions for signaling, tighting fres, cooking, fishing,
catching birds, and snaring animals are among those made b
this world's oldest trading corporation, once given by roy
charter a large portion of the North American continent
Here is what thc Governor and Company of Adventurers o


Srrvival Kit | 27L
England trading into Hudson'sBay chooseto include, and the

reasonswhy:

ftem auantity

Tea Bags ........ 28
Vitamin Pills ..... 50
Pilot Brgad . . . . . . . 3A oz,
Buttgr ..o......t. 16o2.
Strarvberry Jam . .141/zoz.


Klik .... ..... tZaz.
CondensedMilk i . . !4 oz,
Chocolate Bars 10.5 oz.
Matchgs ...o.... 100
Knifg.... .-........ 1
Spoon..... ..... .. 1
\ilhistlg.......o... 1
Double-faced mirror. 1


Fishingline ....... 1
Fishhooks......... 4
Snarg Wirg . . . . o o . . I oz,


Candleso..........2


Kleenex . . . .Small anxt.


Carnphor o.....r....


Purpose

Making of tea

Making up for diet deficiency

Food

Food

Fooc

Fooi

Fooc

Food

Liehting of fires

Multipte purposes

Eatingrfish bait, scoop, or shovel, etc.

Sielraling

Sielraline

Pishing, snaring, wick, string, etc.

Fishing, catching birds
Setting snaresand various other uses
Cooking, light, etc.
Ivlultiple puqposes
Mosquito bites, cuts, chapped lips.

The Scienceof Going Light

"It is someadvantageto leada primitive life if only to learn
what are the necessaries,"Thoreau found. 'oMost of the
luxuries and many of the so-calledcomforts are not only dispensablebut
positive hindrances."


Chopter26

Being Reody

ThE PLEAsttREto be derived from any excursioninto the far


ther regions-and it is one of the peculiarities of human na,

ftre that the hardest and most disagreeabletrips becomethe

milssfonesby which outdoor careersare later most pleasantly
measured-may be divided into threeparts: the zestof getting
readn the enjolment of remembering, and the journey itself.

Many eontend that of these joys not the least is the antisipation,
the thrill of planning, the excitement of thumbing
books and catalogues,and ,the stimulus of adding and occasionally
even subtracting from lists with stubby pencils kept
handy for whenever inspiration fires.

As each of us observesthe world from a different seat,it is
only natural that points of view will vary on lesser and in
someinstanceseven on major items to be included in o personal
survival kit. But that need be no reason for dissension,
for as Colonel TownsendWhelen says,"I do not, for a minute,
supposemy ways are the bestways,but at leastit may be
helpful to know the other fellods points."

first Come Matches

Although fires may as we have considered be lit by several
primitive methods, this can be accomplished neither so surely
nor so easilythat many will care to go into the bush without

273


274 | How to StayAlive in the Woods

a waterproof casefilled with long wooden matches. Most of
us will probably agree, too, on the advisability of carrying an
unbreakable container that can be fastened to the clothing
and of keeping a second filled case handy as a spare. In the
outfit itself, we may also want one or more watertight receptacles
holding a reservesupply.

Then the Compass

The second thing the majority of us will not want to be
without, despitethe numerous natural ways we know indicate
direction, is a compass. Nor will we disagreethat it is fl cooservative
precaution in this instance as well both to wear a
somFasspinned or tied to the clothing and also to take along
a spare, and that at least one of theseshould have a luminous
dial that can be eonsulted in the dark.

Adhesive Bandage

These little gauzepadscenteredon brief strips of adhesive

tape are useful in such a variety of ways that one always

seenrsto be finding employment for them if a few are kept in

the poeket whenever in the wilderness, and if this is sor an

additioual supply certainly belongs in the survival kit. These

should be left in the sterile wrappings in which most arrive,

especiallyas thesecoverings have a secondary value in pre


venting dust and lint from robbing the tape of sticking power.

Plain bandagesare rated best. Those treatedwith Mercuro


chrome and other medicamentshave no properties that make

them superior to ordinary pads, ncanydoctorsandlaboratories

hold, These sourcessontendfurther that suchmedication may

even be detrimental. Plastic tape is an improvement over

fabric, however, adapting itself more easily and often more

substantially to various surfaces.

