Survival Use of Plants 465
Oak
Quercus species
Description: Oak trees have alternate leaves and acorn fruits. There are two main groups of oaks: red and
white. The red oak group has leaves with bristles and smooth bark in the upper part of the tree. Red oak
acorns take 2 years to mature. The white oak group has leaves without bristles and a rough bark in the
upper portion of the tree. White oak acorns mature in 1 year.
Habitat and Distribution: Oak trees are found in many habitats throughout North America, Central
America, and parts of Europe and Asia.
Edible Parts: All parts are edible, but often contain large quantities of bitter substances. White oak acorns
usually have a better flavor than red oak acorns. Gather and shell the acorns. Soak red oak acorns in water
for 1 to 2 days to remove the bitter substance. You can speed up this process by putting wood ashes in the
water in which you soak the acorns. Boil the acorns or grind them into flour and use the flour for baking.
You can use acorns that you baked until very dark as a coffee substitute.
CAUTION
Tannic acid gives the acorns their bitter taste. Eating an excessive amount of acorns high
in tannic acid can lead to kidney failure. Before eating acorns, leach out this chemical.
Other Uses: Oak wood is excellent for building or burning. Small oaks can be split and cut into long thin
strips (3 to 6 millimeters thick and 1.2 centimeters wide) used to weave mats, baskets, or frameworks
for packs, sleds, furniture, etc. Oak bark soaked in water produces a tanning solution used to preserve
leather.
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Orach
Atriplex species
Description: This plant is vinelike in growth and has arrowhead-shaped, alternate leaves up to 5 centimeters
long. Young leaves maybe silver-colored. Its flowers and fruits are small and inconspicuous.
Habitat and Distribution: Orach species are entirely restricted to salty soils. They are found along North
America’s coasts and on the shores of alkaline lakes inland. They are also found along seashores from the
Mediterranean countries to inland areas in North Africa and eastward to Turkey and central Siberia.
Edible Parts: The entire plant is edible raw or boiled.
Palmetto palm
Sabal palmetto
Description: The palmetto palm is a tall, unbranched tree with persistent leaf bases on most of the trunk.
The leaves are large, simple, and palmately lobed. Its fruits are dark blue or black with a hard seed.
Habitat and Distribution: The palmetto palm is found throughout the coastal regions of the southeastern
United States.
Edible Parts: The fruits are edible raw. The hard seeds may be ground into flour. The heart of the palm is
a nutritious food source at any time. Cut off the top of the tree to obtain the palm heart.
Survival Use of Plants 467
Papaya or pawpaw
Carica papaya
Description: The papaya is a small tree 1.8 to 6 meters tall, with a soft, hollow trunk. When cut, the entire
plant exudes a milky juice. The trunk is rough and the leaves are crowded at the trunk’s apex. The fruit
grows directly from the trunk, among and below the leaves. The fruit is green before ripening. When ripe,
it turns yellow or remains greenish with a squashlike appearance.
Habitat and Distribution: Papaya is found in rain forests and semi-evergreen seasonal forests in tropical
regions and in some temperate regions as well. Look for it in moist areas near clearings and former habitations.
It is also found in open, sunny places in uninhabited jungle areas.
Edible Parts: The ripe fruit is high in vitamin C. Eat it raw or cook it like squash. Place green fruit in the
sun to make it ripen quickly. Cook the young papaya leaves, flowers, and stems carefully, changing the
water as for taro.
CAUTION
Be careful not to get the milky sap from the unripe fruit into your eyes. It will cause
intense pain and temporary—sometimes even permanent—blindness.
Other Uses: Use the milky juice of the unripe fruit to tenderize tough meat. Rub the juice on the meat.
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Persimmon
Diospyros virginiana and other species
Description: These trees have alternate, dark green, elliptic leaves with entire margins. The flowers are
inconspicuous. The fruits are orange, have a sticky consistency, and have several seeds.
Habitat and Distribution: The persimmon is a common forest margin tree. It is wide spread in Africa,
eastern North America, and the Far East.
Edible Parts: The leaves are a good source of vitamin C. The fruits are edible raw or baked. To make tea,
dry the leaves and soak them in hot water. You can eat the roasted seeds.
CAUTION
Some persons are unable to digest persimmon pulp. Unripe persimmons are highly
astringent and inedible.
Survival Use of Plants 469
Pincushion cactus
Mammilaria species
Description: Members of this cactus group are round, short, barrel-shaped, and without leaves. Sharp
spines cover the entire plant.
Habitat and Distribution: These cacti are found throughout much of the desert regions of the western
United States and parts of Central America.
Edible Parts: They are a good source of water in the desert.
Pine
Pinus species
Description: Pine trees are easily recognized by their needlelike leaves grouped in bundles. Each bundle
may contain one to five needles, the number varying among species. The tree’s odor and sticky sap provide
a simple way to distinguish pines from similar looking trees with needlelike leaves.
Habitat and Distribution: Pines prefer open, sunny areas. They are found throughout North America, Central
America, much of the Caribbean region, North Africa, the Middle East, Europe, and some places in Asia.
Edible Parts: The seeds of all species are edible. You can collect the young male cones, which grow only in
the spring, as a survival food. Boil or bake the young cones. The bark of young twigs is edible. Peel off the
bark of thin twigs. You can chew the juicy inner bark; it is rich in sugar and vitamins. Eat the seeds raw or
cooked. Green pine needle tea is high in vitamin C.
Other Uses : Use the resin to waterproof articles. Also use it as glue. Collect the resin from the tree. If there
is not enough resin on the tree, cut a notch in the bark so more sap will seep out. Put the resin in a container
and heat it. The hot resin is your glue. Use it as is or add a small amount of ash dust to strengthen it. Use it
immediately. You can use hardened pine resin as an emergency dental filling.
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Plantain, broad and narrow leaf
Plantago species
Description: The broad leaf plantain has leaves over 2.5 centimeters across that grow close to the ground.
The flowers are on a spike that rises from the middle of the cluster of leaves. The narrow leaf plantain has
leaves up to 12 centimeters long and 2.5 centimeters wide, covered with hairs. The leaves form a rosette.
The flowers are small and inconspicuous.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for these plants in lawns and along roads in the North Temperate Zone.
This plant is a common weed throughout much of the world.
Edible Parts: The young tender leaves are edible raw. Older leaves should be cooked. Seeds are edible raw
or roasted.
Other Uses: To relieve pain from wounds and sores, wash and soak the entire plant for a short time and
apply it to the injured area. To treat diarrhea, drink tea made from 28 grams (1 ounce) of the plant leaves
boiled in 0.5 liter of water. The seeds and seed husks act as laxatives.
Pokeweed
Phytolacca americana
Description: This plant may grow as high as 3 meters. Its leaves are elliptic and up to 1 meter in length. It
produces many large clusters of purple fruits in late spring.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for this plant in open, sunny areas in forest clearings, in fields, and along
roadsides in eastern North America, Central America, and the Caribbean.
Edible Parts: The young leaves and stems are edible cooked. Boil them twice, discarding the water from
the first boiling. The fruits are edible if cooked.
CAUTION
All parts of this plant are poisonous if eaten raw. Never eat the underground portions of
the plant as these contain the highest concentrations of the poisons. Do not eat any plant
over 25 centimeters tall or when red is showing in the plant.
Other Uses: Use the juice of fresh berries as a dye.
Survival Use of Plants 471
Prickly pear cactus
Opuntia species
Description: This cactus has flat, padlike stems that are green. Many round, furry dots that contain sharppointed
hairs cover these stems.
Habitat and Distribution: This cactus is found in arid and semiarid regions and in dry, sandy areas of wetter
regions throughout most of the United States and Central and South America. Some species are planted
in arid and semiarid regions of other parts of the world.
Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible. Peel the fruits and eat them fresh or crush them to prepare a
refreshing drink. Avoid the tiny, pointed hairs. Roast the seeds and grind them to a flour.
CAUTION
Avoid any prickly pear cactus like plant with milky sap.
Other Uses: The pad is a good source of water. Peel it carefully to remove all sharp hairs before putting it
in your mouth. You can also use the pads to promote healing. Split them and apply the pulp to wounds.
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Purslane
Portulaca oleracea
Description: This plant grows close to the ground. It is seldom more than a few centimeters tall. Its stems
and leaves are fleshy and often tinged with red. It has paddle-shaped leaves, 2.5 centimeter or less long,
clustered at the tips of the stems. Its flowers are yellow or pink. Its seeds are tiny and black.
Habitat and Distribution: It grows in full sun in cultivated fields, field margins, and other weedy areas
throughout the world.
Edible Parts: All parts are edible. Wash and boil the plants for a tasty vegetable or eat them raw. Use the
seeds as a flour substitute or eat them raw.
Rattan palm
Calamus species
Description: The rattan palm is a stout, robust climber. It has hooks on the midrib of its leaves that it uses
to remain attached to trees on which it grows. Sometimes, mature stems grow to 90 meters. It has alternate,
compound leaves and a whitish flower.
Habitat and Distribution: The rattan palm is found from tropical Africa through Asia to the East Indies
and Australia. It grows mainly in rain forests.
Edible Parts: Rattan palms hold a considerable amount of starch in their young stem tips. You can eat them
roasted or raw. In other kinds, a gelatinous pulp, either sweet or sour, surrounds the seeds. You can suck
out this pulp. The palm heart is also edible raw or cooked.
Other Uses: You can obtain large amounts of potable water by cutting the ends of the long stems (see
Chapter 6). The stems can be used to make baskets and fish traps.
Survival Use of Plants 473
Reed
Phragmites australis
Description: This tall, coarse grass grows to 3.5 meters tall and has gray-green leaves about 4 centimeters
wide. It has large masses of brown flower branches in early summer. These rarely produce grain and
become fluffy, gray masses late in the season.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for reed in any open, wet area, especially one that has been disturbed
through dredging. Reed is found throughout the temperate regions of both the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres.
Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible raw or cooked in any season. Harvest the stems as they
emerge from the soil and boil them. You can also harvest them just before they produce flowers, then dry
and beat them into flour. You can also dig up and boil the underground stems, but they are often tough.
Seeds are edible raw or boiled, but they are rarely found.
Reindeer moss
Cladonia rangiferina
Description: Reindeer moss is a low-growing plant only a few centimeters tall. It does not flower but does
produce bright red reproductive structures.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for this lichen in open, dry areas. It is very common in much of North
America.
Edible Parts: The entire plant is edible but has a crunchy, brittle texture. Soak the plant in water with some
wood ashes to remove the bitterness, then dry, crush, and add it to milk or to other food.
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Rock tripe
Umbilicaria species
Description: This plant forms large patches with curling edges. The top of the plant is usually black. The
underside is lighter in color.
Habitat and Distribution: Look on rocks and boulders for this plant. It is common throughout North
America.
Edible Parts: The entire plant is edible. Scrape it off the rock and wash it to remove grit. The plant may be
dry and crunchy; soak it in water until it becomes soft. Rock tripes may contain large quantities of bitter
substances; soaking or boiling them in several changes of water will remove the bitterness.
CAUTION
There are some reports of poisoning from rock tripe, so apply the Universal Edibility
Test.
Rose apple
Eugenia jambos
Description: This tree grows 3 to 9 meters high. It has opposite, simple, dark green, shiny leaves. When
fresh, it has fluffy, yellowish-green flowers and red to purple egg-shaped fruit.
Habitat and Distribution: This tree is widely planted in all of the tropics. It can also be found in a semiwild
state in thickets, waste places, and secondary forests.
Edible Parts: The entire fruit is edible raw or cooked.
Survival Use of Plants 475
Sago palm
Metroxylon sagu
Description: These palms are low trees, rarely over 9 meters tall, with a stout, spiny trunk. The outer rind
is about 5 centimeters thick and hard as bamboo. The rind encloses a spongy inner pith containing a high
proportion of starch. It has typical palmlike leaves clustered at the tip.
Habitat and Distribution: Sago palm is found in tropical rain forests. It flourishes in damp lowlands in
the Malay Peninsula, New Guinea, Indonesia, the Philippines, and adjacent islands. It is found mainly in
swamps and along streams, lakes, and rivers.
Edible Parts: These palms, when available, are of great use to the survivor. One trunk, cut just before it
flowers, will yield enough sago to feed a person for 1 year. Obtain sago starch from nonflowering palms.
To extract the edible sage, cut away the bark lengthwise from one half of the trunk, and pound the soft,
whitish inner part (pith) as fine as possible. Knead the pith in water and strain it through a coarse cloth
into a container. The fine, white sago will settle in the container. Once the sago settles, it is ready for use.
Squeeze off the excess water and let it dry. Cook it as pancakes or oatmeal. Two kilograms of sago is the
nutritional equivalent of 1.5 kilograms of rice. The upper part of the trunk’s core does not yield sage, but
you can roast it in lumps over a fire. You can also eat the young sago nuts and the growing shoots or palm
cabbage.
Other Uses: Use the stems of tall sorghums as thatching materials.
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Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Description: This shrub or small tree bears different leaves on the same plant. Some leaves will have one
lobe, some two lobes, and some no lobes. The flowers, which appear in early spring, are small and yellow.
The fruits are dark blue. The plant parts have a characteristics root beer smell.
Habitat and Distribution: Sassafras grows at the margins of roads and forests, usually in open, sunny
areas. It is a common tree throughout eastern North America.
Edible Parts: The young twigs and leaves are edible fresh or dried. You can add dried young twigs and
leaves to soups. Dig the underground portion, peel off the bark, and let it dry. Then boil it in water to prepare
sassafras tea.
Other Uses: Shred the tender twigs for use as a toothbrush.
Saxaul
Haloxylon ammondendron
Description: The saxaul is found either as a small tree or as a large shrub with heavy, coarse wood and
spongy, water-soaked bark. The branches of the young trees are vivid green and pendulous. The flowers
are small and yellow.
Habitat and Distribution: The saxaul is found in desert and arid areas. It is found on the arid salt deserts
of Central Asia, particularly in the Turkestan region and east of the Caspian Sea.
Edible Parts: The thick bark acts as a water storage organ. You can get drinking water by pressing quantities
of the bark. This plant is an important source of water in the arid regions in which it grows.
Survival Use of Plants 477
Screw pine
Pandanus species
Description: The screw pine is a strange plant on stilts, or prop roots, that support the plant above-ground
so that it appears more or less suspended in midair. These plants are either shrubby or treelike, 3 to 9
meters tall, with stiff leaves having sawlike edges. The fruits are large, roughened balls resembling pineapples,
but without the tuft of leaves at the end.
Habitat and Distribution: The screw pine is a tropical plant that grows in rain forests and semievergreen
seasonal forests. It is found mainly along seashores, although certain kinds occur inland for some distance,
from Madagascar to southern Asia and the islands of the southwestern Pacific. There are about 180 types.
Edible Parts: Knock the ripe fruit to the ground to separate the fruit segments from the hard outer covering.
Chew the inner fleshy part. Cook fruit that is not fully ripe in an earth oven. Before cooking, wrap the
whole fruit in banana leaves, breadfruit leaves, or any other suitable thick, leathery leaves. After cooking
for about 2 hours, you can chew fruit segments like ripe fruit. Green fruit is inedible.
Sea orach
Atriplex halimus
Description: The sea orach is a sparingly branched herbaceous plant with small, gray-colored leaves up to
2.5 centimeters long. Sea orach resembles Iamb’s quarter, a common weed in most gardens in the United
States. It produces its flowers in narrow, densely compacted spikes at the tips of its branches.
Habitat and Distribution: The sea orach is found in highly alkaline and salty areas along seashores from
the Mediterranean countries to inland areas in North Africa and eastward to Turkey and central Siberia.
Generally, it can be found in tropical scrub and thorn forests, steppes in temperate regions, and most desert
scrub and waste areas.
Edible Parts: Its leaves are edible. In the areas where it grows, it has the healthy reputation of being one of
the few native plants that can sustain man in times of want.
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Sheep sorrel
Rumex acerosella
Description: These plants are seldom more than 30 centimeters tall. They have alternate leaves, often with
arrowlike bases, very small flowers, and frequently reddish stems.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for these plants in old fields and other disturbed areas in North America
and Europe.
Edible Parts: The plants are edible raw or cooked.
CAUTION
These plants contain oxalic acid that can be damaging if too many plants are eaten raw.
Cooking seems to destroy the chemical.
Sorghum
Sorghum species
Description: There are many different kinds of sorghum, all of which bear grains in heads at the top of
the plants. The grains are brown, white, red, or black. Sorghum is the main food crop in many parts of the
world.
Habitat and Distribution: Sorghum is found worldwide, usually in warmer climates. All species are found
in open, sunny areas.
Edible Parts: The grains are edible at any stage of development. When young, the grains are milky and
edible raw. Boil the older grains. Sorghum is a nutritious food.
Other Uses: Use the stems of tall sorghum as building materials.
Survival Use of Plants 479
Spatterdock or yellow water lily
Nuphar species
Description: This plant has leaves up to 60 centimeters long with a triangular notch at the base. The shape
of the leaves is somewhat variable. The plant’s yellow flowers are 2.5 centimeter across and develop into
bottle-shaped fruits. The fruits are green when ripe.
Habitat and Distribution: These plants grow throughout most of North America. They are found in quiet,
fresh, shallow water (never deeper than 1.8 meters).
Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible. The fruits contain several dark brown seeds you can parch
or roast and then grind into flour. The large rootstock contains starch. Dig it out of the mud, peel off the
outside, and boil the flesh. Sometimes the rootstock contains large quantities of a very bitter compound.
Boiling in several changes of water may remove the bitterness.
Sterculia
Sterculia foetida
Description: Sterculias are tall trees, rising in some instances to 30 meters. Their leaves are either undivided
or palmately lobed. Their flowers are red or purple. The fruit of all sterculias is similar in aspect, with
a red, segmented seedpod containing many edible black seeds.
Habitat and Distribution: There are over 100 species of sterculias distributed through all warm or tropical
climates. They are mainly forest trees.
Edible Parts: The large, red pods produce a number of edible seeds. The seeds of all sterculias are edible
and have a pleasant taste similar to cocoa. You can eat them like nuts, either raw or roasted.
CAUTION
Avoid eating large quantities. The seeds may have a laxative effect.
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Strawberry
Fragaria species
Description: Strawberry is a small plant with a three-leaved growth pattern. It has small, white flowers
usually produced during the spring. Its fruit is red and fleshy.
Habitat and Distribution: Strawberries are found in the North Temperate Zone and also in the high mountains
of the southern Western Hemisphere. Strawberries prefer open, sunny areas. They are commonly
planted.
Edible Parts: The fruit is edible fresh, cooked, or dried. Strawberries are a good source of vitamin C. You
can also eat the plant’s leaves or dry them and make a tea with them.
Sugarcane
Saccharum officinarum
Description: This plant grows up to 4.5 meters tall. It is a grass and has grasslike leaves. Its green or reddish
stems are swollen where the leaves grow. Cultivated sugarcane seldom flowers.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for sugarcane in fields. It grows only in the tropics (throughout the world).
Because it is a crop, it is often found in large numbers.
Edible Parts: The stem is an excellent source of sugar and is very nutritious. Peel the outer portion off with
your teeth and eat the sugarcane raw. You can also squeeze juice out of the sugarcane.
Survival Use of Plants 481
Sugar palm
Arenga pinnata
Description: This tree grows about 15 meters high and has huge leaves up to 6 meters long. Needlelike
structures stick out of the bases of the leaves. Flowers grow below the leaves and form large conspicuous
dusters from which the fruits grow.
Habitat and Distribution: This palm is native to the East Indies but has been planted in many parts off the
tropics. It can be found at the margins of forests.
Edible Parts: The chief use of this palm is for sugar. However, its seeds and the tip of its stems are a survival
food. Bruise a young flower stalk with a stone or similar object and collect the juice as it comes out. It
is an excellent source of sugar. Boil the seeds. Use the tip of the stems as a vegetable.
CAUTION
The flesh covering the seeds may cause dermatitis.
Other Uses: The shaggy material at the base of the leaves makes an excellent rope as it is strong and resists
decay.
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Sweetsop
Annona squamosa
Description: This tree is small, seldom more than 6 meters tall, and multi-branched. It has alternate, simple,
elongate, dark green leaves. Its fruit is green when ripe, round in shape, and covered with protruding
bumps on its surface. The fruit’s flesh is white and creamy.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for sweetsop at margins of fields, near villages, and around homesites in
tropical regions.
Edible Parts: The fruit flesh is edible raw.
Other Uses: You can use the finely ground seeds as an insecticide.
CAUTION
The ground seeds are extremely dangerous to the eyes.
Survival Use of Plants 483
Tamarind
Tamarindus indica
Description: The tamarind is a large, densely branched tree, up to 25 meters tall. Its has pinnate leaves
(divided like a feather) with 10 to 15 pairs of leaflets.
Habitat and Distribution: The tamarind grows in the drier parts of Africa, Asia, and the Philippines.
Although it is thought to be a native of Africa, it has been cultivated in India for so long that it looks like a
native tree. It it also found in the American tropics, the West Indies, Central America, and tropical South
America.
Edible Parts: The pulp surrounding the seeds is rich in vitamin C and is an important survival food. You
can make a pleasantly acid drink by mixing the pulp with water and sugar or honey and letting the mixture
mature for several days. Suck the pulp to relieve thirst. Cook the young, unripe fruits or seedpods with
meat. Use the young leaves in soup. You must cook the seeds. Roast them above a fire or in ashes. Another
way is to remove the seed coat and soak the seeds in salted water and grated coconut for 24 hours, then
cook them. You can peel the tamarind bark and chew it.
Taro, cocoyam, elephant ears, eddo, dasheen
Colocasia and Alocasia species
Description: All plants in these groups have large leaves, sometimes up to 1.8 meters tall, that grow from
a very short stem. The rootstock is thick and fleshy and filled with starch.
Habitat and Distribution: These plants grow in the humid tropics. Look for them in fields and near homesites
and villages.
Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible when boiled or roasted. When boiling, change the water once
to get rid of any poison.
CAUTION
If eaten raw, these plants will cause a serious inflammation of the mouth and throat.
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Thistle
Cirsium species
Description: This plant may grow as high as 1.5 meters. Its leaves are long-pointed, deeply lobed, and
prickly.
Habitat and Distribution: Thistles grow worldwide in dry woods and fields.
Edible Parts: Peel the stalks, cut them into short sections, and boil them before eating. The roots are edible
raw or cooked.
CAUTION
Some thistle species are poisonous.
Other Uses: Twist the tough fibers of the stems to make a strong twine.
Ti
Cordyline terminalis
Description: The ti has unbranched stems with straplike leaves often clustered at the tip of the stem. The
leaves vary in color and may be green or reddish. The flowers grow at the plant’s top in large, plumelike
clusters. The ti may grow up to 4.5 meters tall.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for this plant at the margins of forests or near home-sites in tropical areas.
It is native to the Far East but is now widely planted in tropical areas worldwide.
Edible Parts: The roots and very tender young leaves are good survival food. Boil or bake the short, stout
roots found at the base of the plant. They are a valuable source of starch. Boil the very young leaves to eat.
You can use the leaves to wrap other food to cook over coals or to steam.
Other Uses: Use the leaves to cover shelters or to make a rain cloak. Cut the leaves into liners for shoes;
this works especially well if you have a blister. Fashion temporary sandals from the ti leaves. The terminal
leaf, if not completely unfurled, can be used as a sterile bandage. Cut the leaves into strips, then braid the
strips into rope.
Survival Use of Plants 485
Tree fern
Various genera
Description: Tree ferns are tall trees with long, slender trunks that often have a very rough, barklike covering.
Large, lacy leaves uncoil from the top of the trunk.
Habitat and Distribution: Tree ferns are found in wet, tropical forests.
Edible Parts: The young leaves and the soft inner portion of the trunk are edible. Boil the young leaves and
eat as greens. Eat the inner portion of the trunk raw or bake it.
Tropical almond
Terminalia catappa
Description: This tree grows up to 9 meters tall. Its leaves are evergreen, leathery, 45 centimeters long, 15
centimeters wide, and very shiny. It has small, yellowish-green flowers. Its fruit is flat, 10 centimeters long,
and not quite as wide. The fruit is green when ripe.
Habitat and Distribution: This tree is usually found growing near the ocean. It is a common and often
abundant tree in the Caribbean and Central and South America. It is also found in the tropical rain forests
of southeastern Asia, northern Australia, and Polynesia.
Edible Parts: The seed is a good source of food. Remove the fleshy, green covering and eat the seed raw
or cooked.
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Walnut
Juglans species
Description: Walnuts grow on very large trees, often reaching 18 meters tall. The divided leaves characterize
all walnut spades. The walnut itself has a thick outer husk that must be removed to reach the hard
inner shell of the nut.
Habitat and Distribution: The English walnut, in the wild state, is found from southeastern Europe across
Asia to China and is abundant in the Himalayas. Several other species of walnut are found in China and
Japan. The black walnut is common in the eastern United States.
Edible Parts: The nut kernel ripens in the autumn. You get the walnut meat by cracking the shell. Walnut
meats are highly nutritious because of their protein and oil content.
Other Uses: You can boil walnuts and use the juice as an antifungal agent. The husks of “green” walnuts
produce a dark brown dye for clothing or camouflage. Crush the husks of “green” black walnuts and
sprinkle them into sluggish water or ponds for use as fish poison.
Water chestnut
Trapa natans
Description: The water chestnut is an aquatic plant that roots in the mud and has finely divided leaves that
grow underwater. Its floating leaves are much larger and coarsely toothed. The fruits, borne underwater,
have four sharp spines on them.
Habitat and Distribution: The water chestnut is a freshwater plant only. It is a native of Asia but has
spread to many parts of the world in both temperate and tropical areas.
Edible Parts: The fruits are edible raw and cooked. The seeds are also a source of food.
Survival Use of Plants 487
Water lettuce
Ceratopteris species
Description: The leaves of water lettuce are much like lettuce and are very tender and succulent. One of
the easiest ways of distinguishing water lettuce is by the little plantlets that grow from the margins of the
leaves. These little plantlets grow in the shape of a rosette. Water lettuce plants often cover large areas in
the regions where they are found.
Habitat and Distribution: Found in the tropics throughout the Old World in both Africa and Asia. Another
kind is found in the New World tropics from Florida to South America. Water lettuce grows only in very
wet places and often as a floating water plant. Look for water lettuce in still lakes, ponds, and the backwaters
of rivers.
Edible Parts: Eat the fresh leaves like lettuce. Be careful not to dip the leaves in the contaminated water in
which they are growing. Eat only the leaves that are well out of the water.
CAUTION
This plant has carcinogenic properties and should only be used as a last resort.
Water lily
Nymphaea odorata
Description: These plants have large, triangular leaves that float on the water’s surface, large, fragrant
flowers that are usually white, or red, and thick, fleshy rhizomes that grow in the mud.
Habitat and Distribution: Water lilies are found throughout much of the temperate and subtropical
regions.
Edible Parts: The flowers, seeds, and rhizomes are edible raw or cooked. To prepare rhizomes for eating,
peel off the corky rind. Eat raw, or slice thinly, allow to dry, and then grind into flour. Dry, parch, and
grind the seeds into flour.
Other Uses: Use the liquid resulting from boiling the thickened root in water as a medicine for diarrhea
and as a gargle for sore throats.
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Water plantain
Alisma plantago-aquatica
Description: This plant has small, white flowers and heart-shaped leaves with pointed tips. The leaves are
clustered at the base of the plant.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for this plant in fresh water and in wet, full sun areas in Temperate and
Tropical Zones.
Edible Parts: The rootstocks are a good source of starch. Boil or soak them in water to remove the bitter
taste.
CAUTION
To avoid parasites, always cook aquatic plants.
Wild caper
Capparis aphylla
Description: This is a thorny shrub that loses its leaves during the dry season. Its stems are gray-green and
its flowers pink.
Habitat and Distribution: These shrubs form large stands in scrub and thorn forests and in desert scrub
and waste. They are common throughout North Africa and the Middle East.
Edible Parts: The fruit and the buds of young shoots are edible raw.
Survival Use of Plants 489
Wild crab apple or wild apple
Malus species
Description: Most wild apples look enough like domestic apples that the survivor can easily recognize
them. Wild apple varieties are much smaller than cultivated kinds; the largest kinds usually do not exceed
5 to 7.5 centimeters in diameter, and most often less. They have small, alternate, simple leaves and often
have thorns. Their flowers are white or pink and their fruits reddish or yellowish.
Habitat and Distribution: They are found in the savanna regions of the tropics. In temperate areas, wild
apple varieties are found mainly in forested areas. Most frequently, they are found on the edge of woods
or in fields. They are found throughout the Northern Hemisphere.
Edible Parts: Prepare wild apples for eating in the same manner as cultivated kinds. Eat them fresh, when
ripe, or cooked. Should you need to store food, cut the apples into thin slices and dry them. They are a good
source of vitamins.
CAUTION
Apple seeds contain cyanide compounds. Do not eat.
Wild desert gourd or colocynth
Citrullus colocynthis
Description: The wild desert gourd, a member of the watermelon family, produces an 2.4- to 3-meter-long
ground-trailing vine. The perfectly round gourds are as large as an orange. They are yellow when ripe.
Habitat and Distribution: This creeping plant can be found in any climatic zone, generally in desert scrub
and waste areas. It grows abundantly in the Sahara, in many Arab countries, on the southeastern coast of
India, and on some of the islands of the Aegean Sea. The wild desert gourd will grow in the hottest localities.
Edible Parts: The seeds inside the ripe gourd are edible after they are completely separated from the very
bitter pulp. Roast or boil the seeds—their kernels are rich in oil. The flowers are edible. The succulent stem
tips can be chewed to obtain water.
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Wild dock and wild sorrel
Rumex crispus and Rumex acetosella
Description: Wild dock is a stout plant with most of its leaves at the base of its stem that is commonly 15
to 30 centimeters brig. The plants usually develop from a strong, fleshy, carrotlike taproot. Its flowers are
usually very small, growing in green to purplish plumelike clusters. Wild sorrel similar to the wild dock
but smaller. Many of the basal leaves are arrow-shaped but smaller than those of the dock and contain a
sour juice.
Habitat and Distribution: These plants can be found in almost all climatic zones of the world, in areas
of high as well as low rainfall. Many kinds are found as weeds in fields, along roadsides, and in waste
places.
Edible Parts: Because of tender nature of the foliage, the sorrel and the dock are useful plants, especially
in desert areas. You can eat their succulent leaves fresh or slightly cooked. To take away the strong taste,
change the water once or twice during cooking. This latter tip is a useful hint in preparing many kinds of
wild greens.
Wild fig
Ficus species
Description: These trees have alternate, simple leaves with entire margins. Often, the leaves are dark green
and shiny. All figs have a milky, sticky juice. The fruits vary in size depending on the species, but are usually
yellow-brown when ripe.
Habitat and Distribution: Figs are plants of the tropics and semitropics. They grow in several different
habitats, including dense forests, margins of forests, and around human settlements.
Edible Parts: The fruits are edible raw or cooked. Some figs have little flavor.
Survival Use of Plants 491
Wild gourd or luffa sponge
Luffa cylindrica
Description: The luffs sponge is widely distributed and fairly typical of a wild squash. There are several
dozen kinds of wild squashes in tropical regions. Like most squashes, the luffa is a vine with leaves 7.5
to 20 centimeters across having 3 lobes. Some squashes have leaves twice this size. Luffs fruits are oblong
or cylindrical, smooth, and many-seeded. Luffs flowers are bright yellow. The luffa fruit, when mature, is
brown and resembles the cucumber.
Habitat and Distribution: A member of the squash family, which also includes the watermelon, cantaloupe,
and cucumber, the luffa sponge is widely cultivated throughout the Tropical Zone. It may be found
in a semiwild state in old clearings and abandoned gardens in rain forests and semi-evergreen seasonal
forests.
Edible Parts: You can boil the young green (half-ripe) fruit and eat them as a vegetable. Adding coconut
milk will improve the flavor. After ripening, the luffa sponge develops an inedible spongelike texture in
the interior of the fruit. You can also eat the tender shoots, flowers, and young leaves after cooking them.
Roast the mature seeds a little and eat them like peanuts.
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Wild grape vine
Vitis species
Description: The wild grape vine climbs with the aid of tendrils. Most grape vines produce deeply lobed
leaves similar to the cultivated grape. Wild grapes grow in pyramidal, hanging bunches and are black-blue
to amber, or white when ripe.
Habitat and Distribution: Wild grapes are distributed worldwide. Some kinds are found in deserts, others
in temperate forests, and others in tropical areas. Wild grapes are commonly found throughout the eastern
United States as well as in the southwestern desert areas. Most kinds are rampant climbers over other vegetation.
The best place to look for wild grapes is on the edges of forested areas. Wild grapes are also found
in Mexico. In the Old World, wild grapes are found from the Mediterranean region eastward through Asia,
the East Indies, and to Australia. Africa also has several kinds of wild grapes.
Edible Parts: The ripe grape is the portion eaten. Grapes are rich in natural sugars and, for this reason, are
much sought after as a source of energy-giving wild food. None are poisonous.
Other Uses: You can obtain water from severed grape vine stems. Cut off the vine at the bottom and place
the cut end in a container. Make a slant-wise cut into the vine about 1.8 meters upon the hanging part. This
cut will allow water to flow from the bottom end. As water diminishes in volume, make additional cuts
further down the vine.
CAUTION
To avoid poisoning, do not eat grapelike fruits with only a single seed (moonseed).
Survival Use of Plants 493
Wild onion and garlic
Allium species
Description: Allium cernuum is an example of the many species of wild onions and garlics, all easily recognized
by their distinctive odor.
Habitat and Distribution: Wild onions and garlics are found in open, sunny areas throughout the temper
ate regions. Cultivated varieties are found anywhere in the world.
Edible Parts: The bulbs and young leaves are edible raw or cooked. Use in soup or to flavor meat.
CAUTION
There are several plants with onionlike bulbs that are extremely poisonous. Be certain that
the plant you are using is a true onion or garlic. Do not eat bulbs with no onion smell.
Wild pistachio
Pistacia species
Description: Some kinds of pistachio trees are evergreen, while others lose their leaves during the dry season.
The leaves alternate on the stem and have either three large leaves or a number of leaflets. The fruits
or nuts are usually hard and dry at maturity.
Habitat and Distribution: About seven kinds of wild pistachio nuts are found in desert, or semidesert
areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea to Turkey and Afghanistan. It is generally found in evergreen
scrub forests or scrub and thorn forests.
Edible Parts: You can eat the oil nut kernels after parching them over coals.
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Wild rice
Zizania aquatica
Description: Wild rice is a tall grass that averages 1 to 1.5 meters in height, but may reach 4.5 meters. Its
grain grows in very loose heads at the top of the plant and is dark brown or blackish when ripe.
Habitat and Distribution: Wild rice grows only in very wet areas in tropical and temperate regions.
Edible Parts: During the spring and summer, the central portion of the lower sterns and root shoots are
edible. Remove the tough covering before eating. During the late summer and fall, collect the strawcovered
husks. Dry and parch the husks, break them, and remove the rice. Boil or roast the rice and then
beat it into flour.
Wild rose
Rosa species
Description: This shrub grows 60 centimeters to 2.5 meters high. It has alternate leaves and sharp prickles.
Its flowers may be red, pink, or yellow. Its fruit, called rose hip, stays on the shrub year-round.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for wild roses in dry fields and open woods throughout the Northern
Hemisphere.
Edible Parts: The flowers and buds are edible raw or boiled. In an emergency, you can peel and eat the
young shoots. You can boil fresh, young leaves in water to make a tea. After the flower petals fall, eat the
rose hips; the pulp is highly nutritious and an excellent source of vitamin C. Crush or grind dried rose hips
to make flour.
CAUTION
Eat only the outer portion of the fruit as the seeds of some species are quite prickly and
can cause internal distress.
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Wood sorrel
Oxalis species
Description: Wood sorrel resembles shamrock or four-leaf clover, with a bell-shaped pink, yellow, or
white flower.
Habitat and Distribution: Wood sorrel is found in Temperate Zones worldwide, in lawns, open areas, and
sunny woods.
Edible Parts: Cook the entire plant.
CAUTION
Eat only small amounts of this plant as it contains a fairly high concentration of oxalic
acid that can be harmful.
Yam
Dioscorea species
Description: These plants are vines that creep along the ground. They have alternate, heart- or arrowshaped
leaves. Their rootstock may be very large and weigh many kilograms.
Habitat and Distribution: True yams are restricted to tropical regions where they are an important food
crop. Look for yams in fields, clearings, and abandoned gardens. They are found in rain forests, semievergreen
seasonal forests, and scrub and thorn forests in the tropics. In warm temperate areas, they are
found in seasonal hardwood or mixed hardwood-coniferous forests, as well as some mountainous areas.
Edible Parts: Boil the rootstock and eat it as a vegetable.
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Yam bean
Pachyrhizus erosus
Description: The yam bean is a climbing plant of the bean family, with alternate, three-parted leaves and
a turniplike root. The bluish or purplish flowers are pealike in shape. The plants are often so rampant that
they cover the vegetation upon which they are growing.
Habitat and Distribution: The yam bean is native to the American tropics, but it was carried by man years
ago to Asia and the Pacific islands. Now it is commonly cultivated in these places, and is also found growing
wild in forested areas. This plant grows in wet areas of tropical regions.
Edible Parts: The tubers are about the size of a turnip and they are crisp, sweet, and juicy and have a nutty
flavor. They are nourishing and at the same time quench the thirst. Eat them raw or boiled. To make flour,
slice the raw tubers, let them dry in the sun, and grind into a flour that is high in starch and may be used
to thicken soup.
CAUTION
The raw seeds are poisonous.
CHAPTER 7
Poisonous Plants
Successful use of plants in a survival situation depends on positive identification. Knowing poisonous
plants is as important to a survivor as knowing edible plants. Knowing the poisonous plants will help you
avoid sustaining injuries from them.
HOW PLANTS POISON
Plants generally poison by—
•
Ingestion. When a person eats a part of a poisonous plant.
•
Contact. When a person makes contact with a poisonous plant that causes any type of skin irritation
or dermatitis.
•
Absorption or inhalation. When a person either absorbs the poison through the skin or inhales it
into the respiratory system.
Plant poisoning ranges from minor irritation to death. A common question asked is, “How poisonous is
this plant?” It is difficult to say how poisonous plants are because–
•
Some plants require contact with a large amount of the plant before noticing any adverse reaction
while others will cause death with only a small amount.
•
Every plant will vary in the amount of toxins it contains due to different growing conditions and
slight variations in subspecies.
•
Every person has a different level of resistance to toxic substances.
•
Some persons may be more sensitive to a particular plant.
Some common misconceptions about poisonous plants are—
•
Watch the animals and eat what they eat. Most of the time this statement is true, but some animals can
eat plants that are poisonous to humans.
•
Boil the plant in water and any poisons will be removed. Boiling removes many poisons, but not all.
•
Plants with a red color are poisonous. Some plants that are red are poisonous, but not all.
The point is there is no one rule to aid in identifying poisonous plants. You must make an effort to learn
as much about them as possible.
ALL ABOUT PLANTS
It is to your benefit to learn as much about plants as possible. Many poisonous plants look like their edible
relatives or like other edible plants. For example, poison hemlock appears very similar to wild carrot. Certain
plants are safe to eat in certain seasons or stages of growth and poisonous in other stages. For example,
the leaves of the pokeweed are edible when it first starts to grow, but it soon becomes poisonous. You can
eat some plants and their fruits only when they are ripe. For example, the ripe fruit of mayapple is edible,
but all other parts and the green fruit are poisonous. Some plants contain both edible and poisonous parts;
potatoes and tomatoes are common plant foods, but their green parts are poisonous.
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Some plants become toxic after wilting. For example, when the black cherry starts to wilt, hydrocyanic
acid develops. Specific preparation methods make some plants edible that are poisonous raw. You can eat
the thinly sliced and thoroughly dried corms (drying may take a year) of the jack-in-the-pulpit, but they
are poisonous if not thoroughly dried.
Learn to identify and use plants before a survival situation. Some sources of information about plants
are pamphlets, books, films, nature trails, botanical gardens, local markets, and local natives. Gather and
cross-reference information from as many sources as possible, because many sources will not contain all
the information needed.
RULES FOR AVOIDING POISONOUS PLANTS
Your best policy is to be able to look at a plant and identify it with absolute certainty and to know its uses
or dangers. Many times this is not possible. If you have little or no knowledge of the local vegetation, use
the rules to select plants for the “Universal Edibility Test.” Remember, avoid—
•
All mushrooms. Mushroom identification is very difficult and must be precise, even more so than with
other plants. Some mushrooms cause death very quickly. Some mushrooms have no known antidote.
Two general types of mushroom poisoning are gastrointestinal and central nervous system.
•
Contact with or touching plants unnecessarily.
CONTACT DERMATITIS
Contact dermatitis from plants will usually cause the most trouble in the field. The effects may be persistent,
spread by scratching, and are particularly dangerous if there is contact in or around the eyes.
The principal toxin of these plants is usually an oil that gets on the skin upon contact with the plant. The
oil can also get on equipment and then infect whoever touches the equipment. Never burn a contact poisonous
plant because the smoke may be as harmful as the plant. There is a greater danger of being affected
when overheated and sweating. The infection may be local or it may spread over the body.
Symptoms may take from a few hours to several days to appear. Signs and symptoms can include burning,
reddening, itching, swelling, and blisters.
When you first contact the poisonous plants or the first symptoms appear, try to remove the oil by washing
with soap and cold water. If water is not available, wipe your skin repeatedly with dirt or sand. Do not
use dirt if blisters have developed. The dirt may break open the blisters and leave the body open to infection.
After you have removed the oil, dry the area. You can wash with a tannic acid solution and crush and
rub jewelweed on the affected area to treat plant-caused rashes. You can make tannic acid from oak bark.
Poisonous plants that cause contact dermatitis are—
•
Cowhage
•
Poison ivy
•
Poison oak
•
Poison sumac
•
Rengas tree
•
Trumpet vine
INGESTION POISONING
Ingestion poisoning can be very serious and could lead to death very quickly. Do not eat any plant unless
you have positively identified it first. Keep a log of all plants eaten.
Signs and symptoms of ingestion poisoning can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps,
depressed heartbeat and respiration, headaches, hallucinations, dry mouth, unconsciousness, coma, and
death.
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If you suspect plant poisoning, try to remove the poisonous material from the victim’s mouth and stomach
as soon as possible. Induce vomiting by tickling the back of his throat or by giving him warm saltwater,
if he is conscious. Dilute the poison by administering large quantities of water or milk, if he is conscious.
The following plants can cause ingestion poisoning if eaten:
• Castor bean
• Chinaberry
• Death camas
• Lantana
• Manchineel
• Oleander
• Pangi
• Physic nut
• Poison and water hemlocks
• Rosary pea
• Strychnine tree
POISONOUS PLANTS
Castor bean, castor-oil plant, palma Christi
Ricinus communis
Spurge (Euphorbiaceae) Family
Description: The castor bean is a semiwoody plant with large, alternate, starlike leaves that grows as a tree
in tropical regions and as an annual in temperate regions. Its flowers are very small and inconspicuous. Its
fruits grow in clusters at the tops of the plants.
CAUTION
All parts of the plant are very poisonous to eat. The seeds are large and may be mistaken
for a beanlike food.
Habitat and Distribution: This plant is found in all tropical regions and has been introduced to temperate
regions.
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Chinaberry
Melia azedarach
Mahogany (Meliaceae) Family
Description: This tree has a spreading crown and grows up to 14 meters tall. It has alternate, compound
leaves with toothed leaflets. Its flowers are light purple with a dark center and grow in ball-like masses. It
has marble-sized fruits that are light orange when first formed but turn lighter as they become older.
CAUTION
All parts of the tree should be considered dangerous if eaten. Its leaves are a natural insecticide
and will repel insects from stored fruits and grains. Take care not to eat leaves mixed
with the stored food.
Habitat and Distribution: Chinaberry is native to the Himalayas and eastern Asia but is now planted as
an ornamental tree throughout the tropical and subtropical regions. It has been introduced to the southern
United States and has escaped to thickets, old fields, and disturbed areas.
Cowhage, cowage, cowitch
Mucuna pruritum
Leguminosae (Fabaceae) Family
Description: A vinelike plant that has oval leaflets in groups of three and hairy spikes with dull purplish
flowers. The seeds are brown, hairy pods.
CAUTION
Contact with the pods and flowers causes irritation and blindness if in the eyes.
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Death camas, death lily
Zigadenus species
Lily (Liliaceae) Family
Description: This plant arises from a bulb and may be mistaken for an onionlike plant. Its leaves are grasslike.
Its flowers are six-parted and the petals have a green, heart-shaped structure on them. The flowers
grow on showy stalks above the leaves.
CAUTION
All parts of this plant are very poisonous. Death camas does not have the onion smell.
Habitat and Distribution: Death camas is found in wet, open, sunny habitats, although some species favor
dry, rocky slopes. They are common in parts of the western United States. Some species are found in the
eastern United States and in parts of the North American western subarctic and eastern Siberia.
Lantana
Lantana camara
Vervain (Verbenaceae) Family
Description: Lantana is a shrublike plant that may grow up to 45 centimeters high. It has opposite, round
leaves and flowers borne in flat-topped clusters. The flower color (which varies in different areas) may be
white, yellow, orange, pink, or red. It has a dark blue or black berrylike fruit. A distinctive feature of all
parts of this plant is its strong scent.
CAUTION
All parts of this plant are poisonous if eaten and can be fatal. This plant causes dermatitis
in some individuals.
Habitat and Distribution: Lantana is grown as an ornamental in tropical and temperate areas and has
escaped cultivation as a weed along roads and old fields.
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Manchineel
Hippomane mancinella
Spurge (Euphorbiaceae) Family
Description: Manchineel is a tree reaching up to 15 meters high with alternate, shiny green leaves and
spikes of small greenish flowers. Its fruits are green or greenish-yellow when ripe.
CAUTION
This tree is extremely toxic. It causes severe dermatitis in most individuals after only .5
hour. Even water dripping from the leaves may cause dermatitis. The smoke from burning
it irritates the eyes. No part of this plant should be considered a food.
Habitat and Distribution: The tree prefers coastal regions. Found in south Florida, the Caribbean, Central
America, and northern South America.
Oleander
Nerium oleander
Dogbane (Apocynaceae) Family
Description: This shrub or small tree grows to about 9 meters, with alternate, very straight, dark green
leaves. Its flowers may be white, yellow, red, pink, or intermediate colors. Its fruit is a brown, podlike
structure with many small seeds.
CAUTION
All parts of the plant are very poisonous. Do not use the wood for cooking; it gives off poisonous
fumes that can poison food.
Habitat and Distribution: This native of the Mediterranean area is now grown as an ornamental in tropical
and temperate regions.
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Pangi
Pangium edule
Pangi Family
Description: This tree, with heart-shaped leaves in spirals, reaches a height of 18 meters. Its flowers grow
in spikes and are green in color. Its large, brownish, pear-shaped fruits grow in clusters.
CAUTION
All parts are poisonous, especially the fruit.
Habitat and Distribution: Pangi trees grow in southeast Asia
Physic nut
Jatropha curcas
Spurge (Euphoriaceae) Family
Description: This shrub or small tree has large, 3- to 5-parted alternate leaves. It has small, greenish-yelllow
flowers and its yellow, apple-sized fruits contain three large seeds.
CAUTION
The seeds taste sweet but their oil is violently purgative. All parts of the physic nut are
poisonous.
Habitat and Distribution: Throughout the tropics and southern United States.
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Poison hemlock, fool’s parsley
Conium maculatum
Parsley (Apiaceae) Family
Description: This biennial herb may grow to 2.5 meters high. The smooth, hollow stem may or may not be
purple or red striped or mottled. Its white flowers are small and grow in small groups that tend to form
flat umbels. Its long, turniplike taproot is solid.
CAUTION
This plant is very poisonous and even a very small amount may cause death. This plant is
easy to confuse with wild carrot or Queen Anne’s lace, especially in its first stage of growth.
Wild carrot or Queen Anne’s lace has hairy leaves and stems and smells like carrot. Poison
hemlock does not.
Habitat and Distribution: Poison hemlock grows in wet or moist ground like swamps, wet meadows,
stream banks, and ditches. Native to Eurasia, it has been introduced to the United States and Canada.
Poison ivy and poison oak
Toxicodendron radicans and Toxicodendron diversibba
Cashew (Anacardiacese) Family
Description: These two plants are quite similar in appearance and will often crossbreed to make a
hybrid. Both have alternate, compound leaves with three leaflets. The leaves of poison ivy are smooth
or serrated. Poison oak’s leaves are lobed and resemble oak leaves. Poison ivy grows as a vine along
the ground or climbs by red feeder roots. Poison oak grows like a bush. The greenish-white flowers
are small and inconspicuous and are followed by waxy green berries that turn waxy white or yellow,
then gray.
CAUTION
All parts, at all times of the year, can cause serious contact dermatitis.
Habitat and Distribution: Poison ivy and oak can be found in almost any habitat in North America.
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Poison sumac
Toxicodendron vernix
Cashew (Anacardiacese) Family
Description: Poison sumac is a shrub that grows to 8.5 meters tall. It has alternate, pinnately compound
Ieafstalks with 7 to 13 leaflets. Flowers are greenish-yellow and inconspicuous and are followed by white
or pale yellow berries.
CAUTION
All parts can cause serious contact dermatitis at all times of the year.
Habitat and Distribution: Poison sumac grows only in wet, acid swamps in North America.
Renghas tree, rengas tree, marking nut, black-varnish tree
Gluta
Cashew (Anacardiacese) Family
Description: This family comprises about 48 species of trees or shrubs with alternating leaves in terminal
or axillary panicles. Flowers are similar to those of poison ivy and oak.
CAUTION
Can cause contact dermatitis similar to poison ivy and oak.
Habitat and Distribution: India, east to Southeast Asia.
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Rosary pea or crab’s eyes
Abrus precatorius
Leguminosae (Fabaceae) Family
Description: This plant is a vine with alternate compound leaves, light purple flowers, and beautiful seeds
that are red and black.
CAUTION
This plant is one of the most dagerous plants. One seed may contain enough poison to kill
an adult.
Habitat and Distribution: This is a common weed in parts of Africa, southern Florida, Hawaii, Guam, the
Caribbean, and Central and South America.
Strychnine tree
Nux vomica
Logania (Loganiaceae) Family
Description: The strychnine tree is a medium-sized evergreen, reaching a height of about 12 meters, with a
thick, frequently crooked trunk. Its deeply veined oval leaves grow in alternate pairs. Small, loose clusters
of greenish flowers appear at the ends of branches and are followed by fleshy, orange-red berries about 4
centimeters in diameter.
CAUTION
The berries contain the dislike seeds that yield the poisonous substance strychnine. All parts
of the plant are poisonous.
Habitat and Distribution: A native of the tropics and subtropics of southeastern Asia and Australia.
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Trumpet vine or trumpet creeper
Campsis radicans
Trumpet creeper (Bignoniaceae) Family
Description: This woody vine may climb to 15 meters high. It has pealike fruit capsules. The leaves are pinnately
compound, 7 to 11 toothed leaves per leaf stock. The trumpet-shaped flowers are orange to scarlet
in color.
CAUTION
This plant causes contact dermatitis.
Habitat and Distribution: This vine is found in wet woods and thickets throughout eastern and central
North America.
Water hemlock or spotted cowbane
Cicuta maculata
Parsley (Apiaceae) Family
Description: This perennial herb may grow to 1.8 meters high. The stem is hollow and sectioned off like
bamboo. It may or may not be purple or red striped or mottled. Its flowers are small, white, and grow in
groups that tend to form flat umbels. Its roots may have hollow air chambers and, when cut, may produce
drops of yellow oil.
CAUTION
This plant is very poisonous and even a very small amount of this plant may cause death.
Its roots have been mistaken for parsnips.
Habitat and Distribution: Water hemlock grows in wet or moist ground like swamps, wet meadows,
stream banks, and ditches throughout the Unites States and Canada.
PART V
Firecraft, Tools, Camouflage,
Tracking, Movement,
and Combat Skills
CHAPTER 1
Firecraft
In many survival situations, the ability to start a fire can make the difference between living and dying. Fire
can fulfill many needs. It can provide warmth and comfort. It not only cooks and preserves food, it also
provides warmth in the form of heated food that saves calories our body normally uses to produce body
heat. You can use fire to purify water, sterilize bandages, signal for rescue, and provide protection from
animals. It can be a psychological boost by providing peace of mind and companionship. You can also use
fire to produce tools and weapons.
Fire can cause problems, as well. The enemy can detect the smoke and light it produces. It can cause forest
fires or destroy essential equipment. Fire can also cause burns and carbon monoxide poisoning when
used in shelters.
Remember to weigh your need for fire against your need to avoid enemy detection.
BASIC FIRE PRINCIPLES
To build a fire, it helps to understand the basic principles of a fire. Fuel (in a nongaseous state) does not
burn directly. When you apply heat to a fuel, it produces a gas. This gas, combined with oxygen in the air,
burns.
Understanding the concept of the fire triangle is very important in correctly constructing and maintaining
a fire. The three sides of the triangle represent air, heat, and fuel. If you remove any of these, the fire will go
out. The correct ratio of these components is very important for a fire to burn at its greatest capability. The
only way to learn this ratio is to practice.
SITE SELECTION AND PREPARATION
You will have to decide what site and arrangement to use. Before building a fire consider—
• The area (terrain and climate) in which you are operating.
• The materials and tools available. Time: how much time you have?
• Need: why do you need a fire?
• Security: how close is the enemy?
Look for a dry spot that—
• Is protected from the wind.
• Is suitably placed in relation to your shelter (if any).
• Will concentrate the heat in the direction you desire.
• Has a supply of wood or other fuel available. (See Table 1-1 for types of material you can use.)
If you are in a wooded or brush-covered area, clear the brush and scrape the surface soil from the
spot you have selected. Clear a circle at least 1 meter in diameter so there is little chance of the fire
spreading.
If time allows, construct a fire wall using logs or rocks. This wall will help to reflect or direct the heat where
you want it (Figure 1-l). It will also reduce flying sparks and cut down on the amount of wind blowing into
the fire. However, you will need enough wind to keep the fire burning.
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Table 1-1: Materials for Building Fires.
CAUTION
Do not use wet or porous rocks as they may explode when heated.
In some situations, you may find that an underground fireplace will best meet your needs. It
conceals the fire and serves well for cooking food. To make an underground fireplace or Dakota fire
hole (Figure 1-2)—
• Dig a hole in the ground.
• On the upwind side of this hole, poke or dig a large connecting hole for ventilation.
• Build your fire in the hole as illustrated.
Firecraft 513
Figure 1-1: Types of fire walls.
If you are in a snow-covered area, use green logs to make a dry base for your fire (Figure 1-3). Trees with
wrist-sized trunks are easily broken in extreme cold. Cut or break several green logs and lay them side by
side on top of the snow. Add one or two more layers. Lay the top layer of logs opposite those below it.
FIRE MATERIAL SELECTION
You need three types of materials (Table 1-1) to build a fire—tinder, kindling, and fuel.
Figure 1-2: Dakota fire hole.
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Figure 1-3: Base for fire in snow-covered area.
Tinder is dry material that ignites with little heat—a spark starts a fire. The tinder must be absolutely
dry to be sure just a spark will ignite it. If you only have a device that generates sparks, charred cloth will
be almost essential. It holds a spark for long periods, allowing you to put tinder on the hot area to generate
a small flame. You can make charred cloth by heating cotton cloth until it turns black, but does not burn.
Once it is black, you must keep it in an airtight container to keep it dry. Prepare this cloth well in advance
of any survival situation. Add it to your individual survival kit.
Kindling is readily combustible material that you add to the burning tinder. Again, this material should
be absolutely dry to ensure rapid burning. Kindling increases the fire’s temperature so that it will ignite
less combustible material.
Fuel is less combustible material that burns slowly and steadily once ignited.
HOW TO BUILD A FIRE
There are several methods for laying a fire, each of which has advantages. The situation you find yourself
in will determine which fire to use.
Tepee. To make this fire (Figure 1-4), arrange the tinder and a few sticks of kindling in the shape of a tepee
or cone. Light the center. As the tepee burns, the outside logs will fall inward, feeding the fire. This type of
fire burns well even with wet wood.
Lean-To. To lay this fire (Figure 1-4), push a green stick into the ground at a 30-degree angle. Point the end of
the stick in the direction of the wind. Place some tinder deep under this lean-to stick. Lean pieces of kindling
against the lean-to stick. Light the tinder. As the kindling catches fire from the tinder, add more kindling.
Cross-Ditch. To use this method (Figure 1-4), scratch a cross about 30 centimeters in size in the
ground. Dig the cross 7.5 centimeters deep. Put a large wad of tinder in the middle of the cross. Build
a kindling pyramid above the tinder. The shallow ditch allows air to sweep under the tinder to provide
a draft.
Pyramid. To lay this fire (Figure 1-4), place two small logs or branches parallel on the ground. Place a solid layer
of small logs across the parallel logs. Add three or four more layers of logs or branches, each layer smaller than
and at a right angle to the layer below it. Make a starter fire on top of the pyramid. As the starter fire burns, it will
ignite the logs below it. This gives you a fire that burns downward, requiring no attention during the night.
There are several other ways to lay a fire that are quite effective. Your situation and the material available
in the area may make another method more suitable.
HOW TO LIGHT A FIRE
Always light your fire from the upwind side. Make sure to lay your tinder, kindling, and fuel so that your
fire will burn as long as you need it. Igniters provide the initial heat required to start the tinder burning.
They fall into two categories: modern methods and primitive methods.
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Figure 1-4: Methods for laying fires.
Modern Methods. Modern igniters use modern devices—items we normally think of to start a fire.
Matches. Make sure these matches are waterproof. Also, store them in a waterproof container along with
a dependable striker pad.
Convex Lens. Use this method (Figure 1-5) only on bright, sunny days. The lens can come from binoculars,
camera, telescopic sights, or magnifying glasses. Angle the lens to concentrate the sun’s rays on the tinder.
Figure 1-5: Lens method.
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Hold the lens over the same spot until the tinder begins to smolder. Gently blow or fan the tinder into
flame, and apply it to the fire lay.
Metal Match. Place a flat, dry leaf under your tinder with a portion exposed. Place the tip of the metal
match on the dry leaf, holding the metal match in one hand and a knife in the other. Scrape your knife
against the metal match to produce sparks. The sparks will hit the tinder. When the tinder starts to smolder,
proceed as above.
Battery. Use a battery to generate a spark. Use of this method depends on the type of battery available.
Attach a wire to each terminal. Touch the ends of the bare wires together next to the tinder so the sparks
will ignite it.
Gunpowder. Often, you will have ammunition with your equipment. If so, carefully extract the bullet from
the shell casing, and use the gunpowder as tinder. A spark will ignite the powder. Be extremely careful
when extracting the bullet from the case.
Primitive Methods. Primitive igniters are those attributed to our early ancestors.
Flint and Steel. The direct spark method is the easiest of the primitive methods to use. The flint and steel
method is the most reliable of the direct spark methods. Strike a flint or other hard, sharp-edged rock edge
with a piece of carbon steel (stainless steel will not produce a good spark). This method requires a loosejointed
wrist and practice. When a spark has caught in the tinder, blow on it. The spark will spread and
burst into flames.
Fire-Plow. The fire-plow (Figure 1-6) is a friction method of ignition. You rub a hardwood shaft against a
softer wood base. To use this method, cut a straight groove in the base and plow the blunt tip of the shaft
up and down the groove. The plowing action of the shaft pushes out small particles of wood fibers. Then,
as you apply more pressure on each stroke, the friction ignites the wood particles.
Bow and Drill. The technique of starting a fire with a bow and drill (Figure 1-7) is simple, but you must
exert much effort and be persistent to produce a fire. You need the following items to use this method:
Figure 1-6: Fire-plow.
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Figure 1-7: Bow and drill.
•
Socket. The socket is an easily grasped stone or piece of hardwood or bone with a slight depression
in one side. Use it to hold the drill in place and to apply downward pressure.
•
Drill. The drill should be a straight, seasoned hardwood stick about 2 centimeters in diameter and
25 centimeters long. The top end is round and the low end blunt (to produce more friction).
•
Fire board. Its size is up to you. A seasoned softwood board about 2.5 centimeters thick and 10
centimeters wide is preferable. Cut a depression about 2 centimeters from the edge on one
side of the board. On the underside, make a V-shaped cut from the edge of the board to the
depression.
•
Bow. The bow is a resilient, green stick about 2.5 centimeters in diameter and a string. The type of
wood is not important. The bowstring can be any type of cordage. You tie the bowstring from one
end of the bow to the other, without any slack.
To use the bow and drill, first prepare the fire lay. Then place a bundle of tinder under the V-shaped
cut in the fire board. Place one foot on the fire board. Loop the bowstring over the drill and place the drill
in the precut depression on the fire board. Place the socket, held in one hand, on the top of the drill to
hold it in position. Press down on the drill and saw the bow back and forth to twirl the drill (Figure 1-7).
Once you have established a smooth motion, apply more downward pressure and work the bow faster.
This action will grind hot black powder into the tinder, causing a spark to catch. Blow on the tinder until
it ignites.
Note: Primitive fire-building methods are exhaustive and require practice to ensure success.
Helpful Hints
•
Use nonaromatic seasoned hardwood for fuel, if possible.
•
Collect kindling and tinder along the trail.
•
Add insect repellent to the tinder.
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•
Keep the firewood dry.
•
Dry damp firewood near the fire.
•
Bank the fire to keep the coals alive overnight.
•
Carry lighted punk, when possible.
•
Be sure the fire is out before leaving camp.
•
Do not select wood lying on the ground. It may appear to be dry but generally doesn’t provide
enough friction.
CHAPTER 2
Field-expedient Weapons, Tools, and
Equipment
As a soldier you know the importance of proper care and use of your weapons, tools, and equipment.
This is especially true of your knife. You must always keep it sharp and ready to use. A knife is your most
valuable tool in a survival situation. Imagine being in a survival situation without any weapons, tools, or
equipment except your knife. It could happen! You might even be without a knife. You would probably
feel helpless, but with the proper knowledge and skills, you can easily improvise needed items.
In survival situations, you may have to fashion any number and type of field-expedient tools and
equipment to survive. Examples of tools and equipment that could make your life much easier are ropes,
rucksacks, clothes, nets, and so on.
Weapons serve a dual purpose. You use them to obtain and prepare food and to provide self-defense. A
weapon can also give you a feeling of security and provide you with the ability to hunt on the move.
CLUBS
You hold clubs, you do not throw them. As a field-expedient weapon, the club does not protect you from
enemy soldiers. It can, however, extend your area of defense beyond your fingertips. It also serves to
increase the force of a blow without injuring yourself. There are three basic types of clubs. They are the
simple, weighted, and sling club.
Simple Club. A simple club is a staff or branch. It must be short enough for you to swing easily, but long
enough and strong enough for you to damage whatever you hit. Its diameter should fit comfortably in
your palm, but it should not be so thin as to allow the club to break easily upon impact. A straight-grained
hardwood is best if you can find it.
Weighted Club. A weighted club is any simple club with a weight on one end. The weight may be a natural
weight, such as a knot on the wood, or something added, such as a stone lashed to the club.
To make a weighted club, first find a stone that has a shape that will allow you to lash it securely to the
club. A stone with a slight hourglass shape works well. If you cannot find a suitably shaped stone, you
must fashion a groove or channel into the stone by a technique known as pecking. By repeatedly rapping
the club stone with a smaller hard stone, you can get the desired shape.
Next, find a piece of wood that is the right length for you. A straight-grained hardwood is best. The
length of the wood should feel comfortable in relation to the weight of the stone. Finally, lash the stone to
the handle.
There are three techniques for lashing the stone to the handle: split handle, forked branch, and wrapped
handle. The technique you use will depend on the type of handle you choose. See Figure 2-1.
Sling Club. A sling club is another type of weighted club. A weight hangs 8 to 10 centimeters from the handle
by a strong, flexible lashing (Figure 2-2). This type of club both extends the user’s reach and multiplies the
force of the blow.
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Figure 2-1: Lashing clubs.
EDGED WEAPONS
Knives, spear blades, and arrow points fall under the category of edged weapons. The following
paragraphs will discuss the making of such weapons.
Knives. A knife has three basic functions. It can puncture, slash or chop, and cut. A knife is also an invaluable
tool used to construct other survival items. You may find yourself without a knife or you may need another
type knife or a spear. To improvise you can use stone, bone, wood, or metal to make a knife or spear blade.
Stone. To make a stone knife, you will need a sharp-edged piece of stone, a chipping tool, and a flaking
tool. A chipping tool is a light, blunt-edged tool used to break off small pieces of stone. A flaking tool is
a pointed tool used to break off thin, flattened pieces of stone. You can make a chipping tool from wood,
bone, or metal, and a flaking tool from bone, antler tines, or soft iron (Figure 2-3).
Field-expedient Weapons, Tools, and Equipment 521
Figure 2-2: Sling club.
Figure 2-3: Making a stone knife.
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Start making the knife by roughing out the desired shape on your sharp piece of stone, using the chipping
tool. Try to make the knife fairly thin. Then, using the flaking tool, press it against the edges. This action will
cause flakes to come off the opposite side of the edge, leaving a razor sharp edge. Use the flaking tool along
the entire length of the edge you need to sharpen. Eventually, you will have a very sharp cutting edge that
you can use as a knife.
Lash the blade to some type of hilt (Figure 2-3).
Note: Stone will make an excellent puncturing tool and a good chopping tool but will not hold a fine edge. Some
stones such as chert or flint can have very fine edges.
Bone. You can also use bone as an effective field-expedient edged weapon. First, you will need to select
a suitable bone. The larger bones, such as the leg bone of a deer or another medium-sized animal, are
best. Lay the bone upon another hard object. Shatter the bone by hitting it with a heavy object, such
as a rock. From the pieces, select a suitable pointed splinter. You can further shape and sharpen this
splinter by rubbing it on a rough-surfaced rock. If the piece is too small to handle, you can still use it
by adding a handle to it. Select a suitable piece of hardwood for a handle and lash the bone splinter
securely to it.
Note: Use the bone knife only to puncture. It will not hold an edge and it may flake or break if used differently.
Wood. You can make field-expedient edged weapons from wood. Use these only to puncture. Bamboo is
the only wood that will hold a suitable edge. To make a knife using wood, first select a straight-grained
piece of hardwood that is about 30 centimeters long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter. Fashion the blade
about 15 centimeters long. Shave it down to a point. Use only the straight-grained portions of the wood.
Do not use the core or pith, as it would make a weak point.
Harden the point by a process known as fire hardening. If a fire is possible, dry the blade portion over
the fire slowly until lightly charred. The drier the wood, the harder the point. After lightly charring the
blade portion, sharpen it on a coarse stone. If using bamboo and after fashioning the blade, remove any
other wood to make the blade thinner from the inside portion of the bamboo. Removal is done this way
because bamboo’s hardest part is its outer layer. Keep as much of this layer as possible to ensure the
hardest blade possible. When charring bamboo over a fire, char only the inside wood; do not char the
outside.
Metal. Metal is the best material to make field-expedient edged weapons. Metal, when properly designed,
can fulfill a knife’s three uses—puncture, slice or chop, and cut. First, select a suitable piece of metal, one
that most resembles the desired end product. Depending on the size and original shape, you can obtain a
point and cutting edge by rubbing the metal on a rough-surfaced stone. If the metal is soft enough, you can
hammer out one edge while the metal is cold. Use a suitable flat, hard surface as an anvil and a smaller,
harder object of stone or metal as a hammer to hammer out the edge. Make a knife handle from wood,
bone, or other material that will protect your hand.
Other Materials. You can use other materials to produce edged weapons. Glass is a good alternative to
an edged weapon or tool, if no other material is available. Obtain a suitable piece in the same manner
as described for bone. Glass has a natural edge but is less durable for heavy work. You can also sharpen
plastic—if it is thick enough or hard enough—into a durable point for puncturing.
Spear Blades. To make spears, use the same procedures to make the blade that you used to make a knife
blade. Then select a shaft (a straight sapling) 1.2 to1.5 meters long. The length should allow you to handle
the spear easily and effectively. Attach the spear blade to the shaft using lashing. The preferred method is
to split the handle, insert the blade, then wrap or lash it tightly. You can use other materials without adding
a blade. Select a 1.2- to 1.5-meter long straight hardwood shaft and shave one end to a point. If possible, fire
harden the point. Bamboo also makes an excellent spear. Select a piece 1.2 to 1.5 meters long. Starting 8 to
10 centimeters back from the end used as the point, shave down the end at a 45-degree angle (Figure 2-4).
Remember, to sharpen the edges, shave only the inner portion.
Field-expedient Weapons, Tools, and Equipment 523
Figure 2-4: Bamboo spear.
Arrow Points. To make an arrow point, use the same procedures for making a stone knife blade. Chert,
flint, and shell-type stones are best for arrow points. You can fashion bone like stone—by flaking. You can
make an efficient arrow point using broken glass.
OTHER EXPEDIENT WEAPONS
You can make other field-expedient weapons such as the throwing stick, archery equipment, and the
bola.
Throwing Stick. The throwing stick, commonly known as the rabbit stick, is very effective against small
game (squirrels, chipmunks, and rabbits). The rabbit stick itself is a blunt stick, naturally curved at
about a 45-degree angle. Select a stick with the desired angle from heavy hardwood such as oak. Shave
off two opposite sides so that the stick is flat like a boomerang (Figure 2-5). You must practice the throwing
technique for accuracy and speed. First, align the target by extending the nonthrowing arm in line
with the mid to lower section of the target. Slowly and repeatedly raise the throwing arm up and back
until the throwing stick crosses the back at about a 45-degree angle or is in line with the nonthrowing
hip. Bring the throwing arm forward until it is just slightly above and parallel to the nonthrowing arm.
This will be the throwing stick’s release point. Practice slowly and repeatedly to attain accuracy.
Archery Equipment. You can make a bow and arrow (Figure 2-6) from materials available in your survival
area. While it may be relatively simple to make a bow and arrow, it is not easy to use one. You must practice
using it a long time to be reasonably sure that you will hit your target. Also, a field-expedient bow will not
last very long before you have to make a new one. For the time and effort involved, you may well decide to
use another type of field-expedient weapon.
Bola. The bola is another field-expedient weapon that is easy to make (Figure 2-7). It is especially effective
for capturing running game or low-flying fowl in a flock. To use the bola, hold it by the center knot and
Figure 2-5: Rabbit stick.
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Figure 2-6: Archery equipment.
Figure 2-7: Bola.
twirl it above your head. Release the knot so that the bola flies toward your target. When you release the
bola, the weighted cords will separate. These cords will wrap around and immobilize the fowl or animal
that you hit.
LASHING AND CORDAGE
Many materials are strong enough for use as lashing and cordage. A number of natural and man-made
materials are available in a survival situation. For example, you can make a cotton web belt much more
useful by unraveling it. You can then use the string for other purposes (fishing line, thread for sewing, and
lashing).
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Natural Cordage Selection. Before making cordage, there are a few simple tests you can do to determine
your material’s suitability. First, pull on a length of the material to test for strength. Next, twist it between
your fingers and roll the fibers together. If it withstands this handling and does not snap apart, tie an overhand
knot with the fibers and gently tighten. If the knot does not break, the material is usable. Figure 2-8
shows various methods of making cordage.
Lashing Material. The best natural material for lashing small objects is sinew. You can make sinew
from the tendons of large game, such as deer. Remove the tendons from the game and dry them completely.
Smash the dried tendons so that they separate into fibers. Moisten the fibers and twist them
into a continuous strand. If you need stronger lashing material, you can braid the strands. When you
use sinew for small lashings, you do not need knots as the moistened sinew is sticky and it hardens
when dry.
You can shred and braid plant fibers from the inner bark of some trees to make cord. You can use the
linden, elm, hickory, white oak, mulberry, chestnut, and red and white cedar trees. After you make the
cord, test it to be sure it is strong enough for your purpose. You can make these materials stronger by
braiding several strands together.
You can use rawhide for larger lashing jobs. Make rawhide from the skins of medium or large game.
After skinning the animal, remove any excess fat and any pieces of meat from the skin. Dry the skin
completely. You do not need to stretch it as long as there are no folds to trap moisture. You do not have
to remove the hair from the skin. Cut the skin while it is dry. Make cuts about 6 millimeters wide. Start
from the center of the hide and make one continuous circular cut, working clockwise to the hide’s outer
edge. Soak the rawhide for 2 to 4 hours or until it is soft. Use it wet, stretching it as much as possible while
applying it. It will be strong and durable when it dries.
RUCKSACK CONSTRUCTION
The materials for constructing a rucksack or pack are almost limitless. You can use wood, bamboo, rope,
plant fiber, clothing, animal skins, canvas, and many other materials to make a pack.
There are several construction techniques for rucksacks. Many are very elaborate, but those that are
simple and easy are often the most readily made in a survival situation.
Horseshoe Pack. This pack is simple to make and use and relatively comfortable to carry over one shoulder.
Lay available square-shaped material, such as poncho, blanket, or canvas, flat on the ground. Lay items on
one edge of the material. Pad the hard items. Roll the material (with the items) toward the opposite edge
and tie both ends securely. Add extra ties along the length of the bundle. You can drape the pack over one
shoulder with a line connecting the two ends (Figure 2-9).
Figure 2-8: Making lines from plant fibers.
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Figure 2-9: Horseshoe pack.
Figure 2-10: Square pack.
Square Pack. This pack is easy to construct if rope or cordage is available. Otherwise, you must first make
cordage. To make this pack, construct a square frame from bamboo, limbs, or sticks. Size will vary for each
person and the amount of equipment carried (Figure 2-10).
CLOTHING AND INSULATION
You can use many materials for clothing and insulation. Both man-made materials, such as parachutes,
and natural materials, such as skins and plant materials, are available and offer significant
protection.
Field-expedient Weapons, Tools, and Equipment 527
Parachute Assembly. Consider the entire parachute assembly as a resource. Use every piece of material
and hardware, to include the canopy, suspension lines, connector snaps, and parachute harness. Before
disassembling the parachute, consider all of your survival requirements and plan to use different portions
of the parachute accordingly. For example, consider shelter requirements, need for a rucksack, and so on,
in addition to clothing or insulation needs.
Animal Skins. The selection of animal skins in a survival situation will most often be limited to what you
manage to trap or hunt. However, if there is an abundance of wildlife, select the hides of larger animals
with heavier coats and large fat content. Do not use the skins of infected or diseased animals if at all possible.
Since they live in the wild, animals are carriers of pests such as ticks, lice, and fleas. Because of these
pests, use water to thoroughly clean any skin obtained from any animal. If water is not available, at least
shake out the skin thoroughly. As with rawhide, lay out the skin, and remove all fat and meat. Dry the skin
completely. Use the hind quarter joint areas to make shoes and mittens or socks. Wear the hide with the fur
to the inside for its insulating factor.
Plant Fibers. Several plants are sources of insulation from cold. Cattail is a marshland plant found along
lakes, ponds, and the backwaters of rivers. The fuzz on the tops of the stalks forms dead air spaces and
makes a good down-like insulation when placed between two pieces of material. Milkweed has pollenlike
seeds that act as good insulation. The husk fibers from coconuts are very good for weaving ropes and,
when dried, make excellent tinder and insulation.
COOKING AND EATING UTENSILS
Many materials may be used to make equipment for the cooking, eating, and storing of food.
Bowls. Use wood, bone, horn, bark, or other similar material to make bowls. To make wooden bowls, use
a hollowed out piece of wood that will hold your food and enough water to cook it in. Hang the wooden
container over the fire and add hot rocks to the water and food. Remove the rocks as they cool and add
more hot rocks until your food is cooked.
CAUTION
Do not use rocks with air pockets, such as limestone and sandstone. They may explode
while heating in the fire.
You can also use this method with containers made of bark or leaves. However, these containers will
burn above the waterline unless you keep them moist or keep the fire low.
A section of bamboo works very well, if you cut out a section between two sealed joints (Figure 2-11).
CAUTION
A sealed section of bamboo will explode if heated because of trapped air and water in the
section.
Forks, Knives, and Spoons. Carve forks, knives, and spoons from nonresinous woods so that you do
not get a wood resin aftertaste or do not taint the food. Nonresinous woods include oak, birch, and other
hardwood trees.
Note: Do not use those trees that secrete a syrup or resinlike liquid on the bark or when cut.
Pots. You can make pots from turtle shells or wood. As described with bowls, using hot rocks in a
hollowed out piece of wood is very effective. Bamboo is the best wood for making cooking containers.
528 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 2-11: Containers for boiling food.
To use turtle shells, first thoroughly boil the upper portion of the shell. Then use it to heat food and
water over a flame (Figure 2-11).
Water Bottles. Make water bottles from the stomachs of larger animals. Thoroughly flush the stomach out
with water, then tie off the bottom. Leave the top open, with some means of fastening it closed.
CHAPTER 3
Hand-to-hand Combat
SECTION I: OVERVIEW
Hand-to-hand combat is an engagement between two or more persons in an empty-handed struggle or
with handheld weapons such as knives, sticks, and rifles with bayonets. These fighting arts are essential
military skills. Projectile weapons may be lost or broken, or they may fail to fire. When friendly and enemy
forces become so intermingled that firearms and grenades are not practical, hand-to-hand combat skills
become vital assets.
Purpose of Combatives Training. Today’s battlefield scenarios may require silent elimination of the enemy.
Unarmed combat and expedient-weapons training should not be limited to forward units. With rapid mechanized/
motorized, airborne, and air assault abilities, units throughout the battle area could be faced with
close-quarter or unarmed fighting situations. With low-intensity conflict scenarios and guerrilla warfare
conditions, any soldier is apt to face an unarmed confrontation with the enemy, and hand-to-hand combative
training can save lives. The many practical battlefield benefits of combative training are not its only
advantage. It can also—
a.
Contribute to individual and unit strength, flexibility, balance, and cardiorespiratory fitness.
b. Build courage, confidence, self-discipline, and esprit de corps.
Basic Principles. There are basic principles that the hand-to-hand fighter must know and apply to successfully
defeat an opponent. The principles mentioned are only a few of the basic guidelines that are essential
knowledge for hand-to-hand combat. There are many others, which through years of study become intuitive
to a highly skilled fighter.
a.
Physical Balance. Balance refers to the ability to maintain equilibrium and to remain in a stable,
upright position. A hand-to-hand fighter must maintain his balance both to defend himself and to
launch an effective attack. Without balance, the fighter has no stability with which to defend himself,
nor does he have a base of power for an attack. The fighter must understand two aspects of
balance in a struggle:
(1) How to move his body to keep or regain his own balance. A fighter develops balance through
experience, but usually he keeps his feet about shoulder-width apart and his knees flexed. He
lowers his center of gravity to increase stability.
(2) How to exploit weaknesses in his opponent’s balance. Experience also gives the hand-to-hand
fighter a sense of how to move his body in a fight to maintain his balance while exposing the
enemy’s weak points.
b. Mental Balance. The successful fighter must also maintain a mental balance. He must not allow fear
or anger to overcome his ability to concentrate or to react instinctively in hand-to-hand combat.
c.
Position. Position refers to the location of the fighter (defender) in relation to his opponent. A vital
principle when being attacked is for the defender to move his body to a safe position—that is, where
the attack cannot continue unless the enemy moves his whole body. To position for a counterattack,
a fighter should move his whole body off the opponent’s line of attack. Then, the opponent has to
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change his position to continue the attack. It is usually safe to move off the line of attack at a 45-degree
angle, either toward the opponent or away from him, whichever is appropriate. This position affords
the fighter safety and allows him to exploit weaknesses in the enemy’s counterattack position. Movement
to an advantageous position requires accurate timing and distance perception.
d. Timing. A fighter must be able to perceive the best time to move to an advantageous position in an
attack. If he moves too soon, the enemy will anticipate his movement and adjust the attack. If the
fighter moves too late, the enemy will strike him. Similarly, the fighter must launch his attack or
counterattack at the critical instant when the opponent is the most vulnerable.
e.
Distance. Distance is the relative distance between the positions of opponents. A fighter positions
himself where distance is to his advantage. The hand-to-hand fighter must adjust his distance by
changing position and developing attacks or counterattacks. He does this according to the range at
which he and his opponent are engaged.
f. Momentum. Momentum is the tendency of a body in motion to continue in the direction of motion
unless acted on by another force. Body mass in motion develops momentum. The greater the body
mass or speed of movement, the greater the momentum. Therefore, a fighter must understand the
effects of this principle and apply it to his advantage.
(1) The fighter can use his opponent’s momentum to his advantage—that is, he can place the opponent
in a vulnerable position by using his momentum against him.
(a) The opponent’s balance can be taken away by using his own momentum.
(b) The opponent can be forced to extend farther than he expected, causing him to stop and
change his direction of motion to continue his attack.
(c) An opponent’s momentum can be used to add power to a fighter’s own attack or counterattack
by combining body masses in motion.
(2) The fighter must be aware that the enemy can also take advantage of the principle of momentum.
Therefore, the fighter must avoid placing himself in an awkward or vulnerable position,
and he must not allow himself to extend too far.
g. Leverage. A fighter uses leverage in hand-to-hand combat by using the natural movement of his
body to place his opponent in a position of unnatural movement. The fighter uses his body or parts
of his body to create a natural mechanical advantage over parts of the enemy’s body. He should
never oppose the enemy in a direct test of strength; however, by using leverage, he can defeat a
larger or stronger opponent.
SECTION II: CLOSE-RANGE COMBATIVES
In close-range combatives, two opponents have closed the gap between them so they can grab one another
in hand-to-hand combat. The principles of balance, leverage, timing, and body positioning are applied.
Throws and takedown techniques are used to upset the opponent’s balance and to gain control of the fight
by forcing him to the ground. Chokes can be applied to quickly render an opponent unconscious. The
soldier should also know counters to choking techniques to protect himself. Grappling involves skillful
fighting against an opponent in close-range combat so that a soldier can win through superior body movement
or grappling skills. Pain can be used to disable an opponent. A soldier can use painful eye gouges and
strikes to soft, vital areas to gain an advantage over his opponent.
3-1. Throws and Takedowns. Throws and takedowns enable a hand-to-hand fighter to take an opponent to
the ground where he can be controlled or disabled with further techniques. Throws and takedowns make
use of the principles involved in taking the opponent’s balance. The fighter uses his momentum against the
attacker; he also uses leverage or body position to gain an opportunity to throw the attacker.
a.
It is important for a fighter to control his opponent throughout a throw to the ground to keep the
opponent from countering the throw or escaping after he is thrown to the ground. One way to do
Hand-to-hand Combat 531
this is to control the opponent’s fall so that he lands on his head. It is also imperative that a fighter
maintain control of his own balance when executing throws and takedowns.
b. After executing a throw or takedown and while the opponent is on the ground, the fighter must
control the opponent by any means available. He can drop his weight onto exposed areas of the
opponent’s body, using his elbows and knees. He can control the downed opponent’s limbs by stepping
on them or by placing his knees and body weight on them. Joint locks, chokes, and kicks to
vital areas are also good control measures. Without endangering himself, the fighter must maintain
the advantage and disable his opponent after throwing him (Figures 3-1 through 3-5).
Figure 3-1: Hip throw
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Figure 3-2: Over-the-shoulder throw
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Figure 3-3: Throw from rear choke
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Figure 3-4: Head butt
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Figure 3-5: Rear strangle takedown
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NOTE: Although the five techniques shown in Figures 3-1 through 3-5 may be done while
wearing LCE—for training purposes, it is safer to conduct all throws and takedowns without any
equipment.
(1) Hip throw. The opponent throws a right punch. The defender steps in with his left foot; at the
same time, he blocks the punch with his left forearm and delivers a reverse punch to the face,
throat, or other vulnerable area (Figure 3-1, Step 1). (For training, deliver punches to the solar
plexus.)
The defender pivots 180 degrees on the ball of his lead foot, wraps his right arm around his
opponent’s waist, and grasps his belt or pants (Figure 3-1, Step 2). (If opponent is wearing LCE,
grasp by the pistol belt or webbing.)
The defender thrusts his hips into his opponent and maintains a grip on his opponent’s right
elbow. He keeps his knees shoulder-width apart and slightly bent (Figure 3-1, Step 3). He locks
his knees, pulls his opponent well over his right hip, and slams him to the ground. (For training,
soldier being thrown should land in a good side fall.)
By maintaining control of his opponent’s arm, the defender now has the option of kicking or
stomping him in the neck, face, or ribs (Figure 3-1, Step 4).
(2) Over-the-shoulder throw. The opponent lunges at the defender with a straight punch (Figure 3-2,
Step 1).
The defender blocks the punch with his left forearm, pivots 180 degrees on the ball of his
lead foot (Figure 3-2, Step 2), and gets well inside his opponent’s right armpit with his right
shoulder.
He reaches well back under his opponent’s right armpit and grasps him by the collar or hair
(Figure 3-2, Step 3).
The defender maintains good back-to-chest, buttock-to-groin contact, keeping his knees slightly
bent and shoulder-width apart. He maintains control of his opponent’s right arm by grasping
the wrist or sleeve (Figure 3-2, Step 4).
The defender bends forward at the waist and holds his opponent tightly against his
body. He locks his knees, thrusts his opponent over his shoulder, and slams him to the
ground (Figure 3-2, Step 5). He then has the option of disabling his opponent with kicks or
stomps to vital areas.
(3) Throw from rear choke. The opponent attacks the defender with a rear strangle choke. The
defender quickly bends his knees and spreads his feet shoulder-width apart (Figure 3-3, Step 1).
(Knees are bent quickly to put distance between you and your opponent.)
The defender reaches as far back as possible and uses his right hand to grab his opponent by
the collar or hair. He then forces his chin into the vee of the opponent’s arm that is around his
neck. With his left hand, he grasps the opponent’s clothing at the tricep and bends forward at
the waist (Figure 3-3, Step 2).
The defender locks his knees and, at the same time, pulls his opponent over his shoulder and
slams him to the ground (Figure 3-3, Step 3).
He then has the option of spinning around and straddling his opponent or disabling him with
punches to vital areas (Figure 3-3, Step 4). (It is important to grip the opponent tightly when
executing this move.)
(4) Head butt. The head butt can be applied from the front or the rear. It is repeated until the opponent
either releases his grip or becomes unconscious.
(a) The opponent grabs the defender in a bear hug from the front (A, Figure 3-4, Step 1).
The defender uses his forehead to smash into his opponent’s nose or cheek (A, Figure 3-4,
Step 2) and stuns him.
The opponent releases the defender who then follows up with a kick or knee strike to the
groin (A, Figure 3-4, Step 3).
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(b) The opponent grabs the defender in a bear hug from the rear (B, Figure 3-4, Step 1).
The defender cocks his head forward and smashes the back of his head into the opponent’s
nose or cheek area (B, Figure 3-4, Step 2).
The defender turns to face his opponent and follows up with a spinning elbow strike to the
head (B, Figure 3-4, Step 3).
(5) Rear strangle takedown. The defender strikes the opponent from the rear with a forearm strike
to the neck (carotid artery) (Figure 3-5, Step 1).
The defender wraps his right arm around his opponent’s neck, making sure he locks the throat
and windpipe in the vee formed by his elbow. He grasps his left bicep and wraps his left hand
around the back of the opponent’s head. He pulls his right arm in and flexes it, pushing his
opponent’s head forward (Figure 3-5, Step 2).
The defender kicks his legs out and back, maintains a choke on his opponent’s neck, and pulls
his opponent backward until his neck breaks (Figure 3-5, Step 3).
3-2. Strangulation. Strangulation is a most effective method of disabling an opponent. The throat’s vulnerability
is widely known and should be a primary target in close-range fighting. Your goal may be to break
the opponent’s neck, to crush his trachea, to block the air supply to his lungs, or to block the blood supply
to his brain.
a.
Strangulation by Crushing. Crushing the trachea just below the voice box is probably one of the
fastest, easiest, most lethal means of strangulation. The trachea is crushed between the thumb and
first two or three fingers.
b.
Respiratory Strangulation. Compressing the windpipe to obstruct air flow to the lungs is most
effectively applied by pressure on the cartilage of the windpipe. Unconsciousness can take
place within one to two minutes. However, the technique is not always effective on a strong
opponent or an opponent with a large neck. It is better to block the blood supply to weaken the
opponent first.
c.
Sanguineous Strangulation. Cutting off the blood supply to the brain by applying pressure to the
carotid arteries results in rapid unconsciousness of the victim. The victim can be rendered unconscious
within 3 to 8 seconds, and death can result within 30 to 40 seconds.
3-3. Choking Techniques. There are several choking techniques that a soldier can use to defeat his opponent
in hand-to-hand combat.
a.
Cross-Collar Choke. With crossed hands, the fighter reaches as far as possible around his opponent’s
neck and grabs his collar (Figure 3-6, Step 1). The backs of his hands should be against
the neck.
The fighter keeps his elbows bent and close to the body (as in opening a tightly sealed jar), pulls
outward with both hands, and chokes the sides of the opponent’s neck by rotating the knuckles into
the neck (Figure 3-6, Step 2). The forearm can also be used.
b.
Collar Grab Choke. The fighter grabs his opponent’s collar with both hands straight-on (Figure 3-7).
He then rotates the knuckles inward against the neck to quickly produce a good choke. He also
keeps the elbows in front and close to the body where the greatest strength is maintained.
c.
Carotid Choke. The fighter grabs the sides of the opponent’s throat by the muscle and sticks his
thumbs into the carotids, closing them off (Figure 3-8). This is a fast and painful choke.
d. Trachea Choke. The fighter grabs the opponent’s trachea (Figure 3-9) by sticking three fingers behind
the voice box on one side and the thumb behind the other. He then crushes the fingers together and
twists, applying pressure until the opponent is disabled.
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Figure 3-6: Cross-collar choke
Figure 3-7: Collar grab choke
3-4. Counters to Chokes. A soldier must know how to defend against being choked. Incapacitation and
unconsciousness can occur within three seconds; therefore, it is crucial for the defender to know all possible
counters to chokes.
a.
Eye Gouge. The opponent attacks the defender with a frontal choke. The defender has the option
of going over or under the opponent’s arms. To disable the opponent, the defender inserts both
Hand-to-hand Combat 539
Figure 3-8: Carotid choke
Figure 3-9: Trachea choke
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thumbs into his opponent’s eyes and tries to gouge them (Figure 3-10). The defender is prepared to
follow-up with an attack to the vital regions.
b. Shoulder Dislocation. If the opponent applies a choke from the rear, the defender places the back of
his hand against the inside of the opponent’s forearm (Figure 3-11, Step 1).
Then, he brings the other hand over the crook of the opponent’s elbow and clasps hands, keeping
his hands close to his body as he moves his entire body around the opponent (Figure 3-11,
Step 2).
He positions his body so that the opponent’s upper arm is aligned with the opponent’s shoulders
(Figure 3-11, Step 3). The opponent’s arm should be bent at a 90-degree angle.
By pulling up on the opponent’s elbow and down on the wrist, the opponent’s balance is taken and
his shoulder is easily dislocated (Figure 3-11, Step 4). The defender must use his body movement to
properly position the opponent—upper body strength will not work.
He drops his body weight by bending his knees to help get the proper bend in the opponent’s
elbow. The defender must also keep his own hands and elbows close to his body to prevent the
opponent’s escape (Figure 3-11, Step 5).
c.
Weight Shift. To counter being choked from above while lying on the ground (Figure 3-12, Step 1),
the defender places his arms against his opponent’s elbows and locks the joints.
At the same time, he shifts his hips so that his weight rests painfully on the opponent’s ankle
(Figure 3-12, Step 2).
The defender can easily shift his body weight to gain control by turning the opponent toward his
weak side (Figure 3-12, Step 3).
Figure 3-10: Eye gouge
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Figure 3-11: Shoulder dislocation
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Figure 3-12: Weight shift
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d.
Counterstrikes to Rear Choke and Frontal Choke. As the opponent tries a rear choke (A, Figure 3- 13,
Step 1), the defender can break the opponent’s grip with a strong rear-elbow strike into the solar plexus
(A, Figure 3-13, Step 2).
He can follow with a shin scrape down along the opponent’s leg and stomp the foot (A, Figure 3-13,
Step 3).
He may wish to continue by striking the groin of the opponent (A, Figure 3-13, Step 4).
Figure 3-13: Counterstrikes to rear choke and frontal choke
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As the opponent begins a frontal choke (B, Figure 3-13, Step 1), the defender turns his body and
drops one arm between the opponent’s arms (B, Figure 3-13, Step 2).
He sinks his body weight and drives his own hand to the ground, and then explodes upward with
an elbow strike (B, Figure 3-13, Step 3) into the opponent’s chin, stomach, or groin.
e.
Headlock Escape. If a defender is in a headlock, he first turns his chin in toward his opponent’s
body to prevent choking (Figure 3-14, Step 1).
Next, he slides one hand up along the opponent’s back, around to the face, and finds the sensitive
nerve under the nose. He must avoid placing his fingers near his opponent’s mouth, or he will be
bitten (Figure 3-14, Step 2).
The defender can now force his opponent back and then down across his own knee to the ground
and maintain control by keeping pressure under the nose (Figure 3-14, Step 3). He can finish the
technique with a hammer fist to the groin.
3-5. Grappling. Grappling is when two or more fighters engage in close-range, hand-to-hand combat.
They may be armed or unarmed. To win, the fighter must be aware of how to move his body to maintain
the upper hand, and he must know the mechanical strengths and weaknesses of the human body. The
situation becomes a struggle of strength pitted against strength unless the fighter can remain in control
of his opponent by using skilled movements to gain an advantage in leverage and balance. Knowledge of
Figure 3-14: Headlock escape
Hand-to-hand Combat 545
the following basic movement techniques may give the fighter a way to apply and gain the advantage in
grappling situations.
a.
Wristlock From a Collar or Lapel Grab. When an opponent grabs the defender by the collar or by the
lapel, the defender reaches up and grabs the opponent’s hand (to prevent him from withdrawing it)
while stepping back to pull him off balance (Figure 3-15, Step 1).
The defender peels off the opponent’s grabbing hand by crushing his thumb and bending it back
on itself toward the palm in a straight line (Figure 3-15, Step 2). To keep his grip on the opponent’s
thumb, the defender keeps his hands close to his body where his control is strongest.
Figure 3-15: Wristlock from a collar or lapel grab
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He then turns his body so that he has a wristlock on his opponent. The wristlock is produced by
turning his wrist outward at a 45-degree angle and by bending it toward the elbow (Figure 3-15,
Step 3). The opponent can be driven to the ground by putting his palm on the ground.
b. Wristlock From an Arm Grab. When an opponent grabs a defender’s arm, the defender rotates his
arm to grab the opponent’s forearm (Figure 3-16, Step 1).
At the same time, he secures his other hand on the gripping hand of the opponent to prevent his
escape (Figure 3-16, Step 2).
As the defender steps in toward the opponent and maintains his grip on the hand and forearm, a
zee shape is formed by the opponent’s arm; this is an effective wristlock (Figure 3-16, Step 3). More
pain can be induced by trying to put the opponent’s fingers in his own eyes.
c.
Prisoner Escort. The escort secures the prisoner’s arm with the wrist bent straight back upon itself,
palm toward the elbow. The prisoner’s elbow can be secured in the crook of the escort’s elbow,
firmly against the escort’s body for the most control (Figure 3-17). This technique is most effective
Figure 3-16: Wristlock from an arm grab
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Figure 3-17: Prisoner escort
with two escorts, each holding a wrist of the prisoner. Use this technique to secure the opponent
only if rope, flex cuffs, or handcuffs are unavailable.
d. Elbow Lock Against the Body. The opponent’s elbow can be locked against the side of the body
(Figure 3-18) by the defender. The defender turns his body to force the elbow into a position in
which it was not designed to move. He can apply leverage on the opponent’s wrist to gain control
since the lock causes intense pain. The elbow can easily be broken to make the arm ineffective. This
movement must be executed with maximum speed and force.
e.
Elbow Lock Against the Knee. While grappling on the ground, a defender can gain control of the
situation if he can use an elbow lock (Figure 3-19) against the opponent. He uses his knee as a fulcrum
for leverage to break his opponent’s arm at the elbow. Once the arm breaks, the defender must
be prepared with a follow-up technique.
f. Elbow Lock Against the Shoulder. An elbow lock can be applied by locking the elbow joint against
the shoulder (Figure 3-20) and pulling down on the wrist. Leverage is produced by using the shoulder
as a fulcrum, by applying force, and by straightening the knees to push upward. This uses the
defender’s body mass and ensures more positive control. The opponent’s arm must be kept straight
so he cannot drive his elbow down into the defender’s shoulder.
g. Shoulder Dislocation. A defender can maneuver into position to dislocate a shoulder by moving
inside when an opponent launches a punch (Figure 3-21, Step 1). The defender holds his hand nearest
the punching arm high to protect the head.
The defender continues to move in and places his other arm behind the punching arm (Figure 3-21,
Step 2). He strikes downward into the crook of the opponent’s elbow to create a bend.
Then he clasps his hands and moves to the opponent’s outside until the opponent’s upper arm is in
alignment with his shoulders and bent 90 degrees at the elbow. As he steps, the defender pulls up
on the opponent’s elbow and directs the wrist downward. This motion twists the shoulder joint so
it is easily dislocated and the opponent loses his balance (Figure 3-21, Step 3).
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Figure 3-18: Elbow lock against the body
Figure 3-19: Elbow lock against the knee
Hand-to-hand Combat 549
Figure 3-20: Elbow lock against the shoulder
NOTE: The defender must keep his clasped hands close to the body and properly align the opponent’s arm by
maneuvering his entire body. This technique will not succeed by using upperbody strength only, the opponent
will escape.
(1) Straight-arm shoulder dislocation. The shoulder can also be dislocated (Figure 3-22) by keeping
the elbow straight and forcing the opponent’s arm backward toward the opposite shoulder at
about 45 degrees. The initial movement must take the arm down and alongside the opponent’s
550 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 3-21: Shoulder dislocation
body. Bending the wrist toward the elbow helps to lock out the elbow. The dislocation also
forces the opponent’s head down-ward where a knee strike can be readily made. This dislocation
technique should be practiced to get the feel of the correct direction in which to move the joint.
(2) Shoulder dislocation using the elbow. While grappling, the defender can snake his hand over
the crook in the opponent’s elbow and move his body to the outside, trapping one arm of the
opponent against his side (Figure 3-23, Step 1).
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Figure 3-22: Straight-arm shoulder dislocation
The defender can then clasp his hands in front of his body and use his body mass in motion to
align the opponent’s upper arm with the line between the shoulders (Figure 3-23, Step 2).
By dipping his weight and then pulling upward on the opponent’s elbow, the shoulder is
dislocated, and the opponent loses his balance (Figure 3-23, Step 3). If the opponent’s elbow
locks rather than bends to allow the shoulder dislocation, the defender can use the elbow lock
to keep control.
h.
Knee Lock/Break. The opponent’s knee joint can be attacked to produce knee locks or breaks
(Figure 3-24) by forcing the knee in a direction opposite to which it was designed to move. The
knee can be attacked with the body’s mass behind the defender’s knee or with his entire body by
falling on the opponent’s knee, causing it to hyperextend.
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Figure 3-23: Shoulder dislocation using the elbow
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Figure 3-24: Knee lock/break
CHAPTER 4
Medium-Range Combatives
In medium-range combatives, two opponents are already within touching distance. The arsenal of possible
body weapons includes short punches and strikes with elbows, knees, and hands. Head butts are also
effective; do not forget them during medium-range combat. A soldier uses his peripheral vision to evaluate
the targets presented by the opponent and choose his target. He should be aggressive and concentrate his
attack on the opponent’s vital points to end the fight as soon as possible.
4-1. Vital Targets. The body is divided into three sections: high, middle, and low. Each section contains
vital targets (Figure 4-1). The effects of striking these targets follow:
a. High Section. The high section includes the head and neck; it is the most dangerous target area.
(1) Top of the head. The skull is weak where the frontal cranial bones join. A forceful strike causes
trauma to the cranial cavity, resulting in unconsciousness and hemorrhage. A severe strike can
result in death.
(2) Forehead. A forceful blow can cause whiplash; a severe blow can cause cerebral hemorrhage
and death.
(3) Temple. The bones of the skull are weak at the temple, and an artery and large nerve lie close
to the skin. A powerful strike can cause unconsciousness and brain concussion. If the artery is
severed, the resulting massive hemorrhage compresses the brain, causing coma and or death.
(4) Eyes. A slight jab in the eyes causes uncontrollable watering and blurred vision. A forceful jab
or poke can cause temporary blindness, or the eyes can be gouged out. Death can result if the
fingers penetrate through the thin bone behind the eyes and into the brain.
(5) Ears. A strike to the ear with cupped hands can rupture the eardrum and may cause a brain
concussion.
(6) Nose. Any blow can easily break the thin bones of the nose, causing extreme pain and eye
watering.
(7) Under the nose. A blow to the nerve center, which is close to the surface under the nose, can
cause great pain and watery eyes.
(8) Jaw. A blow to the jaw can break or dislocate it. If the facial nerve is pinched against the lower
jaw, one side of the face will be paralyzed.
(9) Chin. A blow to the chin can cause paralysis, mild concussion, and unconsciousness. The jawbone
acts as a lever that can transmit the force of a blow to the back of the brain where the cardiac
and respiratory mechanisms are controlled.
(10) Back of ears and base of skull. A moderate blow to the back of the ears or the base of the skull
can cause unconsciousness by the jarring effect on the back of the brain. However, a powerful
blow can cause a concussion or brain hemorrhage and death.
(11) Throat. A powerful blow to the front of the throat can cause death by crushing the windpipe. A
forceful blow causes extreme pain and gagging or vomiting.
(12) Side of neck. A sharp blow to the side of the neck causes unconsciousness by shock to the carotid
artery, jugular vein, and vagus nerve. For maximum effect, the blow should be focused below
and slightly in front of the ear. A less powerful blow causes involuntary muscle spasms and
intense pain. The side of the neck is one of the best targets to use to drop an opponent immediately
or to disable him temporarily to finish him later.
555
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Figure 4-1: Vital targets. (continued)
Medium-Range Combatives 557
Figure 4-1: (continued)
558 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
(13) Back of neck. A powerful blow to the back of one’s neck can cause whiplash, concussion, or even
a broken neck and death.
b. Middle Section. The middle section extends from the shoulders to the area just above the hips. Most
blows to vital points in this region are not fatal but can have serious, long-term complications that
range from trauma to internal organs to spinal cord injuries.
(1) Front of shoulder muscle. A large bundle of nerves passes in front of the shoulder joint. A forceful
blow causes extreme pain and can make the whole arm ineffective if the nerves are struck
just right.
(2) Collarbone. A blow to the collarbone can fracture it, causing intense pain and rendering the arm
on the side of the fracture ineffective. The fracture can also sever the brachial nerve or subclavian
artery.
(3) Armpit. A large nerve lies close to the skin in each armpit. A blow to this nerve causes severe
pain and partial paralysis. A knife inserted into the armpit is fatal as it severs a major artery
leading from the heart.
(4) Spine. A blow to the spinal column can sever the spinal cord, resulting in paralysis or in death.
(5) Nipples. A large network of nerves passes near the skin at the nipples. A blow here can cause
extreme pain and hemorrhage to the many blood vessels beneath.
(6) Heart. A jolting blow to the heart can stun the opponent and allow time for follow-up or finishing
techniques.
(7) Solar plexus. The solar plexus is a center for nerves that control the cardiorespiratory system.
A blow to this location is painful and can take the breath from the opponent. A powerful blow
causes unconsciousness by shock to the nerve center. A penetrating blow can also damage internal
organs.
(8) Diaphragm. A blow to the lower front of the ribs can cause the diaphragm and the other muscles
that control breathing to relax. This causes loss of breath and can result in unconsciousness due
to respiratory failure.
(9) Floating ribs. A blow to the floating ribs can easily fracture them because they are not attached
to the rib cage. Fractured ribs on the right side can cause internal injury to the liver; fractured
ribs on either side can possibly puncture or collapse a lung.
(10) Kidneys. A powerful blow to the kidneys can induce shock and can possibly cause internal
injury to these organs. A stab to the kidneys induces instant shock and can cause death from
severe internal bleeding.
(11) Abdomen below navel. A powerful blow to the area below the navel and above the groin can
cause shock, unconsciousness, and internal bleeding.
(12) Biceps. A strike to the biceps is most painful and renders the arm ineffective. The biceps is an
especially good target when an opponent holds a weapon.
(13) Forearm muscle. The radial nerve, which controls much of the movement in the hand, passes
over the forearm bone just below the elbow. A strike to the radial nerve renders the hand and
arm ineffective. An opponent can be disarmed by a strike to the forearm; if the strike is powerful
enough, he can be knocked unconscious.
(14) Back of hand. The backs of the hands are sensitive. Since the nerves pass over the bones in the
hand, a strike to this area is intensely painful. The small bones on the back of the hand are easily
broken and such a strike can also render the hand ineffective.
c.
Low Section. The low section of the body includes everything from the groin area to the feet. Strikes
to these areas are seldom fatal, but they can be incapacitating.
(1) Groin. A moderate blow to the groin can incapacitate an opponent and cause intense pain. A
powerful blow can result in unconsciousness and shock.
(2) Outside of thigh. A large nerve passes near the surface on the outside of the thigh about four fingerwidths
above the knee. A powerful strike to this region can render the entire leg ineffective,
causing an opponent to drop. This target is especially suitable for knee strikes and shin kicks.
Medium-Range Combatives 559
(3) Inside of thigh. A large nerve passes over the bone about in the middle of the inner thigh. A
blow to this area also incapacitates the leg and can cause the opponent to drop. Knee strikes and
heel kicks are the weapons of choice for this target.
(4) Hamstring. A severe strike to the hamstring can cause muscle spasms and inhibit mobility. If
the hamstring is cut, the leg is useless.
(5) Knee. Because the knee is a major supporting structure of the body, damage to this joint is
especially detrimental to an opponent. The knee is easily dislocated when struck at an opposing
angle to the joint’s normal range of motion, especially when it is bearing the opponent’s weight.
The knee can be dislocated or hyperextended by kicks and strikes with the entire body.
(6) Calf. A powerful blow to the top of the calf causes painful muscle spasms and also inhibits
mobility.
(7) Shin. A moderate blow to the shin produces great pain, especially a blow with a hard object. A
powerful blow can possibly fracture the bone that supports most of the body weight.
(8) Achilles tendon. A powerful strike to the Achilles tendon on the back of the heel can cause ankle
sprain and dislocation of the foot. If the tendon is torn, the opponent is incapacitated. The Achilles
tendon is a good target to cut with a knife.
(9) Ankle. A blow to the ankle causes pain; if a forceful blow is delivered, the ankle can be sprained
or broken.
(10) Instep. The small bones on the top of the foot are easily broken. A strike here will hinder the
opponent’s mobility.
4-2. Striking Principles. Effective striking with the weapons of the body to the opponent’s vital points is
essential for a victorious outcome in a hand-to-hand struggle. A soldier must be able to employ the principles
of effective striking if he is to emerge as the survivor in a fight to the death.
a.
Attitude. Proper mental attitude is of primary importance in the soldier’s ability to strike an opponent.
In hand-to-hand combat, the soldier must have the attitude that he will defeat the enemy and
complete the mission, no matter what. In a fight to the death, the soldier must have the frame of
mind to survive above all else; the prospect of losing cannot enter his mind. He must commit himself
to hit the opponent continuously with whatever it takes to drive him to the ground or end his
resistance. A memory aid is, “Thump him and dump him!”
b. Fluid Shock Wave. A strike should be delivered so that the target is hit and the weapon remains on
the impact site for at least a tenth of a second. This imparts all of the kinetic energy of the strike into
the target area, producing a fluid shock wave that travels into the affected tissue and causes maximum
damage. It is imperative that all strikes to vital points and nerve motor points are delivered
with this principle in mind. The memory aid is, “Hit and stick!”
c.
Target Selection. Strikes should be targeted at the opponent’s vital points and nerve motor points.