Prompt use of an inexpensive adhesive bandage the rrr,o


ment part of the foot begins to feel tender will many tirnes

prevent formation of a blister and a subssquent dangerous in


fection, Inasmuch as air will reach the aftectedarea insofar


Being Rgady / 275

as the bandage is concerned if the latter is properly applied,
the dressing may be left on a day or so until the skin
toughens.Adhesive bandages also prove convenientfor divers
other uses in the bush such as temporarily repairing clolhing,
fishing g€tr, binocul&rs, and even ax handles.

Glasses

Anyone who needsglasseswill be prudent to carry an extra
pair on the personand, advisedly, another pair in the survival
outfit. In most country, it is a good idea to have along at
least one pair of optically correct and ruggedly constructed
sunglassesin a protectivecase.

Watch

A watch we find useful both becausedistancesback of
beyond are measuredmore often by time than by miles, and
becausea timepiececan be used under proper conditions to
tell direction.

Map

Maps, which comeunder the heading of necessitiesfor in'
telligent wildernesstravel, are inexpensivelyand under ordi'
nary circumstanceseasily obtainable, many being securable
merely for the asking. A tist of sources is given in an earlier
part of this book.

Mirror

It is not uncornmonto get foreign matter in the eyesif the
bush is at all thick or if one is traveling, for examPle,along
a river whose cut banks are almost constantly eroded by the
wind. Under such conditions, one will have frequent use for

a mirror, and there is the further fact that this mirror can be
vital when it comes to attracting help in an emergency'


276 | How to Stay Alive in tle Woods

Magnifying Glass

A magnifying lens can be used during favorable weather to
start a fire, eitherwhen no quicker meansis available or when
it may be desirableto conservematches.One often comes in
handy for odd functions, too, sush as locating an embedded
thorn or splinter.

Knives
While a poeketknife with a singlethin blade will admittedly
ser"yemany pu{posesincluding tUe Artssing out of the largest
North American game animals, most will find it practical to
add a sheathknife for the heavier tasks.A light blade five or
six inches long works well for cutting boughs, blazing, pre


paring meat, securing some fuel, building shelters,and Pef'

iormiog othertasksin the bush. A substantialand well riveted

sheathshouldbe addedfor safetY.

Ax

Although for ordinary camping and hunting both the hat'
chet and belt ax have their merits, a more desirable tool for
possible survival use is the Hudson Bay ax with its weightiessenirg
narrow butt. A one-and-one'halfpound head on a
twenty-fogr inch handle will enableone to put up a satisfac'
tory log cabin in a Pinch.
doesnot mean that a larger and heavier tool will not

itis

be far morc convenient if the moment comes when we need

an a:(. Vfhether the additional bulk and heft will be iustified'

its inclusion means the elimination of solrle'

particularly if
iUiog else,must be a matter of individual decision.If a riveted
leather sheathis not included with any ax that is selected, the
cutting surface should be safely wrapped in something such
as stout canvas.

Saw
Indians usedto make sarvsof bone and of stone, and with
good reason, for one can work up firewood much more swiftly


BeingReady | 277

and facitely with a saw designed for the purpose than with
any ax, and with much less risk.

Inclusion of a Swedesaw in the survival outfit will be, certainln
a wortlwhile precaution.The thin narrow bladecan be
held in a compact roll by string wound among its large set
teeth which when packedshould be covered if only by rolling
a section of canvas around them.

A two-piece tubular handle adds little weight and, when
disjointed, not very much bulk. A handle may later be irrrprovised
on the spot, however, by bending a green sapling
like a bow. Once the correct length has been estimated, the
endscan be split and a single hole made through each with a
knife, nail, etc, The handle can then be rebent, and the blade
insertedand secured by twisted nails or by tying. Two butterfly
bolts will make this latter function even simpler.

Carbonrndum

A small carborundumstone,coarse on one side and fine on
the other, may be carried in the pocket to keep knife as well
as other edged tools sharp. Although about the best way to
accomptishthis there are radically different opinions, perhaps
you have also just naturally gravitated into the procedure
found practical throughout the years by the dean of the outdoor
writers, Colonel TownsendWhelen.