The results of effective strikes to vital points are discussed in paragraph 4-1. Strikes to nerve motor
points cause temporary mental stunning and muscle motor dysfunction to the affected areas of the
body. Mental stunning results when the brain is momentarily disoriented by overstimulation from
too much input—for example, a strike to a major nerve. The stunning completely disables an opponent
for three to seven seconds and allows the soldier to finish off the opponent, gain total control
of the situation, or make his escape. Sometimes, such a strike causes unconsciousness. A successful
strike to a nerve motor center also renders the affected body part immovable by causing muscle
spasms and dysfunction due to nerve overload. (Readily available nerve motor points are shown in
Figure 4-1)
(1) Jugular notch pressure point. Located at the base of the neck just above the breastbone; pressure
to this notch can distract and take away his balance. Pressure from fingers jabbed into the notch
incurs intense pain that causes the opponent to withdraw from the pressure involuntarily.
560 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
(2) Suprascapular nerve motor point. This nerve is located where the trapezius muscle joins the
side of the neck. A strike to this point causes intense pain, temporary dysfunction of the affected
arm and hand, and mental stunning for three to seven seconds. The strike should be a downward
knife-hand or hammerfist strike from behind.
(3) Brachial plexus origin. This nerve motor center is on the side of the neck. It is probably the most
reliable place to strike someone to stun them. Any part of the hand or arm may be applied—the
palm heel, back of the hand, knife hand, ridge hand, hammer fist, thumb tip, or the forearm. A
proper strike to the brachial plexus origin causes—
• Intense pain.
• Complete cessation of motor activity.
• Temporary dysfunction of the affected arm.
• Mental stunning for three to seven seconds.
• Possible unconsciousness.
(4) Brachial plexus clavicle notch pressure point. This center is behind the collarbone in a hollow
about halfway between the breastbone and the shoulder joint. The strike should be delivered
with a small impact weapon or the tip of the thumb to create high-level mental stunning and
dysfunction of the affected arm.
(5) Brachial plexus tie-in motor point. Located on the front of the shoulder joint, a strike to this
point can cause the arm to be ineffective. Multiple strikes may be necessary to ensure total dysfunction
of the arm and hand.
(6) Stellate ganglion. The ganglion is at the top of the pectoral muscle centered above the nipple. A
severe strike to this center can cause high-level stunning, respiratory dysfunction, and possible
unconsciousness. A straight punch or hammer fist should be used to cause spasms in the nerves
affecting the heart and respiratory systems.
(7) Cervical vertebrae. Located at the base of the skull, a strike to this particular vertebrae can cause
unconsciousness or possibly death. The harder the strike, the more likely death will occur.
(8) Radial nerve motor point. This nerve motor point is on top of the forearm just below the elbow.
Strikes to this point can create dysfunction of the affected arm and hand. The radial nerve should
be struck with the hammer fist or the forearm bones or with an impact weapon, if available.
Striking the radial nerve can be especially useful when disarming an opponent armed with a
knife or other weapon.
(9) Median nerve motor point. This nerve motor point is on the inside of the forearm at the base of
the wrist, just above the heel of the hand. Striking this center produces similar effects to striking
the radial nerve, although it is not as accessible as the radial nerve.
(10) Sciatic nerve. A sciatic nerve is just above each buttock, but below the belt line. A substantial
strike to this nerve can disable both legs and possibly cause respiratory failure. The sciatic nerve
is the largest nerve in the body besides the spinal cord. Striking it can affect the entire body,
especially if an impact weapon is used.
(11) Femoral nerve. This nerve is in the center of the inside of the thigh; striking the femoral nerve
can cause temporary motor dysfunction of the affected leg, high-intensity pain, and mental
stunning for three to seven seconds. The knee is best to use to strike the femoral nerve.
(12) Common peroneal nerve motor point. The peroneal nerve is on the outside of the thigh about
four fingers above the knee. A severe strike to this center can cause collapse of the affected leg
and high intensity pain, as well as mental stunning for three to seven seconds. This highly accessible
point is an effective way to drop an opponent quickly. This point should be struck with a
knee, shin kick, or impact weapon.
4-3. Short Punches and Strikes. During medium-range combat, punches and strikes are usually short
because of the close distance between fighters. Power is generated by using the entire body mass in motion
behind all punches and strikes.
Medium-Range Combatives 561
a.
Hands as Weapons. A knowledge of hand-to-hand combat fighting provides the fighter another means
to accomplish his mission. Hands can become deadly weapons when used by a skilled fighter.
(1) Punch to solar plexus. The defender uses this punch for close-in fighting when the opponent rushes
or tries to grab him. The defender puts his full weight and force behind the punch and strikes his
opponent in the solar plexus (Figure 4-2), knocking the breath out of his lungs. The defender can
then follow-up with a knee to the groin, or he can use other disabling blows to vital areas.
(2) Thumb strike to throat. The defender uses the thumb strike to the throat (Figure 4-3) as an effective
technique when an opponent is rushing him or trying to grab him. The defender thrusts
his right arm and thumb out and strikes his opponent in the throat-larynx area while holding
his left hand high for protection. He can follow up with a disabling blow to his opponent’s vital
areas.
(3) Thumb strike to shoulder joint. The opponent rushes the defender and tries to grab him. The
defender strikes the opponent’s shoulder joint or upper pectoral muscle with his fist or thumb
(Figure 4-4). This technique is painful and renders the opponent’s arm numb. The defender then
follows up with a disabling movement.
(4) Hammer-fist strike to face. The opponent rushes the defender. The defender counters by rotating
his body in the direction of his opponent and by striking him in the temple, ear, or face
(Figure 4-5). The defender follows up with kicks to the groin or hand strikes to his opponent’s
other vital areas.
(5) Hammer-fist strike to side of neck. The defender catches his opponent off guard, rotates at
the waist to generate power, and strikes his opponent on the side of the neck (carotid artery)
(Figure 4-6) with his hand clenched into a fist. This strike can cause muscle spasms at the least
and may knock his opponent unconscious.
Figure 4-2: Punch to solar plexus.
562 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 4-3: Thumb strike to throat.
Figure 4-4: Thumb strike to shoulder joint.
Medium-Range Combatives 563
Figure 4-5: Hammer-fist strike to face.
Figure 4-6: Hammer-fist strike to neck.
564 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
(6) Hammer fist to pectoral muscle. When the opponent tries to grapple with the defender, the
defender counters by forcefully striking his opponent in the pectoral muscle (Figure 4-7). This
blow stuns the opponent, and the defender immediately follows up with a disabling blow to a
vital area of his opponent’s body.
(7) Hook punch to solar plexus or floating ribs. The opponent tries to wrestle the defender to the
ground. The defender counters with a short hook punch to his opponent’s solar plexus or floating
ribs (Figure 4-8). A sharply delivered blow can puncture or collapse a lung. The defender
then follows up with a combination of blows to his opponent’s vital areas.
(8) Uppercut to chin. The defender steps between his opponent’s arms and strikes with an uppercut
punch (Figure 4-9) to the chin or jaw. The defender then follows up with blows to his opponent’s
vital areas.
(9) Knife-hand strike to side of neck. The defender executes a knife-hand strike to the side of his
opponent’s neck (Figure 4-10) the same way as the hammer-fist strike (Figure 4-6) except he uses
the edge of his striking hand.
(10) Knife-hand strike to radial nerve. The opponent tries to strike the defender with a punch. The
defender counters by striking his opponent on the top of the forearm just below the elbow
(radial nerve) (Figure 4-11) and uses a follow-up technique to disable his opponent.
(11) Palm-heel strike to chin. The opponent tries to surprise the defender by lunging at him. The
defender quickly counters by striking his opponent with a palm-heel strike to the chin (Figure
4- 12), using maximum force.
(12) Palm-heel strike to solar plexus. The defender meets his opponent’s rush by striking him with a
palm-heel strike to the solar plexus (Figure 4-13). The defender then executes a follow-up technique
to his opponent’s vital organs.
Figure 4-7: Hammer-fist to pectoral muscle.
Medium-Range Combatives 565
Figure 4-8: Hook punch to solar plexus or floating ribs.
Figure 4-9: Uppercut to chin.
566 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 4-10: Knife-hand to side of neck.
Figure 4-11: Knife-hand strike to radial nerve.
Medium-Range Combatives 567
Figure 4-12: Palm heel strike to chin.
568 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 4-13: Palm-heel strike to solar plexus.
Medium-Range Combatives 569
(13) Palm-heel strike to kidneys. The defender grasps his opponent from behind by the collar and
pulls him off balance. He quickly follows up with a hard palm-heel strike to the opponent’s kidney
(Figure 4-14). The defender can then take down his opponent with a follow-up technique to
the back of his knee.
Figure 4-14: Palm-heel strike to kidneys.
570 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
b. Elbows as Weapons. The elbows are also formidable weapons; tremendous striking power can be
generated from them. The point of the elbow should be the point of impact. The elbows are strongest
when kept in front of the body and in alignment with the shoulder joint; that is, never strike
with the elbow out to the side of the body.
(1) Elbow strikes. When properly executed, elbow strikes (Figures 4-15 through 4-21) render an
opponent ineffective. When using elbow strikes, execute them quickly, powerfully, and repetitively
until the opponent is disabled.
(2) Repetitive elbow strikes. The attacker on the right throws a punch (Figure 4-22, Step 1).
The defender counters with an elbow strike to the biceps (Figure 4-22, Step 2). The attacker follows
with a punch from his other arm.
The defender again counters with an elbow strike to the shoulder joint (Figure 4-22, Step 3). He
next strikes with an elbow from the opposite side to the throat.
Figure 4-15: Elbow strike to face.
Medium-Range Combatives 571
Figure 4-16: Elbow strike to temple.
Figure 4-17: Rising elbow strike.
572 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 4-18: Elbow strike to head.
Figure 4-19: Elbow srike to solar plexus.
Medium-Range Combatives 573
Figure 4-20: Elbow strike to biceps.
Figure 4-21: Elbow strike to inside of shoulder.
574 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 4-22: Repetitive elbow strike.
c.
Knees as Weapons. When the knees are used to strike opponents, they are especially potent weapons
and are hard to defend or protect against. Great power is generated by thrusting the hips in
with a knee strike; however, use the point of the knee as the impact surface. All knee strikes should
be executed repetitively until the opponent is disabled. The following techniques are the most effective
way to overpower or disable the opponent.
(1) Front knee strike. When an opponent tries to grapple with the defender, the defender strikes his
opponent in the stomach or solar plexus with his knee (Figure 4-23). This stuns the opponent
and the defender can follow up with another technique.
(2)
Knee strike to outside of thigh. The defender delivers a knee strike to the outside of his opponent’s
thigh (common peroneal nerve) (Figure 4-24). This strike causes intense pain and renders
the opponent’s leg ineffective.
Medium-Range Combatives 575
(3) Knee strike to inside of thigh. An effective technique for close-in grappling is when the defender
delivers a knee strike to the inside of his opponent’s thigh (peroneal nerve) (Figure 4- 25). The
defender then executes a follow-up technique to a vital point.
(4) Knee strike to groin. The knee strike to the groin is effective during close-in grappling. The
defender gains control by grabbing his opponent’s head, hair, ears, or shoulders and strikes him
in the groin with his knee (Figure 4-26).
(5) Knee strike to face. The defender controls his opponent by grabbing behind his head with both
hands and forcefully pushing his head down. At the same time, the defender brings his knee up
and smashes the opponent in the face (Figure 4-27). When properly executed, the knee strike to
the face is a devastating technique that can cause serious injury to the opponent.
Figure 4-23: Front knee strike.
576 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 4-24: Knee to outside of thigh.
Figure 4-25: Knee to inside of thigh.
Medium-Range Combatives 577
Figure 4-26: Knee strike to groin.
Figure 4-27: Knee strike to face.
CHAPTER 5
Long-range Combatives
In long-range combatives, the distance between opponents is such that the combatants can engage one
another with fully extended punches and kicks or with handheld weapons, such as rifles with fixed bayonets
and clubs. As in medium-range combatives, a fighter must continuously monitor his available body
weapons and opportunities for attack, as well as possible defense measures. He must know when to
increase the distance from an opponent and when to close the gap. The spheres of influence that surround
each fighter come into contact in long-range combatives. (See Chapter 6 for interval gaps and spheres of
influence.)
SECTION I: NATURAL WEAPONS
The most dangerous natural weapons a soldier possesses are his hands and feet. This section describes natural
weapon techniques of various punches, strikes, and kicks and stresses aggressive tactics with which
to subdue an opponent.
5-1. Extended Arm Punches and Strikes. Extended arm punches and strikes in long-range combatives, like
those in medium-range combatives, should be directed at vital points and nerve motor points. It is essential
to put the entire body mass in motion behind long-range strikes. Closing the distance to the target gives
the fighter an opportunity to take advantage of this principle.
a.
In extended punches, the body weapon is usually the fist, although the fingers may be used—
for example, eye gouging. When punching, hold the fist vertically or horizontally. Keep the wrist
straight to prevent injury and use the first two knuckles in striking.
b. Another useful variation of the fist is to place the thumb on top of the vertical fist so that the tip
protrudes beyond the curled index finger that supports it. The thumb strike is especially effective
against soft targets. Do not fully lock out the arm when punching; keep a slight bend in the elbow
to prevent hyperextension if the intended target is missed.
5-2. Kicks. Kicks during hand-to-hand combat are best directed to low targets and should be simple but
effective. Combat soldiers are usually burdened with combat boots and LCE. His flexibility level is usually
low during combat, and if engaged in hand-to-hand combat, he will be under high stress. He must rely on
gross motor skills and kicks that do not require complicated movement or much training and practice to
execute.
a.
Side Knee Kick. When an opponent launches an attack—for example, with a knife (Figure 5-1, Step 1),
it is most important for the defender to first move his entire body off the line of attack as the attacker
moves in.
As the defender steps off at 45 degrees to the outside and toward the opponent, he strikes with a
short punch to the floating ribs (Figure 5-1, Step 2).
Then the defender turns his body by rotating on the leading, outside foot and raises the knee of
his kicking leg to his chest. He then drives his kick into the side of the attacker’s knee with his foot
turned 45 degrees outward (Figure 5-1, Step 3). This angle makes the most of the striking surface
and reduces his chances of missing the target.
579
580 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
step 1
step 2
step 3
Figure 5-1: Side knee kick.
b. Front Knee Kick. As the attacker moves in, the defender immediately shifts off the line of attack and
drives his kicking foot straight into the knee of the attacker (Figure 5-2). He turns his foot 45 degrees
to make the most of the striking surface and to reduce the chances of missing the target. If the kick
is done right, the attacker’s advance will stop abruptly, and the knee joint will break.
c.
Heel Kick to Inside of Thigh. The defender steps 45 degrees outside and toward the attacker to
get off the line of attack. He is now in a position where he can drive his heel into the inside of the
opponent’s thigh (femoral nerve) (Figure 5-3, Steps 1 and 2). Either thigh can be targeted because
the kick can still be executed if the defender moves to the inside of the opponent rather than to
the outside when getting off the line of attack.
Long-range Combatives 581
Figure 5-2: Front knee kick.
Figure 5-3: Heel kick to inside of thigh.
582 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
d. Heel Kick to Groin. The defender drives a heel kick into the attacker’s groin (Figure 5-4) with his full
body mass behind it. Since the groin is a soft target, the toe can also be used when striking it.
e.
Shin Kick. The shin kick is a powerful kick, and it is easily performed with little training. When
the legs are targeted, the kick is hard to defend against (Figure 5-5), and an opponent can be
dropped by it.
Figure 5-4: Heel kick to groin.
Figure 5-5: Shin kick to legs.
Long-range Combatives 583
The calves and common peroneal nerve (Figure 5-6) are the best striking points.
The shin kick can also be used to attack the floating ribs (Figure 5-7).
f.
Stepping Side Kick. A soldier starts a stepping side kick (Figure 5-8, Step 1) by stepping either
behind or in front of his other foot to close the distance between him and his opponent. The
movement is like that in a skip.
Figure 5-6: Shin kick to common peroneal nerve.
Figure 5-7: Shin kick to floating ribs.
584 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-8: Stepping side kick.
The soldier now brings the knee of his kicking foot up and thrusts out a side kick (Figure 5-8, Step 2).
Tremendous power and momentum can be developed in this kick.
g. Counter to Front Kick. When the attacker tries a front kick, the defender traps the kicking foot
by meeting it with his own (Figure 5-9, Step 1). The defender turns his foot 45 degrees outward
to increase the likelihood of striking the opponent’s kicking foot. This counter requires good
timing by the defender, but not necessarily speed. Do not look at the feet; use your peripheral
vision.
When an attacker tries a front kick (Figure 5-9, Step 2), the defender steps off the line of attack of the
incoming foot to the outside.
As the attacker’s kicking leg begins to drop, the defender kicks upward into the calf of the attacker’s
leg (Figure 5-9, Step 3). This kick is extremely painful and will probably render the leg ineffective.
This technique does not rely on the defender’s speed, but on proper timing.
Long-range Combatives 585
Figure 5-9: Counter to front kick.
The defender can also kick to an opponent’s kicking leg by moving off the line of attack to the inside
and by using the heel kick to the inside of the thigh or groin (Figure 5-9, Step 4).
h. Counter to Roundhouse-Type Kick. When an opponent prepares to attack with a roundhouse-type
kick (Figure 5-10, Step 1), the defender moves off the line of attack by stepping to the inside of the
knee of the kicking leg.
He then turns his body to receive the momentum of the leg (Figure 5-10, Step 2). By moving to
the inside of the knee, the defender lessens the power of the attacker’s kicking leg. The harder the
attacker kicks, the more likely he is to hyperextend his own knee against the body of the defender,
but the defender will not be harmed. However, the defender must get to the inside of the knee, or
586 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-10: Counter to roadhouse kick.
an experienced opponent can change his roundhouse kick into a knee strike. The defender receives
the energy of the kicking leg and continues turning with the momentum of the kick.
The attacker will be taken down by the defender’s other leg with no effort (Figure 5-10, Step 3).
i. Kick as a Defense Against Punch. As the opponent on the left throws a punch (Figure 5-11, Step 1),
the defender steps off the line of attack to the outside.
He then turns toward the opponent, brings his knee to his chest, and launches a heel kick to the
outside of the opponent’s thigh (Figure 5-11, Step 2). He keeps his foot turned 45 degrees to ensure
striking the target and to maintain balance.
Long-range Combatives 587
Figure 5-11: Kick as a defense against punch.
SECTION II: DEFENSIVE TECHNIQUES
A knife (or bayonet), properly employed, is a deadly weapon; however, using defensive techniques, such
as maintaining separation, will greatly enhance the soldier’s ability to fight and win.
5-3. Defense Against an Armed Opponent. An unarmed defender is always at a distinct disadvantage
facing an armed opponent. It is imperative therefore that the unarmed defender understand and use the
following principles to survive:
a.
Separation. Maintain a separation of at least 10 feet plus the length of the weapon from the attacker.
This distance gives the defender time to react to any attempt by the attacker to close the gap and be
upon the defender. The defender should also try to place stationary objects between himself and the
attacker.
b.
Unarmed Defense. Unarmed defense against an armed opponent should be a last resort. If it is
necessary, the defender’s course of action includes:
(1) Move the body out of the line of attack of the weapon. Step off the line of attack or redirect the
attack of the weapon so that it clears the body.
(2) Control the weapon. Maintain control of the attacking arm by securing the weapon, hand, wrist,
elbow, or arm by using joint locks, if possible.
588 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
(3) Stun the attacker with an effective counterattack. Counterattack should be swift and devastating.
Take the vigor out of the attacker with a low, unexpected kick, or break a locked joint of the
attacking arm. Strikes to motor nerve centers are effective stuns, as are skin tearing, eye gouging,
and attacking of the throat. The defender can also take away the attacker’s balance.
(4) Ground the attacker. Take the attacker to the ground where the defender can continue to disarm
or further disable him.
(5) Disarm the attacker. Break the attacker’s locked joints. Use leverage or induce pain to disarm the
attacker and finish him or to maintain physical control.
c.
Precaution. Do not focus full attention on the weapon because the attacker has other body weapons
to use. There may even be other attackers that you have not seen.
d.
Expedient Aids. Anything available can become an expedient aid to defend against an armed
attack. The kevlar helmet can be used as a shield; similarly, the LCE and shirt jacket can be used
to protect the defender against a weapon. The defender can also throw dirt in the attacker’s eyes
as a distraction.
5-4. Angles of Attack. Any attack, regardless of the type weapon, can be directed along one of nine angles
(Figure 5-12). The defense must be oriented for each angle of attack.
Figure 5-12: Angles of attack.
Long-range Combatives 589
a.
No. 1 Angle of Attack. A downward diagonal slash, stab, or strike toward the left side of the defender’s
head, neck, or torso.
b. No. 2 Angle of Attack. A downward diagonal slash, stab, or strike toward the right side of the
defender’s head, neck, or torso.
c.
No. 3 Angle of Attack. A horizontal attack to the left side of the defender’s torso in the ribs, side, or
hip region.
d. No. 4 Angle of Attack. The same as No. 3 angle, but to the right side.
e.
No. 5 Angle of Attack. A jabbing, lunging, or punching attack directed straight toward the defender’s
front.
f. No. 6 Angle of Attack. An attack directed straight down upon the defender.
g. No. 7 Angle of Attack. An upward diagonal attack toward the defender’s lower-left side.
h. No. 8 Angle of Attack. An upward diagonal attack toward the defender’s lower-right side.
i. No. 9 Angle of Attack. An attack directed straight up—for example, to the defender’s groin.
5-5. Defense Against a Knife. When an unarmed soldier is faced with an enemy armed with a knife, he
must be mentally prepared to be cut. The likelihood of being cut severely is less if the fighter is well trained
in knife defense and if the principles of weapon defense are followed. A slash wound is not usually lethal
or shock inducing; however, a stab wound risks injury to vital organs, arteries, and veins and may also
cause instant shock or unconsciousness.
a.
Types of Knife Attacks. The first line of defense against an opponent armed with a knife is to avoid
close contact. The different types of knife attacks follow:
(1) Thrust. The thrust is the most common and most dangerous type of knife attack. It is a strike
directed straight into the target by jabbing or lunging.
(2) Slash. The slash is a sweeping surface cut or circular slash. The wound is usually a long cut,
varying from a slight surface cut to a deep gash.
(3) Flick. This attack is delivered by flicking the wrist and knife to extended limbs, inflicting numerous
cuts. The flick is very distractive to the defender since he is bleeding from several cuts if the
attacker is successful.
(4) Tear. The tear is a cut made by dragging the tip of the blade across the body to create a ripping
type cut.
(5) Hack. The hack is delivered by using the knife to block or chop with.
(6) Butt. The butt is a strike with the knife handle.
b. Knife Defense Drills. Knife defense drills are used to familiarize soldiers with defense movement
techniques for various angles of attack. For training, the soldiers should be paired off; one partner
is named as the attacker and one is the defender. It is important that the attacker make his attack
realistic in terms of distance and angling during training. His strikes must be accurate in hitting
the defender at the intended target if the defender does not defend himself or move off the line of
attack. For safety, the attacks are delivered first at one-quarter and one-half speed, and then at threequarter
speed as the defender becomes more skilled. Variations can be added by changing grips,
stances, and attacks.
(1) No. 1 angle of defense—check and lift. The attacker delivers a slash along the No. 1 angle of
attack. The defender meets and checks the movement with his left forearm bone, striking the
inside forearm of the attacker (Figure 5-13, Step 1).
The defender’s right hand immediately follows behind the strike to lift, redirect, and take control
of the attacker’s knife arm (Figure 5-13, Step 2).
The defender brings the attacking arm around to his right side where he can use an arm bar,
wrist lock, and so forth, to disarm the attacker (Figure 5-13, Step 3).
He will have better control by keeping the knife hand as close to his body as possible (Figure
5-13, Step 4).
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Figure 5-13: No. 1 angle of defense—check and lift.
(2) No. 2 angle of defense—check and ride. The attacker slashes with a No. 2 angle of attack. The
defender meets the attacking arm with a strike from both forearms against the outside forearm,
his bone against the attacker’s muscle tissue (Figure 5-14, Step 1).
The strike checks the forward momentum of the attacking arm. The defender’s right hand is
then used to ride the attacking arm clear of his body (Figure 5-14, Step 2).
He redirects the attacker’s energy with strength starting from the right elbow (Figure 5-14, Step 3).
(3) No. 3 angle of defense—check and lift. The attacker delivers a horizontal slash to the defender’s
ribs, kidneys, or hip on the left side (Figure 5-15, Step 1). The defender meets and checks the
Long-range Combatives 591
Figure 5-14: No. 2 angle of defense—check and ride.
attacking arm on the left side of his body with a downward circular motion across the front of
his own body.
At the same time, he moves his body off the line of attack. He should meet the attacker’s forearm
with a strike forceful enough to check its momentum (Figure 5-15, Step 2). The defender then
rides the energy of the attacking arm by wiping downward along the outside of his own left
forearm with his right hand.
He then redirects the knife hand around to his right side where he can control or disarm the
weapon (Figure 5-15, Step 3).
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Figure 5-15: No. 3 angle of defense—check and lift.
(4) No. 4 angle of defense—check. The attacker slashes the defender with a backhand slashing
motion to the right side at the ribs, kidneys, or hips. The defender moves his right arm in a
downward circular motion and strikes the attacking arm on the outside of the body (Figure 5-16,
Step 1).
At the same time, he moves off the line of attack (Figure 5-16, Step 2). The strike must be forceful
enough to check the attack.
The left arm is held in a higher guard position to protect from a redirected attack or to assist in
checking (Figure 5-16, Step 3).
Long-range Combatives 593
Figure 5-16: No. 4 angle of defense—check.
The defender moves his body to a position where he can choose a proper disarming maneuver
(Figure 5-16, Step 4).
(5) Low No. 5 angle of defense—parry. A lunging thrust to the stomach is made by the attacker
along the No. 5 angle of attack (Figure 5-17, Step 1).
The defender moves his body off the line of attack and deflects the attacking arm by parrying
with his left hand (Figure 5-17, Step 2). He deflects the attacking hand toward his right side by
redirecting it with his right hand.
As he does this, the defender can strike downward with the left forearm or the wrist onto the
forearm or wrist of the attacker (Figure 5-17, Step 3).
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Figure 5-17: Low No. 5 angle of defense—parry.
The defender ends up in a position to lock the elbow of the attacking arm across his body if he
steps off the line of attack properly (Figure 5-17, Step 4).
(6) High No. 5 angle of defense. The attacker lunges with a thrust to the face, throat, or solar plexus
(Figure 5-18, Step 1).
The defender moves his body off the line of attack while parrying with either hand. He redirects
the attacking arm so that the knife clears his body (Figure 5-18, Step 2).
He maintains control of the weapon hand or arm and gouges the eyes of the attacker, driving
him backward and off balance (Figure 5-18, Step 3). If the attacker is much taller than the
defender, it may be a more natural movement for the defender to raise his left hand to strike and
Long-range Combatives 595
Figure 5-18: High No. 5 angle of defense.
deflect the attacking arm. He can then gouge his thumb or fingers into the jugular notch of the
attacker and force him to the ground.
Still another possibility for a high No. 5 angle of attack is for the defender to move his body off
the line of attack while parrying. He can then turn his body, rotate his shoulder under the elbow
joint of the attacker, and lock it out (Figure 5-18, Step 4).
(7) No. 6 angle of defense. The attacker strikes straight downward onto the defender with a stab
(Figure 5-19, Step 1).
The defender reacts by moving his body out of the weapon’s path and by parrying or checking
and redirecting the attacking arm, as the movement in the high No. 5 angle of defense (Figure
5-19, Step 2). The reactions may vary as to what is natural for the defender.
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Figure 5-19: No. 6 angle of defense.
The defender then takes control of the weapon and disarms the attacker (Figure 5-19, Step 3).
c.
Follow-Up Techniques. Once the instructor believes the soldiers are skilled in these basic reactions
to attack, follow-up techniques may be introduced and practiced. These drills make up the defense
possibilities against the various angles of attack. They also enable the soldier to apply the principles
of defense against weapons and allow him to feel the movements. Through repetition, the reactions
become natural, and the soldier instinctively reacts to a knife attack with the proper defense. It is
important not to associate specific movements or techniques with certain types of attack. The knife
fighter must rely on his knowledge of principles and his training experience in reacting to a knife
attack. No two attacks or reactions will be the same; thus, memorizing techniques will not ensure a
soldier’s survival.
(1) Defend and clear. When the defender has performed a defensive maneuver and avoided an
attack, he can push the attacker away and move out of the attacker’s reach.
Long-range Combatives 597
(2) Defend and stun. After the defender performs his first defensive maneuver to a safer position,
he can deliver a stunning blow as an immediate counterattack. Strikes to motor nerve points or
attacker’s limbs, low kicks, and elbow strikes are especially effective stunning techniques.
(3) Defend and disarm. The defender also follows up his first defensive maneuver by maintaining
control of the attacker’s weapon arm, executing a stunning technique, and disarming the
attacker. The stun distracts the attacker and also gives the defender some time to gain possession
of the weapon and to execute his disarming technique.
5-6. Unarmed Defense Against a Rifle with Fixed Bayonet. Defense against a rifle with a fixed bayonet
involves the same principles as knife defense. The soldier considers the same angles of attack and the
proper response for any attack along each angle.
a.
Regardless of the type weapon used by the enemy, his attack will always be along one of the nine
angles of attack at any one time. The soldier must get his entire body off the line of attack by moving
to a safe position. A rifle with a fixed bayonet has two weapons: a knife at one end and a butt stock
at the other end. The soldier will be safe as long as he is not in a position where he can be struck by
either end during the attack.
b.
Usually, he is in a more advantageous position if he moves inside the length of the weapon. He can
then counterattack to gain control of the situation as soon as possible. The following counterattacks can
be used as defenses against a rifle with a fixed bayonet; they also provide a good basis for training.
(1) Unarmed defense against No. 1 angle of attack. The attacker prepares to slash along the No. 1
angle of attack (Figure 5-20, Step 1).
The defender waits until the last possible moment before moving so he is certain of the angle
along which the attack is directed (Figure 5-20, Step 2). This way, the attacker cannot change his
attack in response to movement by the defender.
When the defender is certain that the attack is committed along a specific angle (No. 1, in this
case), he moves to the inside of the attacker and gouges his eyes (Figure 5-20, Step 2) while the
other hand redirects and controls the weapon. He maintains control of the weapon and lunges
his entire body weight into the eye gouge to drive the attacker backward and off balance. The
defender now ends up with the weapon, and the attacker is in a poor recovery position (Figure
5- 20, Step 3).
(2) Unarmed defense against No. 2 angle of attack. The attacker makes a diagonal slash along the
No. 2 angle of attack (Figure 5-21, Step 1). Again, the defender waits until he is sure of the attack
before moving.
The defender then moves to the outside of the attacker and counterattacks with a thumb jab into
the right armpit (Figure 5-21, Step 2). He receives the momentum of the attacking weapon and
controls it with his free hand.
He uses the attacker’s momentum against him by pulling the weapon in the direction it is going
with one hand and pushing with his thumb of the other hand (Figure 5-21, Step 3). The attacker
is completely off balance, and the defender can gain control of the weapon.
(3) Unarmed defense against No. 3 angle of attack. The attacker directs a horizontal slash along the
No. 3 angle of attack (Figure 5-22, Step 1).
The defender turns and moves to the inside of the attacker; he then strikes with his thumb into
the jugular notch (Figure 5-22, Step 2).
His entire body mass is behind the thumb strike and, coupled with the incoming momentum of
the attacker, the strike drives the attacker’s head backward and takes his balance (Figure 5-22,
Step 3).
The defender turns his body with the momentum of the weapon’s attack to strip the weapon
from the attacker’s grip (Figure 5-22, Step 4).
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Figure 5-20: Unarmed defense against No. 1 angle of attack.
(4) Unarmed defense against No. 4 angle of attack. The attack is a horizontal slash along the No. 4
angle of attack (Figure 5-23, Step 1).
The defender moves into the outside of the attacker (Figure 5-23, Step 2).
He then turns with the attack, delivering an elbow strike to the throat (Figure 5-23, Step 3). At
the same time, the defender’s free hand controls the weapon and pulls it from the attacker as he
is knocked off balance from the elbow strike.
(5) Unarmed defense against low No. 5 angle of attack. The attacker thrusts the bayonet at the
stomach of the defender (Figure 5-24, Step 1).
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Figure 5-21: Unarmed defense against No. 2 angle of attack.
The defender shifts his body to the side to avoid the attack and to gouge the eyes of the attacker
(Figure 5-24, Step 2).
The defender’s free hand maintains control of and strips the weapon from the attacker as he is
driven backward with the eye gouge (Figure 5-24, Step 3).
(6) Unarmed defense against high No. 5 angle of attack. The attacker delivers a thrust to the throat
of the defender (Figure 5-25, Step 1).
The defender then shifts to the side to avoid the attack, parries the thrust, and controls the
weapon with his trail hand (Figure 5-25, Step 2).
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Figure 5-22: Unarmed defense against No. 3 angle of attack.
He then shifts his entire body mass forward over the lead foot, slamming a forearm strike into
the attacker’s throat (Figure 5-25, Step 3).
(7) Unarmed defense against No 6 angle of attack. The attacker delivers a downward stroke along
the No. 6 angle of attack (Figure 5-26, Step 1).
The defender shifts to the outside to get off the line of attack and he grabs the weapon. Then, he
pulls the attacker off balance by causing him to overextend himself (Figure 2-26, Step 2).
The defender shifts his weight backward and causes the attacker to fall, as he strips the weapon
from him (Figure 5-26, Step 3).
5-7. Advanced Weapons Techniques and Training. For advanced training in weapons techniques,
training partners should have the same skill level. Attackers can execute attacks along multiple angles
of attack in combinations. The attacker must attack with a speed that offers the defender a challenge, but
Long-range Combatives 601
Figure 5-23: Unarmed defense against No. 4 angle of attack.
does not overwhelm him. It should not be a contest to see who can win, but a training exercise for both
individuals.
a. Continued training in weapons techniques will lead to the partners’ ability to engage in free-response
fighting or sparring—that is, the individuals become adept enough to understand the principles of
weapons attacks, defense, and movements so they can respond freely when attacking or defending
from any angle.
b. Instructors must closely monitor training partners to ensure that the speed and control of the individuals
does not become dangerous during advanced training practice. Proper eye protection and
padding should be used, when applicable. The instructor should stress the golden rule in freeresponse
fighting—Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
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Figure 5-24: Unarmed defense against low No. 5 angle of attack.
Long-range Combatives 603
Figure 5-25: Unarmed defense against high No. 5 angle of attack.
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Figure 5-26: Unarmed defense against No. 6 angle of attack.
SECTION III: OFFENSIVE TECHNIQUES
At ranges of 10 meters or more in most combat situations, small arms and grenades are the weapons of
choice. However, in some scenarios, today’s combat soldier must engage the enemy in confined areas, such
as trench clearing or room clearing where noncombatants are present or when silence is necessary. In these
instances, the bayonet or knife may be the ideal weapon to dispatch the enemy. Other than the side arm,
the knife is the most lethal weapon in close-quarter combat.
5-8. Bayonet/Knife. As the bayonet is an integral part of the combat soldier’s equipment, it is readily available
for use as a multipurpose weapon. The bayonet produces a terrifying mental effect on the enemy
when in the hands of a well-trained and confident soldier. The soldier skilled in the use of the knife also
increases his ability to defend against larger opponents and multiple attackers. Both these skills increase
his chances of surviving and accomplishing the mission. (Although the following paragraphs say “knife,”
the information also applies to bayonets.)
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a. Grips. The best way to hold the knife is either with the straight grip or the reverse grip.
(1) Straight Grip. Grip the knife in the strong hand by forming a vee and by allowing the knife to
fit naturally, as in gripping for a handshake. The handle should lay diagonally across the palm.
Point the blade toward the enemy, usually with the cutting edge down. The cutting edge can
also be held vertically or horizontally to the ground. Use the straight grip when thrusting and
slashing.
(2) Reverse Grip. Grip the knife with the blade held parallel with the forearm, cutting edge facing
outward. This grip conceals the knife from the enemy’s view. The reverse grip also affords the
most power for lethal insertion. Use this grip for slashing, stabbing, and tearing.
b. Stances. The primary stances are the knife fighter’s stance and the modified stance.
(1) Knife fighter’s stance. In this stance, the fighter stands with his feet about shoulder-width apart,
dominant foot toward the rear. About 70 percent of his weight is on the front foot and 30 percent
on the rear foot. He stands on the balls of both feet and holds the knife with the straight grip. The
other hand is held close to his body where it is ready to use, but protected (Figure 5-27).
Figure 5-27: Stance.
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(2) Modified stance. The difference in the modified stance is the knife is held close to the body with
the other hand held close over the knife hand to help conceal it (Figure 5-28).
c.
Range. The two primary ranges in knife fighting are long range and medium range. In long-range
knife fighting, attacks consist of figure-eight slashes along the No. 1, No. 2, No. 7, and No. 8 angles
of attack; horizontal slashes along the No. 3 and No. 4 angles of attack; and lunging thrusts to vital
areas on the No. 5 angle of attack. Usually, the straight grip is used. In medium-range knife fighting,
the reverse grip provides greater power. It is used to thrust, slash, and tear along all angles of
attack.
Figure 5-28: Modified stance.
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5-9. Knife-Against-Knife Sequence. The knife fighter must learn to use all available weapons of his
body and not limit himself to the knife. The free hand can be used to trap the enemy’s hands to create
openings in his defense. The enemy’s attention will be focused on the weapon; therefore, low kicks
and knee strikes will seemingly come from nowhere. The knife fighter’s priority of targets are the eyes,
throat, abdominal region, and extended limbs. Some knife attack sequences that can be used in training
to help develop soldiers’ knowledge of movements, principles, and techniques in knife fighting follow:
a. Nos. 1 and 4 Angles. Two opponents assume the knife fighter’s stance (Figure 5-29, Step 1).
Figure 5-29: Nos. 1 and 4 angles.
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The attacker starts with a diagonal slash along the No. 1 angle of attack to the throat (Figure 5-29,
Step 2).
He then follows through with a slash and continues with a horizontal slash back across the abdomen
along the No. 4 angle of attack (Figure 5-29, Step 3).
He finishes the attack by using his entire body mass behind a lunging stab into the opponent’s solar
plexus (Figure 5-29, Step 4).
b. Nos. 5, 3, and 2 Angles. In this sequence, one opponent (attacker) starts an attack with a lunge along
the No. 5 angle of attack. At the same time, the other opponent (defender) on the left moves his body
off the line of attack, parries the attacking arm, and slices the biceps of his opponent (Figure 5-30,
Step 1).
Figure 5-30: Nos. 5, 3, and 2 angles.
Long-range Combatives 609
The defender slashes back across the groin along the No. 3 angle of attack (Figure 5-30, Step 2).
He finishes the attacker by continuing with an upward stroke into the armpit or throat along the
No. 2 angle of attack (Figure 5-30, Step 3). Throughout this sequence, the attacker’s weapon hand is
controlled with the defender’s left hand as he attacks with his own knife hand.
c.
Low No. 5 Angle. In the next sequence, the attacker on the right lunges to the stomach along a low
No. 5 angle of attack.
The defender on the left moves his body off the line of attack while parrying and slashing the wrist
of the attacking knife hand as he redirects the arm (Figure 5-31, Step 1).
After he slashes the wrist of his attacker, the defender continues to move around the outside and
stabs the attacker’s armpit (Figure 5-31, Step 2).
He retracts his knife from the armpit, continues his movement around the attacker, and slices his
hamstring (Figure 5-31, Step 3).
d. Optional Low No. 5 Angle. The attacker on the right lunges to the stomach of his opponent (the
defender) along the low No. 5 angle of attack. The defender moves his body off the line of attack of
Figure 5-31: Low No. 5 angle.
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the knife. Then he turns and, at the same time, delivers a slash to the attacker’s throat along the No.
1 angle of attack (Figure 5-32, Step 1).
The defender immediately follows with another slash to the opposite side of the attacker’s throat
along the No. 2 angle of attack (Figure 5-32, Step 2).
The attacker is finished as the opponent on the left (defender) continues to slice across the abdomen
with a stroke along the No. 3 angle (Figure 5-32, Step 3).
5-10. Rifle with Fixed Bayonet. The principles used in fighting with the rifle and fixed bayonet are the
same as when knife fighting. Use the same angles of attack and similar body movements. The principles
of timing and distance remain paramount; the main difference is the extended distance provided by
the length of the weapon. It is imperative that the soldier fighting with rifle and fixed bayonet use the
movement of his entire body behind all of his fighting techniques—not just upper-body strength. Unit
trainers should be especially conscious of stressing full body mass in motion for power and correcting
Figure 5-32: Optional low No. 5 angle.
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all deficiencies during training. Whether the enemy is armed or unarmed, a soldier fighting with rifle
and fixed bayonet must develop the mental attitude that he will survive the fight. He must continuously
evaluate each moment in a fight to determine his advantages or options, as well as the enemy’s.
He should base his defenses on keeping his body moving and off the line of any attacks from his opponent.
The soldier seeks openings in the enemy’s defenses and starts his own attacks, using all available
body weapons and angles of attack. The angles of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet are shown in
Figures 5-33 through 5-39.
a.
Fighting Techniques. New weapons, improved equipment, and new tactics are always being introduced;
however, firepower alone will not always drive a determined enemy from his position.
He will often remain in defensive emplacements until driven out by close combat. The role of the
soldier, particularly in the final phase of the assault, remains relatively unchanged: His mission is
to close with and disable or capture the enemy. This mission remains the ultimate goal of all individual
training. The rifle with fixed bayonet is one of the final means of defeating an opponent in an
assault.
(1) During infiltration missions at night or when secrecy must be maintained, the bayonet is an
excellent silent weapon.
Figure 5-33: No. 1 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.
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Figure 5-34: No. 2 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.
Figure 5-35: No. 3 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.
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Figure 5-36: No. 4 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.
Figure 5-37: No. 5 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.
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Figure 5-38: High No. 5 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.
Figure 5-39: No. 6 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.
Long-range Combatives 615
(2) When close-in fighting determines the use of small-arms fire or grenades to be impractical, or
when the situation does not permit the loading or reloading of the rifle, the bayonet is still the
weapon available to the soldier.
(3) The bayonet serves as a secondary weapon should the rifle develop a stoppage.
(4) In hand-to-hand encounters, the detached bayonet may be used as a handheld weapon.
(5) The bayonet has many nonfighting uses, such as to probe for mines, to cut vegetation, and to use
for other tasks where a pointed or cutting tool is needed.
b. Development. To become a successful rifle-bayonet fighter, a soldier must be physically fit and
mentally alert. A well-rounded physical training program will increase his chances of survival in
a bayonet encounter. Mental alertness entails being able to quickly detect and meet an opponent’s
attack from any direction. Aggressiveness, accuracy, balance, and speed are essential in training as
well as in combat situations. These traits lead to confidence, coordination, strength, and endurance,
which characterize the rifle-bayonet fighter. Differences in individual body physique may require
slight changes from the described rifle-bayonet techniques. These variations will be allowed if the
individual’s attack is effective.
c.
Principles. The bayonet is an effective weapon to be used aggressively; hesitation may mean sudden
death. The soldier must attack in a relentless assault until his opponent is disabled or captured. He
should be alert to take advantage of any opening. If the opponent fails to present an opening, the
bayonet fighter must make one by parrying his opponent’s weapon and driving his blade or rifle
butt into the opponent with force.
(1) The attack should be made to a vulnerable part of the body: face, throat, chest, abdomen, or
groin.
(2) In both training and combat, the rifle-bayonet fighter displays spirit by sounding off with a low
and aggressive growl. This instills a feeling of confidence in his ability to close with and disable
or capture the enemy.
(3) The instinctive rifle-bayonet fighting system is designed to capitalize on the natural agility and
combatives movements of the soldier. It must be emphasized that precise learned movements
will NOT be stressed during training.
d. Positions. The soldier holds the rifle firmly but not rigidly. He relaxes all muscles not used in a specific
position; tense muscles cause fatigue and may slow him down. After proper training and thorough
practice, the soldier instinctively assumes the basic positions. All positions and movements
described in this manual are for right-handed men. A left-handed man, or a man who desires to
learn lefthanded techniques, must use the opposite hand and foot for each phase of the movement
described. All positions and movements can be executed with or without the magazine and with or
without the sling attached.
(1) Attack position. This is the basic starting position (A and B, Figure 5-40) from which all attack
movements originate. It generally parallels a boxer’s stance. The soldier assumes this position
when running or hurdling obstacles. The instructor explains and demonstrates each move.
(a) Take a step forward and to the side with your left foot so that your feet are a comfortable
distance apart.
(b) Hold your body erect or bend slightly forward at the waist. Flex your knees and balance
your body weight on the balls of your feet. Your right forearm is roughly parallel to the
ground. Hold the left arm high, generally in front of the left shoulder. Maintain eye-to-eye
contact with your opponent, watching his weapon and body through peripheral vision.
(c) Hold your rifle diagonally across your body at a sufficient distance from the body to add
balance and protect you from enemy blows. Grasp the weapon in your left hand just below
the upper sling swivel, and place the right hand at the small of the stock. Keep the sling facing
outward and the cutting edge of the bayonet toward your opponent. The command is,
ATTACK POSITION, MOVE. The instructor gives the command, and the soldiers perform
the movement.
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Figure 5-40: Attack position.
(2) Relaxed position. The relaxed position (Figure 5-41) gives the soldier a chance to rest during
training. It also allows him to direct his attention toward the instructor as he discusses and
demonstrates the positions and movements. To assume the relaxed position from the attack
position, straighten the waist and knees and lower the rifle across the front of your body by
extending the arms downward. The command is, RELAX. The instructor gives the command,
and the soldiers perform the movement.
e. Movements. The soldier will instinctively strike at openings and become aggressive in his attack once he
has learned to relax and has developed instinctive reflexes. His movements do not have to be executed
in any prescribed order. He will achieve balance in his movements, be ready to strike in any direction,
and keep striking until he has disabled his opponent. There are two basic movements used throughout
bayonet instruction: the whirl and the crossover. These movements develop instant reaction to commands
and afford the instructor maximum control of the training formation while on the training field.
(1) Whirl movement. The whirl (Figure 5-42, Steps 1, 2, and 3), properly executed, allows the rifle
bayonet fighter to meet a challenge from an opponent attacking him from the rear. At the completion
of a whirl, the rifle remains in the attack position. The instructor explains and demonstrates
how to spin your body around by pivoting on the ball of the leading foot in the direction
of the leading foot, thus facing completely about. The command is, WHIRL. The instructor gives
the command, and the soldiers perform the movement.
(2) Crossover movement. While performing certain movements in rifle-bayonet training, two ranks
will be moving toward each other. When the soldiers in ranks come too close to each other to
Long-range Combatives 617
Figure 5-41: Relaxed position.
safely execute additional movements, the crossover is used to separate the ranks a safe distance
apart. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to move straight forward and pass your
opponent so that your right shoulder passes his right shoulder, continue moving forward about
six steps, halt, and without command, execute the whirl. Remain in the attack position and wait
for further commands. The command is, CROSSOVER. The instructor gives the command, and
the soldiers perform the movement.
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Figure 5-42: Whirl movement.
Note: Left-handed personnel cross left shoulder to left shoulder.
(3) Attack movements. There are four attack movements designed to disable or capture the opponent:
thrust, butt stroke, slash, and smash. Each of these movements may be used for the initial
attack or as a follow-up should the initial movement fail to find its mark. The soldiers learn
these movements separately. They will learn to execute these movements in a swift and continuous
series during subsequent training. During all training, the emphasis will be on conducting
natural, balanced movements to effectively damage the target. Precise, learned movements will
not be stressed.
(a) Thrust. The objective is to disable or capture an opponent by thrusting the bayonet blade
into a vulnerable part of his body. The thrust is especially effective in areas where movement
is restricted—for example, trenches, wooded areas, or built-up areas. It is also effective
when an opponent is lying on the ground or in a fighting position. The instructor explains
and demonstrates how to lunge forward on your leading foot without losing your balance
(Figure 5-43, Step 1) and, at the same time, drive the bayonet with great force into any
unguarded part of your opponent’s body.
To accomplish this, grasp the rifle firmly with both hands and pull the stock in close to the right
hip; partially extend the left arm, guiding the point of the bayonet in the general direction of the
opponent’s body (Figure 5-43, Step 2).
Quickly complete the extension of the arms and body as the leading foot strikes the ground
so that the bayonet penetrates the target (Figure 5-43, Step 3).
To withdraw the bayonet, keep your feet in place, shift your body weight to the rear, and
pull rearward along the same line of penetration (Figure 5-43, Step 4).
Next, assume the attack position in preparation to continue the assault (Figure 5-43, Step 5).
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Figure 5-43: Thrust movement.
This movement is taught by the numbers in three phases:
1. THRUST AND HOLD, MOVE.
2. WITHDRAW AND HOLD, MOVE.
3. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
At combat speed, the command is, THRUST SERIES, MOVE. Training emphasis will be
placed on movement at combat speed. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers
perform the movements.
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(b) Butt stroke. The objective is to disable or capture an opponent by delivering a forceful blow
to his body with the rifle butt (Figure 5-44, Steps 1, 2, 3, and 4, and Figure 5-45, Steps 1, 2,
3, and 4). The aim of the butt stroke may be the opponent’s weapon or a vulnerable portion
of his body. The butt stroke may be vertical, horizontal, or somewhere between the two
planes. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to step forward with your trailing
foot and, at the same time using your left hand as a pivot, swing the rifle in an arc and drive
the rifle butt into your opponent. To recover, bring your trailing foot forward and assume
the attack position. The movement is taught by the numbers in two phases:
1. BUTT STROKE TO THE (head, groin, kidney) AND HOLD, MOVE.
2. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
At combat speed, the command is, BUTT STROKE TO THE (head, groin, kidney) SERIES,
MOVE. Training emphasis will be placed on movement at combat speed. The instructor
gives the commands, and the soldiers perform the movement.
(c) Slash. The objective is to disable or capture the opponent by cutting him with the blade of
the bayonet. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to step forward with your lead
foot (Figure 5-46, Step 1).
At the same time, extend your left arm and swing the knife edge of your bayonet forward
and down in a slashing arc (Figure 5-46, Steps 2 and 3).
To recover, bring your trailing foot forward and assume the attack position (Figure 5-46, Step 4).
This movement is taught by the number in two phases:
1. SLASH AND HOLD, MOVE.
2. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
Figure 5-44: Butt stroke to the head.
Long-range Combatives 621
Figure 5-45: Butt stroke to the groin.
At combat speed, the command is, SLASH SERIES, MOVE. Training emphasis will be
placed on movement at combat speed. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers
perform the movements.
(d) Smash. The objective is to disable or capture an opponent by smashing the rifle butt into a
vulnerable part of his body. The smash is often used as a follow-up to a butt stroke and is also
622 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-46: Slash movement.
effective in wooded areas and trenches when movement is restricted. The instructor explains
and demonstrates how to push the butt of the rifle upward until horizontal (Figure 5-47,
Step 1) and above the left shoulder with the bayonet pointing to the rear, sling up (Figure 5-47,
Step 2). The weapon is almost horizontal to the ground at this time.
Step forward with the trailing foot, as in the butt stroke, and forcefully extend both arms,
slamming the rifle butt into the opponent (Figure 5-47, Step 3).
Long-range Combatives 623
Figure 5-47: Smash movement.
To recover, bring your trailing foot forward (Figure 5-47, Step 4) and assume the attack
position (Figure 5-47, Step 5). This movement is taught by the numbers in two phases:
1. SMASH AND HOLD, MOVE.
2. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
At combat speed, the command is, SMASH SERIES, MOVE. Training emphasis will be
placed on movement at combat speed. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers
perform the movements.
624 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
(4) Defensive movements. At times, the soldier may lose the initiative and be forced to defend
himself. He may also meet an opponent who does not present a vulnerable area to attack. Therefore,
he must make an opening by initiating a parry or block movement, then follow up with a
vicious attack. The follow-up attack is immediate and violent.
CAUTION
TO MINIMIZE WEAPON DAMAGE WHILE USING BLOCKS AND PARRIES, LIMIT
WEAPON-TO-WEAPON CONTACT TO HALF SPEED DURING TRAINING.
(a) Parry movement. The objective is to counter a thrust, throw the opponent off balance, and
hit a vulnerable area of his body. Timing, speed, and judgment are essential factors in these
movements. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to—
•
Parry right. If your opponent carries his weapon on his left hip (left-handed), you will
parry it to your right. In execution, step forward with your leading foot (Figure 5-48, Step
1), strike the opponent’s rifle (Figure 5-48, Step 2), deflecting it to your right (Figure 5-48,
Step 3), and follow up with a thrust, slash, or butt stroke.
•
Parry left. If your opponent carries his weapon on his right hip (right-handed), you will
parry it to your left. In execution, step forward with your leading foot (Figure 5-49, Step
1), strike the opponent’s rifle (Figure 5-49, Step 2), deflecting it to your left (Figure 5-49,
Step 3), and follow up with a thrust, slash, or butt stroke.
A supplementary parry left is the follow-up attack (Figure 5-50, Steps 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
•
Recovery. Immediately return to the attack position after completing each parry and
follow-up attack.
The movement is taught by the numbers in three phases:
1. PARRY RIGHT (OR LEFT), MOVE.
2. THRUST MOVE.
3. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
At combat speed, the command is, PARRY RIGHT (LEFT) or PARRY (RIGHT OR LEFT)
WITH FOLLOW-UP ATTACK. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers perform
the movements.
(b) Block. When surprised by an opponent, the block is used to cut off the path of his attack by
making weapon-to-weapon contact. A block must always be followed immediately with a
vicious attack. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to extend your arms using
the center part of your rifle as the strike area, and cut off the opponent’s attack by making
weapon-to-weapon contact. Strike the opponent’s weapon with enough power to throw
him off balance.
•
High block (Figure 5-51, Steps 1, 2, and 3). Extend your arms upward and forward at a
45- degree angle. This action deflects an opponent’s slash movement by causing his bayonet
or upper part of his rifle to strike against the center part of your rifle.
•
Low block (Figure 5-52, Steps 1, 2, and 3). Extend your arms downward and forward
about 15 degrees from your body. This action deflects an opponent’s butt stroke aimed
at the groin by causing the lower part of his rifle stock to strike against the center part of
your rifle.
•
Side block (Figure 5-53, Steps 1 and 2). Extend your arms with the left hand high and
right hand low, thus holding the rifle vertical. This block is designed to stop a butt stroke
aimed at your upper body or head. Push the rifle to your left to cause the butt of the
opponent’s rifle to strike the center portion of your rifle.
Long-range Combatives 625
Figure 5-48: Parry right.
626 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-49: Parry left.
Long-range Combatives 627
Figure 5-50: Parry left, slash, with follow-up butt stroke to kidney region.
628 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-51: High block against slash.
Long-range Combatives 629
Figure 5-52: Low block against butt stroke to groin.
630 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-53: Side block against butt stroke.
•
Recovery. Counterattack each block with a thrust, butt stroke, smash, or slash.
Blocks are taught by the numbers in two phases:
1. HIGH (LOW) or (SIDE) BLOCK.
2. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
At combat speed, the command is the same. The instructor gives the commands, and the
soldiers perform the movement.
(5) Modified movements. Two attack movements have been modified to allow the rifle-bayonet
fighter to slash or thrust an opponent without removing his hand from the pistol grip of the M16
rifle should the situation dictate.
(a) The modified thrust (Figure 5-54, Steps 1 and 2) is identical to the thrust (as described in
paragraph (3)(a)) with the exception of the right hand grasping the pistol grip.
(b) The modified slash (Figure 5-55, Steps 1, 2, 3, and 4) is identical to the slash (as described in
paragraph (3)(c)) with the exception of the right hand grasping the pistol grip.
(6) Follow-up movements. Follow-up movements are attack movements that naturally follow from
the completed position of the previous movement. If the initial thrust, butt stroke, smash, or
slash fails to make contact with the opponent’s body, the soldier should instinctively follow
up with additional movements until he has disabled or captured the opponent. It is important
Long-range Combatives 631
Figure 5-54: Modified thrust.
to follow up the initial attack with another aggressive action so the initiative is not lost. The
instructor explains and demonstrates how instinct should govern your selection of a specific
follow-up movement. For example—
•
PARRY LEFT, BUTT STROKE TO THE HEAD, SMASH, SLASH, ATTACK POSITION.
•
PARRY LEFT, SLASH, BUTT STROKE TO THE KIDNEY, ATTACK POSITION.
•
PARRY RIGHT THRUST, BUTT STROKE TO THE GROIN, SLASH, ATTACK POSITION.
Two examples of commands using follow-up movements are—
•
PARRY LEFT (soldier executes), THRUST (soldier executes), BUTT STROKE TO THE HEAD
(soldier executes), SMASH (soldier executes), SLASH (soldier executes), ATTACK POSITION
(soldier assumes the attack position).
632 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-55: Modified slash.
Long-range Combatives 633
•
THRUST (soldier executes), THRUST (soldier executes), THRUST (soldier executes), BUTT
STROKE TO THE GROIN (soldier executes), SLASH (soldier executes), ATTACK POSITION
(soldier assumes the attack position).
All training will stress damage to the target and violent action, using natural movements as
opposed to precise, stereotyped movements. Instinctive, aggressive action and balance are the
keys to offense with the rifle and bayonet.
NOTE: For training purposes, the instructor may and should mix up the series of movements.
SECTION IV: FIELD-EXPEDIENT WEAPONS
To survive, the soldier in combat must be able to deal with any situation that develops. His ability to
adapt any nearby object for use as a weapon in a win-or-die situation is limited only by his ingenuity and
resourcefulness. Possible weapons, although not discussed herein, include ink pens or pencils; canteens
tied to string to be swung; snap links at the end of sections of rope; kevlar helmets; sand, rocks, or liquids
thrown into the enemy’s eyes; or radio antennas. The following techniques demonstrate a few expedient
weapons that are readily available to most soldiers for defense and counterattack against the bayonet and
rifle with fixed bayonet.
5-11. Entrenching Tool. Almost all soldiers carry the entrenching tool. It is a versatile and formidable
weapon when used by a soldier with some training. It can be used in its straight position—locked out and
fully extended—or with its blade bent in a 90-degree configuration.
a.
To use the entrenching tool against a rifle with fixed bayonet, the attacker lunges with a thrust to the
stomach of the defender along a low No. 5 angle of attack (Figure 5-56, Step 1).
The defender moves just outside to avoid the lunge and meets the attacker’s arm with the blade of
the fully extended entrenching tool (Figure 5-56, Step 2).
The defender gashes all the way up the attacker’s arm with the force of both body masses coming
together. The hand gripping the entrenching tool is given natural protection from the shape of the
handle. The defender continues pushing the blade of the entrenching tool up and into the throat of
the attacker, driving him backward and downward (Figure 5-56, Step 3).
b. An optional use of entrenching tool against a rifle with fixed bayonet is for the attacker to lunge to
the stomach of the defender (Figure 5-57, Step 1).
The defender steps to the outside of the line of attack at 45 degrees to avoid the weapon. He then
turns his body and strikes downward onto the attacking arm (on the radial nerve) with the blade of
the entrenching tool (Figure 5-57, Step 2).
He drops his full body weight down with the strike, and the force causes the attacker to collapse
forward. The defender then strikes the point of the entrenching tool into the jugular notch, driving
it deeply into the attacker (Figure 5-57, Step 3).
c.
In the next two sequences, the entrenching tool is used in the bent configuration—that is, the blade
is bent 90 degrees to the handle and locked into place.
(1) The attacker tries to stick the bayonet into the chest of the defender (Figure 5-58, Step 1).
When the attack comes, the defender moves his body off the line of attack by stepping to the
outside. He allows his weight to shift forward and uses the blade of the entrenching tool to drag
along the length of the weapon, scraping the attacker’s arm and hand (Figure 5-58, Step 2). The
defender’s hand is protected by the handle’s natural design.
He continues to move forward into the attacker, strikes the point of the blade into the jugular
notch, and drives it downward (Figure 5-58, Step 3).
634 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-56: Entrenching tool against rifle with fixed bayonet.
Long-range Combatives 635
Figure 5-57: Optional use of entrenching tool against rifle with fixed bayonet.
636 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-58: Entrenching tool in bent configuration.
Long-range Combatives 637
(2) The attacker lunges with a fixed bayonet along the No. 5 angle of attack (Figure 5-59, Step 1).
The defender then steps to the outside to move off the line of attack and turns; he strikes the
point of the blade of the entrenching tool into the side of the attacker’s throat (Figure 5-59,
Step 2).
5-12. Three-foot Stick. Since a stick can be found almost anywhere, a soldier should know its uses as a
field-expedient weapon. The stick is a versatile weapon; its capability ranges from simple prisoner control
to lethal combat.
a.
Use a stick about 3 feet long and grip it by placing it in the vee formed between the thumb and index
finger, as in a handshake. It may also be grasped by two hands and used in an unlimited number of
techniques. The stick is not held at the end, but at a comfortable distance from the butt end.
b. When striking with the stick, achieve maximum power by using the entire body weight behind
each blow. The desired point of contact of the weapon is the last 2 inches at the tip of the stick. The
primary targets for striking with the stick are the vital body points in Chapter 4. Effective striking
points are usually the wrist, hand, knees, and other bony protuberances. Soft targets include the
side of the neck, jugular notch, solar plexus, and various nerve motor points. Attack soft targets by
striking or thrusting the tip of the stick into the area. Three basic methods of striking are—
(1) Thrusting. Grip the stick with both hands and thrust straight into a target with the full body
mass behind it.
(2) Whipping. Hold the stick in one hand and whip it in a circular motion; use the whole body mass
in motion to generate power.
(3) Snapping. Snap the stick in short, shocking blows, again with the body mass behind each
strike.
c.
When the attacker thrusts with a knife to the stomach of the defender with a low No. 5 angle of
attack, the defender moves off the line of attack to the outside and strikes vigorously downward
onto the attacking wrist, hand, or arm (Figure 5-60, Step 1).
The defender then moves forward, thrusts the tip of the stick into the jugular notch of the attacker
(Figure 5-60, Step 2), and drives him to the ground with his body weight—not his upper body
strength (Figure 5-60, Step 3).
d. When using a three-foot stick against a rifle with fixed bayonet, the defender grasps the stick with
two hands, one at each end, as the attacker thrusts forward to the chest (Figure 5-61, Step 1).
He steps off the line of attack to the outside and redirects the weapon with the stick (Figure 5-61,
Step 2).
He then strikes forward with the forearm into the attacker’s throat (Figure 5-61, Step 3). The force
of the two body weights coming together is devastating. The attacker’s neck is trapped in the notch
formed by the stick and the defender’s forearm.
Using the free end of the stick as a lever, the defender steps back and uses his body weight to drive
the attacker to the ground. The leverage provided by the stick against the neck creates a tremendous
choke with the forearm, and the attacker loses control completely (Figure 5-61, Step 4).
5-13. Three-foot Rope. A section of rope about 3 feet long can provide a useful means of self-defense for
the unarmed combat soldier in a hand-to-hand fight. Examples of field-expedient ropes are a web belt,
boot laces, a portion of a 120-foot nylon rope or sling rope, or a cravat rolled up to form a rope. Hold the
rope at the ends so the middle section is rigid enough to almost serve as a stick-like weapon, or the rope can
be held with the middle section relaxed, and then snapped by vigorously pulling the hands apart to strike
638 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-59: Optional use of entrenching tool in bent configuration.
Long-range Combatives 639
Figure 5-60: Three-foot stick against knife.
640 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-61: Three-foot stick against rifle with fixed bayonet.
Long-range Combatives 641
parts of the enemy’s body, such as the head or elbow joint, to cause serious damage. It can also be used to
entangle limbs or weapons held by the opponent, or to strangle him.
a.
When the attacker lunges with a knife to the stomach (Figure 5-62, Step 1), the defender moves off
the line of attack 45 degrees to the outside.
He snaps the rope downward onto the attacking wrist, redirecting the knife (Figure 5-62, Step 2).
Then, he steps forward, allowing the rope to encircle the attacker’s neck (Figure 5-62, Step 3).
Figure 5-62: Three-foot rope against knife.
642 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
He continues to turn his body and sinks his weight to drop the attacker over his hip (Figure 5-62, Step 4).
b. When the attacker thrusts with a fixed bayonet (Figure 5-63, Step 1), the defender moves off the line
of attack and uses the rope to redirect the weapon (Figure 5-63, Step 2).
Then, he moves forward and encircles the attacker’s throat with the rope (Figure 5-63, Step 3). He
continues moving to unbalance the attacker and strangles him with the rope (Figure 5-63, Step 4).
Figure 5-63: Three-foot rope against rifle with fixed bayonet.
Long-range Combatives 643
c.
The 3-foot rope can also be a useful tool against an unarmed opponent. The defender on the left
prepares for an attack by gripping the rope between his hands (Figure 5-64, Step 1).
When the opponent on the right attacks, the defender steps completely off the line of attack and
raises the rope to strike the attacker’s face (Figure 5-64, Step 2).
He then snaps the rope to strike the attacker either across the forehead, just under the nose, or under
the chin by jerking his hands forcefully apart. The incoming momentum of the attacker against the
Figure 5-64: Three-foot rope against unarmed opponent.
644 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
rope will snap his head backward, will probably break his neck, or will at least knock him off his
feet (Figure 5-64, Step 3).
5-14. Six-Foot Pole. Another field-expedient weapon that can mean the difference between life and death
for a soldier in an unarmed conflict is a pole about 6 feet long. Examples of poles suitable for use are mop
handles, pry bars, track tools, tent poles, and small trees or limbs cut to form a pole. A soldier skilled in the
use of a pole as a weapon is a formidable opponent. The size and weight of the pole requires him to move
his whole body to use it effectively. Its length gives the soldier an advantage of distance in most unarmed
situations. There are two methods usually used in striking with a pole:
a.
Swinging. Becoming effective in swinging the pole requires skilled body movement and practice.
The greatest power is developed by striking with the last 2 inches of the pole.
b. Thrusting. The pole is thrust straight along its axis with the user’s body mass firmly behind it.
(1) An attacker tries to thrust forward with a fixed bayonet (Figure 5-65, Step 1).
Figure 5-65: Thrusting with 6-foot pole.
Long-range Combatives 645
The defender moves his body off the line of attack; he holds the tip of the pole so that the
attacker runs into it from his own momentum. He then aims for the jugular notch and anchors
his body firmly in place so that the full force of the attack is felt at the attacker’s throat (Figure
5-65, Step 2).
(2) The defender then shifts his entire body weight forward over his lead foot and drives the attacker
off his feet (Figure 5-65, Step 3).
NOTE: During high stress, small targets, such as the throat, may be difficult to hit. Good, large
targets include the solar plexus and hip/thigh joint.
CHAPTER 6
Sentry Removal
Careful planning, rehearsal, and execution are vital to the success of a mission that requires the removal of
a sentry. This task may be necessary to gain access to an enemy location or to escape confinement.
6-1. Planning Considerations. A detailed schematic of the layout of the area guarded by sentries must be
available. Mark known and suspected locations of all sentries. It will be necessary—
a.
To learn the schedule for the changing of the guards and the checking of the posts.
b. To learn the guard’s meal times. It may be best to attack a sentry soon after he has eaten when his
guard is lowered. Another good time to attack the sentry is when he is going to the latrine.
c.
To post continuous security.
d. To develop a contingency plan.
e.
To plan infiltration and exfiltration routes.
f. To carefully select personnel to accomplish the task.
g. To carry the least equipment necessary to accomplish the mission because silence, stealth, and ease
of movement are essential.
h. To conceal or dispose of killed sentries.
6-2. Rehearsals. Reproduce and rehearse the scenario of the mission as closely as possible to the execution
phase.
Conduct the rehearsal on similar terrain, using sentries, the time schedule, and the contingency plan.
Use all possible infiltration and exfiltration routes to determine which may be the best.
6-3. Execution. When removing a sentry, the soldier uses his stalking skills to approach the enemy undetected.
He must use all available concealment and keep his silhouette as low as possible.
a.
When stepping, the soldier places the ball of his lead foot down first and checks for stability and
silence of the surface to be crossed. He then lightly touches the heel of his lead foot. Next, he transfers
his body weight to his lead foot by shifting his body forward in a relaxed manner. With the
weight on the lead foot, he can bring his rear foot forward in a similar manner.
b.
When approaching the sentry, the soldier synchronizes his steps and movement with the enemy’s,
masking any sounds. He also uses background noises to mask his sounds. He can even follow the sentry
through locked doors this way. He is always ready to strike immediately if he is discovered. He
focuses his attention on the sentry’s head since that is where the sentry generates all of his movement
and attention. However, it is important not to stare at the enemy because he may sense the stalker’s
presence through a sixth sense. He focuses on the sentry’s movements with his peripheral vision. He
gets to within 3 or 4 feet and at the proper moment makes the kill as quickly and silently as possible.
c.
The attacker’s primary focus is to summon all of his mental and physical power to suddenly explode
onto the target. He maintains an attitude of complete confidence throughout the execution. He must
control fear and hesitation because one instant of hesitation could cause his defeat and compromise
the entire mission.
6-4. Psychological Aspects. Killing a sentry is completely different than killing an enemy soldier while
engaged in a firefight. It is a cold and calculated attack on a specific target. After observing a sentry for
647
648 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
hours, watching him eat or look at his wife’s photo, an attachment is made between the stalker and the
sentry. Nonetheless, the stalker must accomplish his task efficiently and brutally. At such close quarters,
the soldier literally feels the sentry fight for his life. The sights, sounds, and smells of this act are imprinted
in the soldier’s mind; it is an intensely personal experience. A soldier who has removed a sentry should be
observed for signs of unusual behavior for four to seven days after the act.
6-5. Techniques. The following techniques are proven and effective ways to remove sentries. A soldier
with moderate training can execute the proper technique for his situation, when he needs to.
a.
Brachial Stun, Throat Cut. This technique relies on complete mental stunning to enable the soldier
to cut the sentry’s throat, severing the trachea and carotid arteries. Death results within 5 to 20
seconds. Some sounds are emitted from the exposed trachea, but the throat can be cut before the
sentry can recover from the effect of the stunning strike and cry out. The soldier silently approaches
to within striking range of the sentry (Figure 6-1, Step 1). The soldier strikes the side of the sentry’s
Figure 6-1: Brachial stun, throat cut.
Sentry Removal 649
neck with the knife butt or a hammer fist strike (Figure 6-1, Step 2), which completely stuns the
sentry for three to seven seconds. He then uses his body weight to direct the sentry’s body to sink
in one direction and uses his other hand to twist the sentry’s head to the side, deeply cutting the
throat across the front in the opposite direction (Figure 6-1, Step 3). He executes the entire length of
the blade in a slicing motion. The sentry’s sinking body provides most of the force—not the soldier’s
upper-arm strength (Figure 6-1, Step 4).
b. Kidney Stab, Throat Cut. This technique relies on a stab to the kidney (Figure 6-2, Step 1) to
induce immediate shock. The kidney is relatively accessible and by inducing shock with such
a stab, the soldier has the time to cut the sentry’s throat. The soldier completes his stalk and
stabs the kidney by pulling the sentry’s balance backward and downward and inserts the knife
upward against his weight. The sentry will possibly gasp at this point, but shock immediately
follows. By using the sentry’s body weight that is falling downward and turning, the soldier
executes a cut across the front of the throat (Figure 6-2, Step 2). This completely severs the trachea
and carotid arteries.
Figure 6-2: Kidney stab, throat cut.
650 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
c.
Pectoral Muscle Strike, Throat Cut. The stun in this technique is produced by a vigorous strike
to the stellate ganglia nerve center at the top of the pectoral muscle (Figure 6-3, Step 1). The
strike is delivered downward with the attacker’s body weight. Use the handle of the knife for
impact. Care should be taken to avoid any equipment worn by the sentry that could obstruct
the strike. Do not try this technique if the sentry is wearing a ballistic vest or bulky LCE. The
sentry is unable to make a sound or move if the stun is properly delivered. The throat is then
cut with a vertical stab downward into the subclavian artery at the junction of the neck and
clavicle (Figure 6-3, Step 2). Death comes within 3 to 10 seconds, and the sentry is lowered to
the ground.
d. Nose Pinch, Mouth Grab, Throat Cut. In this technique, completely pinch off the sentry’s mouth
and nose to prevent any outcry. Then cut his throat or stab his subclavian artery (Figure 6-4). The
Figure 6-3: Pectoral muscle strike, throat cut.
Sentry Removal 651
Figure 6-4: Nose pinch, mouth grab, throat cut.
danger with this technique is that the sentry can resist until he is killed, although he cannot make
a sound.
e.
Crush Larynx, Subclavian Artery Stab. Crush the sentry’s larynx by inserting the thumb and two or
three fingers behind his larynx, then twisting and crushing it. The subclavian artery can be stabbed
at the same time with the other hand (Figure 6-5).
f.
Belgian Takedown. In the Belgian take down technique, the unsuspecting sentry is knocked to the ground
and kicked in the groin, inducing shock. The soldier can then kill the sentry by any proper means. Since
surprise is the essential element of this technique, the soldier must use effective stalking techniques (Figure
6-6, Step 1). To initiate his attack, he grabs both of the sentry’s ankles (Figure 6-6, Step 2). Then he
heaves his body weight into the hips of the sentry while pulling up on the ankles. This technique slams the
sentry to the ground on his face. Then, the soldier follows with a kick to the groin (Figure 6-6, Step 3).
652 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 6-5: Crush larynx, subclavian artery stab.
g. Neck Break With Sentry Helmet. The soldier can break the sentry’s neck by vigorously snatching
back and down on the sentry’s helmet (Figure 6-7, Step 1) while forcing the sentry’s body weight
forward with a knee strike (Figure 6-7, Step 2). The chin strap of the helmet must be fastened for this
technique to work.
h. Knockout With Helmet. The sentry’s helmet is stripped from his head and used by the soldier to
knock him out (Figure 6-8, Step 1). The soldier uses his free hand to stabilize the sentry during the
Sentry Removal 653
Figure 6-6: Belgian takedown.
654 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 6-7: Break neck with sentry helmet.
Figure 6-8: Knockdown with helmet.
Sentry Removal 655
attack. This technique can only be used when the sentry’s chin strap is loose. The preferred target
area for striking with the helmet is at the base of the skull or on the temple (Figure 6-8, Step 2).
i. The Garrote. In this technique, use a length of wire, cord, rope, or webbed belt to takeout a sentry.
Silence is not guaranteed, but the technique is effective if the soldier is unarmed and must escape
from a guarded area. The soldier carefully stalks the sentry from behind with his garrote ready
(Figure 6-9, Step 1). He loops the garrote over the sentry’s head across the throat (Figure 6-9, Step 2)
and forcefully pulls him backward as he turns his own body to place his hips in low against the hips
of the sentry. The sentry’s balance is already taken at this point, and the garrote becomes crossed
around the sentry’s throat when the turn is made. The sentry is thrown over the soldier’s shoulder
and killed by strangling or breaking his neck (Figure 6-9, Step 3).
Figure 6-9: The garrote.
CHAPTER 7
Cover, Concealment, and Camouflage
GENERAL
In a survival situation where you are in hostile territory, if the enemy can see you, he can hit you with his
fire. So you must be concealed from enemy observation and have cover from enemy fire.
When the terrain does not provide natural cover and concealment, you must prepare your cover and use
natural and man-made materials to camouflage yourself, your equipment, and your position. This chapter
provides guidance on the preparation and use of cover, concealment, and camouflage.
COVER
Cover gives protection from bullets, fragments of exploding rounds, flame, nuclear effects, and biological
and chemical agents. Cover can also conceal you from enemy observation. Cover can be natural or manmade.
Natural cover includes such things as logs, trees, stumps, ravines, and hollows. Man-made cover includes
such things as fighting positions, trenches, walls, rubble, and craters. Even the smallest depression or fold
in the ground can give some cover. Look for and use every bit of cover the terrain offers.
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In combat, you need protection from enemy direct and indirect fire.
To get this protection in the defense, build a fighting position (man-made cover) to add to the natural
cover afforded by the terrain.
To get protection from enemy fire in the offense or when moving, use routes that put cover between you
and the places where the enemy is known or thought to be. Use ravines, gullies, hills, wooded areas, walls,
and other cover to keep the enemy from seeing and firing at you. Avoid open areas, and do not skyline
yourself on hilltops and ridges.
CONCEALMENT
Concealment is anything that hides you from enemy observation. Concealment does not protect you from
enemy fire. Do not think that you are protected from the enemy’s fire just because you are concealed. Concealment,
like cover, can also be natural or man-made.
Natural concealment includes such things as bushes, grass, trees, and shadows. If possible, natural concealment
should not be disturbed. Man-made concealment includes such things as battle-dress uniforms,
camouflage nets, face paint, and natural material that has been moved from its original location. Manmade
concealment must blend into the natural concealment provided by the terrain.
Light discipline, noise discipline, movement discipline, and the use of camouflage contribute to concealment.
Light discipline is controlling the use of lights at night by such things as not smoking in the open,
not walking around with a flashlight on, and not using vehicle headlights. Noise discipline is taking action
to deflect sounds generated by your unit (such as operating equipment) away from the enemy and, when
possible, using methods to communicate that do not generate sounds (arm-and-hand signals). Movement
discipline is such things as not moving about fighting positions unless necessary, and not moving on
routes that lack cover and concealment. In the defense, build a well-camouflaged fighting position and
avoid moving about. In the offense, conceal yourself and your equipment with camouflage and move in
woods or on terrain that gives concealment. Darkness cannot hide you from enemy observation in either
offense or defense. The enemy’s night vision devices and other detection means let them find you in both
daylight and darkness.
CAMOUFLAGE
Camouflage is anything you use to keep yourself, your equipment, and your position from looking like
what they are. Both natural and man-made material can be used for camouflage.
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Change and improve your camouflage often. The time between changes and improvements depends
on the weather and on the material used. Natural camouflage will often die, fade, or otherwise lose its
effectiveness. Likewise, man-made camouflage may wear off or fade. When those things happen, you and
your equipment or position may not blend with the surroundings. That may make it easy for the enemy
to spot you.
CAMOUFLAGE CONSIDERATIONS
Movement draws attention. When you give arm-and-hand signals or walk about your position, your movement
can be seen by the naked eye at long ranges. In the defense, stay low and move only when necessary.
In the offense, move only on covered and concealed routes.
Positions must not be where the enemy expects to find them. Build positions on the side of a hill, away
from road junctions or lone buildings, and in covered and concealed places. Avoid open areas.
Outlines and shadows may reveal your position or equipment to air or ground observers. Outlines and
shadows can be broken up with camouflage. When moving, stay in the shadows when possible.
Shine may also attract the enemy’s attention. In the dark, it may be a light such as a burning cigarette
or flashlight. In daylight, it can be reflected light from polished surfaces such as shiny mess gear, a worn
helmet, a windshield, a watch crystal and band, or exposed skin. A light, or its reflection, from a position
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may help the enemy detect the position. To reduce shine, cover your skin with clothing and face paint.
However, in a nuclear attack, darkly painted skin can absorb more thermal energy and may burn more
readily than bare skin. Also, dull the surfaces of equipment and vehicles with paint, mud, or some type of
camouflage material.
Shape is outline or form. The shape of a helmet is easily recognized. A human body is also easily recognized.
Use camouflage and concealment to breakup shapes and blend them with their surroundings. Be
careful not to overdo it.
The colors of your skin, uniform, and equipment may help the enemy detect you if the colors contrast
with the background. For example, a green uniform will contrast with snow-covered terrain. Camouflage
yourself and your equipment to blend with the surroundings.
Dispersion is the spreading of men, vehicles, and equipment over a wide area. It is usually easier for the
enemy to detect soldiers when they are bunched. So, spread out. The distance between you and your fellow
soldier will vary with the terrain, degree of visibility, and enemy situation. Distances will normally be
set by unit leaders or by a unit’s standing operating procedure (SOP).
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HOW TO CAMOUFLAGE
Before camouflaging, study the terrain and vegetation of the area in which you are operating. Then pick
and use the camouflage material that best blends with that area. When moving from one area to another,
change camouflage as needed to blend with the surroundings. Take grass, leaves, brush, and other material
from your location and apply it to your uniform and equipment and put face paint on your skin.
Fighting Positions. When building a fighting position, camouflage it and the dirt taken from it. Camouflage
the dirt used as frontal, flank, rear, and overhead cover. Also camouflage the bottom of the hole to
prevent detection from the air. If necessary, take excess dirt away from the position (to the rear).
Do not overcamouflage. Too much camouflage material may actually disclose a position. Get your camouflage
material from a wide area. An area stripped of all or most of its vegetation may draw attention. Do
not wait until the position is complete to camouflage it. Camouflage the position as you build.
Do not leave shiny or light-colored objects lying about. Hide mess kits, mirrors, food containers, and
white underwear and towels. Do not remove your shirt in the open. Your skin may shine and be seen.
Never use fires where there is a chance that the flame will be seen or the smoke will be smelled by the
enemy. Also, cover up tracks and other signs of movement.
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When camouflage is complete, inspect the position from the enemy’s side. This should be done from
about 35 meters forward of the position. Then check the camouflage periodically to see that it stays naturallooking
and conceals the position. When the camouflage becomes ineffective, change and improve it.
Helmets. Camouflage your helmet with the issue helmet cover or make a cover of cloth or burlap that is
colored to blend with the terrain. The cover should fit loosely with the flaps folded under the helmet or left
hanging. The hanging flaps may break up the helmet outline. Leaves, grass, or sticks can also be attached
to the cover. Use camouflage bands, strings, burlap strips, or rubber bands to hold those in place. If there is
no material for a helmet cover, disguise and dull helmet surface with irregular patterns of paint or mud.
Uniforms. Most uniforms come already camouflaged. However, it may be necessary to add more camouflage
to make the uniform blend better with the surroundings. To do this, put mud on the uniform or attach
leaves, grass, or small branches to it. Too much camouflage, however, may draw attention.
When operating on snow-covered ground, wear overwhites (if issued) to help blend with the snow. If
overwhites are not issued, use white cloth, such as white bedsheets, to get the same effect.
Skin. Exposed skin reflects light and may draw the enemy’s attention. Even very dark skin, because of
its natural oil, will reflect light. Use the following methods when applying camouflage face paint to camouflage
the skin.
When applying camouflage stick to your skin, work with a buddy (in pairs) and help each other. Apply a
two-color combination of camouflage stick in an irregular pattern. Paint shiny areas (forehead, cheekbones,
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nose, ears, and chin) with a dark color. Paint shadow areas (around the eyes, under the nose, and under the
chin) with a light color. In addition to the face, paint the exposed skin on the back of the neck, arms, and
hands. Palms of hands are not normally camouflaged if arm-and-hand signals are to be used. Remove all
jewelry to further reduce shine or reflection.
When camouflage sticks are not issued, use burnt cork, bark, charcoal, lamp black, or light-colored mud.
CHAPTER 8
Tracking
GENERAL
In all operations, you must be alert for signs of enemy activity. Such signs can often alert you to an enemy’s
presence and give your unit time to prepare for contact. The ability to track an enemy after he has broken
contact also helps you regain contact with him.
TRACKER QUALITIES
Visual tracking is following the path of men or animals by the signs they leave, primarily on the ground or
vegetation. Scent tracking is following men or animals by their smell.
Tracking is a precise art. You need a lot of practice to achieve and keep a high level of tracking skill. You
should be familiar with the general techniques of tracking to enable you to detect the presence of a hidden
enemy and to follow him, to find and avoid mines or booby- traps, and to give early warning of ambush.
With common sense and a degree of experience, you can track another person. However, you must
develop the following traits and qualities:
•
Be patient.
•
Be able to move slowly and quietly, yet steadily, while detecting and interpreting signs.
•
Avoid fast movement that may cause you to overlook signs, lose the trail, or blunder into an enemy
unit.
•
Be persistent and have the skill and desire to continue the mission even though signs are scarce or
weather or terrain is unfavorable.
•
Be determined and persistent when trying to find a trail that you have lost.
•
Be observant and try to see things that are not obvious at first glance.
•
Use your senses of smell and hearing to supplement your sight.
•
Develop a feel for things that do not look right. It may help you regain a lost trail or discover additional
signs.
•
Know the enemy, his habits, equipment, and capability.
FUNDAMENTALS OF TRACKING
When tracking an enemy, you should build a picture of him in your mind. Ask yourself such questions as:
How many persons am I following? How well are they trained? How are they equipped? Are they healthy?
How is their morale? Do they know they are being followed?
To find the answer to such questions, use all available signs. A sign can be anything that shows you that
a certain act took place at a particular place and time. For instance, a footprint tells a tracker that at a certain
time a person walked on that spot.
The six fundamentals of tracking are:
•
Displacement.
•
Staining.
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• Weathering.
• Littering.
• Camouflaging.
• Interpretation and/or immediate use intelligence.
Any sign that you find can be identified as one or more of the first five fundamentals.
In the sixth fundamental, you combine the first five and use all of them to form a picture of the enemy.
DISPLACEMENT
Displacement takes place when something is moved from its original position. An example is a footprint
in soft, moist ground. The foot of the person that left the print displaced the soil, leaving an indentation in
the ground. By studying the print, you can determine many facts. For example, a print that was left by a
barefoot person or a person with worn or frayed footgear indicates that he may have poor equipment.
HOW TO ANALYZE FOOTPRINTS
Footprints show the following:
• The direction and rate of movement of a party.
• The number of persons in a party.
• Whether or not heavy loads are carried.
• The sex of the members of a party.
• Whether the members of a party know they are being followed.
If the footprints are deep and the pace is long, the party is moving rapidly. Very long strides and deep
prints, with toe prints deeper than heel prints, indicate that the party is running. If the prints are deep,
short, and widely spaced, with signs of scuffing or shuffling, a heavy load is probably being carried by the
person who left the prints.
You can also determine a person’s sex by studying the size and position of the footprints.
Women generally tend to be pigeon-toed, while men usually walk with their feet pointed straight ahead
or slightly to the outside. Women’s prints are usually smaller than men’s, and their strides are usually
shorter.
If a party knows that it is being followed, it may attempt to hide its tracks. Persons walking backward
have a short, irregular stride. The prints have an unusually deep toe. The soil will be kicked in the direction
of movement.
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The last person walking in a group usually leaves the clearest footprints. Therefore, use his prints as the
key set. Cut a stick the length of each key print and notch the stick to show the print width at the widest
part of the sole. Study the angle of the key prints to determine the direction of march. Look for an identifying
mark or feature on the prints, such as a worn or frayed part of the footwear. If the trail becomes vague
or obliterated, or if the trail being followed merges with another, use the stick to help identify the key
prints. That will help you stay on the trail of the group being followed.
Use the box method to count the number of persons in the group. There are two ways to use the box
method—the stride as a unit of measure method and the 36-inch box method.
The stride as a unit of measure method is the most accurate of the two. Up to 18 persons can be counted
using this method. Use it when the key prints can be determined. To use this method, identify a key print
on a trail and draw a line from its heel across the trail. Then move forward to the key print of the opposite
foot and draw a line through its instep. This should form a box with the edges of the trail forming two
sides, and the drawn lines forming the other two sides. Next, count every print or partial print inside the
box to determine the number of persons. Any person walking normally would have stepped in the box at
least one time. Count the key prints as one.
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To use the 36-inch box method, mark off a 30- to 36-inch cross section of a trail, count the prints in the
box, then divide by two to determine the number of persons that used the trail. (Your M16 rifle is 39 inches
long and may be used as a measuring device.)
OTHER SIGNS OF DISPLACEMENT
Footprints are only one example of displacement. Displacement occurs when anything is moved from its
original position. Other examples are such things as foliage, moss, vines, sticks, or rocks that are moved
from their original places; dew droplets brushed from leaves; stones and sticks that are turned over and
show a different color underneath; and grass or other vegetation that is bent or broken in the direction of
movement.
Bits of cloth may be torn from a uniform and left on thorns, snags, or the ground, and dirt from boots
may make marks on the ground.
Another example of displacement is the movement of wild animals and birds that are flushed from their
natural habitats. You may hear the cries of birds that are excited by strange movements. The movement of
tall grass or brush on a windless day indicates that something is moving the vegetation from its original
position.
When you clear a trail by either breaking or cutting your way through heavy vegetation, you displace
the vegetation. Displacement signs can be made while you stop to rest with heavy loads. The prints made
by the equipment you carry can help to identify its type. When loads are set down at a rest halt or campsite,
grass and twigs may be crushed. A sleeping man may also flatten the vegetation.
In most areas, there will be insects. Any changes in the normal life of these insects may be a sign that
someone has recently passed through the area. Bees that are stirred up, and holes that are covered by someone
moving over them, or spider webs that are torn down are good clues.
If a person uses a stream to cover his trail, algae and water plants may be displaced in slippery footing
or in places where he walks carelessly. Rocks may be displaced from their original position, or turned over
to show a lighter or darker color on their opposite side. A person entering or leaving a stream may create
slide marks, wet banks, or footprints, or he may scuff bark off roots or sticks. Normally, a person or animal
will seek the path of least resistance. Therefore, when you search a stream for exit signs, look for open
places on the banks or other places where it would be easy to leave the stream.
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STAINING
A good example of staining is the mark left by blood from a bleeding wound. Bloodstains often will be in
the form of drops left by a wounded person. Blood signs are found on the ground and smeared on leaves
or twigs.
You can determine the location of a wound on a man being followed by studying the bloodstains. If the
blood seems to be dripping steadily, it probably came from a wound on his trunk. A wound in the lungs
will deposit bloodstains that are pink, bubbly, frothy. A bloodstain deposited from a head wound will
appear heavy, wet, and slimy, like gelatin. Abdominal wounds often mix blood with digestive juices so
that the deposit will have an odor. The stains will be light in color.
Staining can also occur when a person walks over grass, stones, and shrubs with muddy boots. Thus,
staining and displacement together may give evidence of movement and indicate the direction taken.
Crushed leaves may stain rocky ground that is too hard for footprints.
Roots, stones, and vines may be stained by crushed leaves or berries when walked on. Yellow stains in
snow may be urine marks left by personnel in the area.
In some cases, it may be hard to determine the difference between staining and displacement. Both
terms can be applied to some signs. For example, water that has been muddied may indicate recent movement.
The mud has been displaced and it is staining the water. Stones in streams may be stained by mud
from boots. Algae can be displaced from stones in streams and can stain other stones or bark.
Water in footprints in swampy ground may be muddy if the tracks are recent. In time, however, the mud
will settle and the water will clear. The clarity of the water can be used to estimate the age of the prints.
Normally, the mud will clear in 1 hour. That will vary with terrain.
WEATHERING
Weather may either aid or hinder tracking. It affects signs in ways that help determine how old they are,
but wind, snow, rain, and sunlight can also obliterate signs completely.
By studying the effects of weather on signs, you can determine the age of the sign. For example, when
bloodstains are fresh, they may be bright red. Air and sunlight will change the appearance of blood first to
a deep ruby-red color, and then to a dark brown crust when the moisture evaporates. Scuff marks on trees
or bushes darken with time. Sap oozes from fresh cuts on trees but it hardens when exposed to the air.
FOOTPRINTS
Footprints are greatly affected by weather. When a foot displaces soft, moist soil to form a print, the moisture
holds the edges of the print intact and sharp. As sunlight and air dry the edges of the print, small particles
that were held in place by the moisture fall into the print, making the edges appear rounded. Study
this process carefully to estimate the age of a print. If particles are just beginning to fall into a print, it is
probably fresh. If the edges of the print are dried and crusty, the prints are probably at least an hour old.
The effects of weather will vary with the terrain, so this information is furnished as a guide only.
A light rain may round out the edges of a print. Try to remember when the last rain occurred in order to
put prints into a proper time frame. A heavy rain may erase all signs.
Wind also affects prints. Besides drying out a print, the wind may blow litter, sticks, or leaves into it. Try
to remember the wind activity in order to help determine the age of a print. For example, you may think,
“It is calm now, but the wind blew hard an hour ago. These prints have litter blown into them, so they
must be over an hour old.” You must be sure, however, that the litter was blown into the prints, and was
not crushed into them when the prints were made.
Trails leaving streams may appear to be weathered by rain because of water running into the footprints
from wet clothing or equipment. This is particularly true if a party leaves a stream in a file. From this formation,
each person drips water into the prints. A wet trail slowly fading into a dry trail indicates that the
trail is fresh.
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WIND, SOUNDS, AND ODORS
Wind affects sounds and odors. If the wind is blowing from the direction of a trail you are following,
sounds and odors are carried to you. If the wind is blowing in the same direction as the trail you are
following, you must be cautious as the wind will carry your sounds toward the enemy. To find the wind
direction, drop a handful of dry dirt or grass from shoulder height.
To help you decide where a sound is coming from, cup your hands behind your ears and slowly turn.
When the sound is loudest, you are probably facing the origin of sound. When moving, try to keep the
wind in your face.
SUN
You must also consider the effects of the sun. It is hard to look or aim directly into the sun. If possible, keep
the sun at your back.
LITTERING
Poorly trained units may leave trails of litter as they move. Gum or candy wrappers, ration cans, cigarette
butts, remains of fires, or human feces are unmistakable signs of recent movement.
Weather affects litter. Rain may flatten or wash litter away, or turn paper into pulp. Winds may blow litter
away from its original location. Ration cans exposed to weather will rust. They first rust at the exposed
edge where they were opened. Rust then moves in toward the center. Use your memory to determine the
age of litter. The last rain or strong wind can be the basis of a time frame.
CAMOUFLAGE
If a party knows that you are tracking it, it will probably use camouflage to conceal its movement and to slow
and confuse you. Doing so, however, will slow it down. Walking backward, brushing out trails, and moving
over rocky ground or through streams are examples of camouflage that can be used to confuse you.
The party may move on hard surfaced, frequently traveled roads or try to merge with traveling civilians.
Examine such routes with extreme care, because a well-defined approach that leads to the enemy will
probably be mined, ambushed, or covered by snipers.
The party may try to avoid leaving a trail. Its members may wrap rags around their boots, or wear softsoled
shoes to make the edges of their footprints rounder and less distinct. The party may exit a stream in
column or line to reduce the chance of leaving a well-defined exit.
If the party walks backward to leave a confusing trail, the footprints will be deepened at the toe, and the
soil will be scuffed or dragged in the direction of movement.
If a trail leads across rocky or hard ground, try to work around that ground to pick up the exit trail. This
process works in streams as well. On rocky ground, moss or lichens growing on the stones could be displaced
by even the most careful evader. If you lose the trail, return to the last visible sign. From there, head in the
direction of the party’s movement. Move in ever-widening circles until you find some signs to follow.
INTERPRETATION/IMMEDIATE USE INTELLIGENCE
When reporting, do not report your interpretations as facts. Report that you have seen signs of certain
things, not that those things actually exist.
Report all information quickly. The term “immediate use intelligence” includes information of the enemy
that can be put to use at once to gain surprise, to keep the enemy off balance, or to keep him from escaping an
area . A commander has many sources of intelligence. He puts the information from those sources together
to help determine where an enemy is, what he may be planning, and where he maybe going.
Information you report gives your leader definite information on which he can act at once. For example,
you may report that your leader is 30 minutes behind an enemy unit, that the enemy is moving north, and
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that he is now at a certain place. That gives your leader information on which he can act at once. He could
then have you keep on tracking and move another unit to attack the enemy. If a trail is found that has signs
of recent enemy activity, your leader can set up an ambush on it.
TRACKING TEAMS
Your unit may form tracking teams. The lead team of a moving unit can be a tracking team, or a separate
unit may be a tracking team. There are many ways to organize such teams, and they can be any size. There
should, however, be a leader, one or more trackers, and security for the trackers. A typical organization has
three trackers, three security men, and a team leader with a radiotelephone operator (RATELO).
When a team is moving, the best tracker should be in the lead, followed by his security. The two other
trackers should be on the flanks, each one followed and overmatched by his security. The leader should be
where he can best control the team. The RATELO should be with the leader.
COUNTERTRACKING
In addition to knowing how to track, you must know how to counter an enemy tracker’s efforts to track
you. Some countertracking techniques are discussed in the following paragraphs:
•
While moving from close terrain to open terrain, walk past a big tree (30 cm [12 in] in diameter or
larger) toward the open area for three to five paces. Then walk backward to the forward side of the
tree and make a 90-degree change of direction, passing the tree on its forward side. Step carefully
and leave as little sign as possible. If this is not the direction that you want to go, change direction
again about 50 meters away using the same technique. The purpose of this is to draw the enemy
tracker into the open area where it is harder for him to track. That also exposes him and causes him
to search the wrong area.
•
When approaching a trail (about 100 meters from it), change your direction of movement and
approach it at a 45-degree angle. When arriving at the trail, move along it for about 20 to 30 meters.
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Leave several signs of your presence. Then walk backward along the trail to the point where you
join edit. At that point, cross the trail and leave no sign of your leaving it. Then move about 100
meters at an angle of 45 degrees, but this time on the other side of the trail and in the reverse of your
approach. When changing direction back to your original line of march, the big tree technique can
be used. The purpose of this technique is to draw the enemy tracker along the easier trail. You have,
by changing direction before reaching the trail, indicated that the trail is your new line of march.
•
To leave a false trail and to get an enemy tracker to look in the wrong direction, walk backward
over soft ground. Continue this deception for about 20 to 30 meters or until you are on hard ground.
Use this technique when leaving a stream. To further confuse the enemy tracker, use this technique
several times before actually leaving the stream.
•
When moving toward a stream, change direction about 100 meters before reaching the stream and
approach it at a 45-degree angle. Enter the stream and proceed down it for at least 20 to 30 meters.
Then move back upstream and leave the stream in your initial direction. Changing direction before
entering the stream may confuse the enemy tracker. When he enters the stream, he should follow
the false trail until the trail is lost. That will put him well away from you.
•
When your direction of movement parallels a stream, use the stream to deceive an enemy tracker.
Some tactics that will help elude a tracker are as follows:
o
Stay in the stream for 100 to 200 meters.
o
Stay in the center of the stream and in deep water.
o
Watch for rocks or roots near the banks that are not covered with moss or vegetation and
leave the stream at that point.
o
Walk out backward on soft ground.
o
Walk up a small, vegetation-covered tributary and exit from it.
•
When being tracked by an enemy tracker, the best bet is to either try to out-distance him or to
double back and ambush him.
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CHAPTER 9
Movement
GENERAL
Normally, you will spend more time moving than fighting. You must use proper movement techniques to
avoid contact with the enemy when you are not prepared for contact.
The fundamentals of movement discussed in this chapter provide techniques that all soldiers should
learn. These techniques should be practiced until they become second nature.
MOVEMENT TECHNIQUES
Your unit’s ability to move depends on your movement skills and those of your fellow soldiers. Use the
following techniques to avoid being seen or heard by the enemy:
•
Camouflage yourself and your equipment.
•
Tape your dog tags together and to the chain so they cannot slide or rattle. Tape or pad the parts
of your weapon and equipment that rattle or are so loose that they may snag (the tape or padding
must not interfere with the operation of the weapon or equipment).
•
Jump up and down and listen for rattles.
•
Wear soft, well-fitting clothes.
•
Do not carry unnecessary equipment. Move from covered position to revered position (taking no
longer than 3 to 5 seconds between positions).
•
Stop, look, and listen before moving. Look for your next position before leaving a position.
•
Look for covered and concealed routes on which to move.
•
Change direction slightly from time to time when moving through tall grass.
•
Stop, look, and listen when birds or animals are alarmed (the enemy may be nearby).
•
Use battlefield noises, such as weapon noises, to conceal movement noises.
•
Cross roads and trails at places that have the most cover and concealment (large culverts, low spots,
curves, or bridges).
•
Avoid steep slopes and places with loose dirt or stones.
•
Avoid cleared, open areas and tops of hills and ridges.
METHODS OF MOVEMENT
In addition to walking, you may move in one of three other methods—low crawl, high crawl, or rush.
The low crawl gives you the lowest silhouette. Use it to cross places where the concealment is very
low and enemy fire or observation prevents you from getting up. Keep your body flat against the
ground. With your firing hand, grasp your weapon sling at the upper sling—swivel. Let the front hand
guard rest on your forearm (keeping the muzzle off the ground), and let the weapon butt drag on the
ground.
To move, push your arms forward and pull your firing side leg forward. Then pull with your arms and
push with your leg. Continue this throughout the move.
The high crawl lets you move faster than the low crawl and still gives you a low silhouette. Use this
crawl when there is good concealment but enemy fire prevents you from getting up. Keep your body
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off the ground and resting on your forearms and lower legs. Cradle your weapon in your arms and
keep its muzzle off the ground. Keep your knees well behind your buttocks so your body will stay
low.
To move, alternately advance your right elbow and left knee, then your left elbow and right knee.
The rush is the fastest way to move from one position to another. Each rush should last from 3 to 5
seconds. The rushes are kept short to keep enemy machine gunners or riflemen from tracking you. However,
do not stop and hit the ground in the open just because 5 seconds have passed. Always try to hit the
ground behind some cover. Before moving, pick out your next covered and concealed position and the best
route to it.
Make your move from the prone position as follows:
• Slowly raise your head and pick your next position and the route to it.
• Slowly lower your head.
• Draw your arms into your body (keeping your elbows in).
• Pull your right leg forward.
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• Raise your body by straightening your arms.
• Get up quickly.
• Run to the next position.
When you are ready to stop moving, do the following:
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•
Plant both of your feet.
•
Drop to your knees (at the same time slide a hand to the butt of your rifle).
•
Fall forward, breaking the fall with the butt of the rifle.
•
Go to a prone firing position.
If you have been firing from one position for some time, the enemy may have spotted you and may be waiting
for you to come up from behind cover. So, before rushing forward, roll or crawl a short distance from your position.
By coming up from another spot, you may fool an enemy who is aiming at one spot, waiting for you to rise.
When the route to your next position is through an open area, rush by zigzagging. If necessary, hit the
ground, roll right or left, then rush again.
MOVING WITH STEALTH
Moving with stealth means moving quietly, slowly, and carefully. This requires great patience.
To move with stealth, use the following techniques:
•
Hold your rifle at port arms (ready position).
•
Make your footing sure and solid by keeping your body’s weight on the foot on the ground while
stepping.
•
Raise the moving leg high to clear brush or grass.
•
Gently let the moving foot down toe first, with your body’s weight on the rear leg.
•
Lower the heel of the moving foot after the toe is in a solid place.
•
Shift your body’s weight and balance to the forward foot before moving the rear foot.
•
Take short steps to help maintain balance.
At night, and when moving through dense vegetation, avoid making noise. Hold your weapon with one
hand, and keep the other hand forward, feeling for obstructions.
When going into a prone position, use the following techniques:
•
Hold your rifle with one hand and crouch slowly.
•
Feel for the ground with your freehand to make sure it is clear of mines, tripwires, and other hazards.
•
Lower your knees, one at a time, until your body’s weight is on both knees and your free hand.
•
Shift your weight to your free hand and opposite knee.
•
Raise your free leg up and back, and lower it gently to that side.
•
Move the other leg into position the same way.
•
Roll quietly into a prone position.
Use the following techniques when crawling:
•
Crawl on your hands and knees. Hold your rifle in your firing hand.
•
Use your nonfiring hand to feel for and make clear spots for your hands and knees to move to.
•
Move your hands and knees to those spots, and put them down softly.
IMMEDIATE ACTIONS WHILE MOVING
This section furnishes guidance for the immediate actions you should take when reacting to enemy indirect
fire and flares.
Reacting to indirect fire. If you come under indirect fire while moving, quickly look to your leader for orders.
He will either tell you to run out of the impact area in a certain direction or will tell you to follow him. If
you cannot see your leader, but can see other team members, follow them. If alone, or if you cannot see
your leader or the other team members, run out of the area in a direction away from the incoming fire.
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It is hard to move quickly on rough terrain, but the terrain may provide good cover. In such terrain, it may
be best to take cover and wait for flares to burn out. After they burn out, move out of the area quickly.
Reacting to Ground Flares. The enemy puts out ground flares as warning devices. He sets them off himself
or attaches tripwires to them for you to trip on and set them off. He usually puts the flares in places he can
watch.
If you are caught in the light of a ground flare, move quickly out of the lighted area. The enemy will
know where the ground flare is and will be ready to fire into that area. Move well away from the lighted
area. While moving out of the area, look for other team members. Try to follow or join them to keep the
team together.
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Reacting to Aerial Flares. The enemy uses aerial flares to light up vital areas. They can be set off like
ground flares; fired from hand projectors, grenade launchers, mortars, and artillery; or dropped from
aircraft.
If you hear the firing of an aerial flare while you are moving, hit the ground (behind cover if possible)
while the flare is rising and before it bursts and illuminates.
If moving where it is easy to blend with the background (such as in a forest) and you are caught in the
light of an aerial flare, freeze in place until the flare burns out.
If you are caught in the light of an aerial flare while moving in an open area, immediately crouch low
or lie down.
If you are crossing an obstacle, such as a barbed-wire fence or a wall, and get caught in the light of an
aerial flare, crouch low and stay down until the flare burns out.
The sudden light of a bursting flare may temporarily blind both you and the enemy. When the
enemy uses a flare to spot you, he spoils his own night vision. To protect your night vision, close one
eye while the flare is burning. When the flare burns out, the eye that was closed will still have its night
vision.
MOVING WITHIN A TEAM
You will usually move as a member of a team. Small teams, such as infantry fire teams, normally move in a
wedge formation. Each soldier in the team has a set position in the wedge, determined by the type weapon
he carries. That position, however, may be changed by the team leader to meet the situation. The normal
distance between soldiers is 10 meters.
You may have to make a temporary change in the wedge formation when moving through close terrain.
The soldiers in the sides of the wedge close into a single file when moving in thick brush or through
a narrow pass. After passing through such an area, they should spread out, again forming the wedge. You
should not wait for orders to change the formation or the interval. You should change automatically and
stay in visual contact with the other team members and the team leader.
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The team leader leads by setting the example. His standing order is, FOLLOW ME AND DO AS I DO.
When he moves to the left, you should move to the left. When he gets down, you should get down. When
he fires, you should fire.
When visibility is limited, control during movement may become difficult. Two l-inch horizontal strips
of luminous tape, sewn directly on the rear of the helmet camouflage band with a l-inch space between
them, are a device for night identification.
Night identification for your patrol cap could be two l-inch by 1/2-inch strips of luminous tape sewn
vertically, directly on the rear of the cap. They should be centered, with the bottom edge of each tape even
with the bottom edge of the cap and with a l-inch space between the two tapes.
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FIRE AND MOVEMENT
When a unit makes contact with the enemy, it normally starts firing at and moving toward the enemy. Sometimes
the unit may move away from the enemy. That technique is called fire and movement. It is conducted
either to close with and destroy the enemy, or to move away from the enemy so as to break contact with him.
The firing and moving take place at the same time. There is a fire element and a movement element.
These elements may be single soldiers, buddy teams, fire teams, or squads. Regardless of the size of the
elements, the action is still fire and movement.
The fire element covers the move of the movement element by firing at the enemy. This helps keep the
enemy from firing back at the movement element.
The movement element moves either to close with the enemy or to reach a better position from which to
fire at him. The movement element should not move until the fire element is firing.
Depending on the distance to the enemy position and on the available cover, the fire element and the
movement element switch roles as needed to keep moving.
Before the movement element moves beyond the supporting range of the fire element (the distance
within which the weapons of the fire element can fire and support the movement element), it should take
a position from which it can fire at the enemy. The movement element then becomes the next fire element
and the fire element becomes the next movement element.
If your team makes contact, your team leader should tell you to fire or to move. He should also tell you where
to fire from, what to fire at, or where to move to. When moving, use the low crawl, high crawl, or rush.
FOOT MARCH LOADS
The fighting load for a conditioned soldier should not exceed 48 pounds and the approach march load should
not exceed 72 pounds. These load weights include all clothing and equipment that are worn and carried.
a.
A soldier’s ability to react to the enemy is reduced by the burden of his load. Load carrying causes
fatigue and lack of agility, placing soldiers at a disadvantage when rapid reaction to the enemy is
required. For example, the time a soldier needs to complete an obstacle course is increased from 10
Movement 685
to 15 percent, depending on the configuration of the load, for every 10 pounds of equipment carried.
It is likely that a soldier’s agility in the assault will be degraded similarly.
b. Speed of movement is as important a factor in causing exhaustion as the weight of the load carried.