!'Put a few drops of oil or water on the stone,lay the blade
flat on it; if it is a pocket knife raise the back of the blade
about Ys inch off the stone, or for a broad-bladedsheath
knife about /a incb. Keep the blade at this anglewhile sharp'

gning.

"Pressingwith medium weight on the blade,grind the edge
with a circular movement, about thirty secondson one side.
Tilt the blade a tittle to grind the blade up toward the point.

-ginding,
After a few minutes of it wil be quite sharp but
will have a featheredge. Then push the edge of the blade
straight forward acrossthe stoneseveraltimes,turn it over and
pressthe other side forward, and the featheredgewill double

and come off.
"The knife is then sharp enough for most purposes," Cor'


278 / How to StayAlive in the Woods

cludesthe Colonel. "lf you want to shave with it, finish by
stroppingit on the soft leatherof your boot top."

Gun and Ammtrnition

The most valuable survival weapon for living off the North
American continent for an indefinite period is, for the rea,sons
previously considered at length, & light and flat-shooting
repeatingrifle. Cartridges shouldbe selectedfor meat-getting
efficiency,It two or three firearms are to be carried by a
parfy, all ideally should be similar so that the parts of any
can be used to keep at least one functioning.

Sieeping Provisions

Eiderdown is the lightest and warmest material obtainable
for the manufactureof sleepingrobes. Down from other fowl
ranks next. Feathers, types and desirability of which vary
greatln are in comparison bulky.

Snaps are for two reasons preferableto slicle fastenings for
use on sleepingrobes:

(a) it is much easierwith snaps to moderate the inside
temperatureof a robe,
(b) slide fasteners on such equipment have a tendencyin
all climatesto get out of order, and in cold regions this then
perhapshazardouspredicamentmay be the result of freezing.
For those who may like a small pillow, the better rubberized
and plasticaffairs which can be inflated by the mouth are
convenient.When one is traveling too light to take an air
mattress,such a pillow can be used to soften a broad shallow
hip hole or to cushion a shoulder hole.

Tent or Tatp

To carry for possibleemergencyuse,a tent will ordinarily
be preferable to a tarpaulin only if there may be a serious
needto exclude insects,Such a tent would be a small, light,
flyproof model.A small tarp will otherwise prove more adaptable,
cheerful, and efflcient.


Being Ready | 279

If the survival kit is stnall, one may very well settle for a
rectangleof plastic, perhaps eight feet by four, which can be
folded and carried in a shirt pocket. This will afford a waterproof
roof which is the hardest thing to come by in any
makeshiftshelter.

Flashlight

When we boyscarnped at Lake Winnepesaukeeand climbed
nearby Mt. Shaq we somehowgot started one New Hampshire
night auctioning off various oddments from our small
outfits. An item that nobody who was lucky enough to have
one along even offered to part with was a flashlight. That I
remember,for mine had somehow become broken, and I was
readyto bid high for a spare.

The two-cell flashlight is usually enough, preferably one
with rounded lines that are not so prone to wear holes. A
sparebulb, cushioned in cotton batthg, can often be stowed
in the end. It is a good idea to take along in the outfit an
additional spare, perhapsinside a box of adhesive bandages.
You will probably want at least two extra batteries.

The batteries will last mueh longer if the light is snappedon
for only very brief periods at a time. An occasionalflash is
all that is needed,for example, while hiking at night. It is a
soundprecautionwhen packing to insert paper betweenbatteries
and bulb, for even securing the switch with tape does
not alwaysprevent the wasting of power accidentally.

Whistle

A whistle can be useful for attracting help, sendinglrlessages,
keeping a group together, and for any other pury)oses
when it will serve better than a sbout. When a g1oupgoesout
together, an often conservatiVeprecaution is to agfee on a
simple code, put it down on paper, and furnish each indi'
vidual a copy to carry on his person.

Binoculars and Telescope

Either binocularsor telescope can be a far more important
part of the survival kit than is generally appreciated; for


280 | IIow to Stay Alive in the Woods

Iocating landmarks, scouting out the most desirable routes,
and certainly for securing meat.