The chart at Figure 5-1 shows the length of time that work rates can be sustained before soldiers
become exhausted and energy expenditure rates for march speeds and loads. A burst rate of energy
expenditure of 900 to 1,000 calories per hour can only be sustained for 6 to 10 minutes. Fighting
loads must be light so that the bursts of energy available to a soldier are used to move and to fight,
rather than to carry more than the minimum fighting equipment.
c.
When carrying loads during approach marches, a soldier’s speed can cause a rate-of-energy expenditure
of over 300 calories per hour and can erode the reserves of energy needed upon enemy
contact. March speeds must be reduced when loads are heavier to stay within reasonable energy
expenditure rates. Carrying awkward loads and heavy handheld items causes further degradation
of march speed and agility. The distance marched in six hours decreases by about 2 km for every 10
pounds carried over 40 pounds.
Work rate and energy expenditure.
March speeds.
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Battlefield stress decreases the ability of soldiers to carry their loads. Fear burns up the glycogen in the
muscles required to perform physical tasks. This wartime factor is often overlooked in peacetime, but the
commander must consider such a factor when establishing the load for each soldier. However, applying
strong leadership to produce well-trained, highly motivated soldiers can lessen some of the effects of stress.
As the modern battlefield becomes more sophisticated, potential enemies develop better protected equipment,
which could be presented as fleeting targets. Unless technological breakthroughs occur, increasingly
heavy munitions and new types of target acquisition and communications equipment will be required by
frontline soldiers to defeat the enemy.
a.
In the future, the foot soldier’s load can be decreased only by sending him into battle inadequately
equipped or by providing some means of load-handling equipment to help him carry required
equipment.
Weights of selected items.
Movement 687
b. Unless part of the load is removed from the soldier’s back and carried elsewhere, all individual load
weights are too heavy. Even if rucksacks are removed, key teams on the battlefield cannot fulfill
their roles unless they carry excessively heavy loads. Soldiers who must carry heavy loads restrict
the mobility of their units.
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Movement 691
CHAPTER 10
Field-expedient Direction Finding
In a survival situation, you will be extremely fortunate if you happen to have a map and compass. If you
do have these two pieces of equipment, you will most likely be able to move toward help. If you are not
proficient in using a map and compass, you must take the steps to gain this skill.
There are several methods by which you can determine direction by using the sun and the stars. These
methods, however, will give you only a general direction. You can come up with a more nearly true direction
if you know the terrain of the territory or country.
You must learn all you can about the terrain of the country or territory to which you or your unit may
be sent, especially any prominent features or landmarks. This knowledge of the terrain together with using
the methods explained below will let you come up with fairly true directions to help you navigate.
USING THE SUN AND SHADOWS
The earth’s relationship to the sun can help you to determine direction on earth. The sun always rises in the
east and sets in the west, but not exactly due east or due west. There is also some seasonal variation. In the
northern hemisphere, the sun will be due south when at its highest point in the sky, or when an object casts
no appreciable shadow. In the southern hemisphere, this same noonday sun will mark due north. In the
northern hemisphere, shadows will move clockwise. Shadows will move counterclockwise in the southern
hemisphere. With practice, you can use shadows to determine both direction and time of day. The shadow
methods used for direction finding are the shadow-tip and watch methods.
Shadow-Tip Methods. In the first shadow-tip method, find a straight stick 1 meter long, and a level spot
free of brush on which the stick will cast a definite shadow. This method is simple and accurate and consists
of four steps:
Step 1. Place the stick or branch into the ground at a level spot where it will cast a distinctive shadow.
Mark the shadow’s tip with a stone, twig, or other means. This first shadow mark is always west—everywhere
on earth.
Step 2. Wait 10 to 15 minutes until the shadow tip moves a few centimeters. Mark the shadow tip’s new
position in the same way as the first.
Step 3. Draw a straight line through the two marks to obtain an approximate east-west line.
Step 4. Stand with the first mark (west) to your left and the second mark to your right—you are now
facing north. This fact is true everywhere on earth.
An alternate method is more accurate but requires more time. Set up your shadow stick and mark the
first shadow in the morning. Use a piece of string to draw a clean arc through this mark and around the
stick. At midday, the shadow will shrink and disappear. In the afternoon, it will lengthen again and at the
point where it touches the arc, make a second mark. Draw a line through the two marks to get an accurate
east-west line (see Figure 10-1).
The Watch Method. You can also determine direction using a common or analog watch—one that has
hands. The direction will be accurate if you are using true local time, without any changes for daylight savings
time. Remember, the further you are from the equator, the more accurate this method will be. If you
only have a digital watch, you can overcome this obstacle. Quickly draw a watch on a circle of paper with
the correct time on it and use it to determine your direction at that time.
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Figure 10-1: Shadow-tip method.
In the northern hemisphere, hold the watch horizontal and point the hour hand at the sun. Bisect the
angle between the hour hand and the 12 o’clock mark to get the north-south line (Figure 10-2). If there is
any doubt as to which end of the line is north, remember that the sun rises in the east, sets in the west, and
is due south at noon. The sun is in the east before noon and in the west after noon.
Note: If your watch is set on daylight savings time, use the midway point between the hour hand and
1 o’clock to determine the north-south line.
In the southern hemisphere, point the watch’s 12 o’clock mark toward the sun and a midpoint halfway
between 12 and the hour hand will give you the north-south line (Figure 10-2).
USING THE MOON
Because the moon has no light of its own, we can only see it when it reflects the sun’s light. As it orbits the
earth on its 28-day circuit, the shape of the reflected light varies according to its position. We say there is
a new moon or no moon when it is on the opposite side of the earth from the sun. Then, as it moves away
from the earth’s shadow, it begins to reflect light from its right side and waxes to become a full moon
before waning, or losing shape, to appear as a sliver on the left side. You can use this information to identify
direction.
Field-expedient Direction Finding 695
Figure 10-2: Watch method.
If the moon rises before the sun has set, the illuminated side will be the west. If the moon rises after
midnight, the illuminated side will be the east. This obvious discovery provides us with a rough east-west
reference during the night.
USING THE STARS
Your location in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere determines which constellation you use to determine
your north or south direction.
The Northern Sky. The main constellations to learn are the Ursa Major, also known as the Big Dipper or
the Plow, and Cassiopeia (Figure 10-3). Neither of these constellations ever sets. They are always visible on
a clear night. Use them to locate Polaris, also known as the polestar or the North Star. The North Star forms
part of the Little Dipper handle and can be confused with the Big Dipper. Prevent confusion by using both
the Big Dipper and Cassiopeia together. The Big Dipper and Cassiopeia are always directly opposite each
other and rotate counterclockwise around Polaris, with Polaris in the center. The Big Dipper is a seven star
constellation in the shape of a dipper. The two stars forming the outer lip of this dipper are the “pointer
stars” because they point to the North Star. Mentally draw a line from the outer bottom star to the outer
top star of the Big Dipper’s bucket. Extend this line about five times the distance between the pointer stars.
You will find the North Star along this line.
Cassiopeia has five stars that form a shape like a “W” on its side. The North Star is straight out from
Cassiopeia’s center star.
After locating the North Star, locate the North Pole or true north by drawing an imaginary line directly
to the earth.
The Southern Sky. Because there is no star bright enough to be easily recognized near the south celestial
pole, a constellation known as the Southern Cross is used as a signpost to the South (Figure 10-4). The
Southern Cross or Crux has five stars. Its four brightest stars form a cross that tilts to one side. The two
stars that make up the cross’s long axis are the pointer stars. To determine south, imagine a distance five
times the distance between these stars and the point where this imaginary line ends is in the general direction
of south. Look down to the horizon from this imaginary point and select a landmark to steer by. In a
static survival situation, you can fix this location in daylight if you drive stakes in the ground at night to
point the way.
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Figure 10-3: The Big Dipper and Cassiopeia.
MAKING IMPROVISED COMPASSES
You can construct improvised compasses using a piece of ferrous metal that can be needle shaped or a flat
double-edged razor blade and a piece of nonmetallic string or long hair from which to suspend it. You can
magnetize or polarize the metal by slowly stroking it in one direction on a piece of silk or carefully through
your hair using deliberate strokes. You can also polarize metal by stroking it repeatedly at one end with a
magnet. Always rub in one direction only. If you have a battery and some electric wire, you can polarize
the metal electrically. The wire should be insulated. If not insulated, wrap the metal object in a single, thin
strip of paper to prevent contact. The battery must be a minimum of 2 volts. Form a coil with the electric
wire and touch its ends to the battery’s terminals. Repeatedly insert one end of the metal object in and out
of the coil. The needle will become an electromagnet. When suspended from a piece of nonmetallic string,
or floated on a small piece of wood in water, it will align itself with a north-south line.
You can construct a more elaborate improvised compass using a sewing needle or thin metallic object,
a nonmetallic container (for example, a plastic dip container), its lid with the center cut out and waterproofed,
and the silver tip from a pen. To construct this compass, take an ordinary sewing needle and
break in half. One half will form your direction pointer and the other will act as the pivot point. Push the
portion used as the pivot point through the bottom center of your container; this portion should be flush on
the bottom and not interfere with the lid. Attach the center of the other portion (the pointer) of the needle
on the pen’s silver tip using glue, tree sap, or melted plastic. Magnetize one end of the pointer and rest it
on the pivot point.
OTHER MEANS OF DETERMINING DIRECTION
The old saying about using moss on a tree to indicate north is not accurate because moss grows completely
around some trees. Actually, growth is more lush on the side of the tree facing the south in the Northern
Hemisphere and vice versa in the Southern Hemisphere. If there are several felled trees around for comparison,
look at the stumps. Growth is more vigorous on the side toward the equator and the tree growth
Field-expedient Direction Finding 697
Figure 10-4: The Southern Cross.
rings will be more widely spaced. On the other hand, the tree growth rings will be closer together on the
side toward the poles.
Wind direction may be helpful in some instances where there are prevailing directions and you know
what they are.
Recognizing the differences between vegetation and moisture patterns on north- and south-facing
slopes can aid in determining direction. In the northern hemisphere, north-facing slopes receive less sun
than south-facing slopes and are therefore cooler and damper. In the summer, north-facing slopes retain
patches of snow. In the winter, the trees and open areas on south-facing slopes are the first to lose their
snow, and ground snow pack is shallower.
PART VI
Environment-Specific
Survival
CHAPTER 1
Tropical Survival
Most people think of the tropics as a huge and forbidding tropical rain forest through which every step
taken must be hacked out, and where every inch of the way is crawling with danger. Actually, over half of
the land in the tropics is cultivated in some way.
A knowledge of field skills, the ability to improvise, and the application of the principles of survival
will increase the prospects of survival. Do not be afraid of being alone in the jungle; fear will lead to panic.
Panic will lead to exhaustion and decrease your chance of survival.
Everything in the jungle thrives, including disease germs and parasites that breed at an alarming rate.
Nature will provide water, food, and plenty of materials to build shelters.
Indigenous peoples have lived for millennia by hunting and gathering. However, it will take an outsider
some time to get used to the conditions and the nonstop activity of tropical survival.
TROPICAL WEATHER
High temperatures, heavy rainfall, and oppressive humidity characterize equatorial and subtropical
regions, except at high altitudes. At low altitudes, temperature variation is seldom less than 10 degrees C
and is often more than 35 degrees C. At altitudes over 1,500 meters, ice often forms at night. The rain has a
cooling effect, but when it stops, the temperature soars.
Rainfall is heavy, often with thunder and lightning. Sudden rain beats on the tree canopy, turning trickles
into raging torrents and causing rivers to rise. Just as suddenly, the rain stops. Violent storms may
occur, usually toward the end of the summer months.
Hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons develop over the sea and rush inland, causing tidal waves and devastation
ashore. In choosing campsites, make sure you are above any potential flooding. Prevailing winds
vary between winter and summer. The dry season has rain once a day and the monsoon has continuous
rain. In Southeast Asia, winds from the Indian Ocean bring the monsoon, but it is dry when the wind blows
from the landmass of China.
Tropical day and night are of equal length. Darkness falls quickly and daybreak is just as sudden.
Figure 1-1: Five layers of tropical rain forest vegetation.
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TYPES OF JUNGLES
The jungle environment includes densely forested areas, grasslands, cultivated areas, and swamps. Jungles
are classified as primary or secondary jungles based on the terrain and vegetation.
Primary Jungles. These are tropical forests. Depending on the type of trees growing in these forests, primary
jungles are classified either as tropical rain forests or as deciduous forests.
Tropical Rain Forests. The climate varies little in rain forests. You find these forests across the equator in the
Amazon and Congo basins, parts of Indonesia, and several Pacific islands. Up to 3.5 meters of rain fall evenly
throughout the year. Temperatures range from about 32 degrees C in the day to 21 degrees C at night.
TROPICAL RAIN FOREST DECIDUOUS FOREST
Tropical Survival 703
There are five layers of vegetation in this jungle. Where untouched by man, jungle trees rise from buttress
roots to heights of 60 meters. Below them, smaller trees produce a canopy so thick that little light
reaches the jungle floor. Seedlings struggle beneath them to reach light, and masses of vines and lianas
twine up to the sun. Ferns, mosses, and herbaceous plants push through a thick carpet of leaves, and a
great variety of fungi grow on leaves and fallen tree trunks.
Because of the lack of light on the jungle floor, there is little undergrowth to hamper movement, but
dense growth limits visibility to about 50 meters. A wet and soggy surface make vehicular traffic difficult.
Foot movement is easier in tropical forests than in other types of jungle. You can easily lose your sense of
direction in this jungle, and it is extremely hard for aircraft to see you.
Deciduous Forests. These are found in semitropical zones where there are both wet and dry seasons. In the
wet season, trees are fully leaved; in the dry season, much of the foliage dies. Trees are generally less dense
in deciduous forests than in rain forests. This allows more rain and sunlight to filter to the ground, producing
thick undergrowth. In the wet season, with the trees in full leaf, observation both from the air and on
the ground is limited. Movement is more difficult than in the rain forest. In the dry season, however, both
observation and trafficability improve.
The characteristics of the American and African semievergreen seasonal forests correspond with those
of the Asian monsoon forests. These characteristics are—
•
Their trees fall into two stories of tree strata. Those in the upper story average 18 to 24 meters; those
in the lower story average 7 to 13 meters.
•
The diameter of the trees averages 0.5 meter.
•
Their leaves fall during a seasonal drought.
Except for the sage, nipa, and coconut palms, the same edible plants grow in these areas as in the tropical
rain forests.
You find these forests in portions of Columbia and Venezuela and the Amazon basin in South America;
in portions of southeast coastal Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique in Africa; in Northeastern India, much
of Burma, Thailand, Indochina, Java, and parts of other Indonesian islands in Asia.
Secondary Jungles. These are found at the edge of the rain forest and the deciduous forest, and in areas
where jungles have been cleared and abandoned. Secondary jungles appear when the ground has been
repeatedly exposed to sunlight. These areas are typically overgrown with weeds, grasses, thorns, ferns,
canes, and shrubs. Foot movement is extremely slow and difficult. Vegetation may reach to a height of
2 meters. This will limit observation to the front to only a few meters.
SECONDARY JUNGLE
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Such growth happens mainly along river banks, on jungle fringes, and where man has cleared rain forest.
When abandoned, tangled masses of vegetation quickly reclaim these cultivated areas. You can often
find cultivated food plants among this vegetation.
Tropical Scrub and Thorn Forests. The chief characteristics of tropical scrub and thorn forests are—
• There is a definite dry season.
• Trees are leafless during the dry season.
• The ground is bare except for a few tufted plants in bunches; grasses are uncommon.
• Plants with thorns predominate.
• Fires occur frequently.
You find tropical scrub and thorn forests on the west coast of Mexico, Yucatan peninsula, Venezuela,
Brazil; on the northwest coast and central parts of Africa; and in Asia, in Turkestan and India.
Within the tropical scrub and thorn forest areas, you will find it hard to obtain food plants during the
dry season. During the rainy season, plants are considerably more abundant.
COMMON JUNGLE FEATURES
Swamps. These are common to all low jungle areas where there is water and poor drainage. There are two
basic types of swamps—mangrove and palm.
Mangrove Swamps. These are found in coastal areas wherever tides influence water flow. The mangrove
is a shrub-like tree which grows 1 to 5 meters high. These trees have tangled root systems, both above and
below the water level, which restrict movement to foot or small boats. Observation in mangrove swamps,
both on the ground and from the air, is poor, and movement is extremely difficult. Sometimes, streams that
you can raft form channels, but you usually must travel on foot through this swamp.
You find saltwater swamps in West Africa, Madagascar, Malaysia, the Pacific islands, Central and South
America, and at the mouth of the Ganges River in India. The swamps at the mouths of the Orinoco and
Amazon rivers and rivers of Guyana consist of mud and trees that offer little shade. Tides in saltwater
swamps can vary as much as 12 meters.
Everything in a saltwater swamp may appear hostile to you, from leeches and insects to crocodiles and
caimans. Avoid the dangerous animals in this swamp.
MANGROVE SWAMP PALM SWAMP
Tropical Survival 705
Avoid this swamp altogether if you can. If there are water channels through it, you may be able to use
a raft to escape.
Palm Swamps. These exist in both salt and fresh water areas. Their characteristics are masses of thorny
undergrowth, reeds, grasses, and occasional short palms that reduce visibility and make travel difficult.
There are often islands that dot these swamps, allowing you to get out of the water. Wildlife is abundant
in these swamps. Like movement in the mangrove swamps, movement through palm swamps is mostly
restricted to foot (sometimes small boats). Vehicular traffic is nearly impossible except after extensive road
construction by engineers. Observation and fields-of-fire are very limited. Concealment from both air and
ground observation is excellent.
Savanna. This is a broad, open jungle grassland in which trees are scarce. The thick grass is broad-bladed
and grows 1 to 5 meters high. It looks like a broad, grassy meadow, and frequently has red soil. It grows
scattered trees that usually appear stunted and gnarled like apple trees. Palms also occur on savannas.
Movement in the savanna is generally easier than in other types of jungle areas, especially for vehicles.
The sharp-edged, dense grass and extreme heat make foot movement a slow and tiring process. Depending
on the height of the grass, ground observation may vary from poor to good. Concealment from air
observation is poor for both troops and vehicles. You find savannas in parts of Venezuela, Brazil, and the
Guianasin South America. In Africa, you find them in the southern Sahara (north-central Cameroon and
Gabon and southern Sudan), Benin, Togo, most of Nigeria, northeastern Zaire, northern Uganda, western
Kenya, part of Malawi, part of Tanzania, southern Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and western Madagascar.
Bamboo. This grows in clumps of varying size in jungles throughout the tropics. Large stands of bamboo
are excellent obstacles for wheeled or tracked vehicles. Troop movement through bamboo is slow, exhausting,
and noisy. Troops should bypass bamboo stands if possible.
Cultivated Areas. These exist in jungles throughout the tropics and range from large, well-planned and
well-managed farms and plantations to small tracts cultivated by individual farmers. There are three general
types of cultivated areas—rice paddies, plantations, and small farms.
Rice Paddies. These are flat, flooded fields in which rice is grown. Flooding of the fields is controlled by a
network of dikes and irrigation ditches which make movement by vehicles difficult even when the fields
are dry. Concealment is poor in rice paddies. Cover is limited to the dikes, and then only from ground fire.
Observation and fields of fire are excellent. Foot movement is poor when the fields are wet because soldiers
must wade through water about 1/2 meter (2 feet) deep and soft mud. When the fields are dry, foot movement
becomes easier. The dikes, about 2 to 3 meters tall, are the only obstacles.
SAVANNA
BAMBOO
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Plantations. These are large farms or estates where tree crops, such as rubber and coconut, are grown.
They are usually carefully planned and free of undergrowth (like a well-tended park). Movement through
plantations is generally easy. Observation along the rows of trees is generally good. Concealment and
cover can be found behind the trees, but soldiers moving down the cultivated rows are exposed.
Small Farms. These exist throughout the tropics. These small cultivated areas are usually hastily planned.
After 1 or 2 years’ use, they usually are abandoned, leaving behind a small open area which turns into secondary
jungle. Movement through these areas may be difficult due to fallen trees and scrub brush.
Generally, observation and fields-of-fire are less restricted in cultivated areas than in uncultivated jungles.
However, much of the natural cover and concealment are removed by cultivation, and troops will be
more exposed in these areas.
LIFE IN THE JUNGLE
The jungle environment affects everyone. The degree to which you are trained to live and fight in harsh
environments will determine your survival.
There is very little to fear from the jungle environment. Fear itself can be an enemy. Soldiers must be
taught to control their fear of the jungle. A man overcome with fear is of little value in any situation. Soldiers
in a jungle must learn that the most important thing is to keep their heads and calmly think out any
situation.
Many of the stories written about out-of-the-way jungle places were written by writers who went there in
search of adventure rather than facts. Practically without exception, these authors exaggerated or invented
many of the thrilling experiences they relate. These thrillers are often a product of the author’s imagination
and are not facts.
Most Americans, especially those raised in cities, have lost the knack of taking care of themselves under
all conditions. It would be foolish to say that, without proper training, they would be in no danger if lost
in the jungles of Southeast Asia, South America, or some Pacific island. On the other hand, they would be
in just as much danger if lost in the mountains of western Pennsylvania or in other undeveloped regions
of our own country. The only difference would be that you are less likely to panic when lost in your homeland
than abroad.
Immediate Considerations. There is less likelihood of your rescue from beneath a dense jungle canopy
than in other survival situations. You will probably have to travel to reach safety.
RICE PADDIES
PLANTATIONS
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SMALL FARMS
If you are the victim of an aircraft crash, the most important items to take with you from the crash site
are a machete, a compass, a first aid kit, and a parachute or other material for use as mosquito netting and
shelter.
Take shelter from tropical rain, sun, and insects. Malaria-carrying mosquitoes and other insects are
immediate dangers, so protect yourself against bites.
Do not leave the crash area without carefully blazing or marking your route. Use your compass. Know
what direction you are taking.
In the tropics, even the smallest scratch can quickly become dangerously infected. Promptly treat any
wound, no matter how minor.
Effect of Climate. The discomforts of tropical climates are often exaggerated, but it is true that the heat is
more persistent. In regions where the air contains a lot of moisture, the effect of the heat may seem worse
than the same temperature in a dry climate. Many people experienced in jungle operations feel that the
heat and discomfort in some US cities in the summertime are worse than the climate in the jungle.
Strange as it may seem, there may be more suffering from cold in the tropics than from the heat. Of
course, very low temperatures do not occur, but chilly days and nights are common. In some jungles, in
winter months, the nights are cold enough to require a wool blanket or poncho liner for sleeping.
Rainfall in many parts of the tropics is much greater than that in most areas of the temperate zones.
Tropical downpours usually are followed by clear skies, and in most places the rains are predictable at
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certain times of the day. Except in those areas where rainfall may be continuous during the rainy season,
there are not many days when the sun does not shine part of the time.
People who live in the tropics usually plan their activities so that they are able to stay under shelter during
the rainy and hotter portions of the day. After becoming used to it, most tropical dwellers prefer the
constant climate of the torrid zones to the frequent weather changes in colder climates.
Insects. Malaria-carrying mosquitoes are probably the most harmful of the tropical insects. Soldiers can
contract malaria if proper precautions are not taken.
Mosquitoes are most prevalent early at night and just before dawn. Soldiers must be especially cautious
at these times. Malaria is more common in populated areas than in uninhabited jungle, so soldiers must
also be especially cautious when operating around villages. Mud packs applied to mosquito bites offer
some relief from itching.
Wasps and bees may be common in some places, but they will rarely attack unless their nests are disturbed.
When a nest is disturbed, the troops must leave the area and reassemble at the last rally point. In
case of stings, mud packs are helpful. In some areas, there are tiny bees, called sweatbees, which may collect
on exposed parts of the body during dry weather, especially if the body is sweating freely. They are
annoying but stingless and will leave when sweating has completely stopped, or they may be scraped off
with the hand.
The larger centipedes and scorpions can inflict stings which are painful but not fatal. They like dark
places, so it is always advisable to shake out blankets before sleeping at night, and to make sure before
dressing that they are not hidden in clothing or shoes. Spiders are commonly found in the jungle. Their
bites may be painful, but are rarely serious. Ants can be dangerous to injured men lying on the ground and
unable to move. Wounded soldiers should be placed in an area free of ants.
In Southeast Asian jungles, the rice-borer moth of the lowlands collects around lights in great numbers
during certain seasons. It is a small, plain-colored moth with a pair of tiny black spots on the wings. It
should never be brushed off roughly, as the small barbed hairs of its body may be ground into the skin.
This causes a sore, much like a burn, that often takes weeks to heal.
Leeches. Leeches are common in many jungle areas, particularly throughout most of the Southwest
Pacific, Southeast Asia, and the Malay Peninsula. They are found in swampy areas, streams, and moist
jungle country. They are not poisonous, but their bites may become infected if not cared for properly.
The small wound that they cause may provide a point of entry for the germs which cause tropical ulcers
or “jungle sores.” Soldiers operating in the jungle should watch for leeches on the body and brush them
off before they have had time to bite. When they have taken hold, they should not be pulled off forcibly
because part of the leech may remain in the skin. Leeches will release themselves if touched with insect
repellent, a moist piece of tobacco, the burning end of a cigarette, a coal from a fire, or a few drops of
alcohol.
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Straps wrapped around the lower part of the legs (“leech straps”) will prevent leeches from crawling up
the legs and into the crotch area. Trousers should be securely tucked into the boots. For more information
on dangerous insects, se Part IV, Chapter 3, “Dangerous Insects and Arachnids.”
Snakes. A soldier in the jungle probably will see very few snakes. When he does see one, the snake most
likely will be making every effort to escape.
If a soldier should accidentally step on a snake or otherwise disturb a snake, it will probably attempt to
bite. The chances of this happening to soldiers traveling along trails or waterways are remote if soldiers
are alert and careful. Most jungle areas pose less of a snakebite danger than do the uninhabited areas of
New Mexico, Florida, or Texas. This does not mean that soldiers should be careless about the possibility
of snakebites, but ordinary precautions against them are enough. Soldiers should be particularly watchful
when clearing ground. Treat all snakebites as poisonous.
Crocodiles and Caymans. Crocodiles and caymans are meat-eating reptiles which live in tropical areas.
“Crocodile-infested rivers and swamps” is a catch-phrase often found in stories about the tropics. Asian
jungles certainly have their share of crocodiles, but there are few authenticated cases of crocodiles actually
attacking humans. Caymans, found in South and Central America, are not likely to attack unless provoked.
Wild Animals. In Africa, where lions, leopards, and other flesh-eating animals abound, they are protected
from hunters by local laws and live on large preserves. In areas where the beasts are not protected, they
are shy and seldom seen. When encountered, they will attempt to escape. All large animals can be dangerous
if cornered or suddenly startled at close quarters. This is especially true of females with young. In
the jungles of Sumatra, Bali, Borneo, Southeast Asia, and Burma there are tigers, leopards, elephants, and
buffalo. Latin America’s jungles have the jaguar. Ordinarily, these will not attack a man unless they are
cornered or wounded.
Certain jungle animals, such as water buffalo and elephants, have been domesticated by the local people.
Soldiers should also avoid these animals. They may appear tame, but this tameness extends only to
people the animals are familiar with.
Poisonous Vegetation. Another area of danger is that of poisonous plants and trees. For example, nettles,
particularly tree nettles, are one of the dangerous items of vegetation. These nettles have a severe stinging
that will quickly educate the victim to recognize the plant. There are ringas trees in Malaysia which affect
some people in much the same way as poison oak. The poison ivy and poison sumac of the continental US
can cause many of the same type troubles that may be experienced in the jungle. The danger from poisonous
plants in the woods of the US eastern seaboard is similar to that of the tropics. Thorny thickets, such as
rattan, should be avoided as one would avoid a blackberry patch.
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Some of the dangers associated with poisonous vegetation can be avoided by keeping sleeves down and
wearing gloves when practical. For more information on poisonous plants, see Part IV, Chapter 7, “Poisonous
Plants.”
Health and Hygiene. The climate in tropical areas and the absence of sanitation facilities increase the
chance that soldiers may contract a disease. Disease is fought with good sanitation practices and preventive
medicine. In past wars, diseases accounted for a significantly high percentage of casualties.
Waterborne Diseases. Water is vital in the jungle and is usually easy to find. However, water from natural
sources should be considered contaminated. Water purification procedures must be taught to all soldiers.
Germs of serious diseases, like dysentery, are found in impure water. Other waterborne diseases, such as
blood fluke, are caused by exposure of an open sore to impure water.
Soldiers can prevent waterborne diseases by:
•
Obtaining drinking water from approved engineer water points.
•
Using rainwater; however, rainwater should be collected after it has been raining at least 15 to 30
minutes. This lessens the chances of impurity being washed from the jungle canopy into the water
container. Even then the water should be purified.
•
Insuring that all drinking water is purified.
•
Not swimming or bathing in untreated water.
•
Keeping the body fully clothed when crossing water obstacles.
Fungus Diseases. These diseases are caused by poor personal health practices. The jungle environment
promotes fungus and bacterial diseases of the skin and warm water immersion skin diseases. Bacteria and
fungi are tiny plants which multiply fast under the hot, moist conditions of the jungle. Sweat-soaked skin
invites fungus attack. The following are common skin diseases that are caused by long periods of wetness
of the skin:
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Warm Water Immersion Foot. This disease occurs usually where there are many creeks, streams, and
canals to cross, with dry ground in between. The bottoms of the feet become white, wrinkled, and tender.
Walking becomes painful.
Chafing. This disease occurs when soldiers must often wade through water up to their waists, and the
trousers stay wet for hours. The crotch area becomes red and painful to even the lightest touch.
Most skin diseases are treated by letting the skin dry.
Heat Injuries. These result from high temperatures, high humidity, lack of air circulation, and physical
exertion. All soldiers must be trained to prevent heat disorders.
Tropical Survival 713
Natives. Like all other regions of the world, the jungle also has its native inhabitants. Soldiers should be
aware that some of these native tribes can be hostile if not treated properly.
There may be occasions, however, when hostile tribes attack without provocation.
Food. Food of some type is always available in the jungle—in fact, there is hardly a place in the world
where food cannot be secured from plants and animals. All animals, birds, reptiles, and many kinds of
insects of the jungle are edible. Some animals, such as toads and salamanders, have glands on the skin
which should be removed before their meat is eaten. Fruits, flowers, buds, leaves, bark, and often tubers
(fleshy plant roots) may be eaten. Fruits eaten by birds and monkeys usually may be eaten by man.
There are various means of preparing and preserving food found in the jungle. Fish, for example, can be
cleaned and wrapped in wild banana leaves. This bundle is then tied with string made from bark, placed
on a hastily constructed wood griddle, and roasted thoroughly until done. Another method is to roast the
bundle of fish underneath a pile of red-hot stones.
Other meats can be roasted in a hollow section of bamboo, about 60 centimeters (2 feet) long. Meat
cooked in this manner will not spoil for three or four days if left inside the bamboo stick and sealed.
Yams, taros, yuccas, and wild bananas can be cooked in coals. They taste somewhat like potatoes. Palm
hearts can make a refreshing salad, and papaya a delicious dessert. For more information on game, edible
plants, and water, see Part IV.
Shelter. Jungle shelters are used to protect personnel and equipment from the harsh elements of the jungle.
Shelters are necessary while sleeping, planning operations, and protecting sensitive equipment. See Part
III, “Shelters” for more information.
Clothing and Equipment. Before deploying for jungle operations, troops are issued special uniforms and
equipment. Some of these items are:
Jungle Fatigues. These fatigues are lighter and faster drying than standard fatigues. To provide the best
ventilation, the uniform should fit loosely. It should never be starched.
Jungle Boots. These boots are lighter and faster drying than all-leather boots. Their cleated soles will maintain
footing on steep, slippery slopes. The ventilating insoles should be washed in warm, soapy water
when the situation allows.
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Insect (Mosquito) Bar. The insect (mosquito) bar or net should be used any time soldiers sleep in the
jungle. Even if conditions do not allow a shelter, the bar can be hung inside the fighting position or from
trees or brush. No part of the body should touch the insect net when it is hung, because mosquitoes can
bite through the netting. The bar should be tucked or laid loosely, not staked down. Although this piece
of equipment is very light, it can be bulky if not folded properly. It should be folded inside the poncho as
tightly as possible.
JUNGLE TRAVEL, NAVIGATION AND TRACKING
Travel Through Jungle Areas. With practice, movement through thick undergrowth and jungle can be
done efficiently. Always wear long sleeves to avoid cuts and scratches.
To move easily, you must develop “jungle eye,” that is, you should not concentrate on the pattern of
bushes and trees to your immediate front. You must focus on the jungle further out and find natural breaks
in the foliage. Look through the jungle, not at it. Stop and stoop down occasionally to look along the jungle
floor. This action may reveal game trails that you can follow.
Stay alert and move slowly and steadily through dense forest or jungle. Stop periodically to listen and
take your bearings. Use a machete to cut through dense vegetation, but do not cut unnecessarily or you
will quickly wear yourself out. If using a machete, stroke upward when cutting vines to reduce noise
because sound carries long distances in the jungle. Use a stick to part the vegetation. Using a stick will also
help dislodge biting ants, spiders, or snakes. Do not grasp at brush or vines when climbing slopes; they
may have irritating spines or sharp thorns.
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Many jungle and forest animals follow game trails. These trails wind and cross, but frequently lead to
water or clearings. Use these trails if they lead in your desired direction of travel.
In many countries, electric and telephone lines run for miles through sparsely inhabited areas. Usually,
the right-of-way is clear enough to allow easy travel. When traveling along these lines, be careful as you
approach transformer and relay stations. In enemy territory, they maybe guarded.
Jungle Navigation. Navigating in the jungle can be difficult for those troops not accustomed to it. This
appendix outlines techniques which have been used successfully in jungle navigation. With training and
practice, troops should be able to use these techniques to navigate in even the thickest jungle.
Navigation Tools
Maps. Because of the isolation of many jungles, the rugged ground, and the presence of the canopy, topographic
survey is difficult and is done mainly from the air. Therefore, although maps of jungle areas generally
depict the larger features (hill, ridges, larger streams, etc.) fairly accurately, some smaller terrain
features (gullies, small or intermittent streams, small swamps, etc.), which are actually on the ground, may
not appear on the map. Also, many older maps are inaccurate. So, before going into the jungle, bring your
maps up to date.
Compass. No one should move in the jungle without a compass. It should be tied to the clothing by a string
or bootlace. The three most common methods used to follow the readings of a compass are:
Sighting along the desired azimuth. The compass man notes an object to the front (usually a tree or bush)
that is on line with the proper azimuth and moves to that object. This is not a good method in the jungle as trees
and bushes tend to look very much alike.
Holding the compass at waist level and walking in the direction of a set azimuth. This is a good method
for the jungle. The compass man sets the compass for night use with the long luminous line placed over
the luminous north arrow and the desired azimuth under the black index line. There is a natural tendency
to drift either left or right using this method. Jungle navigators must learn their own tendencies and allow
for this drift.
Sighting along the desired azimuth and guiding a man forward until he is on line with the azimuth. The
unit then moves to the man and repeats the process. This is the most accurate method to use in the jungle
during daylight hours, but it is slow. In this method, the compass man cannot mistake the aiming point
and is free to release the compass on its string and use both hands during movement to the next aiming
point.
The keys to navigation are maintaining the right direction and knowing the distance traveled. Skill
with the compass (acquired through practice) takes care of the first requirement. Ways of knowing the
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distance traveled include checking natural features with the map, knowing the rate of movement, and
pacing.
Checking Features. Major recognizable features (hills, rivers, changes in the type of vegetation) should be
noted as they are reached and then identified on the map. Jungle navigators must BE CAUTIOUS ABOUT
TRAILS—the trail on the ground may not be the one on the map.
Rate of Movement. Speed will vary with the physical condition of the troops, the load they carry, the danger
of enemy contact, and the type of jungle growth. The normal error is to overestimate the distance traveled.
The following can be used as a rough guide to the maximum distance covered in 1 hour during daylight.
Pacing. In thick jungle, this is the best way of measuring distance. It is the only method which lets the soldier
know how far he has traveled. With this information, he can estimate where he is at any given time.
To be accurate, you must practice pacing over different types of terrain, and should make a PERSONAL
PACE TABLE like the one below.
If possible, at least two men in each independent group should be compass men, and three or four
should be keeping a pace count.
Location of an Objective. In open terrain, an error in navigation can be easily corrected by orienting
on terrain features which are often visible from a long distance. In thick jungle, however, it is possible
to be within 50 meters of a terrain feature and still not see it. Here are two methods which can aid in
navigation.
Offset Method. This method is useful in reaching an objective that is not large or not on readily
identifiable terrain but is on a linear feature, such as a road, stream, or ridge. The unit plans a route
following an azimuth which is a few degrees to the left or right of the objective. The unit then follows
the azimuth to that terrain feature. Thus, when the unit reaches the terrain feature, the members know
the objective is to their right or left, and the terrain feature provides a point of reference for movement
to the objective.
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Attack Method. This method is used when moving to an objective not on a linear feature. An easily
recognizable terrain feature is chosen as close as possible to the objective. The unit then moves to that
feature. Once there, the unit follows the proper azimuth and moves the estimated distance to get to the
objective.
What to do if Lost. Do not panic. Few have ever been permanently lost in the jungle, although many have
taken longer to reach their destination than they should.
Disoriented navigators should try to answer these questions. (If there are other navigators in the group,
they all should talk it over.)
What was the last known location?
Did you go too far and pass the objective? (Compare estimates of time and distance traveled.)
Does the terrain look the way it should? (Compare the surroundings with the map.)
What features in the area will help to fix your location? (Try to find these features.)
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Night Movement. The principles for navigation at night are the same as those for day movement. The
problem in night movement is one of control, not navigation. In clear weather, through sparse vegetation
and under a bright moon, a unit can move almost as fast by night as by day. If the sky is overcast, vegetation
is thick, or there is little or no moon, movement will be slow and hard to control. The following points
can assist a unit during night movement.
Attach luminous tape to the back of each soldier’s headgear. Two strips, side by side, each about the
size of a lieutenant’s bar, are recommended. The two strips aid depth perception and reduce the hypnotic
effect that one strip can cause.
When there is no light at all, distance between soldiers should be reduced. When necessary to prevent
breaks in contact, each soldier should hold on to the belt or the pack of the man in front of him.
The leader should carry a long stick to probe for sudden dropoffs or obstacles.
In limited visibility conditions, listening may become more important to security than observing. A unit
which hears a strange noise should halt and listen for at least 1 minute. If the noise is repeated or cannot
be identified, patrols should be sent out to investigate. Smell, likewise, can be an indication of enemy presence
in an area.
All available night vision devices should be used.
Navigational Tips
•
Trust the map and compass, but understand the map’s possible shortcomings. Use the compass
bezel ring, especially during night navigation.
•
Break brush. Do not move on trails or roads.
•
Plan the move, and use the plan.
•
Do not get frustrated. If in doubt, stop and think back over the route.
•
Practice leads to confidence.
Visual tracking is following the paths of men or animals by the signs they leave, primarily on the ground
or vegetation. Scent tracking is following men or animals by the odors they leave.
Practice in tracking is required to achieve and maintain a high standard of skill. Because of the excellent
natural concealment the jungle offers, all soldiers should be familiar with the general techniques of visual
tracking to enable them to detect the presence of a concealed enemy, to follow the enemy, to locate and
avoid mines or booby-traps, and to give early warning of ambush.
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Signs. Men or animals moving through jungle areas leave signs of their passage. Some examples of these
signs are listed below.
Deception. The enemy may use any of the following methods to deceive or discourage trackers. They may,
at times, mislead an experienced tracker.
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MOVING ACROSS WATER OBSTACLES
Crossing Rivers and Streams. There are several expedient ways to cross rivers and streams. The ways
used in any situation depends on the width and depth of the water, the speed of the current, the time and
equipment available, and the friendly and enemy situation.
There is always a possibility of equipment failure. For this reason, you should be able to swim. In all
water crossings several strong swimmers should be stationed either at the water’s edge or, if possible, in
midstream to help anyone who gets into trouble.
If you accidentally fall into the water, swim with the current to the nearer bank. Swimming against the
current is dangerous because the swimmer is quickly exhausted by the force of the current.
Fording. A good site to ford a stream has these characteristics:
•
Good concealment on both banks.
•
Few large rocks in the river bed. (Submerged large rocks are usually slippery and make it difficult
to maintain footing.)
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•
Shallow water or a sandbar in the middle of the stream. Troops may rest or regain their footing on
these sandbars.
•
Low banks to make entry and exit easier. High banks normally mean deep water. Deep water near
the far shore is especially dangerous as the soldiers may be tired and less able to get out.
You should cross at an angle against the current. Keep your feet wide apart and drag your legs through
the water, do not lift them, so that the current will not throw you off balance. Poles can be used to probe to
help find deep holes and maintain footing.
Floating Aids. For deeper streams which have little current, soldiers can use a number of floating aids such
as the following:
When launching any poncho raft or leaving the water with it, take care not to drag it on the ground as
this will cause punctures or tears.
Rope Bridges. For crossing streams and small rivers quickly, rope bridges offer a suitable temporary system,
especially when there is a strong current. Because of the stretch factor of nylon ropes, they should not
be used to cross gaps of more than 20 meters. For larger gaps, manila rope should be used.
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In order to erect a rope bridge, the first thing to be done is to get one end of the rope across the stream.
This task can be frustrating when there is a strong current. To get the rope across, anchor one end of a rope
that is at least double the width of the stream at point A. Take the other end of the line upstream as far as it
will go. Then, tie a sling rope around the waist of a strong swimmer and, using a snaplink, attach the line
to him. He should swim diagonally downstream to the far bank, pulling the rope across.
One-Rope Bridge. A one-rope bridge can be constructed either above water level or at water level. The
leader must decide which to construct. The bridge is constructed the same regardless of the level.
Crossing Method above Water Level. Use one of the following methods.
Commando crawl. Lie on the top of the rope with the instep of the right foot hooked on the rope. Let the left
leg hang to maintain balance. Pull across with the hands and arms, at the same time pushing on the rope
with the right foot. (For safety, tie a rappel seat and hooks the snaplink to the rope bridge.)
Monkey crawl. Hang suspended below the rope, holding the rope with the hands and crossing the knees
over the top of the rope. Pull with the hands and push with the legs. (For safety, tie a rappel seat and hook
the snaplink to the rope bridge.) This is the safest and the best way to cross the one-rope bridge.
Crossing Method at Water Level. Hold onto the rope with both hands, face upstream, and walk into the
water. Cross the bridge by sliding and pulling the hands along the rope. (For safety, tie a sling rope around
your waist, leaving a working end of about 3 to 4 feet. Tie a bowline in the working end and attach a
snaplink to the loop. Then, hook the snaplink to the rope bridge.)
To recover the rope, the last person unties the rope, ties it around his waist and, after all slack is taken
up, is pulled across.
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Two-rope bridge. Construction of this bridge is similar to that of the one-rope bridge, except two ropes,
a hand rope, and a foot rope are used. These ropes are spaced about 1.5 meters apart vertically at the
anchor points. (For added safety, make snaplink attachments to the hand and foot ropes from a rope tied
around the waist. Move across the bridge using the snaplink to allow the safety rope to slide.) To keep the
ropes a uniform distance apart as men cross, spreader ropes should be tied between the two ropes every 15
feet. A sling rope is used and tied to each bridge rope with a round turn and two half-hitches.
CHAPTER 2
Desert Survival
To survive and evade in arid or desert areas, you must understand and prepare for the environment you
will face. You must determine your equipment needs, the tactics you will use, and how the environment
will affect you and your tactics. Your survival will depend upon your knowledge of the terrain, basic
climatic elements, your ability to cope with these elements, and your will to survive.
Desert terrain also varies considerably from place to place, the sole common denominator being lack of
water with its consequent environmental effects, such as sparse, if any, vegetation. The basic land forms
are similar to those in other parts of the world, but the topsoil has been eroded due to a combination of
lack of water, heat, and wind to give deserts their characteristic barren appearance. The bedrock may be
covered by a flat layer of sand, or gravel, or may have been exposed by erosion. Other common features
are sand dunes, escarpments, wadis, and depressions.
It is important to realize that deserts are affected by seasons. Those in the Southern Hemisphere have
summer between 21 December and 21 March. This 6-month difference from the United States makes acclimatization
more difficult for persons coming from winter conditions.
TERRAIN
Key terrain in the desert is largely dependent on the restrictions to movement that are present. If the
desert floor will not support wheeled vehicle traffic, the few roads and desert tracks become key terrain.
Figure 2-1: Deserts of the World.
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732 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 2-2: Desert locations of the world.
Crossroads are vital as they control military operations in a large area. Desert warfare is often a battle for
control of the lines of communication (LOC). The side that can protect its own LOC while interdicting
those of the enemy will prevail. Water sources are vital, especially if a force is incapable of long distance
resupply of its water requirements. Defiles play an important role, where they exist. In the Western Desert
of Libya, an escarpment that paralleled the coast was a barrier to movement except through a few
passes. Control of these passes was vital. Similar escarpments are found in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.
Types of Desert Terrain. There are three types of desert terrain: mountain, rocky plateau, and sandy or
dune terrain. The following paragraphs discuss these types of terrain.
Mountain Deserts. Mountain deserts are characterized by scattered ranges or areas of barren hills or mountains,
separated by dry, flat basins. See Figure 2-3 for an example of mountain desert terrain. High ground
may rise gradually or abruptly from flat areas, to a height of several thousand feet above sea level. Most
of the infrequent rainfall occurs on high ground and runs off in the form of flash floods, eroding deep gullies
and ravines and depositing sand and gravel around the edges of the basins. Water evaporates rapidly,
leaving the land as barren as before, although there may be short-lived vegetation. If sufficient water enters
the basin to compensate for the rate of evaporation, shallow lakes may develop, such as the Great Salt Lake
in Utah or the Dead Sea; most of these have a high salt content.
Rocky Plateau Deserts. Rocky plateau deserts are extensive flat areas with quantities of solid or broken
rock at or near the surface. See Figure 2-4 for an example of a rocky plateau desert. They may be wet or
dry, steep-walled eroded valleys, known as wadis, gulches, or canyons. Narrow valleys can be extremely
dangerous to men and material due to flash flooding after rains; although their flat bottoms may be superficially
attractive as assembly areas. The National Training Center and the Golan Heights are examples of
rocky plateau deserts.
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Sandy or Dune Deserts. Sandy or dune deserts are extensive flat areas covered with sand or gravel, the
product of ancient deposits or modern wind erosion. “Flat” is relative in this case, as some areas may
contain sand dunes that are over 1,000 feet high and 10-15 miles long; trafficability on this type of terrain
will depend on windward/leeward gradients of the dunes and the texture of the sand. See Figure 2-5 for
an example of a sandy desert. Other areas, however, may be totally flat for distances of 3,000 meters and
beyond. Plant life may vary from none to scrub, reaching over 6 feet high. Examples of this type of desert
include the ergs of the Sahara, the Empty Quarter of the Arabian desert, areas of California and New
Mexico, and the Kalahari in South Africa. See Figure 2-6 for an example of a dune desert.
Salt Marshes. Salt marshes are flat, desolate areas, sometimes studded with clumps of grass but devoid of
other vegetation. They occur in arid areas where rainwater has collected, evaporated, and left large deposits
of alkali salts and water with a high salt concentration. The water is so salty it is undrinkable. A crust
that may be 2.5 to 30 centimeters thick forms over the saltwater.
In arid areas there are salt marshes hundreds of kilometers square. These areas usually support many
insects, most of which bite. Avoid salt marshes. This type of terrain is highly corrosive to boots, clothing,
and skin. A good example is the Shat-el-Arab waterway along the Iran-Iraq border.
Trafficability. Roads and trails are rare in the open desert. Complex road systems beyond simple commercial
links are not needed. Road systems have been used for centuries to connect centers of commerce,
or important religious shrines such as Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia. These road systems are supplemented
by routes joining oil or other mineral deposits to collection outlet points. Some surfaces, such as
lava beds or salt marshes, preclude any form of routine vehicular movement, but generally ground movement
is possible in all directions. Speed of movement varies depending on surface texture. Rudimentary
trails are used by minor caravans and nomadic tribesmen, with wells or oases approximately every 20 to 40
miles; although there are some waterless stretches which extend over 100 miles. Trails vary in width from
a few meters to over 800 meters.
Vehicle travel in mountainous desert country may be severely restricted. Available mutes can be easily
blinked by the enemy or by climatic conditions. Hairpin turns are common on the edges of precipitous
mountain gorges, and the higher passes may be blocked by snow in the winter.
Natural Factors. The following terrain features require special considerations regarding trafficability.
Figure 2-3: Example of mountain desert terrain.
734 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 2-4: Example of rocky plateau desert terrian.
Wadis or dried water courses vary from wide, but barely perceptible depressions of soft sand, dotted
with bushes, to deep, steep-sided ravines. There frequently is a passable route through the bottom of a
dried wadi. Wadis can provide cover from ground observation and camouflage from visual air reconnaissance.
The threat of flash floods after heavy rains poses a significant danger to troops and equipment
downstream. Flooding may occur in these areas even if it is not raining in the immediate area. See Figure
2-7 for an example of a wadi.
Salt marsh (sebkha) terrain is impassable to tracks and wheels when wet. When dry it has a brittle,
crusty surface, negotiable by light wheel vehicles only. Salt marshes develop at points where the water
in the subsoil of the desert rose to the surface. Because of the constant evaporation in the desert, the salts
carried by the water are deposited, and results in a hard, brittle crust.
Salt marshes are normally impassable, the worst type being those with a dry crust of silt on top. Marsh
mud used on desert sand will, however, produce an excellent temporary road. Many desert areas have
salt marshes either in the center of a drainage basin or near the sea coast. Old trails or paths may cross
Figure 2-5: Example of sandy desert terrian.
Desert Survival 735
Figure 2-6: Example of dune desert terrian.
the marsh, which are visible during the dry season but not in the wet season. In the wet season trails are
indicated by standing water due to the crust being too hard or too thick for it to penetrate. However, such
routes should not be tried by load-carrying vehicles without prior reconnaissance and marking. Vehicles
may become mired so severely as to render equipment and units combat ineffective. Heavier track-laying
vehicles, like tanks, are especially susceptible to these areas, therefore reconnaissance is critical.
Man-made Factors. The ruins of earlier civilizations, scattered across the deserts of the world, often are
sited along important avenues of approach and frequently dominate the only available passes in difficult
terrain. Control of these positions may be imperative for any force intending to dominate the immediate
area. Currently occupied dwellings have little impact on trafficability except that they are normally located
near roads and trails. Apart from nomadic tribesmen who live in tents (see Figure 2-8 for an example
of desert nomads), the population lives in thick-walled structures with small windows, usually built of
masonry or a mud and straw (adobe) mixture. Figure 2-9 shows common man-made desert structures.
Because of exploration for and production of oil and other resources, wells, pipelines, refineries, quarries,
and crushing plants may be of strategic importance in the desert. Pipelines are often raised 1 meter
off the ground—where this is the case, pipelines will inhibit movement. Subsurface pipelines can also be
Figure 2-7: Example of a wadi.
736 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 2-8: Example of desert nomads.
an obstacle. In Southwest Asia, the subsurface pipelines were indicated on maps. Often they were buried
at such a shallow depth that they could be damaged by heavy vehicles traversing them. Furthermore, if a
pipeline is ruptured, not only is the spill of oil a consideration, but the fumes may be hazardous as well.
Agriculture in desert areas has little effect on trafficability except that canals limit surface mobility.
Destruction of an irrigation system, which may be a result of military operations, could have a devastating
effect on the local population and should be an important consideration in operational estimates. Figure
2-10 shows an irrigation ditch.
TEMPERATURE
The highest known ambient temperature recorded in a desert was 136 degrees Fahrenheit (58 degrees
Celsius). Lower temperatures than this produced internal tank temperatures approaching 160 degrees
Figure 2-9: Common man-made desert structures.
Desert Survival 737
Figure 2-10: Irrigation ditch.
Fahrenheit (71 degrees Celsius) in the Sahara Desert during the Second World War. Winter temperatures
in Siberian deserts and in the Gobi reach minus 50 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 45 degrees Celsius). Low
temperatures are aggravated by very strong winds producing high windchill factors. The cloudless sky
of the desert permits the earth to heat during sunlit hours, yet cool to near freezing at night. In the inland
Sinai, for example, day-to-night temperature fluctuations are as much as 72 degrees Fahrenheit.
Winds. Desert winds can achieve velocities of near hurricane force; dust and sand suspended within them
make life intolerable, maintenance very difficult, and restrict visibility to a few meters. The Sahara “Khamseen”,
for example, lasts for days at a time; although it normally only occurs in the spring and summer. The
deserts of Iran are equally well known for the “wind of 120 days,” with sand blowing almost constantly
from the north at wind velocities of up to 75 miles per hour.
Although there is no danger of a man being buried alive by a sandstorm, individuals can become separated
from their units. In all deserts, rapid temperature changes invariably follow strong winds. Even without
wind, the telltale clouds raised by wheels, tracks, and marching troops give away movement. Wind
aggravates the problem. As the day gets warmer the wind increases and the dust signatures of vehicles
may drift downwind for several hundred meters.
In the evening the wind normally settles down. In many deserts a prevailing wind blows steadily from
one cardinal direction for most of the year, and eventually switches to another direction for the remaining
months. The equinoctial gales raise huge sandstorms that rise to several thousand feet and may last
for several days. Gales and sandstorms in the winter months can be bitterly cold. See Figure 2-11 for an
example of wind erosion.
Mirages. Mirages are optical phenomena caused by the refraction of light through heated air rising from
a sandy or stony surface. They occur in the interior of the desert about 10 kilometers from the coast. They
make objects that are 1.5 kilometers or more away appear to move.
This mirage effect makes it difficult for you to identify an object from a distance. It also blurs distant range
contours so much that you feel surrounded by a sheet of water from which elevations stand out as “islands.”
The mirage effect makes it hard for a person to identify targets, estimate range, and see objects clearly.
However, if you can get to high ground (3 meters or more above the desert floor), you can get above the
superheated air close to the ground and overcome the mirage effect. Mirages make land navigation difficult
because they obscure natural features. You can survey the area at dawn, dusk, or by moonlight when
there is little likelihood of mirage.
738 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 2-11: Example of wind erosion.
Light levels in desert areas are more intense than in other geographic areas. Moonlit nights are usually
crystal clear, winds die down, haze and glare disappear, and visibility is excellent. You can see lights, red
flashlights, and blackout lights at great distances. Sound carries very far.
Conversely, during nights with little moonlight, visibility is extremely poor. Traveling is extremely hazardous.
You must avoid getting lost, falling into ravines, or stumbling into enemy positions. Movement
during such a night is practical only if you have a compass and have spent the day in a shelter, resting,
observing and memorizing the terrain, and selecting your route.
Sandstorms are likely to form suddenly and stop just as suddenly. In a severe sandstorm, sand permeates
everything making movement nearly impossible, not only because of limited visibility, but also
because blowing sand damages moving parts of machinery.
Water. The lack of water is the most important single characteristic of the desert. The population, if any,
varies directly with local water supply. A Sahara oasis may, for its size, be one of the most densely occupied
places on earth (see Figure 2-12 for a typical oasis).
Desert rainfall varies from one day in the year to intermittent showers throughout the winter. Severe
thunderstorms bring heavy rain, and usually far too much rain falls far too quickly to organize collection
on a systematic basis. The water soon soaks into the ground and may result in flash floods. In some cases
the rain binds the sand much like a beach after the tide ebbs allowing easy maneuver. However, it also
turns loam into an impassable quagmire obstacle. Rainstorms tend to be localized, affecting only a few
square kilometers at a time. Whenever possible, as storms approach, vehicles should move to rocky areas
or high ground to avoid flash floods and becoming mired.
Permanent rivers such as the Nile, the Colorado, or the Kuiseb in the Namib Desert of Southwest Africa
are fed by heavy precipitation outside the desert so the river survives despite a high evaporation rate.
Subsurface water may be so far below the surface, or so limited, that wells are normally inadequate to
support any great number of people. Because potable water is absolutely vital, a large natural supply may
be both tactically and strategically important. Destruction of a water supply system may become a political
rather than military decision, because of its lasting effects on the resident civilian population.
Finding Water. When there is no surface water, tap into the earth’s water table for ground water. Access
to this table and its supply of generally pure water depends on the contour of the land and the type of soil.
See Figure 2-13 for water tables.
From Rocky Soil. Look for springs and seepages. Limestone has more and larger springs than any other
type rock. Because limestone is easily dissolved, caverns are readily etched in it by ground water. Look in
these caverns for springs. Lava rock is a good source of seeping ground water because it is porous. Look
for springs along the walls of valleys that cross the lava flow. Look for seepage where a dry canyon cuts
through a layer of porous sandstone.
Desert Survival 739
Figure 2-12: Typical oasis.
Watch for water indicators in desert environments. Some signs to look for are the direction in which
certain birds fly, the location of plants, and the convergence of game trails. Asian sand grouse, crested
larks, and zebra birds visit water holes at least once a day. Parrots and pigeons must live within reach of
water. Cattails, greasewoods, willows, elderberry, rushes, and salt grass grow only where ground water is
near the surface. Look for these signs and dig. If you do not have a bayonet or entrenching tool, dig with
a flat rock or sharp stick.
Desert natives often know of lingering surface pools in low places. They cover their surface pools, so
look under brush heaps or in sheltered nooks, especially in semiarid and brush country.
Places that are visibly damp, where animals have scratched, or where flies hover, indicate recent surface
water. Dig in such places for water. Collect dew on clear nights by sponging it up with a handkerchief.
During a heavy dew you should be able to collect about a pint an hour.
Dig in dry stream beds because water may be found under the gravel. When in snow fields, put in a
water container and place it in the sun out of the wind.
From Plants. If unsuccessful in your search for ground or runoff water, or if you do not have time to purify
the questionable water, a water-yielding plant may be the best source. Clear sap from many plants is easily
obtained. This sap is pure and is mostly water.
Plant tissues. Many plants with fleshy leaves or stems store drinkable water. Try them wherever you find
them. The barrel cactus of the southwestern United States is a possible source of water (see Figure 2-14). Use
it only as a last resort and only if you have the energy to cut through the tough, spine-studded outer rind.
Cut off the top of the cactus and smash the pulp within the plant. Catch the liquid in a container. Chunks
may be carried as an emergency water source. A barrel cactus 3-1/2 feet high will yield about a quart of
milky juice and is an exception to the rule that milky or colored sap-bearing plants should not be eaten.
740 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 2-13: Water tables.
Roots of desert plants. Desert plants often have their roots near the surface. The Australian water tree,
desert oak, and bloodwood are some examples. Pry these roots out of the ground, cut them into 24-36 inch
lengths, remove the bark, and suck the water.
Vines. Not all vines yield palatable water, but try any vine found. Use the following method for tapping
a vine—it will work on any species:
Step 1. Cut a deep notch in the vine as high up as you can reach.
Step 2. Cut the vine off close to the ground and let the water drip into your mouth or into a container.
Step 3. When the water ceases to drip, cut another section off the top. Repeat this until the supply
of fluid is exhausted.
Palms. Burl, coconut, sugar and nipa palms contain a drinkable sugary fluid. To start the flow in coconut
palm, bend the flower stalk downward and cut off the top. If a thin slice is cut off the stalk every 12 hours,
you can renew the flow and collect up to a quart a day.
Figure 2-14: Barrel cactus as possible source of water.
Desert Survival 741
Coconut. Select green coconuts. They can be opened easily with a knife and they have more milk than
ripe coconuts. The juice of a ripe coconut is extremely laxative; therefore, do not drink more than three or
four cups a day.
The milk of a coconut can be obtained by piercing two eyes of the coconut with a sharp object such as
a stick or a nail. To break off the outer fibrous covering of the coconut without a knife, slam the coconut
forcefully on the point of a rock or protruding stump.
Survival Water Still. You can build a cheap and simple survival still that will produce drinking water in a
dry desert. Basic materials for setting up this still are—
• 6-foot square sheet of clean plastic.
• A 2- to 4-quart capacity container.
• A 5-foot piece of flexible plastic tubing.
Pick an unshaded spot for the still, and dig a hole. If no shovel is available, use a stick or even your
hands. The hole should be about 3 feet across for a few inches down, then slope the hole toward the bottom
as shown in Figure 2-15 which depicts a cross section of a survival still. The hole should be deep enough
so the point of the plastic cone will be about 18 inches below ground and will still clear the top of the container.
Once the hole is properly dug, tape one end of the plastic drinking tube inside the container and
center the container in the bottom of the hole. Leave the top end of the drinking tube free, lay the plastic
sheet over the hole, and pile enough dirt around the edge of the plastic to hold it securely. Use a fist-size
rock to weight down the center of the plastic; adjust the plastic as necessary to bring it within a couple of
inches of the top of the container. Heat from the sun vaporizes the ground water. This vapor condenses
under the plastic, trickles down, and drops into the container.
Vegetation. The indigenous vegetation and wildlife of a desert have physiologically adapted to the conditions
of the desert environment. For example, the cacti of the American desert store moisture in enlarged
stems. Some plants have drought-resistant seeds that may lie dormant for years, followed by a brief, but
colorful display of growth after a rainstorm. The available vegetation is usually inadequate to provide
Figure 2-15: Cross-section of a survival still.
742 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
much shade, shelter, or concealment, especially from the air. Some plants, like the desert gourd, have vines
which grow to 4.5 meters (15 feet). Others have wide lateral roots just below the surface to take advantage
of rain and dew, while still others grow deep roots to tap subsurface water. Presence of palm trees usually
indicates water within a meter of the surface, salt grass within 2 meters, cottonwood and willows up to 4
meters. In addition to indicating the presence of water, some plants are edible. For more information on
edible plants, see Part IV, Chapter 6 “Survival Use of Plants.”
Wildlife. Invertebrates such as ground-dwelling spiders, scorpions, and centipedes, together with insects
of almost every type, are in the desert. Drawn to man as a source of moisture or food, lice, mites, and flies
can be extremely unpleasant and carry diseases such as scrub typhus and dysentery. The stings of scorpions
and the bites of centipedes and spiders are extremely painful, though seldom fatal. Some species of
scorpion, as well as black widow and recluse spiders, can cause death. The following paragraphs describe
some of the wildlife that are encountered in desert areas and the hazards they may pose to man.
Scorpions. Scorpions are prevalent in desert regions. They prefer damp locations and are particularly active
at night. Scorpions are easily recognizable by their crab-like appearance, and by their long tail which ends
in a sharp stinger. Adult scorpions vary from less than an inch to almost 8 inches in length. Colors range
from nearly black to straw to striped. Scorpions hide in clothing, boots, or bedding, so troops should routinely
shake these items before using. Although scorpion stings are rarely fatal, they can be painful.
Flies. Flies are abundant throughout desert environments. Filth-borne disease is a major health problem
posed by flies. Dirt or insects in the desert can cause infection in minor cuts and scratches.
Fleas. Avoid all dogs and rats which are the major carriers of fleas. Fleas are the primary carriers of plague
and murine typhus. For more information on dangerous insects, see Part IV, Chapter 3, “Dangerous Insects
and Arachnids.”
Reptiles. Reptiles are perhaps the most characteristic group of desert animals. Lizards and snakes occur
in quantity, and crocodiles are common in some desert rivers. Lizards are normally harmless and can be
ignored; although exceptions occur in North America and Saudi Arabia.
Snakes, ranging from the totally harmless to the lethal, abound in the desert. A bite from a poisonous
snake under two feet long can easily become infected. Snakes seek shade (cool areas) under bushes,
rocks, trees, and shrubs. These areas should be checked before sitting or resting. Troops should always
check clothing and boots before putting them on. Vehicle operators should look for snakes when initially
conducting before-operations maintenance. Look for snakes in and around suspension components and
engine compartments as snakes may seek the warm areas on recently parked vehicles to avoid the cool
night temperatures.
Sand vipers have two long and distinctive fangs that may be covered with a curtain of flesh or folded
back into the mouth. Sand vipers usually are aggressive and dangerous in spite of their size. A sand viper
usually buries itself in the sand and may strike at a passing man; its presence is alerted by a characteristic
coiling pattern left on the sand.
The Egyptian cobra can be identified by its characteristic cobra combative posture. In this posture, the
upper portion of the body is raised vertically and the head tilted sharply forward. The neck is usually
flattened to form a hood. The Egyptian cobra is often found around rocky places and ruins and is fairly
common. The distance the cobra can strike in a forward direction is equal to the distance the head is raised
above the ground. Poking around in holes and rock piles is particularly dangerous because of the likelihood
of encountering a cobra. See Figure 2-16 for an example of a viper and cobra. For more information
on dangerous snakes, see Part IV, Chapter 4, “Poisonous Snakes and Lizards.”
Mammals. The camel is the best known desert mammal. The urine of the camel is very concentrated to
reduce water loss, allowing it to lose 30 percent of its body weight without undue distress. A proportionate
loss would be fatal to man. The camel regains this weight by drinking up to 27 gallons (120 liters) of water
at a time. It cannot, however, live indefinitely without water and will die of dehydration as readily as man
Desert Survival 743
in equivalent circumstances. Other mammals, such as gazelles, obtain most of their required water supply
from the vegetation they eat and live in areas where there is no open water. Smaller animals, including
rodents, conserve their moisture by burrowing underground away from the direct heat of the sun, only
emerging for foraging at night. All these living things have adapted to the environment over a period of
thousands of years; however, man has not made this adaptation and must carry his food and water with
him and must also adapt to this severe environment.
Dogs are often found near mess facilities and tend to be in packs of 8 or 10. Dogs are carriers of rabies
and should be avoided. Commanders must decide how to deal with packs of dogs; extermination and
avoidance are two options. Dogs also carry fleas which may be transferred upon bodily contact. Rabies is
present in most desert mammal populations. Do not take any chances of contracting fleas or rabies from
any animal by adopting pets.
Rats are carriers of various parasites and gastrointestinal diseases due to their presence in unsanitary
locations.
There is no reason to fear the desert environment, and it should not adversely affect the morale of a soldier/
marine who is prepared for it. Lack of natural concealment has been known to induce temporary agoraphobia
(fear of open spaces) in some troops new to desert conditions, but this fear normally disappears
with acclimatization. Remember that there is nothing unique about either living or fighting in deserts;
native tribesmen have lived in the Sahara for thousands of years. The British maintained a field army and
won a campaign in the Western Desert in World War II at the far end of a 12,000-mile sea line of communication
with equipment considerably inferior to that in service now. The desert is neutral, and affects both
sides equally; the side whose personnel are best prepared for desert operations has a distinct advantage.
The desert is fatiguing, both physically and mentally. A high standard of discipline is essential, as a
single individual’s lapse may cause serious damage to his unit or to himself. Commanders must exercise
a high level of leadership and train their subordinate leaders to assume greater responsibilities required
by the wide dispersion of units common in desert warfare. Soldiers/marines with good leaders are more
apt to accept heavy physical exertion and uncomfortable conditions. Every soldier/marine must clearly
understand why he is fighting in such harsh conditions and should be kept informed of the operational
situation. Ultimately, however, the maintenance of discipline will depend on individual training.
Commanders must pay special attention to the welfare of troops operating in the desert, as troops are
unable to find any “comforts” except those provided by the command. Welfare is an essential factor in the
maintenance of morale in a harsh environment, especially to the inexperienced. There is more to welfare
Figure 2-16: Sand viper and cobra.
744 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 2-17: Types of heat gain.
than the provision of mail and clean clothing. Troops must be kept healthy and physically fit; they must
have adequate, palatable, regular food, and be allowed periods of rest and sleep. These things will not
always be possible and discomfort is inevitable, but if troops know that their commanders are doing
everything they can to make life tolerable, they will more readily accept the extremes brought on by the
environment.
Heat. The extreme heat of the desert can cause heat exhaustion and heatstroke and puts troops at risk
of degraded performance. For optimum mental and physical performance, body temperatures must be
maintained within narrow limits. Thus, it is important that the body lose the heat it gains during work.
The amount of heat accumulation in the human body depends upon the amount of physical activity, level
of hydration, and the state of personal heat acclimatization. Unit leaders must monitor their troops carefully
for signs of heat distress and adjust schedules, work rates, rest, and water consumption according to
conditions.
Normally, several physical and physiological mechanisms (e.g., convection and evaporation) assure
transfer of excess body heat to the air. But when air temperature is above skin temperature (around 92
degrees Fahrenheit) the evaporation of sweat is the only operative mechanism. Following the loss of sweat,
water must be consumed to replace the body’s lost fluids. If the body fluid lost through sweating is not
replaced, dehydration will follow. This will hamper heat dissipation and can lead to heat illness. When
humidity is high, evaporation of sweat is inhibited and there is a greater risk of dehydration or heat stress.
Consider the following to help prevent dehydration:
Desert Survival 745
Figure 2-18: Daily water requirements for three levels of activity.
•
Heat, wind, and dry air combine to produce a higher individual water requirement, primarily
through loss of body water as sweat. Sweat rates can be high even when the skin looks and feels
dry.
•
Dehydration nullifies the benefits of heat acclimatization and physical fitness, it increases the susceptibility
to heat injury, reduces the capacity to work, and decreases appetite and alertness. A lack
of alertness can indicate early stages of dehydration.
•
Thirst is not an adequate indicator of dehydration. The soldier/marine will not sense when he
is dehydrated and will fail to replace body water losses, even when drinking water is available.
The universal experience in the desert is that troops exhibit “voluntary dehydration” that is, they
maintain their hydration status at about 2 percent of body weight (1.5 quarts) below their ideal
hydration status without any sense of thirst.
746 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Chronic dehydration increases the incidence of several medical problems: constipation (already an issue
in any field situation), piles (hemorrhoids), kidney stones, and urinary infections. The likelihood of these
problems occurring can be reduced by enforcing mandatory drinking schedules.
Resting on hot sand will increase heat stress—the more a body surface is in contact with the sand, the
greater the heat stress. Ground or sand in full sun is hot, usually 30-45 degrees hotter than the air, and
may reach 150 degrees Fahrenheit when the air temperature is 120 degrees Fahrenheit. Cooler sand is just
inches below the surface; a shaded trench will provide a cool resting spot.
At the first evidence of heat illness, have the troops stop work, get into shade, and rehydrate. Early intervention
is important. Soldiers/marines who are not taken care of can become more serious casualties.
WARNING
One heat casualty is usually followed by others and is a warning that the entire
unit may be at risk. This is the “Weak Link Rule.” The status of the whole unit is
assessed at this point.
ACCLIMATIZATION
Acclimatization to heat is necessary to permit the body to reach and maintain efficiency in its cooling process.
A period of approximately 2 weeks should be allowed for acclimatization, with progressive increases
in heat exposure and physical exertion. Significant acclimatization can be attained in 4-5 days, but full
acclimatization takes 7-14 days, with 2-3 hours per day of exercise in the heat. Gradually increase physical
activity until full acclimatization is achieved.
Acclimatization does not reduce, and may increase, water requirements. Although this strengthens heat
resistance, there is no such thing as total protection against the debilitating effects of heat. Situations may
arise where it is not possible for men to become fully acclimatized before being required to do heavy labor.
When this happens heavy activity should be limited to cooler hours and troops should be allowed to rest
frequently. Check the weather daily. Day-to-day and region-to-region variations in temperatures, wind,
and humidity can be substantial.
Climatic Stress. Climatic stress on the human body in hot deserts can be caused by any combination of
air temperature, humidity, air movement, and radiant heat. The body is also adversely affected by such
factors as lack of acclimatization, being overweight, dehydration, alcohol consumption, lack of sleep, old
age, and poor health.
The body maintains its optimum temperature of 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit by conduction/convection,
radiation, and evaporation (sweat). The most important of these in the daytime desert is evaporation, as
air temperature alone is probably already above skin temperature. If, however, relative humidity is high,
air will not easily evaporate sweat and the cooling effect is reduced. The following paragraphs describe the
effects of radiant light, wind, and sand on personnel in desert areas.
Radiant Light. Radiant light comes from all directions. The sun’s rays, either direct or reflected off the
ground, affect the skin and can also produce eyestrain and temporarily impaired vision. Not only does
glare damage the eyes but it is very tiring; therefore, dark glasses or goggles should be worn.
Overexposure to the sun can cause sunburn. Persons with fair skin, freckled skin, ruddy complexions,
or red hair are more susceptible to sunburn than others, but all personnel are susceptible to some degree.
Personnel with darker complexions can also sunburn. This is difficult to monitor due to skin pigmentation,
so leaders must be ever vigilant to watch for possible sunburn victims. Sunburn is characterized by painful
reddened skin, and can result in blistering and lead to other forms of heat illness.
Soldier/marines should acquire a suntan in gradual stages (preferably in the early morning or late afternoon)
to gain some protection against sunburn. They should not be permitted to expose bare skin to the
Desert Survival 747
sun for longer than five minutes on the first day, increasing exposure gradually at the rate of five minutes
per day. They should be fully clothed in loose garments in all operational situations. This will also reduce
sweat loss. It is important to remember that—
•
The sun is as dangerous on cloudy days as it is on sunny days.
•
Sunburn ointment is not designed to give complete protection against excessive exposure.
•
Sunbathing or dozing in the desert sun can be fatal.
Wind. The wind can be as physically demanding as the heat, burning the face, arms, and any exposed skin
with blown sand. Sand gets into eyes, nose, mouth, throat, lungs, ears, and hair, and reaches every part of
the body. Even speaking and listening can be difficult. Continual exposure to blown sand is exhausting
and demoralizing. Technical work spaces that are protected from dust and sand are likely to be very hot.
Work/rest cycles and enforced water consumption will be required.
The combination of wind and dust or sand can cause extreme irritation to mucous membranes, chap the
lips and other exposed skin surfaces, and can cause nosebleed. Cracked, chapped lips make eating difficult
and cause communication problems. Irritative conjunctivitis, caused when fine particles enter the eyes, is
a frequent complaint of vehicle crews, even those wearing goggles. Lip balm and skin and eye ointments
must be used by all personnel. Constant wind noise is tiresome and increases soldier/marine fatigue, thus
affecting alertness.
When visibility is reduced by sandstorms to the extent that military operations are impossible, soldiers/
marines should not be allowed to leave their group for any purpose unless secured by lines for recovery.
The following are special considerations when performing operations in dust or sand:
•
Contact lenses are very difficult to maintain in the dry dusty environment of the desert and should
not be worn except by military personnel operating in air conditioned environments, under command
guidance.
•
Mucous membranes can be protected by breathing through a wet face cloth, snuffing small amounts
of water into nostrils (native water is not safe for this purpose) or coating the nostrils with a small
amount of petroleum jelly. Lips should be protected by lip balm.
•
Moving vehicles create their own sandstorms and troops traveling in open vehicles should be protected.
•
Scarves and bandannas can be used to protect the head and face.
•
The face should be washed as often as possible. The eyelids should be cleaned daily.
High Mineral Content. All arid regions have areas where the surface soil has a high mineral content (borax,
salt, alkali, and lime). Material in contact with this soil wears out quickly, and water in these areas is
extremely hard and undrinkable. Wetting your uniform in such water to cool off may cause a skin rash.
The Great Salt Lake area in Utah is an example of this type of mineral-laden water and soil. There is little
or no plant life; therefore, shelter is hard to find. Avoid these areas if possible.
BASIC HEAT INJURY PREVENTION
The temperature of the body is regulated within very narrow limits. Too little salt causes heat cramps; too
little salt and insufficient water causes heat exhaustion. Heat exhaustion will cause a general collapse of the
body’s cooling mechanism. This condition is heatstroke, and is potentially fatal. To avoid these illnesses,
troops should maintain their physical fitness by eating adequately, drinking sufficient water, and consuming
adequate salt. If soldiers/marines expend more calories than they take in, they will be more prone to
heat illnesses. Since troops may lose their desire for food in hot climates, they must be encouraged to eat,
with the heavier meal of the day scheduled during the cooler hours.
748 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
It is necessary to recognize heat stress symptoms quickly. When suffering from heatstroke, the
most dangerous condition, there is a tendency for a soldier/marine to creep away from his comrades and
attempt to hide in a shady and secluded spot; if not found and treated, he will die. When shade is required
during the day, it can best be provided by tarpaulins or camouflage nets, preferably doubled to allow air
circulation between layers and dampened with any surplus water.
Approximately 75 percent of the human body is fluid. All chemical activities in the body occur in a water
solution, which assists in the removal of toxic body wastes and plays a vital part in the maintenance of an
even body temperature. A loss of 2 quarts of body fluid (2.5 percent of body weight) decreases efficiency
by 25 percent and a loss of fluid equal to 15 percent of body weight is usually fatal. The following are some
considerations when operating in a desert environment:
•
Consider water a tactical weapon. Reduce heat injury by forcing water consumption. Soldiers/
marines in armored vehicles, MOPP gear, and in body armor need to increase their water intake.
•
When possible, drink cool (50-55 degrees Fahrenheit) water.
•
Drink one quart of water in the morning, at each meal, and before strenuous work. In hot climates
drink at least one quart of water each hour. At higher temperatures hourly water requirements
increase to over two quarts.
•
Take frequent drinks since they are more often effective than drinking the same amount all at once.
Larger soldiers/marines need more water.
•
Replace salt loss through eating meals.
•
When possible, work loads and/or duration of physical activity should be less during the first days
of exposure to heat, and then should gradually be increased to follow acclimatization.
•
Modify activities when conditions that increase the risk of heat injury (fatigue/loss of sleep, previous
heat exhaustion, taking medication) are present.
•
Take frequent rest periods in the shade, if possible. Lower the work rate and work loads as the heat
condition increases.
•
Perform heavy work in the cooler hours of the day such as early morning or late evening, if possible.
A description of the symptoms and treatment for heat illnesses follows:
•
Heat cramps.
o
Symptoms: Muscle cramps of arms, legs, and/or stomach. Heavy sweating (wet skin) and
extreme thirst.
o
First aid: Move soldier/marine to a shady area and loosen clothing. Slowly give large
amounts of cool water. Watch the soldier/marine and continue to give him water, if he
accepts it. Get medical help if cramps continue.
•
Heat exhaustion.
o
Symptoms: Heavy sweating with pale, moist, cool skin; headache, weakness, dizziness,
and/or loss of appetite; heat cramps, nausea (with or without vomiting), rapid breathing,
confusion, and tingling of the hands and/or feet.
o
First aid: Move the soldier/marine to a cool, shady area and loosen/remove clothing. Pour
water on the soldier/marine and fan him to increase the cooling effect. Have the soldier/
marine slowly drink at least one full canteen of water. Elevate the soldier’s/marine’s legs.
Get medical help if symptoms continue; watch the soldier/marine until the symptoms are
gone or medical aid arrives.
•
Heatstroke.
o
Symptoms: Sweating stops (red, flushed, hot dry skin).
o
First aid: Evacuate to a medical facility immediately. Move the soldier/marine to a cool, shady
area and loosen or remove clothing if the situation permits. Start cooling him immediately.
Desert Survival 749
Immerse him in water and fan him. Massage his extremities and skin and elevate his legs. If
conscious, have the soldier/marine slowly drink one full canteen of water.
Water Supply. Maintaining safe, clean, water supplies is critical. The best containers for small quantities
of water (5 gallons) are plastic water cans or coolers. Water in plastic cans will be good for up to 72 hours;
storage in metal containers is safe only for 24 hours. Water trailers, if kept cool, will keep water fresh up
to five days. If the air temperature exceeds 100 degrees Fahrenheit, the water temperature must be monitored.
When the temperature exceeds 92 degrees Fahrenheit, the water should be changed, as bacteria
will multiply. If the water is not changed the water can become a source of sickness, such as diarrhea. Ice
in containers keeps water cool. If ice is put in water trailers, the ice must be removed prior to moving the
trailer to prevent damage to the inner lining of the trailer.
Potable drinking water is the single most important need in the desert. Ensure nonpotable water is never
mistaken for drinking water. Water that is not fit to drink but is not otherwise dangerous (it may be merely
oversalinated) may be used to aid cooling. It can be used to wet clothing, for example, so the body does not
use too much of its internal store of water.
Use only government-issued water containers for drinking water. Carry enough water on a vehicle to
last the crew until the next planned resupply. It is wise to provide a small reserve. Carry water containers
in positions that—
• Prevent vibration by clamping them firmly to the vehicle body.
• Are in the shade and benefit from an air draft.
• Are protected from puncture by shell splinters.
• Are easily dismounted in case of vehicle evacuation.
Troops must be trained not to waste water. Water that has been used for washing socks, for example, is
perfectly adequate for a vehicle cooling system.
Obtain drinking water only from approved sources to avoid disease or water that may have been deliberately
polluted. Be careful to guard against pollution of water sources. If rationing is in effect, water
should be issued under the close supervision of officers and noncommissioned officers.
Humans cannot perform to maximum efficiency on a decreased water intake. An acclimatized soldier/
marine will need as much (if not more) water as the nonacclimatized soldier/marine, as he sweats more
readily. If the ration water is not sufficient, there is no alternative but to reduce physical activity or restrict
it to the cooler parts of the day.
In very hot conditions it is better to drink smaller quantities of water often rather than large quantities
occasionally. Drinking large quantities causes excessive sweating and may induce heat cramps. Use of
alcohol lessens resistance to heat due to its dehydrating effect. As activities increase or conditions become
more severe, increase water intake accordingly.
The optimum water drinking temperature is between 10 degrees Celsius and 15.5 degrees Celsius (50-60
degrees Fahrenheit). Use lister bags or even wet cloth around metal containers to help cool water.
Units performing heavy activities on a sustained basis, such as a forced march or digging in, at 80 degrees
wet bulb globe temperature index, may require more than 3 gallons of drinking water per man. Any
increase in the heat stress will increase this need. In high temperatures, the average soldier/marine will
require 9 quarts of water per day to survive, but 5 gallons are recommended. Details on water consumption
and planning factors are contained in Appendix G.
While working in high desert temperatures, a man at rest may lose as much as a pint of water per hour
from sweating. In very high temperatures and low humidity, sweating is not noticeable as it evaporates so
fast the skin will appear dry. Whenever possible, sweat should be retained on the skin to improve the cooling
process; however, the only way to do this is to avoid direct sun on the skin. This is the most important
reason why desert troops must remain fully clothed. If a soldier/marine is working, his water loss through
sweating (and subsequent requirement for replenishment) increases in proportion to the amount of work
750 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
done (movement). Troops will not always drink their required amount of liquid readily and will need to be
encouraged or ordered to drink more than they think is necessary as the sensation of thirst is not felt until
there is a body deficit of 1 to 2 quarts of water. This is particularly true during the period of acclimatization.
Packets of artificial fruit flavoring encourages consumption due to the variety of pleasant tastes.
All unit leaders must understand the critical importance of maintaining the proper hydration status.
Almost any contingency of military operations will act to interfere with the maintenance of hydration.
Urine provides the best indicator of proper hydration. The following are considerations for proper hydration
during desert operations:
•
Water is the key to your health and survival. Drink before you become thirsty and drink often,
When you become thirsty you will be about a “quart and a half low.”
•
Carry as much water as possible when away from approved sources of drinking water. Man can
live longer without food than without water. Drink before you work; carry water in your belly, do
not “save” it in your canteen. Learn to drink a quart or more of water at one time and drink frequently
to replace sweat losses.
•
Ensure troops have at least one canteen of water in reserve, and know where and when water
resupply will be available.
•
Carbohydrate/electrolyte beverages (e.g., Gatorade) are not required, and if used, should not be
the only source of water. They are too concentrated to be used alone. Many athletes prefer to dilute
these 1:1 with water. Gaseous drinks, sodas, beer, and milk are not good substitutes for water
because of their dehydrating effects.
•
If urine is more colored than diluted lemonade, or the last urination cannot be remembered, there
is probably insufficient water intake. Collect urine samples in field expedient containers and spot
check the color as a guide to ensuring proper hydration. Very dark urine warns of dehydration.
Soldiers/marines should observe their own urine, and use the buddy system to watch for signs of
dehydration in others.
•
Diseases, especially diarrheal diseases, will complicate and often prevent maintenance of proper
hydration.
Salt, in correct proportions, is vital to the human body; however, the more a man sweats, the more salt he
loses. The issue ration has enough salt for a soldier/marine drinking up to 4 quarts of water per day. Unacclimatized
troops need additional salt during their first few days of exposure and all soldiers/marines
need additional salt when sweating heavily. If the water demand to balance sweat loss rises, extra salt must
be taken under medical direction. Salt, in excess of body requirements, may cause increased thirst and a
feeling of sickness, and can be dangerous. Water must be tested before adding salt as some sources are
already saline, especially those close to the sea.
What can individuals or small groups do when they are totally cut off from normal water supply? If
you are totally cut off from the normal water supply, the first question you must consider is whether you
should try to walk to safety or stay put and hope for rescue. Walking requires 1 gallon of water for every
20 miles covered at night, and 2 gallons for every 20 miles covered during the day. Without any water
and walking only at night, you may be able to cover 20 to 25 miles before you collapse. If your chance of
being rescued is not increased by walking 20 miles, you may be better off staying put and surviving one
to three days longer. If you do not know where you are going, do not try to walk with a limited supply
of water.
If you decide to walk to safety, follow the following guidelines in addition to the general conservation
practices listed in the next section:
•
Take as much water as you have and can carry, and carry little or no food.
•
Drink as much as you can comfortably hold before you set out.
•
Walk only at night.
Desert Survival 751
Whether you decide to walk or not, you should follow the principles listed below to conserve water in
emergency situations:
•
Avoid the sun. Stay in shade as much as possible. If you are walking, rest in shade during the day.
This may require some ingenuity. You may want to use standard or improvised tents, lie under
vehicles, or dig holes in the ground.
•
Cease activity. Do not perform any work that you do not have to for survival.
•
Remain clothed. It will reduce the water lost to evaporation.
•
Shield yourself from excessive winds. Winds, though they feel good also increase the evaporation
rate.
•
Drink any potable water you have as you feel the urge. Saving it will not reduce your body’s need
for it or the rate at which you use it.
•
Do not drink contaminated water from such sources as car radiators or urine. It will actually require
more water to remove the waste material. Instead, in emergencies, use such water to soak your
clothing as this reduces sweating.
•
Do not eat unless you have plenty of water.
Do not count on finding water if you are stranded in the desert. Still, in certain cases, some water can be
found. It does rain sometimes in the desert (although it may be 20 years between showers) and some water
will remain under the surface. Signs of possible water are green plants or dry lake beds. Sometimes water can
be obtained in these places by digging down until the soil becomes moist and then waiting for water to seep
into the hole. Desert trails lead from one water point to another, but they may be further apart than you can
travel without water. Almost all soils contain some moisture.
Cold. The desert can be dangerously cold. The dry air, wind, and clear sky can combine to produce bonechilling
discomfort and even injury. The ability of the body to maintain body temperature within a narrow
range is as important in the cold as in the heat. Loss of body heat to the environment can lead to cold
injury; a general lowering of the body temperature can result in hypothermia, and local freezing of body
tissues can lead to frostbite. Hypothermia is the major threat from the cold in the desert, but frostbite also
occurs.
Troops must have enough clothing and shelter to keep warm. Remember, wood is difficult to find;
any that is available is probably already in use. Troops may be tempted to leave clothing and equipment
behind that seems unnecessary (and burdensome) during the heat of the day. Cold-wet injuries (immersion
foot or trench foot) may be a problem for dismounted troops operating in the coastal marshes of the
Persian Gulf during the winter. Some guidelines to follow when operating in the cold are:
•
Anticipate an increased risk of cold-wet injuries if a proposed operation includes lowland or
marshes. Prolonged exposure of the feet in cold water causes immersion foot injury, which is completely
disabling.
•
Check the weather—know what conditions you will be confronting. The daytime temperature is no
guide to the nighttime temperature; 90-degree-Fahrenheit days can turn into 30-degree-Fahrenheit
nights.
•
The effects of the wind on the perception of cold is well known. Windchill charts contained in FM
21-10 allow estimation of the combined cooling power of air temperature and wind speed compared
to the effects of an equally cooling still-air temperature.
Clothing. Uniforms should be worn to protect against sunlight and wind. Wear the uniform loosely. Use
hats, goggles, and sunscreen. Standard lightweight clothing is suitable for desert operations but should be
camouflaged in desert colors, not green. Wear nonstarched long-sleeved shirts, and full-length trousers
tucked into combat boots. Wear a scarf or triangular bandanna loosely around the neck (as a sweat rag) to
752 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
protect the face and neck during sandstorms against the sand and the sun. In extremely hot and dry conditions
a wet sweat rag worn loosely around the neck will assist in body cooling.
Combat boots wear out quickly in desert terrain, especially if the terrain is rocky. The leather drys out
and cracks unless a nongreasy mixture such as saddle soap is applied. Covering the ventilation holes on
jungle boots with glue or epoxies prevents excessive sand from entering the boots. Although difficult to do,
keep clothing relatively clean by washing in any surplus water that is available. When water is not available,
air and sun clothing to help kill bacteria.
Change socks when they become wet. Prolonged wear of wet socks can lead to foot injury. Although dry
desert air promotes evaporation of water from exposed clothing and may actually promote cooling, sweat
tends to accumulate in boots.
Soldier/marines may tend to stay in thin clothing until too late in the desert day and become susceptible
to chills—so respiratory infections may be common. Personnel should gradually add layers of clothing at
night (such as sweaters), and gradually remove them in the morning. Where the danger of cold weather
injury exists in the desert, commanders must guard against attempts by inexperienced troops to discard
cold weather clothing during the heat of the day.
Compared to the desert battle dress uniform (DBDU) the relative impermeability of the battle dress overgarment
(BDO) reduces evaporative cooling capacity. Wearing underwear and the complete DBDU, with
sleeves rolled down and under the chemical protective garment, provides additional protection against
chemical poisoning. However, this also increases the likelihood of heat stress casualties.
Hygiene and Sanitation. Personal hygiene is absolutely critical to sustaining physical fitness. Take every
opportunity to wash. Poor personal hygiene and lack of attention to siting of latrines cause more casualties
than actual combat. Field Marshal Rommel lost over 28,400 soldiers of his Afrika Corps to disease in 1942.
During the desert campaigns of 1942, for every one combat injury, there were three hospitalized for disease.
Proper standards of personal hygiene must be maintained not only as a deterrent to disease but as a
reinforcement to discipline and morale. If water is available, shave and bathe daily. Cleaning the areas of
the body that sweat heavily is especially important; change underwear and socks frequently, and use foot
powder often. Units deployed in remote desert areas must have a means of cutting hair therefore, barber
kits should be maintained and inventoried prior to any deployment. If sufficient water is not available,
troops should clean themselves with sponge baths, solution-impregnated pads, a damp rag, or even a
dry, clean cloth. Ensure that waste water is disposed of in an approved area to prevent insect infestation.
If sufficient water is not available for washing, a field expedient alternative is powder baths, that is, using
talcum or baby powder to dry bathe.
Check troops for any sign of injury, no matter how slight, as dirt or insects can cause infection in minor
cuts and scratches. Small quantities of disinfectant in washing water reduces the chance of infection. Minor
sickness can have serious effects in the desert. Prickly heat for example, upsets the sweating mechanism
and diarrhea increases water loss, making the soldier/marine more prone to heat illnesses. The buddy system
helps to ensure that prompt attention is given to these problems before they incapacitate individuals.
Intestinal diseases can easily increase in the desert. Proper mess sanitation is essential. Site latrines well
away and downwind of troop areas and lagers. Trench-type latrines should be used where the soil is suitable
but must be dug deeply, as shallow latrines become exposed in areas of shifting sand. Funnels dug
into a sump work well as urinals. Layer the bottom of slit trenches with lime and cover the top prior to
being filled in. Ensure lime is available after each use of the latrine. Flies are a perpetual source of irritation
and carry infections. Only good sanitation can keep the fly problem to a minimum. Avoid all local tribe
camps since they are frequently a source of disease and vermin.
Desert Sickness. Diseases common to the desert include plague, typhus, malaria, dengue fever, dysentery,
cholera, and typhoid. Diseases which adversely impact hydration, such as those which include nausea,
vomiting, and diarrhea among their symptoms, can act to dramatically increase the risk of heat (and cold)
illness or injury. Infectious diseases can result in a fever; this may make it difficult to diagnose heat illness.
Occurrences of heat illness in troops suffering from other diseases complicate recovery from both ailments.
Desert Survival 753
Many native desert animals and plants are hazardous. In addition to injuries as a result of bites, these
natural inhabitants of the desert can be a source of infectious diseases.
Many desert plants and shrubs have a toxic resin that can cause blisters, or spines that can cause infection.
Consider milky sap, all red beans, and smoke from burning oleander shrubs, poisonous. Poisonous
snakes, scorpions, and spiders are common in all deserts. Coastal waters of the Persian Gulf contain
hazardous marine animals including sea snakes, poisonous jellyfish, and sea urchins.
Skin diseases can result from polluted water so untreated water should not be used for washing clothes;
although it can be used for vehicle cooling systems or vehicle decontamination.
The excessive sweating common in hot climates brings on prickly heat and some forms of fungus infections
of the skin. The higher the humidity, the greater the possibility of their occurrence. Although many
deserts are not humid, there are exceptions, and these ailments are common to humid conditions.
The following are additional health-related considerations when operating in a desert environment:
•
The most common and significant diseases in deserts include diarrheal and insectborne febrile
(i.e., fever causing) illnesses—both types of these diseases are preventable.
•
Most diarrheal diseases result from ingestion of water or food contaminated with feces. Flies, mosquitoes,
and other insects carry fever—causing illnesses such as malaria, sand fly fever, dengue
(fever with severe pain in the joints), typhus, and tick fevers.
•
There are no safe natural water sources in the desert. Standing water is usually infectious or too
brackish to be safe for consumption. Units and troops must always know where and how to get safe
drinking water.
•
Avoid brackish water (i.e., salty). It, like sea water, increases thirst; it also dehydrates the soldier/
marine faster than were no water consumed. Brackish water is common even in public water supplies,
Iodine tablets only kill germs, they do not reduce brackishness.
•
Water supplies with insufficient chlorine residuals, native food and drink, and ice from all sources
are common sources of infective organisms.
Preventive Measures. Both diarrheal and insectborne diseases can be prevented through a strategy
which breaks the chain of transmission from infected sources to susceptible soldiers/marines by effectively
applying preventive measures. Additional preventive measures are described below:
•
Careful storage, handling and purification/preparation of water and food are the keys to prevention
of diarrheal disease. Procure all food, water, ice, and beverages from US military approved
sources and inspect them routinely.
•
Well-cooked foods that are “steaming hot” when eaten are generally safe, as are peeled fruits and
vegetables.
•
Local dairy products and raw leafy vegetables are generally unsafe.
•
Consider the food in native markets hazardous. Avoid local food unless approved by medical
personnel officials.
•
Assume raw ice and native water to be contaminated—raw ice cannot be properly disinfected. Ice has
been a major source of illness in all prior conflicts; therefore, use ice only from approved sources.
•
If any uncertainty exists concerning the quality of drinking water, troops should disinfect their
supplies using approved field-expedient methods (e.g., hypochlorite for lister bags, iodine tablets
for canteens, boiling).
•
Untreated water used for washing or bathing risks infection.
•
Hand washing facilities should be established at both latrines and mess facilities. Particular attention
should be given to the cleanliness of hands and fingernails. Dirty hands are the primary means
of transmitting disease.
•
Dispose of human waste and garbage. Additional considerations regarding human waste and
garbage are—
754 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
o
Sanitary disposal is important in preventing the spread of disease from insects, animals, and
infected individuals, to healthy soldiers/marines.
o
Construction and maintenance of sanitary latrines are essential.
o
Burning is the best solution for waste.
o
Trench latrines can be used if the ground is suitable, but they must be dug deeply enough so
that they are not exposed to shifting sand, and they must have protection against flies and
other insects that can use them as breeding places.
o
Food and garbage attract animals—do not sleep where you eat and keep refuse areas away
from living areas.
o
Survey the unit area for potential animal hazards.
o
Shakeout boots, clothing, and bedding before using them.
CHAPTER 3
Cold Weather Survival
One of the most difficult survival situations is a cold weather scenario. Remember, cold weather is
an adversary that can be as dangerous as an enemy soldier. Every time you venture into the cold,
you are pitting yourself against the elements. With a little knowledge of the environment, proper
plans, and appropriate equipment, you can overcome the elements. As you remove one or more of
these factors, survival becomes increasingly difficult. Remember, winter weather is highly variable.
Prepare yourself to adapt to blizzard conditions even during sunny and clear weather.
Cold is a far greater threat to survival than it appears. It decreases your ability to think and weakens
your will to do anything except to get warm. Cold is an insidious enemy; as it numbs the mind and body, it
subdues the will to survive. Cold makes it very easy to forget your ultimate goal—to survive.
COLD REGIONS AND LOCATIONS
Cold regions include arctic and subarctic areas and areas immediately adjoining them. You can classify
about 48 percent of the northern hemisphere’s total landmass as a cold region due to the influence and
extent of air temperatures. Ocean currents affect cold weather and cause large areas normally included in
the temperate zone to fall within the cold regions during winter periods. Elevation also has a marked effect
on defining cold regions.
Within the cold weather regions, you may face two types of cold weather environments—wet or dry.
Knowing in which environment your area of operations falls will affect planning and execution of a cold
weather operation.
Wet Cold Weather Environments. Wet cold weather conditions exist when the average temperature in a
24-hour period is –10 degrees C or above. Characteristics of this condition are freezing during the colder
night hours and thawing during the day. Even though the temperatures are warmer during this condition,
the terrain is usually very sloppy due to slush and mud. You must concentrate on protecting yourself from
the wet ground and from freezing rain or wet snow.
Dry Cold Weather Environments. Dry cold weather conditions exist when the average temperature in a
24-hour period remains below –10 degrees C. Even though the temperatures in this condition are much
lower than normal, you do not have to contend with the freezing and thawing. In these conditions, you
need more layers of inner clothing to protect you from temperatures as low as –60 degrees C. Extremely
hazardous conditions exist when wind and low temperature combine.
WINDCHILL
Windchill increases the hazards in cold regions. Windchill is the effect of moving air on exposed flesh. For
instance, with a 27.8-kph (15-knot) wind and a temperature of –10 degrees C, the equivalent windchill temperature
is –23 degrees C. Table 3-1 gives the windchill factors for various temperatures and wind speeds.
Remember, even when there is no wind, you will create the equivalent wind by skiing, running, being
towed on skis behind a vehicle, working around aircraft that produce wind blasts.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COLD WEATHER SURVIVAL
It is more difficult for you to satisfy your basic water, food, and shelter needs in a cold environment than
in a warm environment. Even if you have the basic requirements, you must also have adequate protective
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clothing and the will to survive. The will to survive is as important as the basic needs. There have been incidents
when trained and well-equipped individuals have not survived cold weather situations because they
lacked the will to live. Conversely, this will has sustained individuals less well-trained and equipped.
There are many different items of cold weather equipment and clothing issued by the U.S. Army today.
Specialized units may have access to newer, lightweight underwear, outerwear and boots, and other special
equipment. Remember, however, the older gear will keep you warm as long as you apply a few cold
weather principles. If the newer types of clothing are available, use them. If not, then your clothing should
be entirely wool, with the possible exception of a windbreaker.
You must not only have enough clothing to protect you from the cold, you must also know how to
maximize the warmth you get from it. For example, always keep your head covered. You can lose 40 to
45 percent of body heat from an unprotected head and even more from the unprotected neck, wrist, and
ankles. These areas of the body are good radiators of heat and have very little insulating fat. The brain is
very susceptible to cold and can stand the least amount of cooling. Because there is much blood circulation
in the head, most of which is on the surface, you can lose heat quickly if you do not cover your head.
There are four basic principles to follow to keep warm. An easy way to remember these basic principles
is to use the word COLD—
C—Keep clothing clean.
O—Avoid overheating.
L—Wear clothes loose and in layers.
D—Keep clothing dry.
Table 3-1: Windchill table.
Cold Weather Survival 757
C—Keep clothing clean. This principle is always important for sanitation and comfort. In winter, it is also
important from the standpoint of warmth. Clothes matted with dirt and grease lose much of their insulation
value. Heat can escape more easily from the body through the clothing’s crushed or filled up air
pockets.
O—Avoid overheating. When you get too hot, you sweat and your clothing absorbs the moisture. This
affects your warmth in two ways: dampness decreases the insulation quality of clothing, and as sweat
evaporates, your body cools. Adjust your clothing so that you do not sweat. Do this by partially opening
your parka or jacket, by removing an inner layer of clothing, by removing heavy outer mittens, or by
throwing back your parka hood or changing to lighter headgear. The head and hands act as efficient heat
dissipaters when overheated.
L—Wear your clothing loose and in layers. Wearing tight clothing and footgear restricts blood circulation
and invites cold injury. It also decreases the volume of air trapped between the layers, reducing its
insulating value. Several layers of lightweight clothing are better than one equally thick layer of clothing,
because the layers have dead-air space between them. The dead-air space provides extra insulation. Also,
layers of clothing allow you to take off or add clothing layers to prevent excessive sweating or to increase
warmth.
D—Keep clothing dry. In cold temperatures, your inner layers of clothing can become wet from sweat
and your outer layer, if not water repellent, can become wet from snow and frost melted by body heat.
Wear water repellent outer clothing, if available. It will shed most of the water collected from melting
snow and frost. Before entering a heated shelter, brush off the snow and frost. Despite the precautions
you take, there will be times when you cannot keep from getting wet. At such times, drying your clothing
may become a major problem. On the march, hang your damp mittens and socks on your rucksack.
Sometimes in freezing temperatures, the wind and sun will dry this clothing. You can also place damp
socks or mittens, unfolded, near your body so that your body heat can dry them. In a campsite, hang
damp clothing inside the shelter near the top, using drying lines or improvised racks. You may even be
able to dry each item by holding it before an open fire. Dry leather items slowly. If no other means are
available for drying your boots, put them between your sleeping bag shell and liner. Your body heat will
help to dry the leather.
A heavy, down-lined sleeping bag is a valuable piece of survival gear in cold weather. Ensure the down
remains dry. If wet, it loses a lot of its insulation value. If you do not have a sleeping bag, you can make one
out of parachute cloth or similar material and natural dry material, such as leaves, pine needles, or moss.
Place the dry material between two layers of the material.
Other important survival items are a knife; waterproof matches in a waterproof container, preferably
one with a flint attached; a durable compass; map; watch; waterproof ground cloth and cover; flashlight;
binoculars; dark glasses; fatty emergency foods; food gathering gear; and signaling items.
Remember, a cold weather environment can be very harsh. Give a good deal of thought to selecting the
right equipment for survival in the cold. If unsure of an item you have never used, test it in an “overnight
backyard” environment before venturing further. Once you have selected items that are essential for your
survival, do not lose them after you enter a cold weather environment.
HYGIENE
Although washing yourself may be impractical and uncomfortable in a cold environment, you must do so.
Washing helps prevent skin rashes that can develop into more serious problems.
In some situations, you may be able to take a snow bath. Take a handful of snow and wash your body
where sweat and moisture accumulate, such as under the arms and between the legs, and then wipe yourself
dry. If possible, wash your feet daily and put on clean, dry socks. Change your underwear at least
twice a week. If you are unable to wash your underwear, take it off, shake it, and let it air out for an hour
or two.
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If you are using a previously used shelter, check your body and clothing for lice each night. If your clothing
has become infested, use insecticide powder if you have any. Otherwise, hang your clothes in the cold,
then beat and brush them. This will help get rid of the lice, but not the eggs.
If you shave, try to do so before going to bed. This will give your skin a chance to recover before exposing
it to the elements.
MEDICAL ASPECTS
When you are healthy, your inner core temperature (torso temperature) remains almost constant at 37
degrees C (98.6 degrees F). Since your limbs and head have less protective body tissue than your torso,
their temperatures vary and may not reach core temperature.
Your body has a control system that lets it react to temperature extremes to maintain a temperature balance.
There are three main factors that affect this temperature balance—heat production, heat loss, and evaporation.
The difference between the body’s core temperature and the environment’s temperature governs the
heat production rate. Your body can get rid of heat better than it can produce it. Sweating helps to control the
heat balance. Maximum sweating will get rid of heat about as fast as maximum exertion produces it.
Shivering causes the body to produce heat. It also causes fatigue that, in turn, leads to a drop in body
temperature. Air movement around your body affects heat loss. It has been calculated that a naked man
exposed to still air at or about 0 degrees C can maintain a heat balance if he shivers as hard as he can. However,
he can’t shiver forever.
It has also been calculated that a man at rest wearing the maximum arctic clothing in a cold environment
can keep his internal heat balance during temperatures well below freezing. To withstand really cold
conditions for any length of time, however, he will have to become active or shiver.
COLD INJURIES
The best way to deal with injuries and sicknesses is to take measures to prevent them from happening in
the first place. Treat any injury or sickness that occurs as soon as possible to prevent it from worsening.
The knowledge of signs and symptoms and the use of the buddy system are critical in maintaining
health. Following are cold injuries that can occur.
Hypothermia. Hypothermia is the lowering of the body temperature at a rate faster than the body can produce
heat. Causes of hypothermia may be general exposure or the sudden wetting of the body by falling
into a lake or spraying with fuel or other liquids.
The initial symptom is shivering. This shivering may progress to the point that it is uncontrollable and
interferes with an individual’s ability to care for himself. This begins when the body’s core (rectal) temperature
falls to about 35.5 degrees C (96 degrees F). When the core temperature reaches 35 to 32 degrees
C (95 to 90 degrees F), sluggish thinking, irrational reasoning, and a false feeling of warmth may occur.
Core temperatures of 32 to 30 degrees C (90 to 86 degrees F) and below result in muscle rigidity, unconsciousness,
and barely detectable signs of life. If the victim’s core temperature falls below 25 degrees C (77
degrees F), death is almost certain.
To treat hypothermia, rewarm the entire body. If there are means available, rewarm the person by first
immersing the trunk area only in warm water of 37.7 to 43.3 degrees C (100 to 110 degrees F).
CAUTION
Rewarming the total body in a warm water bath should be done only in a hospital environment
because of the increased risk of cardiac arrest and rewarming shock.
One of the quickest ways to get heat to the inner core is to give warm water enemas. Such an action,
however, may not be possible in a survival situation. Another method is to wrap the victim in a warmed
sleeping bag with another person who is already warm; both should be naked.
Cold Weather Survival759
CAUTION
The individual placed in the sleeping bag with victim could also become a hypothermia
victim if left in the bag too long.
If the person is conscious, give him hot, sweetened fluids. One of the best sources of calories is honey or
dextrose; if unavailable, use sugar, cocoa, or a similar soluble sweetener.
CAUTION
Do not force an unconscious person to drink.
There are two dangers in treating hypothermia—rewarming too rapidly and “after drop.” Rewarming
too rapidly can cause the victim to have circulatory problems, resulting in heart failure. After drop is the
sharp body core temperature drop that occurs when taking the victim from the warm water. Its probable
muse is the return of previously stagnant limb blood to the core (inner torso) area as recirculation occurs.
Concentrating on warming the core area and stimulating peripheral circulation will lessen the effects of
after drop. Immersing the torso in a warm bath, if possible, is the best treatment.
Frostbite. This injury is the result of frozen tissues. Light frostbite involves only the skin that takes on a
dull whitish pallor. Deep frostbite extends to a depth below the skin. The tissues become solid and immovable.
Your feet, hands, and exposed facial areas are particularly vulnerable to frostbite.
The best frostbite prevention, when you are with others, is to use the buddy system. Check your buddy’s
face often and make sure that he checks yours. If you are alone, periodically cover your nose and lower
part of your face with your mittened hand.
The following pointers will aid you in keeping warm and preventing frostbite when it is extremely cold
or when you have less than adequate clothing:
•
Face. Maintain circulation by twitching and wrinkling the skin on your face and making faces.
Warm with your hands.
•
Ears. Wiggle and move your ears. Warm with your hands.
•
Hands. Move your hands inside your gloves. Warm by placing your hands close to your body.
•
Feet. Move your feet and wiggle your toes inside your boots.