Tnsect Repellent

Having a supply of one of thE more effective fly dopes in
the emergencykit can prevent a lot of misery during seasons
when winged pestsare prevalent in sometiruesdeath-dealing
multitudes.

Fishing Gear

This is somethingthat you can have a lot of enjoyment with
too, at unexpectedtimes. Why not get a small metal box if
you want, perhaps one of the flat pill containers, and fit in a
few hook and flies? You might add some tiny strips of lead to
be later twisted into placeas siqkers, and you wodt forget to
wind a quantity of small drnable fish line, such as nylon, on
perhaps a piece of cardboard. You can always cut a pole.
Safety pins, incidentalln can be made to serve as guides.

Writing Materials

You might bring some good light paper, a few envelopes
perhaps, and a pencil or ball-point fountain pen. These will
make it easier to leave any messages, one precaution that
anyone lost should ordinarily take before leaving any sfitergensy
carnp. Such materials may also be welcomed for mapping
and for otherwise profitably passing the time.

Water Purifter

The tiny two-ouncebottles each holding one hundred halazone
tablets take up little room and afford good insruance
against impure drinking water. These minute tablets work by
releasing chlorine gas and therefore should be fresh. A full
bottlc sells for about fifty cents and should be kept tightly
closedin a dark, dry place. Similarly used Iodine Water Ptui



Being Ready | 281

fication Tablets, effective in semitropical and tropicaf areas
where chlorine is regarded as inadequate, are available at
about twice this price.

Cooking Ouffit

A cooking outfit is not mandatory for survival except insofar
as it may conserve vital time and energy. A surplus army
frying pan will do although heavier than necessary for this
particular function. The high sides make it useful even for
stews, and by using the plate-like lid to cover the food, the
utensil may be buried in hot coals like a Dutch oyen. If the
anny canteenis also taken, one may as well include the cup
which fits over the end and which can be utilized in a number
of ways.

Best of atl if you care to go that far is a small nested cooking
kit made of a light tough aluminum compound. Anyone
who has burned his lips on aluminum will agree, however,
that nested sups, and preferably the plates, nay well be of
less ardent stainlesssteel.

Greasy cooking utensils are easily enough cleaned under
primitive conditions by boiling water and wood ashesin themn
the lye in the latter combining with the fats to make a soap.
Natural scoruing agents include sand, Sass, moss, and the
previously describededible rush known as horsetail.

Survival Rations

Fat, which in calories is the most concentratedfood, is the
sustenancemost difficult to come by when living oft the land.
Butter, lar4 bacon drippings, tallo% and oleomargarine have
rnore than twice as many calories pound for pound than sugar
and nearly three times as many as honey. In any limited survival
rations you may decide therefore to include a preponderance
of edibte fats with the idea of completing the diet from
natural sourcesr

'
Other eoncentrated nutriments to consider are chocolate,
malted milk tablets, dried whole eggs, dried whole milk, and


282 | Eow to StaYAlive in tho Woods

peanut butter, Rice, if you want a starch, cooks up appetin
ingly with a large variety of foods.

]rttnough not having nruch food value, some of tbe corr'
pactly puckugrd soup and broth ingredients uld what some
irguto as a flavor-lift to many wild dishes. You may enioy

poidrt d pure tea and coffee, too. There are numeror8 dehy'
irated vegetablesand fnrits, but coresponding wild compo'
nents are generally among thc easier wilderness sustenances
to obtain.

a small quantity of vitamin and

You could also carry

seem to be no

mineral concentrates,although there would
ordinary necessityfor these. If under conditions when you
might necdthem you managedto keepgoing-b1 living largely

or lntirely off the country-as you would probably havc to do
would already have at your disposal all

to keep uliyg-you
food ing[edients necessalyfor maintaining good health'


Emergencyfoods may well be carried whenever practical in
adequately marked waterproof blg-t. Any products best kept
over extendedperiods in ineir original airtight container$you

may decidc to llace temporarily in the survival kit unopened'
with the kno*i.cgr tuai if bulk and weigbt should become
decisive factotr, y6o could transfer them to waterproof sacks
included in readincss.

Rope or Cord

A coil of goodrope witl have innumerableusesif you have
room for it. Otn.twise, a few yards of nylon cord at least
heavy enoughto support your weight witl not take up much
space.