A loss of feeling in your hands and feet is a sign of frostbite. If you have lost feeling for only a short time,
the frostbite is probably light. Otherwise, assume the frostbite is deep. To rewarm a light frostbite, use your
hands or mittens to warm your face and ears. Place your hands under your armpits. Place your feet next
to your buddy’s stomach. A deep frostbite injury, if thawed and refrozen, will cause more damage than a
nonmedically trained person can handle. Table 3-2 lists some do’s and don’ts regarding frostbite.
Trench Foot and Immersion Foot. These conditions result from many hours or days of exposure to wet or
damp conditions at a temperature just above freezing. The symptoms are a sensation of pins and needles,
tingling, numbness, and then pain. The skin will initially appear wet, soggy, white, and shriveled. As it
progresses and damage appears, the skin will take on a red and then a bluish or black discoloration. The
feet become cold, swollen, and have a waxy appearance. Walking becomes difficult and the feet feel heavy
and numb. The nerves and muscles sustain the main damage, but gangrene can occur. In extreme cases, the
flesh dies and it may become necessary to have the foot or leg amputated. The best prevention is to keep
your feet dry. Carry extra socks with you in a waterproof packet. You can dry wet socks against your torso
(back or chest). Wash your feet and put on dry socks daily.
Dehydration. When bundled up in many layers of clothing during cold weather, you may be unaware that
you are losing body moisture. Your heavy clothing absorbs the moisture that evaporates in the air. You
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Table 3-2: Frostbite do’s and dont’s.
must drink water to replace this loss of fluid. Your need for water is as great in a cold environment as it
is in a warm environment (see Chapter 2). One way to tell if you are becoming dehydrated is to check the
color of your urine on snow. If your urine makes the snow dark yellow, you are becoming dehydrated and
need to replace body fluids. If it makes the snow light yellow to no color, your body fluids have a more
normal balance.
Cold Diuresis. Exposure to cold increases urine output. It also decreases body fluids that you must
replace.
Sunburn. Exposed skin can become sunburned even when the air temperature is below freezing. The
sun’s rays reflect at all angles from snow, ice, and water, hitting sensitive areas of skin—lips, nostrils, and
eyelids. Exposure to the sun results in sunburn more quickly at high altitudes than at low altitudes. Apply
sunburn cream or lip salve to your face when in the sun.
Snow Blindness. The reflection of the sun’s ultraviolet rays off a snow-covered area causes this condition.
The symptoms of snow blindness are a sensation of grit in the eyes, pain in and over the eyes that increases
with eyeball movement, red and teary eyes, and a headache that intensifies with continued exposure to
light. Prolonged exposure to these rays can result in permanent eye damage. To treat snow blindness, bandage
your eyes until the symptoms disappear.
You can prevent snow blindness by wearing sunglasses. If you don’t have sunglasses, improvise. Cut
slits in a piece of cardboard, thin wood, tree bark, or other available material (Figure 15-3). Putting soot
under your eyes will help reduce shine and glare.
Constipation. It is very important to relieve yourself when needed. Do not delay because of the cold condition.
Delaying relieving yourself because of the cold, eating dehydrated foods, drinking too little liquid,
and irregular eating habits can cause you to become constipated. Although not disabling, constipation can
cause some discomfort. Increase your fluid intake to at least 2 liters above your normal 2 to 3 liters daily
intake and, if available, eat fruit and other foods that will loosen the stool.
Insect Bites. Insect bites can become infected through constant scratching. Flies can carry various diseaseproducing
germs. To prevent insect bites, use insect repellent, netting, and wear proper clothing.
SHELTERS
Your environment and the equipment you carry with you will determine the type of shelter you can
build. You can build shelters in wooded areas, open country, and barren areas. Wooded areas usually
provide the best location, while barren areas have only snow as building-material. Wooded areas provide
timber for shelter construction, wood for fire, concealment from observation, and protection from
the wind.
Cold Weather Survival 761
- NOTE
In extreme cold, do not use metal, such as an aircraft fuselage, for shelter. The metal will
conduct away from the shelter what little heat you can generate.
Shelters made from ice or snow usually require tools such as ice axes or saws. You must also expend
much time and energy to build such a shelter. Be sure to ventilate an enclosed shelter, especially if you
intend to build a fire in it. Always block a shelter’s entrance, if possible, to keep the heat in and the wind
out. Use a rucksack or snow block. Construct a shelter no larger than needed. This will reduce the amount
of space to heat. A fatal error in cold weather shelter construction is making the shelter so large that it steals
body heat rather than saving it. Keep shelter space small.
Never sleep directly on the ground. Lay down some pine boughs, grass, or other insulating material to
keep the ground from absorbing your body heat.
Never fall asleep without turning out your stove or lamp. Carbon monoxide poisoning can result from
a fire burning in an unventilated shelter. Carbon monoxide is a great danger. It is colorless and odorless.
Anytime you have an open flame, it may generate carbon monoxide. Always check your ventilation. Even
in a ventilated shelter, incomplete combustion can cause carbon monoxide poisoning. Usually, there are
no symptoms. Unconsciousness and death can occur without warning. Sometimes, however, pressure at
the temples, burning of the eyes, headache, pounding pulse, drowsiness, or nausea may occur. The one
characteristic, visible sign of carbon monoxide poisoning is a cherry red coloring in the tissues of the lips,
mouth, and inside of the eyelids. Get into fresh air at once if you have any of these symptoms.
There are several types of field-expedient shelters you can quickly build or employ. Many use snow
for insulation. See Part III, Chapter 3, “Special Operations and Situations,” for more information on fieldexpedient
shelters.
FIRE
Fire is especially important in cold weather. It not only provides a means to prepare food, but also to get
warm and to melt snow or ice for water. It also provides you with a significant psychological boost by making
you feel a little more secure in your situation.
Use the techniques described in Part V, Chapter 1 to build and light your fire. If you are in enemy territory,
remember that the smoke, smell, and light from your fire may reveal your location. Light reflects
Figure 3-1: Improvised sunglasses.
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from surrounding trees or rocks, making even indirect light a source of danger. Smoke tends to go straight
up in cold, calm weather, making it a beacon during the day, but helping to conceal the smell at night. In
warmer weather, especially in a wooded area, smoke tends to hug the ground, making it less visible in the
day, but making its odor spread.
If you are in enemy territory, cut low tree boughs rather than the entire tree for firewood. Fallen trees
are easily seen from the air.
All wood will burn, but some types of wood create more smoke than others. For instance, coniferous
trees that contain resin and tar create more and darker smoke than deciduous trees.
There are few materials to use for fuel in the high mountainous regions of the arctic. You may find some
grasses and moss, but very little. The lower the elevation, the more fuel available. You may find some scrub
willow and small, stunted spruce trees above the tree line. On sea ice, fuels are seemingly nonexistent.
Driftwood or fats may be the only fuels available to a survivor on the barren coastlines in the arctic and
subarctic regions.
Abundant fuels within the tree line are—
•
Spruce trees are common in the interior regions. As a conifer, spruce makes a lot of smoke when burned
in the spring and summer months. However, it burns almost smoke-free in late fall and winter.
•
The tamarack tree is also a conifer. It is the only tree of the pine family that loses its needles in the
fall. Without its needles, it looks like a dead spruce, but it has many knobby buds and cones on its
bare branches. When burning, tamarack wood makes a lot of smoke and is excellent for signaling
purposes.
•
Birch trees are deciduous and the wood burns hot and fast, as if soaked with oil or kerosene. Most
birches grow near streams and lakes, but occasionally you will find a few on higher ground and
away from water.
•
Willow and alder grow in arctic regions, normally in marsh areas or near lakes and streams. These
woods burn hot and fast without much smoke.
Dried moss, grass, and scrub willow are other materials you can use for fuel. These are usually plentiful
near streams in tundras (open, treeless plains). By bundling or twisting grasses or other scrub vegetation
to form a large, solid mass, you will have a slower burning, more productive fuel.
If fuel or oil is available from a wrecked vehicle or downed aircraft, use it for fuel. Leave the fuel in the
tank for storage, drawing on the supply only as you need it. Oil congeals in extremely cold temperatures,
therefore, drain it from the vehicle or aircraft while still warm if there is no danger of explosion or fire. If
you have no container, let the oil drain onto the snow or ice. Scoop up the fuel as you need it.
Oak
Quercus species
Description: Oak trees have alternate leaves and acorn fruits. There are two main groups of oaks: red and
white. The red oak group has leaves with bristles and smooth bark in the upper part of the tree. Red oak
acorns take 2 years to mature. The white oak group has leaves without bristles and a rough bark in the
upper portion of the tree. White oak acorns mature in 1 year.
Habitat and Distribution: Oak trees are found in many habitats throughout North America, Central
America, and parts of Europe and Asia.
Edible Parts: All parts are edible, but often contain large quantities of bitter substances. White oak acorns
usually have a better flavor than red oak acorns. Gather and shell the acorns. Soak red oak acorns in water
for 1 to 2 days to remove the bitter substance. You can speed up this process by putting wood ashes in the
water in which you soak the acorns. Boil the acorns or grind them into flour and use the flour for baking.
You can use acorns that you baked until very dark as a coffee substitute.
CAUTION
Tannic acid gives the acorns their bitter taste. Eating an excessive amount of acorns high
in tannic acid can lead to kidney failure. Before eating acorns, leach out this chemical.
Other Uses: Oak wood is excellent for building or burning. Small oaks can be split and cut into long thin
strips (3 to 6 millimeters thick and 1.2 centimeters wide) used to weave mats, baskets, or frameworks
for packs, sleds, furniture, etc. Oak bark soaked in water produces a tanning solution used to preserve
leather.
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Orach
Atriplex species
Description: This plant is vinelike in growth and has arrowhead-shaped, alternate leaves up to 5 centimeters
long. Young leaves maybe silver-colored. Its flowers and fruits are small and inconspicuous.
Habitat and Distribution: Orach species are entirely restricted to salty soils. They are found along North
America’s coasts and on the shores of alkaline lakes inland. They are also found along seashores from the
Mediterranean countries to inland areas in North Africa and eastward to Turkey and central Siberia.
Edible Parts: The entire plant is edible raw or boiled.
Palmetto palm
Sabal palmetto
Description: The palmetto palm is a tall, unbranched tree with persistent leaf bases on most of the trunk.
The leaves are large, simple, and palmately lobed. Its fruits are dark blue or black with a hard seed.
Habitat and Distribution: The palmetto palm is found throughout the coastal regions of the southeastern
United States.
Edible Parts: The fruits are edible raw. The hard seeds may be ground into flour. The heart of the palm is
a nutritious food source at any time. Cut off the top of the tree to obtain the palm heart.
Survival Use of Plants 467
Papaya or pawpaw
Carica papaya
Description: The papaya is a small tree 1.8 to 6 meters tall, with a soft, hollow trunk. When cut, the entire
plant exudes a milky juice. The trunk is rough and the leaves are crowded at the trunk’s apex. The fruit
grows directly from the trunk, among and below the leaves. The fruit is green before ripening. When ripe,
it turns yellow or remains greenish with a squashlike appearance.
Habitat and Distribution: Papaya is found in rain forests and semi-evergreen seasonal forests in tropical
regions and in some temperate regions as well. Look for it in moist areas near clearings and former habitations.
It is also found in open, sunny places in uninhabited jungle areas.
Edible Parts: The ripe fruit is high in vitamin C. Eat it raw or cook it like squash. Place green fruit in the
sun to make it ripen quickly. Cook the young papaya leaves, flowers, and stems carefully, changing the
water as for taro.
CAUTION
Be careful not to get the milky sap from the unripe fruit into your eyes. It will cause
intense pain and temporary—sometimes even permanent—blindness.
Other Uses: Use the milky juice of the unripe fruit to tenderize tough meat. Rub the juice on the meat.
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Persimmon
Diospyros virginiana and other species
Description: These trees have alternate, dark green, elliptic leaves with entire margins. The flowers are
inconspicuous. The fruits are orange, have a sticky consistency, and have several seeds.
Habitat and Distribution: The persimmon is a common forest margin tree. It is wide spread in Africa,
eastern North America, and the Far East.
Edible Parts: The leaves are a good source of vitamin C. The fruits are edible raw or baked. To make tea,
dry the leaves and soak them in hot water. You can eat the roasted seeds.
CAUTION
Some persons are unable to digest persimmon pulp. Unripe persimmons are highly
astringent and inedible.
Survival Use of Plants 469
Pincushion cactus
Mammilaria species
Description: Members of this cactus group are round, short, barrel-shaped, and without leaves. Sharp
spines cover the entire plant.
Habitat and Distribution: These cacti are found throughout much of the desert regions of the western
United States and parts of Central America.
Edible Parts: They are a good source of water in the desert.
Pine
Pinus species
Description: Pine trees are easily recognized by their needlelike leaves grouped in bundles. Each bundle
may contain one to five needles, the number varying among species. The tree’s odor and sticky sap provide
a simple way to distinguish pines from similar looking trees with needlelike leaves.
Habitat and Distribution: Pines prefer open, sunny areas. They are found throughout North America, Central
America, much of the Caribbean region, North Africa, the Middle East, Europe, and some places in Asia.
Edible Parts: The seeds of all species are edible. You can collect the young male cones, which grow only in
the spring, as a survival food. Boil or bake the young cones. The bark of young twigs is edible. Peel off the
bark of thin twigs. You can chew the juicy inner bark; it is rich in sugar and vitamins. Eat the seeds raw or
cooked. Green pine needle tea is high in vitamin C.
Other Uses : Use the resin to waterproof articles. Also use it as glue. Collect the resin from the tree. If there
is not enough resin on the tree, cut a notch in the bark so more sap will seep out. Put the resin in a container
and heat it. The hot resin is your glue. Use it as is or add a small amount of ash dust to strengthen it. Use it
immediately. You can use hardened pine resin as an emergency dental filling.
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Plantain, broad and narrow leaf
Plantago species
Description: The broad leaf plantain has leaves over 2.5 centimeters across that grow close to the ground.
The flowers are on a spike that rises from the middle of the cluster of leaves. The narrow leaf plantain has
leaves up to 12 centimeters long and 2.5 centimeters wide, covered with hairs. The leaves form a rosette.
The flowers are small and inconspicuous.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for these plants in lawns and along roads in the North Temperate Zone.
This plant is a common weed throughout much of the world.
Edible Parts: The young tender leaves are edible raw. Older leaves should be cooked. Seeds are edible raw
or roasted.
Other Uses: To relieve pain from wounds and sores, wash and soak the entire plant for a short time and
apply it to the injured area. To treat diarrhea, drink tea made from 28 grams (1 ounce) of the plant leaves
boiled in 0.5 liter of water. The seeds and seed husks act as laxatives.
Pokeweed
Phytolacca americana
Description: This plant may grow as high as 3 meters. Its leaves are elliptic and up to 1 meter in length. It
produces many large clusters of purple fruits in late spring.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for this plant in open, sunny areas in forest clearings, in fields, and along
roadsides in eastern North America, Central America, and the Caribbean.
Edible Parts: The young leaves and stems are edible cooked. Boil them twice, discarding the water from
the first boiling. The fruits are edible if cooked.
CAUTION
All parts of this plant are poisonous if eaten raw. Never eat the underground portions of
the plant as these contain the highest concentrations of the poisons. Do not eat any plant
over 25 centimeters tall or when red is showing in the plant.
Other Uses: Use the juice of fresh berries as a dye.
Survival Use of Plants 471
Prickly pear cactus
Opuntia species
Description: This cactus has flat, padlike stems that are green. Many round, furry dots that contain sharppointed
hairs cover these stems.
Habitat and Distribution: This cactus is found in arid and semiarid regions and in dry, sandy areas of wetter
regions throughout most of the United States and Central and South America. Some species are planted
in arid and semiarid regions of other parts of the world.
Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible. Peel the fruits and eat them fresh or crush them to prepare a
refreshing drink. Avoid the tiny, pointed hairs. Roast the seeds and grind them to a flour.
CAUTION
Avoid any prickly pear cactus like plant with milky sap.
Other Uses: The pad is a good source of water. Peel it carefully to remove all sharp hairs before putting it
in your mouth. You can also use the pads to promote healing. Split them and apply the pulp to wounds.
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Purslane
Portulaca oleracea
Description: This plant grows close to the ground. It is seldom more than a few centimeters tall. Its stems
and leaves are fleshy and often tinged with red. It has paddle-shaped leaves, 2.5 centimeter or less long,
clustered at the tips of the stems. Its flowers are yellow or pink. Its seeds are tiny and black.
Habitat and Distribution: It grows in full sun in cultivated fields, field margins, and other weedy areas
throughout the world.
Edible Parts: All parts are edible. Wash and boil the plants for a tasty vegetable or eat them raw. Use the
seeds as a flour substitute or eat them raw.
Rattan palm
Calamus species
Description: The rattan palm is a stout, robust climber. It has hooks on the midrib of its leaves that it uses
to remain attached to trees on which it grows. Sometimes, mature stems grow to 90 meters. It has alternate,
compound leaves and a whitish flower.
Habitat and Distribution: The rattan palm is found from tropical Africa through Asia to the East Indies
and Australia. It grows mainly in rain forests.
Edible Parts: Rattan palms hold a considerable amount of starch in their young stem tips. You can eat them
roasted or raw. In other kinds, a gelatinous pulp, either sweet or sour, surrounds the seeds. You can suck
out this pulp. The palm heart is also edible raw or cooked.
Other Uses: You can obtain large amounts of potable water by cutting the ends of the long stems (see
Chapter 6). The stems can be used to make baskets and fish traps.
Survival Use of Plants 473
Reed
Phragmites australis
Description: This tall, coarse grass grows to 3.5 meters tall and has gray-green leaves about 4 centimeters
wide. It has large masses of brown flower branches in early summer. These rarely produce grain and
become fluffy, gray masses late in the season.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for reed in any open, wet area, especially one that has been disturbed
through dredging. Reed is found throughout the temperate regions of both the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres.
Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible raw or cooked in any season. Harvest the stems as they
emerge from the soil and boil them. You can also harvest them just before they produce flowers, then dry
and beat them into flour. You can also dig up and boil the underground stems, but they are often tough.
Seeds are edible raw or boiled, but they are rarely found.
Reindeer moss
Cladonia rangiferina
Description: Reindeer moss is a low-growing plant only a few centimeters tall. It does not flower but does
produce bright red reproductive structures.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for this lichen in open, dry areas. It is very common in much of North
America.
Edible Parts: The entire plant is edible but has a crunchy, brittle texture. Soak the plant in water with some
wood ashes to remove the bitterness, then dry, crush, and add it to milk or to other food.
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Rock tripe
Umbilicaria species
Description: This plant forms large patches with curling edges. The top of the plant is usually black. The
underside is lighter in color.
Habitat and Distribution: Look on rocks and boulders for this plant. It is common throughout North
America.
Edible Parts: The entire plant is edible. Scrape it off the rock and wash it to remove grit. The plant may be
dry and crunchy; soak it in water until it becomes soft. Rock tripes may contain large quantities of bitter
substances; soaking or boiling them in several changes of water will remove the bitterness.
CAUTION
There are some reports of poisoning from rock tripe, so apply the Universal Edibility
Test.
Rose apple
Eugenia jambos
Description: This tree grows 3 to 9 meters high. It has opposite, simple, dark green, shiny leaves. When
fresh, it has fluffy, yellowish-green flowers and red to purple egg-shaped fruit.
Habitat and Distribution: This tree is widely planted in all of the tropics. It can also be found in a semiwild
state in thickets, waste places, and secondary forests.
Edible Parts: The entire fruit is edible raw or cooked.
Survival Use of Plants 475
Sago palm
Metroxylon sagu
Description: These palms are low trees, rarely over 9 meters tall, with a stout, spiny trunk. The outer rind
is about 5 centimeters thick and hard as bamboo. The rind encloses a spongy inner pith containing a high
proportion of starch. It has typical palmlike leaves clustered at the tip.
Habitat and Distribution: Sago palm is found in tropical rain forests. It flourishes in damp lowlands in
the Malay Peninsula, New Guinea, Indonesia, the Philippines, and adjacent islands. It is found mainly in
swamps and along streams, lakes, and rivers.
Edible Parts: These palms, when available, are of great use to the survivor. One trunk, cut just before it
flowers, will yield enough sago to feed a person for 1 year. Obtain sago starch from nonflowering palms.
To extract the edible sage, cut away the bark lengthwise from one half of the trunk, and pound the soft,
whitish inner part (pith) as fine as possible. Knead the pith in water and strain it through a coarse cloth
into a container. The fine, white sago will settle in the container. Once the sago settles, it is ready for use.
Squeeze off the excess water and let it dry. Cook it as pancakes or oatmeal. Two kilograms of sago is the
nutritional equivalent of 1.5 kilograms of rice. The upper part of the trunk’s core does not yield sage, but
you can roast it in lumps over a fire. You can also eat the young sago nuts and the growing shoots or palm
cabbage.
Other Uses: Use the stems of tall sorghums as thatching materials.
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Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Description: This shrub or small tree bears different leaves on the same plant. Some leaves will have one
lobe, some two lobes, and some no lobes. The flowers, which appear in early spring, are small and yellow.
The fruits are dark blue. The plant parts have a characteristics root beer smell.
Habitat and Distribution: Sassafras grows at the margins of roads and forests, usually in open, sunny
areas. It is a common tree throughout eastern North America.
Edible Parts: The young twigs and leaves are edible fresh or dried. You can add dried young twigs and
leaves to soups. Dig the underground portion, peel off the bark, and let it dry. Then boil it in water to prepare
sassafras tea.
Other Uses: Shred the tender twigs for use as a toothbrush.
Saxaul
Haloxylon ammondendron
Description: The saxaul is found either as a small tree or as a large shrub with heavy, coarse wood and
spongy, water-soaked bark. The branches of the young trees are vivid green and pendulous. The flowers
are small and yellow.
Habitat and Distribution: The saxaul is found in desert and arid areas. It is found on the arid salt deserts
of Central Asia, particularly in the Turkestan region and east of the Caspian Sea.
Edible Parts: The thick bark acts as a water storage organ. You can get drinking water by pressing quantities
of the bark. This plant is an important source of water in the arid regions in which it grows.
Survival Use of Plants 477
Screw pine
Pandanus species
Description: The screw pine is a strange plant on stilts, or prop roots, that support the plant above-ground
so that it appears more or less suspended in midair. These plants are either shrubby or treelike, 3 to 9
meters tall, with stiff leaves having sawlike edges. The fruits are large, roughened balls resembling pineapples,
but without the tuft of leaves at the end.
Habitat and Distribution: The screw pine is a tropical plant that grows in rain forests and semievergreen
seasonal forests. It is found mainly along seashores, although certain kinds occur inland for some distance,
from Madagascar to southern Asia and the islands of the southwestern Pacific. There are about 180 types.
Edible Parts: Knock the ripe fruit to the ground to separate the fruit segments from the hard outer covering.
Chew the inner fleshy part. Cook fruit that is not fully ripe in an earth oven. Before cooking, wrap the
whole fruit in banana leaves, breadfruit leaves, or any other suitable thick, leathery leaves. After cooking
for about 2 hours, you can chew fruit segments like ripe fruit. Green fruit is inedible.
Sea orach
Atriplex halimus
Description: The sea orach is a sparingly branched herbaceous plant with small, gray-colored leaves up to
2.5 centimeters long. Sea orach resembles Iamb’s quarter, a common weed in most gardens in the United
States. It produces its flowers in narrow, densely compacted spikes at the tips of its branches.
Habitat and Distribution: The sea orach is found in highly alkaline and salty areas along seashores from
the Mediterranean countries to inland areas in North Africa and eastward to Turkey and central Siberia.
Generally, it can be found in tropical scrub and thorn forests, steppes in temperate regions, and most desert
scrub and waste areas.
Edible Parts: Its leaves are edible. In the areas where it grows, it has the healthy reputation of being one of
the few native plants that can sustain man in times of want.
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Sheep sorrel
Rumex acerosella
Description: These plants are seldom more than 30 centimeters tall. They have alternate leaves, often with
arrowlike bases, very small flowers, and frequently reddish stems.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for these plants in old fields and other disturbed areas in North America
and Europe.
Edible Parts: The plants are edible raw or cooked.
CAUTION
These plants contain oxalic acid that can be damaging if too many plants are eaten raw.
Cooking seems to destroy the chemical.
Sorghum
Sorghum species
Description: There are many different kinds of sorghum, all of which bear grains in heads at the top of
the plants. The grains are brown, white, red, or black. Sorghum is the main food crop in many parts of the
world.
Habitat and Distribution: Sorghum is found worldwide, usually in warmer climates. All species are found
in open, sunny areas.
Edible Parts: The grains are edible at any stage of development. When young, the grains are milky and
edible raw. Boil the older grains. Sorghum is a nutritious food.
Other Uses: Use the stems of tall sorghum as building materials.
Survival Use of Plants 479
Spatterdock or yellow water lily
Nuphar species
Description: This plant has leaves up to 60 centimeters long with a triangular notch at the base. The shape
of the leaves is somewhat variable. The plant’s yellow flowers are 2.5 centimeter across and develop into
bottle-shaped fruits. The fruits are green when ripe.
Habitat and Distribution: These plants grow throughout most of North America. They are found in quiet,
fresh, shallow water (never deeper than 1.8 meters).
Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible. The fruits contain several dark brown seeds you can parch
or roast and then grind into flour. The large rootstock contains starch. Dig it out of the mud, peel off the
outside, and boil the flesh. Sometimes the rootstock contains large quantities of a very bitter compound.
Boiling in several changes of water may remove the bitterness.
Sterculia
Sterculia foetida
Description: Sterculias are tall trees, rising in some instances to 30 meters. Their leaves are either undivided
or palmately lobed. Their flowers are red or purple. The fruit of all sterculias is similar in aspect, with
a red, segmented seedpod containing many edible black seeds.
Habitat and Distribution: There are over 100 species of sterculias distributed through all warm or tropical
climates. They are mainly forest trees.
Edible Parts: The large, red pods produce a number of edible seeds. The seeds of all sterculias are edible
and have a pleasant taste similar to cocoa. You can eat them like nuts, either raw or roasted.
CAUTION
Avoid eating large quantities. The seeds may have a laxative effect.
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Strawberry
Fragaria species
Description: Strawberry is a small plant with a three-leaved growth pattern. It has small, white flowers
usually produced during the spring. Its fruit is red and fleshy.
Habitat and Distribution: Strawberries are found in the North Temperate Zone and also in the high mountains
of the southern Western Hemisphere. Strawberries prefer open, sunny areas. They are commonly
planted.
Edible Parts: The fruit is edible fresh, cooked, or dried. Strawberries are a good source of vitamin C. You
can also eat the plant’s leaves or dry them and make a tea with them.
Sugarcane
Saccharum officinarum
Description: This plant grows up to 4.5 meters tall. It is a grass and has grasslike leaves. Its green or reddish
stems are swollen where the leaves grow. Cultivated sugarcane seldom flowers.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for sugarcane in fields. It grows only in the tropics (throughout the world).
Because it is a crop, it is often found in large numbers.
Edible Parts: The stem is an excellent source of sugar and is very nutritious. Peel the outer portion off with
your teeth and eat the sugarcane raw. You can also squeeze juice out of the sugarcane.
Survival Use of Plants 481
Sugar palm
Arenga pinnata
Description: This tree grows about 15 meters high and has huge leaves up to 6 meters long. Needlelike
structures stick out of the bases of the leaves. Flowers grow below the leaves and form large conspicuous
dusters from which the fruits grow.
Habitat and Distribution: This palm is native to the East Indies but has been planted in many parts off the
tropics. It can be found at the margins of forests.
Edible Parts: The chief use of this palm is for sugar. However, its seeds and the tip of its stems are a survival
food. Bruise a young flower stalk with a stone or similar object and collect the juice as it comes out. It
is an excellent source of sugar. Boil the seeds. Use the tip of the stems as a vegetable.
CAUTION
The flesh covering the seeds may cause dermatitis.
Other Uses: The shaggy material at the base of the leaves makes an excellent rope as it is strong and resists
decay.
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Sweetsop
Annona squamosa
Description: This tree is small, seldom more than 6 meters tall, and multi-branched. It has alternate, simple,
elongate, dark green leaves. Its fruit is green when ripe, round in shape, and covered with protruding
bumps on its surface. The fruit’s flesh is white and creamy.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for sweetsop at margins of fields, near villages, and around homesites in
tropical regions.
Edible Parts: The fruit flesh is edible raw.
Other Uses: You can use the finely ground seeds as an insecticide.
CAUTION
The ground seeds are extremely dangerous to the eyes.
Survival Use of Plants 483
Tamarind
Tamarindus indica
Description: The tamarind is a large, densely branched tree, up to 25 meters tall. Its has pinnate leaves
(divided like a feather) with 10 to 15 pairs of leaflets.
Habitat and Distribution: The tamarind grows in the drier parts of Africa, Asia, and the Philippines.
Although it is thought to be a native of Africa, it has been cultivated in India for so long that it looks like a
native tree. It it also found in the American tropics, the West Indies, Central America, and tropical South
America.
Edible Parts: The pulp surrounding the seeds is rich in vitamin C and is an important survival food. You
can make a pleasantly acid drink by mixing the pulp with water and sugar or honey and letting the mixture
mature for several days. Suck the pulp to relieve thirst. Cook the young, unripe fruits or seedpods with
meat. Use the young leaves in soup. You must cook the seeds. Roast them above a fire or in ashes. Another
way is to remove the seed coat and soak the seeds in salted water and grated coconut for 24 hours, then
cook them. You can peel the tamarind bark and chew it.
Taro, cocoyam, elephant ears, eddo, dasheen
Colocasia and Alocasia species
Description: All plants in these groups have large leaves, sometimes up to 1.8 meters tall, that grow from
a very short stem. The rootstock is thick and fleshy and filled with starch.
Habitat and Distribution: These plants grow in the humid tropics. Look for them in fields and near homesites
and villages.
Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible when boiled or roasted. When boiling, change the water once
to get rid of any poison.
CAUTION
If eaten raw, these plants will cause a serious inflammation of the mouth and throat.
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Thistle
Cirsium species
Description: This plant may grow as high as 1.5 meters. Its leaves are long-pointed, deeply lobed, and
prickly.
Habitat and Distribution: Thistles grow worldwide in dry woods and fields.
Edible Parts: Peel the stalks, cut them into short sections, and boil them before eating. The roots are edible
raw or cooked.
CAUTION
Some thistle species are poisonous.
Other Uses: Twist the tough fibers of the stems to make a strong twine.
Ti
Cordyline terminalis
Description: The ti has unbranched stems with straplike leaves often clustered at the tip of the stem. The
leaves vary in color and may be green or reddish. The flowers grow at the plant’s top in large, plumelike
clusters. The ti may grow up to 4.5 meters tall.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for this plant at the margins of forests or near home-sites in tropical areas.
It is native to the Far East but is now widely planted in tropical areas worldwide.
Edible Parts: The roots and very tender young leaves are good survival food. Boil or bake the short, stout
roots found at the base of the plant. They are a valuable source of starch. Boil the very young leaves to eat.
You can use the leaves to wrap other food to cook over coals or to steam.
Other Uses: Use the leaves to cover shelters or to make a rain cloak. Cut the leaves into liners for shoes;
this works especially well if you have a blister. Fashion temporary sandals from the ti leaves. The terminal
leaf, if not completely unfurled, can be used as a sterile bandage. Cut the leaves into strips, then braid the
strips into rope.
Survival Use of Plants 485
Tree fern
Various genera
Description: Tree ferns are tall trees with long, slender trunks that often have a very rough, barklike covering.
Large, lacy leaves uncoil from the top of the trunk.
Habitat and Distribution: Tree ferns are found in wet, tropical forests.
Edible Parts: The young leaves and the soft inner portion of the trunk are edible. Boil the young leaves and
eat as greens. Eat the inner portion of the trunk raw or bake it.
Tropical almond
Terminalia catappa
Description: This tree grows up to 9 meters tall. Its leaves are evergreen, leathery, 45 centimeters long, 15
centimeters wide, and very shiny. It has small, yellowish-green flowers. Its fruit is flat, 10 centimeters long,
and not quite as wide. The fruit is green when ripe.
Habitat and Distribution: This tree is usually found growing near the ocean. It is a common and often
abundant tree in the Caribbean and Central and South America. It is also found in the tropical rain forests
of southeastern Asia, northern Australia, and Polynesia.
Edible Parts: The seed is a good source of food. Remove the fleshy, green covering and eat the seed raw
or cooked.
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Walnut
Juglans species
Description: Walnuts grow on very large trees, often reaching 18 meters tall. The divided leaves characterize
all walnut spades. The walnut itself has a thick outer husk that must be removed to reach the hard
inner shell of the nut.
Habitat and Distribution: The English walnut, in the wild state, is found from southeastern Europe across
Asia to China and is abundant in the Himalayas. Several other species of walnut are found in China and
Japan. The black walnut is common in the eastern United States.
Edible Parts: The nut kernel ripens in the autumn. You get the walnut meat by cracking the shell. Walnut
meats are highly nutritious because of their protein and oil content.
Other Uses: You can boil walnuts and use the juice as an antifungal agent. The husks of “green” walnuts
produce a dark brown dye for clothing or camouflage. Crush the husks of “green” black walnuts and
sprinkle them into sluggish water or ponds for use as fish poison.
Water chestnut
Trapa natans
Description: The water chestnut is an aquatic plant that roots in the mud and has finely divided leaves that
grow underwater. Its floating leaves are much larger and coarsely toothed. The fruits, borne underwater,
have four sharp spines on them.
Habitat and Distribution: The water chestnut is a freshwater plant only. It is a native of Asia but has
spread to many parts of the world in both temperate and tropical areas.
Edible Parts: The fruits are edible raw and cooked. The seeds are also a source of food.
Survival Use of Plants 487
Water lettuce
Ceratopteris species
Description: The leaves of water lettuce are much like lettuce and are very tender and succulent. One of
the easiest ways of distinguishing water lettuce is by the little plantlets that grow from the margins of the
leaves. These little plantlets grow in the shape of a rosette. Water lettuce plants often cover large areas in
the regions where they are found.
Habitat and Distribution: Found in the tropics throughout the Old World in both Africa and Asia. Another
kind is found in the New World tropics from Florida to South America. Water lettuce grows only in very
wet places and often as a floating water plant. Look for water lettuce in still lakes, ponds, and the backwaters
of rivers.
Edible Parts: Eat the fresh leaves like lettuce. Be careful not to dip the leaves in the contaminated water in
which they are growing. Eat only the leaves that are well out of the water.
CAUTION
This plant has carcinogenic properties and should only be used as a last resort.
Water lily
Nymphaea odorata
Description: These plants have large, triangular leaves that float on the water’s surface, large, fragrant
flowers that are usually white, or red, and thick, fleshy rhizomes that grow in the mud.
Habitat and Distribution: Water lilies are found throughout much of the temperate and subtropical
regions.
Edible Parts: The flowers, seeds, and rhizomes are edible raw or cooked. To prepare rhizomes for eating,
peel off the corky rind. Eat raw, or slice thinly, allow to dry, and then grind into flour. Dry, parch, and
grind the seeds into flour.
Other Uses: Use the liquid resulting from boiling the thickened root in water as a medicine for diarrhea
and as a gargle for sore throats.
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Water plantain
Alisma plantago-aquatica
Description: This plant has small, white flowers and heart-shaped leaves with pointed tips. The leaves are
clustered at the base of the plant.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for this plant in fresh water and in wet, full sun areas in Temperate and
Tropical Zones.
Edible Parts: The rootstocks are a good source of starch. Boil or soak them in water to remove the bitter
taste.
CAUTION
To avoid parasites, always cook aquatic plants.
Wild caper
Capparis aphylla
Description: This is a thorny shrub that loses its leaves during the dry season. Its stems are gray-green and
its flowers pink.
Habitat and Distribution: These shrubs form large stands in scrub and thorn forests and in desert scrub
and waste. They are common throughout North Africa and the Middle East.
Edible Parts: The fruit and the buds of young shoots are edible raw.
Survival Use of Plants 489
Wild crab apple or wild apple
Malus species
Description: Most wild apples look enough like domestic apples that the survivor can easily recognize
them. Wild apple varieties are much smaller than cultivated kinds; the largest kinds usually do not exceed
5 to 7.5 centimeters in diameter, and most often less. They have small, alternate, simple leaves and often
have thorns. Their flowers are white or pink and their fruits reddish or yellowish.
Habitat and Distribution: They are found in the savanna regions of the tropics. In temperate areas, wild
apple varieties are found mainly in forested areas. Most frequently, they are found on the edge of woods
or in fields. They are found throughout the Northern Hemisphere.
Edible Parts: Prepare wild apples for eating in the same manner as cultivated kinds. Eat them fresh, when
ripe, or cooked. Should you need to store food, cut the apples into thin slices and dry them. They are a good
source of vitamins.
CAUTION
Apple seeds contain cyanide compounds. Do not eat.
Wild desert gourd or colocynth
Citrullus colocynthis
Description: The wild desert gourd, a member of the watermelon family, produces an 2.4- to 3-meter-long
ground-trailing vine. The perfectly round gourds are as large as an orange. They are yellow when ripe.
Habitat and Distribution: This creeping plant can be found in any climatic zone, generally in desert scrub
and waste areas. It grows abundantly in the Sahara, in many Arab countries, on the southeastern coast of
India, and on some of the islands of the Aegean Sea. The wild desert gourd will grow in the hottest localities.
Edible Parts: The seeds inside the ripe gourd are edible after they are completely separated from the very
bitter pulp. Roast or boil the seeds—their kernels are rich in oil. The flowers are edible. The succulent stem
tips can be chewed to obtain water.
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Wild dock and wild sorrel
Rumex crispus and Rumex acetosella
Description: Wild dock is a stout plant with most of its leaves at the base of its stem that is commonly 15
to 30 centimeters brig. The plants usually develop from a strong, fleshy, carrotlike taproot. Its flowers are
usually very small, growing in green to purplish plumelike clusters. Wild sorrel similar to the wild dock
but smaller. Many of the basal leaves are arrow-shaped but smaller than those of the dock and contain a
sour juice.
Habitat and Distribution: These plants can be found in almost all climatic zones of the world, in areas
of high as well as low rainfall. Many kinds are found as weeds in fields, along roadsides, and in waste
places.
Edible Parts: Because of tender nature of the foliage, the sorrel and the dock are useful plants, especially
in desert areas. You can eat their succulent leaves fresh or slightly cooked. To take away the strong taste,
change the water once or twice during cooking. This latter tip is a useful hint in preparing many kinds of
wild greens.
Wild fig
Ficus species
Description: These trees have alternate, simple leaves with entire margins. Often, the leaves are dark green
and shiny. All figs have a milky, sticky juice. The fruits vary in size depending on the species, but are usually
yellow-brown when ripe.
Habitat and Distribution: Figs are plants of the tropics and semitropics. They grow in several different
habitats, including dense forests, margins of forests, and around human settlements.
Edible Parts: The fruits are edible raw or cooked. Some figs have little flavor.
Survival Use of Plants 491
Wild gourd or luffa sponge
Luffa cylindrica
Description: The luffs sponge is widely distributed and fairly typical of a wild squash. There are several
dozen kinds of wild squashes in tropical regions. Like most squashes, the luffa is a vine with leaves 7.5
to 20 centimeters across having 3 lobes. Some squashes have leaves twice this size. Luffs fruits are oblong
or cylindrical, smooth, and many-seeded. Luffs flowers are bright yellow. The luffa fruit, when mature, is
brown and resembles the cucumber.
Habitat and Distribution: A member of the squash family, which also includes the watermelon, cantaloupe,
and cucumber, the luffa sponge is widely cultivated throughout the Tropical Zone. It may be found
in a semiwild state in old clearings and abandoned gardens in rain forests and semi-evergreen seasonal
forests.
Edible Parts: You can boil the young green (half-ripe) fruit and eat them as a vegetable. Adding coconut
milk will improve the flavor. After ripening, the luffa sponge develops an inedible spongelike texture in
the interior of the fruit. You can also eat the tender shoots, flowers, and young leaves after cooking them.
Roast the mature seeds a little and eat them like peanuts.
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Wild grape vine
Vitis species
Description: The wild grape vine climbs with the aid of tendrils. Most grape vines produce deeply lobed
leaves similar to the cultivated grape. Wild grapes grow in pyramidal, hanging bunches and are black-blue
to amber, or white when ripe.
Habitat and Distribution: Wild grapes are distributed worldwide. Some kinds are found in deserts, others
in temperate forests, and others in tropical areas. Wild grapes are commonly found throughout the eastern
United States as well as in the southwestern desert areas. Most kinds are rampant climbers over other vegetation.
The best place to look for wild grapes is on the edges of forested areas. Wild grapes are also found
in Mexico. In the Old World, wild grapes are found from the Mediterranean region eastward through Asia,
the East Indies, and to Australia. Africa also has several kinds of wild grapes.
Edible Parts: The ripe grape is the portion eaten. Grapes are rich in natural sugars and, for this reason, are
much sought after as a source of energy-giving wild food. None are poisonous.
Other Uses: You can obtain water from severed grape vine stems. Cut off the vine at the bottom and place
the cut end in a container. Make a slant-wise cut into the vine about 1.8 meters upon the hanging part. This
cut will allow water to flow from the bottom end. As water diminishes in volume, make additional cuts
further down the vine.
CAUTION
To avoid poisoning, do not eat grapelike fruits with only a single seed (moonseed).
Survival Use of Plants 493
Wild onion and garlic
Allium species
Description: Allium cernuum is an example of the many species of wild onions and garlics, all easily recognized
by their distinctive odor.
Habitat and Distribution: Wild onions and garlics are found in open, sunny areas throughout the temper
ate regions. Cultivated varieties are found anywhere in the world.
Edible Parts: The bulbs and young leaves are edible raw or cooked. Use in soup or to flavor meat.
CAUTION
There are several plants with onionlike bulbs that are extremely poisonous. Be certain that
the plant you are using is a true onion or garlic. Do not eat bulbs with no onion smell.
Wild pistachio
Pistacia species
Description: Some kinds of pistachio trees are evergreen, while others lose their leaves during the dry season.
The leaves alternate on the stem and have either three large leaves or a number of leaflets. The fruits
or nuts are usually hard and dry at maturity.
Habitat and Distribution: About seven kinds of wild pistachio nuts are found in desert, or semidesert
areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea to Turkey and Afghanistan. It is generally found in evergreen
scrub forests or scrub and thorn forests.
Edible Parts: You can eat the oil nut kernels after parching them over coals.
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Wild rice
Zizania aquatica
Description: Wild rice is a tall grass that averages 1 to 1.5 meters in height, but may reach 4.5 meters. Its
grain grows in very loose heads at the top of the plant and is dark brown or blackish when ripe.
Habitat and Distribution: Wild rice grows only in very wet areas in tropical and temperate regions.
Edible Parts: During the spring and summer, the central portion of the lower sterns and root shoots are
edible. Remove the tough covering before eating. During the late summer and fall, collect the strawcovered
husks. Dry and parch the husks, break them, and remove the rice. Boil or roast the rice and then
beat it into flour.
Wild rose
Rosa species
Description: This shrub grows 60 centimeters to 2.5 meters high. It has alternate leaves and sharp prickles.
Its flowers may be red, pink, or yellow. Its fruit, called rose hip, stays on the shrub year-round.
Habitat and Distribution: Look for wild roses in dry fields and open woods throughout the Northern
Hemisphere.
Edible Parts: The flowers and buds are edible raw or boiled. In an emergency, you can peel and eat the
young shoots. You can boil fresh, young leaves in water to make a tea. After the flower petals fall, eat the
rose hips; the pulp is highly nutritious and an excellent source of vitamin C. Crush or grind dried rose hips
to make flour.
CAUTION
Eat only the outer portion of the fruit as the seeds of some species are quite prickly and
can cause internal distress.
Survival Use of Plants 495
Wood sorrel
Oxalis species
Description: Wood sorrel resembles shamrock or four-leaf clover, with a bell-shaped pink, yellow, or
white flower.
Habitat and Distribution: Wood sorrel is found in Temperate Zones worldwide, in lawns, open areas, and
sunny woods.
Edible Parts: Cook the entire plant.
CAUTION
Eat only small amounts of this plant as it contains a fairly high concentration of oxalic
acid that can be harmful.
Yam
Dioscorea species
Description: These plants are vines that creep along the ground. They have alternate, heart- or arrowshaped
leaves. Their rootstock may be very large and weigh many kilograms.
Habitat and Distribution: True yams are restricted to tropical regions where they are an important food
crop. Look for yams in fields, clearings, and abandoned gardens. They are found in rain forests, semievergreen
seasonal forests, and scrub and thorn forests in the tropics. In warm temperate areas, they are
found in seasonal hardwood or mixed hardwood-coniferous forests, as well as some mountainous areas.
Edible Parts: Boil the rootstock and eat it as a vegetable.
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Yam bean
Pachyrhizus erosus
Description: The yam bean is a climbing plant of the bean family, with alternate, three-parted leaves and
a turniplike root. The bluish or purplish flowers are pealike in shape. The plants are often so rampant that
they cover the vegetation upon which they are growing.
Habitat and Distribution: The yam bean is native to the American tropics, but it was carried by man years
ago to Asia and the Pacific islands. Now it is commonly cultivated in these places, and is also found growing
wild in forested areas. This plant grows in wet areas of tropical regions.
Edible Parts: The tubers are about the size of a turnip and they are crisp, sweet, and juicy and have a nutty
flavor. They are nourishing and at the same time quench the thirst. Eat them raw or boiled. To make flour,
slice the raw tubers, let them dry in the sun, and grind into a flour that is high in starch and may be used
to thicken soup.
CAUTION
The raw seeds are poisonous.
CHAPTER 7
Poisonous Plants
Successful use of plants in a survival situation depends on positive identification. Knowing poisonous
plants is as important to a survivor as knowing edible plants. Knowing the poisonous plants will help you
avoid sustaining injuries from them.
HOW PLANTS POISON
Plants generally poison by—
•
Ingestion. When a person eats a part of a poisonous plant.
•
Contact. When a person makes contact with a poisonous plant that causes any type of skin irritation
or dermatitis.
•
Absorption or inhalation. When a person either absorbs the poison through the skin or inhales it
into the respiratory system.
Plant poisoning ranges from minor irritation to death. A common question asked is, “How poisonous is
this plant?” It is difficult to say how poisonous plants are because–
•
Some plants require contact with a large amount of the plant before noticing any adverse reaction
while others will cause death with only a small amount.
•
Every plant will vary in the amount of toxins it contains due to different growing conditions and
slight variations in subspecies.
•
Every person has a different level of resistance to toxic substances.
•
Some persons may be more sensitive to a particular plant.
Some common misconceptions about poisonous plants are—
•
Watch the animals and eat what they eat. Most of the time this statement is true, but some animals can
eat plants that are poisonous to humans.
•
Boil the plant in water and any poisons will be removed. Boiling removes many poisons, but not all.
•
Plants with a red color are poisonous. Some plants that are red are poisonous, but not all.
The point is there is no one rule to aid in identifying poisonous plants. You must make an effort to learn
as much about them as possible.
ALL ABOUT PLANTS
It is to your benefit to learn as much about plants as possible. Many poisonous plants look like their edible
relatives or like other edible plants. For example, poison hemlock appears very similar to wild carrot. Certain
plants are safe to eat in certain seasons or stages of growth and poisonous in other stages. For example,
the leaves of the pokeweed are edible when it first starts to grow, but it soon becomes poisonous. You can
eat some plants and their fruits only when they are ripe. For example, the ripe fruit of mayapple is edible,
but all other parts and the green fruit are poisonous. Some plants contain both edible and poisonous parts;
potatoes and tomatoes are common plant foods, but their green parts are poisonous.
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Some plants become toxic after wilting. For example, when the black cherry starts to wilt, hydrocyanic
acid develops. Specific preparation methods make some plants edible that are poisonous raw. You can eat
the thinly sliced and thoroughly dried corms (drying may take a year) of the jack-in-the-pulpit, but they
are poisonous if not thoroughly dried.
Learn to identify and use plants before a survival situation. Some sources of information about plants
are pamphlets, books, films, nature trails, botanical gardens, local markets, and local natives. Gather and
cross-reference information from as many sources as possible, because many sources will not contain all
the information needed.
RULES FOR AVOIDING POISONOUS PLANTS
Your best policy is to be able to look at a plant and identify it with absolute certainty and to know its uses
or dangers. Many times this is not possible. If you have little or no knowledge of the local vegetation, use
the rules to select plants for the “Universal Edibility Test.” Remember, avoid—
•
All mushrooms. Mushroom identification is very difficult and must be precise, even more so than with
other plants. Some mushrooms cause death very quickly. Some mushrooms have no known antidote.
Two general types of mushroom poisoning are gastrointestinal and central nervous system.
•
Contact with or touching plants unnecessarily.
CONTACT DERMATITIS
Contact dermatitis from plants will usually cause the most trouble in the field. The effects may be persistent,
spread by scratching, and are particularly dangerous if there is contact in or around the eyes.
The principal toxin of these plants is usually an oil that gets on the skin upon contact with the plant. The
oil can also get on equipment and then infect whoever touches the equipment. Never burn a contact poisonous
plant because the smoke may be as harmful as the plant. There is a greater danger of being affected
when overheated and sweating. The infection may be local or it may spread over the body.
Symptoms may take from a few hours to several days to appear. Signs and symptoms can include burning,
reddening, itching, swelling, and blisters.
When you first contact the poisonous plants or the first symptoms appear, try to remove the oil by washing
with soap and cold water. If water is not available, wipe your skin repeatedly with dirt or sand. Do not
use dirt if blisters have developed. The dirt may break open the blisters and leave the body open to infection.
After you have removed the oil, dry the area. You can wash with a tannic acid solution and crush and
rub jewelweed on the affected area to treat plant-caused rashes. You can make tannic acid from oak bark.
Poisonous plants that cause contact dermatitis are—
•
Cowhage
•
Poison ivy
•
Poison oak
•
Poison sumac
•
Rengas tree
•
Trumpet vine
INGESTION POISONING
Ingestion poisoning can be very serious and could lead to death very quickly. Do not eat any plant unless
you have positively identified it first. Keep a log of all plants eaten.
Signs and symptoms of ingestion poisoning can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps,
depressed heartbeat and respiration, headaches, hallucinations, dry mouth, unconsciousness, coma, and
death.
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If you suspect plant poisoning, try to remove the poisonous material from the victim’s mouth and stomach
as soon as possible. Induce vomiting by tickling the back of his throat or by giving him warm saltwater,
if he is conscious. Dilute the poison by administering large quantities of water or milk, if he is conscious.
The following plants can cause ingestion poisoning if eaten:
• Castor bean
• Chinaberry
• Death camas
• Lantana
• Manchineel
• Oleander
• Pangi
• Physic nut
• Poison and water hemlocks
• Rosary pea
• Strychnine tree
POISONOUS PLANTS
Castor bean, castor-oil plant, palma Christi
Ricinus communis
Spurge (Euphorbiaceae) Family
Description: The castor bean is a semiwoody plant with large, alternate, starlike leaves that grows as a tree
in tropical regions and as an annual in temperate regions. Its flowers are very small and inconspicuous. Its
fruits grow in clusters at the tops of the plants.
CAUTION
All parts of the plant are very poisonous to eat. The seeds are large and may be mistaken
for a beanlike food.
Habitat and Distribution: This plant is found in all tropical regions and has been introduced to temperate
regions.
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Chinaberry
Melia azedarach
Mahogany (Meliaceae) Family
Description: This tree has a spreading crown and grows up to 14 meters tall. It has alternate, compound
leaves with toothed leaflets. Its flowers are light purple with a dark center and grow in ball-like masses. It
has marble-sized fruits that are light orange when first formed but turn lighter as they become older.
CAUTION
All parts of the tree should be considered dangerous if eaten. Its leaves are a natural insecticide
and will repel insects from stored fruits and grains. Take care not to eat leaves mixed
with the stored food.
Habitat and Distribution: Chinaberry is native to the Himalayas and eastern Asia but is now planted as
an ornamental tree throughout the tropical and subtropical regions. It has been introduced to the southern
United States and has escaped to thickets, old fields, and disturbed areas.
Cowhage, cowage, cowitch
Mucuna pruritum
Leguminosae (Fabaceae) Family
Description: A vinelike plant that has oval leaflets in groups of three and hairy spikes with dull purplish
flowers. The seeds are brown, hairy pods.
CAUTION
Contact with the pods and flowers causes irritation and blindness if in the eyes.
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Death camas, death lily
Zigadenus species
Lily (Liliaceae) Family
Description: This plant arises from a bulb and may be mistaken for an onionlike plant. Its leaves are grasslike.
Its flowers are six-parted and the petals have a green, heart-shaped structure on them. The flowers
grow on showy stalks above the leaves.
CAUTION
All parts of this plant are very poisonous. Death camas does not have the onion smell.
Habitat and Distribution: Death camas is found in wet, open, sunny habitats, although some species favor
dry, rocky slopes. They are common in parts of the western United States. Some species are found in the
eastern United States and in parts of the North American western subarctic and eastern Siberia.
Lantana
Lantana camara
Vervain (Verbenaceae) Family
Description: Lantana is a shrublike plant that may grow up to 45 centimeters high. It has opposite, round
leaves and flowers borne in flat-topped clusters. The flower color (which varies in different areas) may be
white, yellow, orange, pink, or red. It has a dark blue or black berrylike fruit. A distinctive feature of all
parts of this plant is its strong scent.
CAUTION
All parts of this plant are poisonous if eaten and can be fatal. This plant causes dermatitis
in some individuals.
Habitat and Distribution: Lantana is grown as an ornamental in tropical and temperate areas and has
escaped cultivation as a weed along roads and old fields.
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Manchineel
Hippomane mancinella
Spurge (Euphorbiaceae) Family
Description: Manchineel is a tree reaching up to 15 meters high with alternate, shiny green leaves and
spikes of small greenish flowers. Its fruits are green or greenish-yellow when ripe.
CAUTION
This tree is extremely toxic. It causes severe dermatitis in most individuals after only .5
hour. Even water dripping from the leaves may cause dermatitis. The smoke from burning
it irritates the eyes. No part of this plant should be considered a food.
Habitat and Distribution: The tree prefers coastal regions. Found in south Florida, the Caribbean, Central
America, and northern South America.