Toilet Kit

This may include one small towel that can be kept washed'
nail file, soapin a waterproof unapping, toothbrush, dentifricc
such as coulmon lnking soda which has many other uses'

comb, and any other small items you may personally want
such as I safety razor aud blades.


Being Ready | 283

Repair Kit

The odds and ends of a painstakingly Selected repair kit
iU sometimesprove outrageously valuable in proportion to

'We

eir intrinsis worth in civilization. all have our own ideas
bout what a ditty bag of such items should- include. After
ears of adding and discardhg, here is what I now find in

ine:

A very small pair of pointed scissors,the bestI could buy.
wo rolls of narrow adhesive tape whieh can be used to mend
'ingsinnumerable, partieularly if in cold weather the tape is
armed slightly before application. Small pointed tweezers,

lso the finest obtainable, valuable incidentally for extracting
thorns and slivers.
Cutting pliers. Two short, different size screwdriverswith
andles strong enough to gip with pliers. Some nylon fish

'1e.

A coil of light snare wire. Rawhide lace. Tube of all.

uqpose adhesive, wrapped for protection. Rubber patches
and nrbber cement. A small flle. Safety pins of various sizes,
strung on the largest. A few copper rivets, An empty toothpaste
tube that, with the pitch from a conifer for flux, will

erve as emergency solder.
A small sewingroll contains a few coils of tlread, various

eedles,wax, a couple of cards wound with darning wool,
and several buttons only as these latter ean be so easily improvised
from materials at hand. There is also a small rugged
can of gun oil and a few cleaning patches, one of which is
tied to the middle of a nylon cord so that with care it can be
worked through the barrel without the aid of a cleaning rod.

I{ere, too, } a spare store of waterproofed matches and

a reserve comfass, partly in deference to the observation of
rank R.. Butler, for rnany distinguishedyearsthe head of the
ritish Columbia Game Commission, that: n'Our future will
e as bright in the same measureas we preparefor it."

Medicine Kit

A recofirmended way to decide upon the contents of a
personal medicine kit is to discuss the problem with your


284 | How to Stay Alive in the Woods

doctor,saving t;me if you want by uuingas a basisour general
considerationof the subject from a survival viewpoint. The
first aid kits comrnonly sold ready packed are not desigped,
as you know, to fulfill possiblewilderness needs when any
additional assistancemay be days away.

Extra Clothi.g

Feet should be given primary consideration, which may
meaq inclusion of at least several extra pairs of socks. You
may also want to consider taking some substitute footwear
such as shoe pacs with either rubber or composition soles.
Underweaxr handkerchiefs, erd other apparel that can be
readily washed need not be toted in the proportions sorr€times
seen. A large soft silk kerchief may comc in handy for
wearing around the neck, for tying about the ears in cold
weather or about the head at night when it is undesirable to
dampenthc sleepingrobe by breathing inside it, for use as a
slin& and so on. A spaxe woolen shirrt always seem$to b
coming in useful.

Portable Memory

So as to derive the fullest benefit from any survival kit, yo
may want to include a copy of this book if only for use as
portable memory. With such a compilation of fundamental
at hand for referense, it should be relatively easyin times o
stressto devise reasonablesolutionsfor almost any ntrmbe

of survival problems.

To be surc then that this book is actually in the emergenc
kit and not on a library table when it is needed most, you o
another may want to obtain a second volume which can b

placedpennanently in the survival outfit.
Such a copy would be inexpensiveand practical insrnance
and therefore a particularly appropriate gift for a son, daugh
ter, sweetheart,brother, sister,husband,wife, and anyoneels
important to the giver. For one day this book may be able t
prevent from

becoming any morc than an adventure som


tseingReady | 285

incident that, through lack of information, might otherwise
very easily trun into a catastrophe

It's Up to You

Survival in the final analysis is up to the ind.ividual.

'.rf

a man does not keep pace with his companions,perhapsr"
as Thoreau suggests, "it is becausehe hearsa different
drunmer. Let him stepto the music which he hears,however
measuredor far away."

rt costs very little time, money, and effort to be ready. I[
you are not ready, it may cost your life.