Oleander
Nerium oleander
Dogbane (Apocynaceae) Family
Description: This shrub or small tree grows to about 9 meters, with alternate, very straight, dark green
leaves. Its flowers may be white, yellow, red, pink, or intermediate colors. Its fruit is a brown, podlike
structure with many small seeds.
CAUTION
All parts of the plant are very poisonous. Do not use the wood for cooking; it gives off poisonous
fumes that can poison food.
Habitat and Distribution: This native of the Mediterranean area is now grown as an ornamental in tropical
and temperate regions.
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Pangi
Pangium edule
Pangi Family
Description: This tree, with heart-shaped leaves in spirals, reaches a height of 18 meters. Its flowers grow
in spikes and are green in color. Its large, brownish, pear-shaped fruits grow in clusters.
CAUTION
All parts are poisonous, especially the fruit.
Habitat and Distribution: Pangi trees grow in southeast Asia
Physic nut
Jatropha curcas
Spurge (Euphoriaceae) Family
Description: This shrub or small tree has large, 3- to 5-parted alternate leaves. It has small, greenish-yelllow
flowers and its yellow, apple-sized fruits contain three large seeds.
CAUTION
The seeds taste sweet but their oil is violently purgative. All parts of the physic nut are
poisonous.
Habitat and Distribution: Throughout the tropics and southern United States.
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Poison hemlock, fool’s parsley
Conium maculatum
Parsley (Apiaceae) Family
Description: This biennial herb may grow to 2.5 meters high. The smooth, hollow stem may or may not be
purple or red striped or mottled. Its white flowers are small and grow in small groups that tend to form
flat umbels. Its long, turniplike taproot is solid.
CAUTION
This plant is very poisonous and even a very small amount may cause death. This plant is
easy to confuse with wild carrot or Queen Anne’s lace, especially in its first stage of growth.
Wild carrot or Queen Anne’s lace has hairy leaves and stems and smells like carrot. Poison
hemlock does not.
Habitat and Distribution: Poison hemlock grows in wet or moist ground like swamps, wet meadows,
stream banks, and ditches. Native to Eurasia, it has been introduced to the United States and Canada.
Poison ivy and poison oak
Toxicodendron radicans and Toxicodendron diversibba
Cashew (Anacardiacese) Family
Description: These two plants are quite similar in appearance and will often crossbreed to make a
hybrid. Both have alternate, compound leaves with three leaflets. The leaves of poison ivy are smooth
or serrated. Poison oak’s leaves are lobed and resemble oak leaves. Poison ivy grows as a vine along
the ground or climbs by red feeder roots. Poison oak grows like a bush. The greenish-white flowers
are small and inconspicuous and are followed by waxy green berries that turn waxy white or yellow,
then gray.
CAUTION
All parts, at all times of the year, can cause serious contact dermatitis.
Habitat and Distribution: Poison ivy and oak can be found in almost any habitat in North America.
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Poison sumac
Toxicodendron vernix
Cashew (Anacardiacese) Family
Description: Poison sumac is a shrub that grows to 8.5 meters tall. It has alternate, pinnately compound
Ieafstalks with 7 to 13 leaflets. Flowers are greenish-yellow and inconspicuous and are followed by white
or pale yellow berries.
CAUTION
All parts can cause serious contact dermatitis at all times of the year.
Habitat and Distribution: Poison sumac grows only in wet, acid swamps in North America.
Renghas tree, rengas tree, marking nut, black-varnish tree
Gluta
Cashew (Anacardiacese) Family
Description: This family comprises about 48 species of trees or shrubs with alternating leaves in terminal
or axillary panicles. Flowers are similar to those of poison ivy and oak.
CAUTION
Can cause contact dermatitis similar to poison ivy and oak.
Habitat and Distribution: India, east to Southeast Asia.
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Rosary pea or crab’s eyes
Abrus precatorius
Leguminosae (Fabaceae) Family
Description: This plant is a vine with alternate compound leaves, light purple flowers, and beautiful seeds
that are red and black.
CAUTION
This plant is one of the most dagerous plants. One seed may contain enough poison to kill
an adult.
Habitat and Distribution: This is a common weed in parts of Africa, southern Florida, Hawaii, Guam, the
Caribbean, and Central and South America.
Strychnine tree
Nux vomica
Logania (Loganiaceae) Family
Description: The strychnine tree is a medium-sized evergreen, reaching a height of about 12 meters, with a
thick, frequently crooked trunk. Its deeply veined oval leaves grow in alternate pairs. Small, loose clusters
of greenish flowers appear at the ends of branches and are followed by fleshy, orange-red berries about 4
centimeters in diameter.
CAUTION
The berries contain the dislike seeds that yield the poisonous substance strychnine. All parts
of the plant are poisonous.
Habitat and Distribution: A native of the tropics and subtropics of southeastern Asia and Australia.
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Trumpet vine or trumpet creeper
Campsis radicans
Trumpet creeper (Bignoniaceae) Family
Description: This woody vine may climb to 15 meters high. It has pealike fruit capsules. The leaves are pinnately
compound, 7 to 11 toothed leaves per leaf stock. The trumpet-shaped flowers are orange to scarlet
in color.
CAUTION
This plant causes contact dermatitis.
Habitat and Distribution: This vine is found in wet woods and thickets throughout eastern and central
North America.
Water hemlock or spotted cowbane
Cicuta maculata
Parsley (Apiaceae) Family
Description: This perennial herb may grow to 1.8 meters high. The stem is hollow and sectioned off like
bamboo. It may or may not be purple or red striped or mottled. Its flowers are small, white, and grow in
groups that tend to form flat umbels. Its roots may have hollow air chambers and, when cut, may produce
drops of yellow oil.
CAUTION
This plant is very poisonous and even a very small amount of this plant may cause death.
Its roots have been mistaken for parsnips.
Habitat and Distribution: Water hemlock grows in wet or moist ground like swamps, wet meadows,
stream banks, and ditches throughout the Unites States and Canada.
PART V
Firecraft, Tools, Camouflage,
Tracking, Movement,
and Combat Skills
CHAPTER 1
Firecraft
In many survival situations, the ability to start a fire can make the difference between living and dying. Fire
can fulfill many needs. It can provide warmth and comfort. It not only cooks and preserves food, it also
provides warmth in the form of heated food that saves calories our body normally uses to produce body
heat. You can use fire to purify water, sterilize bandages, signal for rescue, and provide protection from
animals. It can be a psychological boost by providing peace of mind and companionship. You can also use
fire to produce tools and weapons.
Fire can cause problems, as well. The enemy can detect the smoke and light it produces. It can cause forest
fires or destroy essential equipment. Fire can also cause burns and carbon monoxide poisoning when
used in shelters.
Remember to weigh your need for fire against your need to avoid enemy detection.
BASIC FIRE PRINCIPLES
To build a fire, it helps to understand the basic principles of a fire. Fuel (in a nongaseous state) does not
burn directly. When you apply heat to a fuel, it produces a gas. This gas, combined with oxygen in the air,
burns.
Understanding the concept of the fire triangle is very important in correctly constructing and maintaining
a fire. The three sides of the triangle represent air, heat, and fuel. If you remove any of these, the fire will go
out. The correct ratio of these components is very important for a fire to burn at its greatest capability. The
only way to learn this ratio is to practice.
SITE SELECTION AND PREPARATION
You will have to decide what site and arrangement to use. Before building a fire consider—
• The area (terrain and climate) in which you are operating.
• The materials and tools available. Time: how much time you have?
• Need: why do you need a fire?
• Security: how close is the enemy?
Look for a dry spot that—
• Is protected from the wind.
• Is suitably placed in relation to your shelter (if any).
• Will concentrate the heat in the direction you desire.
• Has a supply of wood or other fuel available. (See Table 1-1 for types of material you can use.)
If you are in a wooded or brush-covered area, clear the brush and scrape the surface soil from the
spot you have selected. Clear a circle at least 1 meter in diameter so there is little chance of the fire
spreading.
If time allows, construct a fire wall using logs or rocks. This wall will help to reflect or direct the heat where
you want it (Figure 1-l). It will also reduce flying sparks and cut down on the amount of wind blowing into
the fire. However, you will need enough wind to keep the fire burning.
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Table 1-1: Materials for Building Fires.
CAUTION
Do not use wet or porous rocks as they may explode when heated.
In some situations, you may find that an underground fireplace will best meet your needs. It
conceals the fire and serves well for cooking food. To make an underground fireplace or Dakota fire
hole (Figure 1-2)—
• Dig a hole in the ground.
• On the upwind side of this hole, poke or dig a large connecting hole for ventilation.
• Build your fire in the hole as illustrated.
Firecraft 513
Figure 1-1: Types of fire walls.
If you are in a snow-covered area, use green logs to make a dry base for your fire (Figure 1-3). Trees with
wrist-sized trunks are easily broken in extreme cold. Cut or break several green logs and lay them side by
side on top of the snow. Add one or two more layers. Lay the top layer of logs opposite those below it.
FIRE MATERIAL SELECTION
You need three types of materials (Table 1-1) to build a fire—tinder, kindling, and fuel.
Figure 1-2: Dakota fire hole.
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Figure 1-3: Base for fire in snow-covered area.
Tinder is dry material that ignites with little heat—a spark starts a fire. The tinder must be absolutely
dry to be sure just a spark will ignite it. If you only have a device that generates sparks, charred cloth will
be almost essential. It holds a spark for long periods, allowing you to put tinder on the hot area to generate
a small flame. You can make charred cloth by heating cotton cloth until it turns black, but does not burn.
Once it is black, you must keep it in an airtight container to keep it dry. Prepare this cloth well in advance
of any survival situation. Add it to your individual survival kit.
Kindling is readily combustible material that you add to the burning tinder. Again, this material should
be absolutely dry to ensure rapid burning. Kindling increases the fire’s temperature so that it will ignite
less combustible material.
Fuel is less combustible material that burns slowly and steadily once ignited.
HOW TO BUILD A FIRE
There are several methods for laying a fire, each of which has advantages. The situation you find yourself
in will determine which fire to use.
Tepee. To make this fire (Figure 1-4), arrange the tinder and a few sticks of kindling in the shape of a tepee
or cone. Light the center. As the tepee burns, the outside logs will fall inward, feeding the fire. This type of
fire burns well even with wet wood.
Lean-To. To lay this fire (Figure 1-4), push a green stick into the ground at a 30-degree angle. Point the end of
the stick in the direction of the wind. Place some tinder deep under this lean-to stick. Lean pieces of kindling
against the lean-to stick. Light the tinder. As the kindling catches fire from the tinder, add more kindling.
Cross-Ditch. To use this method (Figure 1-4), scratch a cross about 30 centimeters in size in the
ground. Dig the cross 7.5 centimeters deep. Put a large wad of tinder in the middle of the cross. Build
a kindling pyramid above the tinder. The shallow ditch allows air to sweep under the tinder to provide
a draft.
Pyramid. To lay this fire (Figure 1-4), place two small logs or branches parallel on the ground. Place a solid layer
of small logs across the parallel logs. Add three or four more layers of logs or branches, each layer smaller than
and at a right angle to the layer below it. Make a starter fire on top of the pyramid. As the starter fire burns, it will
ignite the logs below it. This gives you a fire that burns downward, requiring no attention during the night.
There are several other ways to lay a fire that are quite effective. Your situation and the material available
in the area may make another method more suitable.
HOW TO LIGHT A FIRE
Always light your fire from the upwind side. Make sure to lay your tinder, kindling, and fuel so that your
fire will burn as long as you need it. Igniters provide the initial heat required to start the tinder burning.
They fall into two categories: modern methods and primitive methods.
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Figure 1-4: Methods for laying fires.
Modern Methods. Modern igniters use modern devices—items we normally think of to start a fire.
Matches. Make sure these matches are waterproof. Also, store them in a waterproof container along with
a dependable striker pad.
Convex Lens. Use this method (Figure 1-5) only on bright, sunny days. The lens can come from binoculars,
camera, telescopic sights, or magnifying glasses. Angle the lens to concentrate the sun’s rays on the tinder.
Figure 1-5: Lens method.
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Hold the lens over the same spot until the tinder begins to smolder. Gently blow or fan the tinder into
flame, and apply it to the fire lay.
Metal Match. Place a flat, dry leaf under your tinder with a portion exposed. Place the tip of the metal
match on the dry leaf, holding the metal match in one hand and a knife in the other. Scrape your knife
against the metal match to produce sparks. The sparks will hit the tinder. When the tinder starts to smolder,
proceed as above.
Battery. Use a battery to generate a spark. Use of this method depends on the type of battery available.
Attach a wire to each terminal. Touch the ends of the bare wires together next to the tinder so the sparks
will ignite it.
Gunpowder. Often, you will have ammunition with your equipment. If so, carefully extract the bullet from
the shell casing, and use the gunpowder as tinder. A spark will ignite the powder. Be extremely careful
when extracting the bullet from the case.
Primitive Methods. Primitive igniters are those attributed to our early ancestors.
Flint and Steel. The direct spark method is the easiest of the primitive methods to use. The flint and steel
method is the most reliable of the direct spark methods. Strike a flint or other hard, sharp-edged rock edge
with a piece of carbon steel (stainless steel will not produce a good spark). This method requires a loosejointed
wrist and practice. When a spark has caught in the tinder, blow on it. The spark will spread and
burst into flames.
Fire-Plow. The fire-plow (Figure 1-6) is a friction method of ignition. You rub a hardwood shaft against a
softer wood base. To use this method, cut a straight groove in the base and plow the blunt tip of the shaft
up and down the groove. The plowing action of the shaft pushes out small particles of wood fibers. Then,
as you apply more pressure on each stroke, the friction ignites the wood particles.
Bow and Drill. The technique of starting a fire with a bow and drill (Figure 1-7) is simple, but you must
exert much effort and be persistent to produce a fire. You need the following items to use this method:
Figure 1-6: Fire-plow.
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Figure 1-7: Bow and drill.
•
Socket. The socket is an easily grasped stone or piece of hardwood or bone with a slight depression
in one side. Use it to hold the drill in place and to apply downward pressure.
•
Drill. The drill should be a straight, seasoned hardwood stick about 2 centimeters in diameter and
25 centimeters long. The top end is round and the low end blunt (to produce more friction).
•
Fire board. Its size is up to you. A seasoned softwood board about 2.5 centimeters thick and 10
centimeters wide is preferable. Cut a depression about 2 centimeters from the edge on one
side of the board. On the underside, make a V-shaped cut from the edge of the board to the
depression.
•
Bow. The bow is a resilient, green stick about 2.5 centimeters in diameter and a string. The type of
wood is not important. The bowstring can be any type of cordage. You tie the bowstring from one
end of the bow to the other, without any slack.
To use the bow and drill, first prepare the fire lay. Then place a bundle of tinder under the V-shaped
cut in the fire board. Place one foot on the fire board. Loop the bowstring over the drill and place the drill
in the precut depression on the fire board. Place the socket, held in one hand, on the top of the drill to
hold it in position. Press down on the drill and saw the bow back and forth to twirl the drill (Figure 1-7).
Once you have established a smooth motion, apply more downward pressure and work the bow faster.
This action will grind hot black powder into the tinder, causing a spark to catch. Blow on the tinder until
it ignites.
Note: Primitive fire-building methods are exhaustive and require practice to ensure success.
Helpful Hints
•
Use nonaromatic seasoned hardwood for fuel, if possible.
•
Collect kindling and tinder along the trail.
•
Add insect repellent to the tinder.
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•
Keep the firewood dry.
•
Dry damp firewood near the fire.
•
Bank the fire to keep the coals alive overnight.
•
Carry lighted punk, when possible.
•
Be sure the fire is out before leaving camp.
•
Do not select wood lying on the ground. It may appear to be dry but generally doesn’t provide
enough friction.
CHAPTER 2
Field-expedient Weapons, Tools, and
Equipment
As a soldier you know the importance of proper care and use of your weapons, tools, and equipment.
This is especially true of your knife. You must always keep it sharp and ready to use. A knife is your most
valuable tool in a survival situation. Imagine being in a survival situation without any weapons, tools, or
equipment except your knife. It could happen! You might even be without a knife. You would probably
feel helpless, but with the proper knowledge and skills, you can easily improvise needed items.
In survival situations, you may have to fashion any number and type of field-expedient tools and
equipment to survive. Examples of tools and equipment that could make your life much easier are ropes,
rucksacks, clothes, nets, and so on.
Weapons serve a dual purpose. You use them to obtain and prepare food and to provide self-defense. A
weapon can also give you a feeling of security and provide you with the ability to hunt on the move.
CLUBS
You hold clubs, you do not throw them. As a field-expedient weapon, the club does not protect you from
enemy soldiers. It can, however, extend your area of defense beyond your fingertips. It also serves to
increase the force of a blow without injuring yourself. There are three basic types of clubs. They are the
simple, weighted, and sling club.
Simple Club. A simple club is a staff or branch. It must be short enough for you to swing easily, but long
enough and strong enough for you to damage whatever you hit. Its diameter should fit comfortably in
your palm, but it should not be so thin as to allow the club to break easily upon impact. A straight-grained
hardwood is best if you can find it.
Weighted Club. A weighted club is any simple club with a weight on one end. The weight may be a natural
weight, such as a knot on the wood, or something added, such as a stone lashed to the club.
To make a weighted club, first find a stone that has a shape that will allow you to lash it securely to the
club. A stone with a slight hourglass shape works well. If you cannot find a suitably shaped stone, you
must fashion a groove or channel into the stone by a technique known as pecking. By repeatedly rapping
the club stone with a smaller hard stone, you can get the desired shape.
Next, find a piece of wood that is the right length for you. A straight-grained hardwood is best. The
length of the wood should feel comfortable in relation to the weight of the stone. Finally, lash the stone to
the handle.
There are three techniques for lashing the stone to the handle: split handle, forked branch, and wrapped
handle. The technique you use will depend on the type of handle you choose. See Figure 2-1.
Sling Club. A sling club is another type of weighted club. A weight hangs 8 to 10 centimeters from the handle
by a strong, flexible lashing (Figure 2-2). This type of club both extends the user’s reach and multiplies the
force of the blow.
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Figure 2-1: Lashing clubs.
EDGED WEAPONS
Knives, spear blades, and arrow points fall under the category of edged weapons. The following
paragraphs will discuss the making of such weapons.
Knives. A knife has three basic functions. It can puncture, slash or chop, and cut. A knife is also an invaluable
tool used to construct other survival items. You may find yourself without a knife or you may need another
type knife or a spear. To improvise you can use stone, bone, wood, or metal to make a knife or spear blade.
Stone. To make a stone knife, you will need a sharp-edged piece of stone, a chipping tool, and a flaking
tool. A chipping tool is a light, blunt-edged tool used to break off small pieces of stone. A flaking tool is
a pointed tool used to break off thin, flattened pieces of stone. You can make a chipping tool from wood,
bone, or metal, and a flaking tool from bone, antler tines, or soft iron (Figure 2-3).
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Figure 2-2: Sling club.
Figure 2-3: Making a stone knife.
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Start making the knife by roughing out the desired shape on your sharp piece of stone, using the chipping
tool. Try to make the knife fairly thin. Then, using the flaking tool, press it against the edges. This action will
cause flakes to come off the opposite side of the edge, leaving a razor sharp edge. Use the flaking tool along
the entire length of the edge you need to sharpen. Eventually, you will have a very sharp cutting edge that
you can use as a knife.
Lash the blade to some type of hilt (Figure 2-3).
Note: Stone will make an excellent puncturing tool and a good chopping tool but will not hold a fine edge. Some
stones such as chert or flint can have very fine edges.
Bone. You can also use bone as an effective field-expedient edged weapon. First, you will need to select
a suitable bone. The larger bones, such as the leg bone of a deer or another medium-sized animal, are
best. Lay the bone upon another hard object. Shatter the bone by hitting it with a heavy object, such
as a rock. From the pieces, select a suitable pointed splinter. You can further shape and sharpen this
splinter by rubbing it on a rough-surfaced rock. If the piece is too small to handle, you can still use it
by adding a handle to it. Select a suitable piece of hardwood for a handle and lash the bone splinter
securely to it.
Note: Use the bone knife only to puncture. It will not hold an edge and it may flake or break if used differently.
Wood. You can make field-expedient edged weapons from wood. Use these only to puncture. Bamboo is
the only wood that will hold a suitable edge. To make a knife using wood, first select a straight-grained
piece of hardwood that is about 30 centimeters long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter. Fashion the blade
about 15 centimeters long. Shave it down to a point. Use only the straight-grained portions of the wood.
Do not use the core or pith, as it would make a weak point.
Harden the point by a process known as fire hardening. If a fire is possible, dry the blade portion over
the fire slowly until lightly charred. The drier the wood, the harder the point. After lightly charring the
blade portion, sharpen it on a coarse stone. If using bamboo and after fashioning the blade, remove any
other wood to make the blade thinner from the inside portion of the bamboo. Removal is done this way
because bamboo’s hardest part is its outer layer. Keep as much of this layer as possible to ensure the
hardest blade possible. When charring bamboo over a fire, char only the inside wood; do not char the
outside.
Metal. Metal is the best material to make field-expedient edged weapons. Metal, when properly designed,
can fulfill a knife’s three uses—puncture, slice or chop, and cut. First, select a suitable piece of metal, one
that most resembles the desired end product. Depending on the size and original shape, you can obtain a
point and cutting edge by rubbing the metal on a rough-surfaced stone. If the metal is soft enough, you can
hammer out one edge while the metal is cold. Use a suitable flat, hard surface as an anvil and a smaller,
harder object of stone or metal as a hammer to hammer out the edge. Make a knife handle from wood,
bone, or other material that will protect your hand.
Other Materials. You can use other materials to produce edged weapons. Glass is a good alternative to
an edged weapon or tool, if no other material is available. Obtain a suitable piece in the same manner
as described for bone. Glass has a natural edge but is less durable for heavy work. You can also sharpen
plastic—if it is thick enough or hard enough—into a durable point for puncturing.
Spear Blades. To make spears, use the same procedures to make the blade that you used to make a knife
blade. Then select a shaft (a straight sapling) 1.2 to1.5 meters long. The length should allow you to handle
the spear easily and effectively. Attach the spear blade to the shaft using lashing. The preferred method is
to split the handle, insert the blade, then wrap or lash it tightly. You can use other materials without adding
a blade. Select a 1.2- to 1.5-meter long straight hardwood shaft and shave one end to a point. If possible, fire
harden the point. Bamboo also makes an excellent spear. Select a piece 1.2 to 1.5 meters long. Starting 8 to
10 centimeters back from the end used as the point, shave down the end at a 45-degree angle (Figure 2-4).
Remember, to sharpen the edges, shave only the inner portion.
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Figure 2-4: Bamboo spear.
Arrow Points. To make an arrow point, use the same procedures for making a stone knife blade. Chert,
flint, and shell-type stones are best for arrow points. You can fashion bone like stone—by flaking. You can
make an efficient arrow point using broken glass.
OTHER EXPEDIENT WEAPONS
You can make other field-expedient weapons such as the throwing stick, archery equipment, and the
bola.
Throwing Stick. The throwing stick, commonly known as the rabbit stick, is very effective against small
game (squirrels, chipmunks, and rabbits). The rabbit stick itself is a blunt stick, naturally curved at
about a 45-degree angle. Select a stick with the desired angle from heavy hardwood such as oak. Shave
off two opposite sides so that the stick is flat like a boomerang (Figure 2-5). You must practice the throwing
technique for accuracy and speed. First, align the target by extending the nonthrowing arm in line
with the mid to lower section of the target. Slowly and repeatedly raise the throwing arm up and back
until the throwing stick crosses the back at about a 45-degree angle or is in line with the nonthrowing
hip. Bring the throwing arm forward until it is just slightly above and parallel to the nonthrowing arm.
This will be the throwing stick’s release point. Practice slowly and repeatedly to attain accuracy.
Archery Equipment. You can make a bow and arrow (Figure 2-6) from materials available in your survival
area. While it may be relatively simple to make a bow and arrow, it is not easy to use one. You must practice
using it a long time to be reasonably sure that you will hit your target. Also, a field-expedient bow will not
last very long before you have to make a new one. For the time and effort involved, you may well decide to
use another type of field-expedient weapon.
Bola. The bola is another field-expedient weapon that is easy to make (Figure 2-7). It is especially effective
for capturing running game or low-flying fowl in a flock. To use the bola, hold it by the center knot and
Figure 2-5: Rabbit stick.
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Figure 2-6: Archery equipment.
Figure 2-7: Bola.
twirl it above your head. Release the knot so that the bola flies toward your target. When you release the
bola, the weighted cords will separate. These cords will wrap around and immobilize the fowl or animal
that you hit.
LASHING AND CORDAGE
Many materials are strong enough for use as lashing and cordage. A number of natural and man-made
materials are available in a survival situation. For example, you can make a cotton web belt much more
useful by unraveling it. You can then use the string for other purposes (fishing line, thread for sewing, and
lashing).
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Natural Cordage Selection. Before making cordage, there are a few simple tests you can do to determine
your material’s suitability. First, pull on a length of the material to test for strength. Next, twist it between
your fingers and roll the fibers together. If it withstands this handling and does not snap apart, tie an overhand
knot with the fibers and gently tighten. If the knot does not break, the material is usable. Figure 2-8
shows various methods of making cordage.
Lashing Material. The best natural material for lashing small objects is sinew. You can make sinew
from the tendons of large game, such as deer. Remove the tendons from the game and dry them completely.
Smash the dried tendons so that they separate into fibers. Moisten the fibers and twist them
into a continuous strand. If you need stronger lashing material, you can braid the strands. When you
use sinew for small lashings, you do not need knots as the moistened sinew is sticky and it hardens
when dry.
You can shred and braid plant fibers from the inner bark of some trees to make cord. You can use the
linden, elm, hickory, white oak, mulberry, chestnut, and red and white cedar trees. After you make the
cord, test it to be sure it is strong enough for your purpose. You can make these materials stronger by
braiding several strands together.
You can use rawhide for larger lashing jobs. Make rawhide from the skins of medium or large game.
After skinning the animal, remove any excess fat and any pieces of meat from the skin. Dry the skin
completely. You do not need to stretch it as long as there are no folds to trap moisture. You do not have
to remove the hair from the skin. Cut the skin while it is dry. Make cuts about 6 millimeters wide. Start
from the center of the hide and make one continuous circular cut, working clockwise to the hide’s outer
edge. Soak the rawhide for 2 to 4 hours or until it is soft. Use it wet, stretching it as much as possible while
applying it. It will be strong and durable when it dries.
RUCKSACK CONSTRUCTION
The materials for constructing a rucksack or pack are almost limitless. You can use wood, bamboo, rope,
plant fiber, clothing, animal skins, canvas, and many other materials to make a pack.
There are several construction techniques for rucksacks. Many are very elaborate, but those that are
simple and easy are often the most readily made in a survival situation.
Horseshoe Pack. This pack is simple to make and use and relatively comfortable to carry over one shoulder.
Lay available square-shaped material, such as poncho, blanket, or canvas, flat on the ground. Lay items on
one edge of the material. Pad the hard items. Roll the material (with the items) toward the opposite edge
and tie both ends securely. Add extra ties along the length of the bundle. You can drape the pack over one
shoulder with a line connecting the two ends (Figure 2-9).
Figure 2-8: Making lines from plant fibers.
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Figure 2-9: Horseshoe pack.
Figure 2-10: Square pack.
Square Pack. This pack is easy to construct if rope or cordage is available. Otherwise, you must first make
cordage. To make this pack, construct a square frame from bamboo, limbs, or sticks. Size will vary for each
person and the amount of equipment carried (Figure 2-10).
CLOTHING AND INSULATION
You can use many materials for clothing and insulation. Both man-made materials, such as parachutes,
and natural materials, such as skins and plant materials, are available and offer significant
protection.
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Parachute Assembly. Consider the entire parachute assembly as a resource. Use every piece of material
and hardware, to include the canopy, suspension lines, connector snaps, and parachute harness. Before
disassembling the parachute, consider all of your survival requirements and plan to use different portions
of the parachute accordingly. For example, consider shelter requirements, need for a rucksack, and so on,
in addition to clothing or insulation needs.
Animal Skins. The selection of animal skins in a survival situation will most often be limited to what you
manage to trap or hunt. However, if there is an abundance of wildlife, select the hides of larger animals
with heavier coats and large fat content. Do not use the skins of infected or diseased animals if at all possible.
Since they live in the wild, animals are carriers of pests such as ticks, lice, and fleas. Because of these
pests, use water to thoroughly clean any skin obtained from any animal. If water is not available, at least
shake out the skin thoroughly. As with rawhide, lay out the skin, and remove all fat and meat. Dry the skin
completely. Use the hind quarter joint areas to make shoes and mittens or socks. Wear the hide with the fur
to the inside for its insulating factor.
Plant Fibers. Several plants are sources of insulation from cold. Cattail is a marshland plant found along
lakes, ponds, and the backwaters of rivers. The fuzz on the tops of the stalks forms dead air spaces and
makes a good down-like insulation when placed between two pieces of material. Milkweed has pollenlike
seeds that act as good insulation. The husk fibers from coconuts are very good for weaving ropes and,
when dried, make excellent tinder and insulation.
COOKING AND EATING UTENSILS
Many materials may be used to make equipment for the cooking, eating, and storing of food.
Bowls. Use wood, bone, horn, bark, or other similar material to make bowls. To make wooden bowls, use
a hollowed out piece of wood that will hold your food and enough water to cook it in. Hang the wooden
container over the fire and add hot rocks to the water and food. Remove the rocks as they cool and add
more hot rocks until your food is cooked.
CAUTION
Do not use rocks with air pockets, such as limestone and sandstone. They may explode
while heating in the fire.
You can also use this method with containers made of bark or leaves. However, these containers will
burn above the waterline unless you keep them moist or keep the fire low.
A section of bamboo works very well, if you cut out a section between two sealed joints (Figure 2-11).
CAUTION
A sealed section of bamboo will explode if heated because of trapped air and water in the
section.
Forks, Knives, and Spoons. Carve forks, knives, and spoons from nonresinous woods so that you do
not get a wood resin aftertaste or do not taint the food. Nonresinous woods include oak, birch, and other
hardwood trees.
Note: Do not use those trees that secrete a syrup or resinlike liquid on the bark or when cut.
Pots. You can make pots from turtle shells or wood. As described with bowls, using hot rocks in a
hollowed out piece of wood is very effective. Bamboo is the best wood for making cooking containers.
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Figure 2-11: Containers for boiling food.
To use turtle shells, first thoroughly boil the upper portion of the shell. Then use it to heat food and
water over a flame (Figure 2-11).
Water Bottles. Make water bottles from the stomachs of larger animals. Thoroughly flush the stomach out
with water, then tie off the bottom. Leave the top open, with some means of fastening it closed.
CHAPTER 3
Hand-to-hand Combat
SECTION I: OVERVIEW
Hand-to-hand combat is an engagement between two or more persons in an empty-handed struggle or
with handheld weapons such as knives, sticks, and rifles with bayonets. These fighting arts are essential
military skills. Projectile weapons may be lost or broken, or they may fail to fire. When friendly and enemy
forces become so intermingled that firearms and grenades are not practical, hand-to-hand combat skills
become vital assets.
Purpose of Combatives Training. Today’s battlefield scenarios may require silent elimination of the enemy.
Unarmed combat and expedient-weapons training should not be limited to forward units. With rapid mechanized/
motorized, airborne, and air assault abilities, units throughout the battle area could be faced with
close-quarter or unarmed fighting situations. With low-intensity conflict scenarios and guerrilla warfare
conditions, any soldier is apt to face an unarmed confrontation with the enemy, and hand-to-hand combative
training can save lives. The many practical battlefield benefits of combative training are not its only
advantage. It can also—
a.
Contribute to individual and unit strength, flexibility, balance, and cardiorespiratory fitness.
b. Build courage, confidence, self-discipline, and esprit de corps.
Basic Principles. There are basic principles that the hand-to-hand fighter must know and apply to successfully
defeat an opponent. The principles mentioned are only a few of the basic guidelines that are essential
knowledge for hand-to-hand combat. There are many others, which through years of study become intuitive
to a highly skilled fighter.
a.
Physical Balance. Balance refers to the ability to maintain equilibrium and to remain in a stable,
upright position. A hand-to-hand fighter must maintain his balance both to defend himself and to
launch an effective attack. Without balance, the fighter has no stability with which to defend himself,
nor does he have a base of power for an attack. The fighter must understand two aspects of
balance in a struggle:
(1) How to move his body to keep or regain his own balance. A fighter develops balance through
experience, but usually he keeps his feet about shoulder-width apart and his knees flexed. He
lowers his center of gravity to increase stability.
(2) How to exploit weaknesses in his opponent’s balance. Experience also gives the hand-to-hand
fighter a sense of how to move his body in a fight to maintain his balance while exposing the
enemy’s weak points.
b. Mental Balance. The successful fighter must also maintain a mental balance. He must not allow fear
or anger to overcome his ability to concentrate or to react instinctively in hand-to-hand combat.
c.
Position. Position refers to the location of the fighter (defender) in relation to his opponent. A vital
principle when being attacked is for the defender to move his body to a safe position—that is, where
the attack cannot continue unless the enemy moves his whole body. To position for a counterattack,
a fighter should move his whole body off the opponent’s line of attack. Then, the opponent has to
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change his position to continue the attack. It is usually safe to move off the line of attack at a 45-degree
angle, either toward the opponent or away from him, whichever is appropriate. This position affords
the fighter safety and allows him to exploit weaknesses in the enemy’s counterattack position. Movement
to an advantageous position requires accurate timing and distance perception.
d. Timing. A fighter must be able to perceive the best time to move to an advantageous position in an
attack. If he moves too soon, the enemy will anticipate his movement and adjust the attack. If the
fighter moves too late, the enemy will strike him. Similarly, the fighter must launch his attack or
counterattack at the critical instant when the opponent is the most vulnerable.
e.
Distance. Distance is the relative distance between the positions of opponents. A fighter positions
himself where distance is to his advantage. The hand-to-hand fighter must adjust his distance by
changing position and developing attacks or counterattacks. He does this according to the range at
which he and his opponent are engaged.
f. Momentum. Momentum is the tendency of a body in motion to continue in the direction of motion
unless acted on by another force. Body mass in motion develops momentum. The greater the body
mass or speed of movement, the greater the momentum. Therefore, a fighter must understand the
effects of this principle and apply it to his advantage.
(1) The fighter can use his opponent’s momentum to his advantage—that is, he can place the opponent
in a vulnerable position by using his momentum against him.
(a) The opponent’s balance can be taken away by using his own momentum.
(b) The opponent can be forced to extend farther than he expected, causing him to stop and
change his direction of motion to continue his attack.
(c) An opponent’s momentum can be used to add power to a fighter’s own attack or counterattack
by combining body masses in motion.
(2) The fighter must be aware that the enemy can also take advantage of the principle of momentum.
Therefore, the fighter must avoid placing himself in an awkward or vulnerable position,
and he must not allow himself to extend too far.
g. Leverage. A fighter uses leverage in hand-to-hand combat by using the natural movement of his
body to place his opponent in a position of unnatural movement. The fighter uses his body or parts
of his body to create a natural mechanical advantage over parts of the enemy’s body. He should
never oppose the enemy in a direct test of strength; however, by using leverage, he can defeat a
larger or stronger opponent.
SECTION II: CLOSE-RANGE COMBATIVES
In close-range combatives, two opponents have closed the gap between them so they can grab one another
in hand-to-hand combat. The principles of balance, leverage, timing, and body positioning are applied.
Throws and takedown techniques are used to upset the opponent’s balance and to gain control of the fight
by forcing him to the ground. Chokes can be applied to quickly render an opponent unconscious. The
soldier should also know counters to choking techniques to protect himself. Grappling involves skillful
fighting against an opponent in close-range combat so that a soldier can win through superior body movement
or grappling skills. Pain can be used to disable an opponent. A soldier can use painful eye gouges and
strikes to soft, vital areas to gain an advantage over his opponent.
3-1. Throws and Takedowns. Throws and takedowns enable a hand-to-hand fighter to take an opponent to
the ground where he can be controlled or disabled with further techniques. Throws and takedowns make
use of the principles involved in taking the opponent’s balance. The fighter uses his momentum against the
attacker; he also uses leverage or body position to gain an opportunity to throw the attacker.
a.
It is important for a fighter to control his opponent throughout a throw to the ground to keep the
opponent from countering the throw or escaping after he is thrown to the ground. One way to do
Hand-to-hand Combat 531
this is to control the opponent’s fall so that he lands on his head. It is also imperative that a fighter
maintain control of his own balance when executing throws and takedowns.
b. After executing a throw or takedown and while the opponent is on the ground, the fighter must
control the opponent by any means available. He can drop his weight onto exposed areas of the
opponent’s body, using his elbows and knees. He can control the downed opponent’s limbs by stepping
on them or by placing his knees and body weight on them. Joint locks, chokes, and kicks to
vital areas are also good control measures. Without endangering himself, the fighter must maintain
the advantage and disable his opponent after throwing him (Figures 3-1 through 3-5).
Figure 3-1: Hip throw
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Figure 3-2: Over-the-shoulder throw
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Figure 3-3: Throw from rear choke
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Figure 3-4: Head butt
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Figure 3-5: Rear strangle takedown
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NOTE: Although the five techniques shown in Figures 3-1 through 3-5 may be done while
wearing LCE—for training purposes, it is safer to conduct all throws and takedowns without any
equipment.
(1) Hip throw. The opponent throws a right punch. The defender steps in with his left foot; at the
same time, he blocks the punch with his left forearm and delivers a reverse punch to the face,
throat, or other vulnerable area (Figure 3-1, Step 1). (For training, deliver punches to the solar
plexus.)
The defender pivots 180 degrees on the ball of his lead foot, wraps his right arm around his
opponent’s waist, and grasps his belt or pants (Figure 3-1, Step 2). (If opponent is wearing LCE,
grasp by the pistol belt or webbing.)
The defender thrusts his hips into his opponent and maintains a grip on his opponent’s right
elbow. He keeps his knees shoulder-width apart and slightly bent (Figure 3-1, Step 3). He locks
his knees, pulls his opponent well over his right hip, and slams him to the ground. (For training,
soldier being thrown should land in a good side fall.)
By maintaining control of his opponent’s arm, the defender now has the option of kicking or
stomping him in the neck, face, or ribs (Figure 3-1, Step 4).
(2) Over-the-shoulder throw. The opponent lunges at the defender with a straight punch (Figure 3-2,
Step 1).
The defender blocks the punch with his left forearm, pivots 180 degrees on the ball of his
lead foot (Figure 3-2, Step 2), and gets well inside his opponent’s right armpit with his right
shoulder.
He reaches well back under his opponent’s right armpit and grasps him by the collar or hair
(Figure 3-2, Step 3).
The defender maintains good back-to-chest, buttock-to-groin contact, keeping his knees slightly
bent and shoulder-width apart. He maintains control of his opponent’s right arm by grasping
the wrist or sleeve (Figure 3-2, Step 4).
The defender bends forward at the waist and holds his opponent tightly against his
body. He locks his knees, thrusts his opponent over his shoulder, and slams him to the
ground (Figure 3-2, Step 5). He then has the option of disabling his opponent with kicks or
stomps to vital areas.
(3) Throw from rear choke. The opponent attacks the defender with a rear strangle choke. The
defender quickly bends his knees and spreads his feet shoulder-width apart (Figure 3-3, Step 1).
(Knees are bent quickly to put distance between you and your opponent.)
The defender reaches as far back as possible and uses his right hand to grab his opponent by
the collar or hair. He then forces his chin into the vee of the opponent’s arm that is around his
neck. With his left hand, he grasps the opponent’s clothing at the tricep and bends forward at
the waist (Figure 3-3, Step 2).
The defender locks his knees and, at the same time, pulls his opponent over his shoulder and
slams him to the ground (Figure 3-3, Step 3).
He then has the option of spinning around and straddling his opponent or disabling him with
punches to vital areas (Figure 3-3, Step 4). (It is important to grip the opponent tightly when
executing this move.)
(4) Head butt. The head butt can be applied from the front or the rear. It is repeated until the opponent
either releases his grip or becomes unconscious.
(a) The opponent grabs the defender in a bear hug from the front (A, Figure 3-4, Step 1).
The defender uses his forehead to smash into his opponent’s nose or cheek (A, Figure 3-4,
Step 2) and stuns him.
The opponent releases the defender who then follows up with a kick or knee strike to the
groin (A, Figure 3-4, Step 3).
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(b) The opponent grabs the defender in a bear hug from the rear (B, Figure 3-4, Step 1).
The defender cocks his head forward and smashes the back of his head into the opponent’s
nose or cheek area (B, Figure 3-4, Step 2).
The defender turns to face his opponent and follows up with a spinning elbow strike to the
head (B, Figure 3-4, Step 3).
(5) Rear strangle takedown. The defender strikes the opponent from the rear with a forearm strike
to the neck (carotid artery) (Figure 3-5, Step 1).
The defender wraps his right arm around his opponent’s neck, making sure he locks the throat
and windpipe in the vee formed by his elbow. He grasps his left bicep and wraps his left hand
around the back of the opponent’s head. He pulls his right arm in and flexes it, pushing his
opponent’s head forward (Figure 3-5, Step 2).
The defender kicks his legs out and back, maintains a choke on his opponent’s neck, and pulls
his opponent backward until his neck breaks (Figure 3-5, Step 3).
3-2. Strangulation. Strangulation is a most effective method of disabling an opponent. The throat’s vulnerability
is widely known and should be a primary target in close-range fighting. Your goal may be to break
the opponent’s neck, to crush his trachea, to block the air supply to his lungs, or to block the blood supply
to his brain.
a.
Strangulation by Crushing. Crushing the trachea just below the voice box is probably one of the
fastest, easiest, most lethal means of strangulation. The trachea is crushed between the thumb and
first two or three fingers.
b.
Respiratory Strangulation. Compressing the windpipe to obstruct air flow to the lungs is most
effectively applied by pressure on the cartilage of the windpipe. Unconsciousness can take
place within one to two minutes. However, the technique is not always effective on a strong
opponent or an opponent with a large neck. It is better to block the blood supply to weaken the
opponent first.
c.
Sanguineous Strangulation. Cutting off the blood supply to the brain by applying pressure to the
carotid arteries results in rapid unconsciousness of the victim. The victim can be rendered unconscious
within 3 to 8 seconds, and death can result within 30 to 40 seconds.
3-3. Choking Techniques. There are several choking techniques that a soldier can use to defeat his opponent
in hand-to-hand combat.
a.
Cross-Collar Choke. With crossed hands, the fighter reaches as far as possible around his opponent’s
neck and grabs his collar (Figure 3-6, Step 1). The backs of his hands should be against
the neck.
The fighter keeps his elbows bent and close to the body (as in opening a tightly sealed jar), pulls
outward with both hands, and chokes the sides of the opponent’s neck by rotating the knuckles into
the neck (Figure 3-6, Step 2). The forearm can also be used.
b.
Collar Grab Choke. The fighter grabs his opponent’s collar with both hands straight-on (Figure 3-7).
He then rotates the knuckles inward against the neck to quickly produce a good choke. He also
keeps the elbows in front and close to the body where the greatest strength is maintained.
c.
Carotid Choke. The fighter grabs the sides of the opponent’s throat by the muscle and sticks his
thumbs into the carotids, closing them off (Figure 3-8). This is a fast and painful choke.
d. Trachea Choke. The fighter grabs the opponent’s trachea (Figure 3-9) by sticking three fingers behind
the voice box on one side and the thumb behind the other. He then crushes the fingers together and
twists, applying pressure until the opponent is disabled.
538 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 3-6: Cross-collar choke
Figure 3-7: Collar grab choke
3-4. Counters to Chokes. A soldier must know how to defend against being choked. Incapacitation and
unconsciousness can occur within three seconds; therefore, it is crucial for the defender to know all possible
counters to chokes.
a.
Eye Gouge. The opponent attacks the defender with a frontal choke. The defender has the option
of going over or under the opponent’s arms. To disable the opponent, the defender inserts both
Hand-to-hand Combat 539
Figure 3-8: Carotid choke
Figure 3-9: Trachea choke
540 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
thumbs into his opponent’s eyes and tries to gouge them (Figure 3-10). The defender is prepared to
follow-up with an attack to the vital regions.
b. Shoulder Dislocation. If the opponent applies a choke from the rear, the defender places the back of
his hand against the inside of the opponent’s forearm (Figure 3-11, Step 1).
Then, he brings the other hand over the crook of the opponent’s elbow and clasps hands, keeping
his hands close to his body as he moves his entire body around the opponent (Figure 3-11,
Step 2).
He positions his body so that the opponent’s upper arm is aligned with the opponent’s shoulders
(Figure 3-11, Step 3). The opponent’s arm should be bent at a 90-degree angle.
By pulling up on the opponent’s elbow and down on the wrist, the opponent’s balance is taken and
his shoulder is easily dislocated (Figure 3-11, Step 4). The defender must use his body movement to
properly position the opponent—upper body strength will not work.
He drops his body weight by bending his knees to help get the proper bend in the opponent’s
elbow. The defender must also keep his own hands and elbows close to his body to prevent the
opponent’s escape (Figure 3-11, Step 5).
c.
Weight Shift. To counter being choked from above while lying on the ground (Figure 3-12, Step 1),
the defender places his arms against his opponent’s elbows and locks the joints.
At the same time, he shifts his hips so that his weight rests painfully on the opponent’s ankle
(Figure 3-12, Step 2).
The defender can easily shift his body weight to gain control by turning the opponent toward his
weak side (Figure 3-12, Step 3).
Figure 3-10: Eye gouge
Hand-to-hand Combat 541
Figure 3-11: Shoulder dislocation
542 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 3-12: Weight shift
Hand-to-hand Combat 543
d.
Counterstrikes to Rear Choke and Frontal Choke. As the opponent tries a rear choke (A, Figure 3- 13,
Step 1), the defender can break the opponent’s grip with a strong rear-elbow strike into the solar plexus
(A, Figure 3-13, Step 2).
He can follow with a shin scrape down along the opponent’s leg and stomp the foot (A, Figure 3-13,
Step 3).
He may wish to continue by striking the groin of the opponent (A, Figure 3-13, Step 4).
Figure 3-13: Counterstrikes to rear choke and frontal choke
544 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
As the opponent begins a frontal choke (B, Figure 3-13, Step 1), the defender turns his body and
drops one arm between the opponent’s arms (B, Figure 3-13, Step 2).
He sinks his body weight and drives his own hand to the ground, and then explodes upward with
an elbow strike (B, Figure 3-13, Step 3) into the opponent’s chin, stomach, or groin.
e.
Headlock Escape. If a defender is in a headlock, he first turns his chin in toward his opponent’s
body to prevent choking (Figure 3-14, Step 1).
Next, he slides one hand up along the opponent’s back, around to the face, and finds the sensitive
nerve under the nose. He must avoid placing his fingers near his opponent’s mouth, or he will be
bitten (Figure 3-14, Step 2).
The defender can now force his opponent back and then down across his own knee to the ground
and maintain control by keeping pressure under the nose (Figure 3-14, Step 3). He can finish the
technique with a hammer fist to the groin.
3-5. Grappling. Grappling is when two or more fighters engage in close-range, hand-to-hand combat.
They may be armed or unarmed. To win, the fighter must be aware of how to move his body to maintain
the upper hand, and he must know the mechanical strengths and weaknesses of the human body. The
situation becomes a struggle of strength pitted against strength unless the fighter can remain in control
of his opponent by using skilled movements to gain an advantage in leverage and balance. Knowledge of
Figure 3-14: Headlock escape
Hand-to-hand Combat 545
the following basic movement techniques may give the fighter a way to apply and gain the advantage in
grappling situations.
a.
Wristlock From a Collar or Lapel Grab. When an opponent grabs the defender by the collar or by the
lapel, the defender reaches up and grabs the opponent’s hand (to prevent him from withdrawing it)
while stepping back to pull him off balance (Figure 3-15, Step 1).
The defender peels off the opponent’s grabbing hand by crushing his thumb and bending it back
on itself toward the palm in a straight line (Figure 3-15, Step 2). To keep his grip on the opponent’s
thumb, the defender keeps his hands close to his body where his control is strongest.
Figure 3-15: Wristlock from a collar or lapel grab
546 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
He then turns his body so that he has a wristlock on his opponent. The wristlock is produced by
turning his wrist outward at a 45-degree angle and by bending it toward the elbow (Figure 3-15,
Step 3). The opponent can be driven to the ground by putting his palm on the ground.
b. Wristlock From an Arm Grab. When an opponent grabs a defender’s arm, the defender rotates his
arm to grab the opponent’s forearm (Figure 3-16, Step 1).
At the same time, he secures his other hand on the gripping hand of the opponent to prevent his
escape (Figure 3-16, Step 2).
As the defender steps in toward the opponent and maintains his grip on the hand and forearm, a
zee shape is formed by the opponent’s arm; this is an effective wristlock (Figure 3-16, Step 3). More
pain can be induced by trying to put the opponent’s fingers in his own eyes.
c.
Prisoner Escort. The escort secures the prisoner’s arm with the wrist bent straight back upon itself,
palm toward the elbow. The prisoner’s elbow can be secured in the crook of the escort’s elbow,
firmly against the escort’s body for the most control (Figure 3-17). This technique is most effective
Figure 3-16: Wristlock from an arm grab
Hand-to-hand Combat 547
Figure 3-17: Prisoner escort
with two escorts, each holding a wrist of the prisoner. Use this technique to secure the opponent
only if rope, flex cuffs, or handcuffs are unavailable.
d. Elbow Lock Against the Body. The opponent’s elbow can be locked against the side of the body
(Figure 3-18) by the defender. The defender turns his body to force the elbow into a position in
which it was not designed to move. He can apply leverage on the opponent’s wrist to gain control
since the lock causes intense pain. The elbow can easily be broken to make the arm ineffective. This
movement must be executed with maximum speed and force.
e.
Elbow Lock Against the Knee. While grappling on the ground, a defender can gain control of the
situation if he can use an elbow lock (Figure 3-19) against the opponent. He uses his knee as a fulcrum
for leverage to break his opponent’s arm at the elbow. Once the arm breaks, the defender must
be prepared with a follow-up technique.
f. Elbow Lock Against the Shoulder. An elbow lock can be applied by locking the elbow joint against
the shoulder (Figure 3-20) and pulling down on the wrist. Leverage is produced by using the shoulder
as a fulcrum, by applying force, and by straightening the knees to push upward. This uses the
defender’s body mass and ensures more positive control. The opponent’s arm must be kept straight
so he cannot drive his elbow down into the defender’s shoulder.
g. Shoulder Dislocation. A defender can maneuver into position to dislocate a shoulder by moving
inside when an opponent launches a punch (Figure 3-21, Step 1). The defender holds his hand nearest
the punching arm high to protect the head.
The defender continues to move in and places his other arm behind the punching arm (Figure 3-21,
Step 2). He strikes downward into the crook of the opponent’s elbow to create a bend.
Then he clasps his hands and moves to the opponent’s outside until the opponent’s upper arm is in
alignment with his shoulders and bent 90 degrees at the elbow. As he steps, the defender pulls up
on the opponent’s elbow and directs the wrist downward. This motion twists the shoulder joint so
it is easily dislocated and the opponent loses his balance (Figure 3-21, Step 3).
548 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 3-18: Elbow lock against the body
Figure 3-19: Elbow lock against the knee
Hand-to-hand Combat 549
Figure 3-20: Elbow lock against the shoulder
NOTE: The defender must keep his clasped hands close to the body and properly align the opponent’s arm by
maneuvering his entire body. This technique will not succeed by using upperbody strength only, the opponent
will escape.
(1) Straight-arm shoulder dislocation. The shoulder can also be dislocated (Figure 3-22) by keeping
the elbow straight and forcing the opponent’s arm backward toward the opposite shoulder at
about 45 degrees. The initial movement must take the arm down and alongside the opponent’s
550 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 3-21: Shoulder dislocation
body. Bending the wrist toward the elbow helps to lock out the elbow. The dislocation also
forces the opponent’s head down-ward where a knee strike can be readily made. This dislocation
technique should be practiced to get the feel of the correct direction in which to move the joint.
(2) Shoulder dislocation using the elbow. While grappling, the defender can snake his hand over
the crook in the opponent’s elbow and move his body to the outside, trapping one arm of the
opponent against his side (Figure 3-23, Step 1).
Hand-to-hand Combat 551
Figure 3-22: Straight-arm shoulder dislocation
The defender can then clasp his hands in front of his body and use his body mass in motion to
align the opponent’s upper arm with the line between the shoulders (Figure 3-23, Step 2).
By dipping his weight and then pulling upward on the opponent’s elbow, the shoulder is
dislocated, and the opponent loses his balance (Figure 3-23, Step 3). If the opponent’s elbow
locks rather than bends to allow the shoulder dislocation, the defender can use the elbow lock
to keep control.
h.
Knee Lock/Break. The opponent’s knee joint can be attacked to produce knee locks or breaks
(Figure 3-24) by forcing the knee in a direction opposite to which it was designed to move. The
knee can be attacked with the body’s mass behind the defender’s knee or with his entire body by
falling on the opponent’s knee, causing it to hyperextend.
552 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 3-23: Shoulder dislocation using the elbow
Hand-to-hand Combat 553
Figure 3-24: Knee lock/break
CHAPTER 4
Medium-Range Combatives
In medium-range combatives, two opponents are already within touching distance. The arsenal of possible
body weapons includes short punches and strikes with elbows, knees, and hands. Head butts are also
effective; do not forget them during medium-range combat. A soldier uses his peripheral vision to evaluate
the targets presented by the opponent and choose his target. He should be aggressive and concentrate his
attack on the opponent’s vital points to end the fight as soon as possible.
4-1. Vital Targets. The body is divided into three sections: high, middle, and low. Each section contains
vital targets (Figure 4-1). The effects of striking these targets follow:
a. High Section. The high section includes the head and neck; it is the most dangerous target area.
(1) Top of the head. The skull is weak where the frontal cranial bones join. A forceful strike causes
trauma to the cranial cavity, resulting in unconsciousness and hemorrhage. A severe strike can
result in death.
(2) Forehead. A forceful blow can cause whiplash; a severe blow can cause cerebral hemorrhage
and death.
(3) Temple. The bones of the skull are weak at the temple, and an artery and large nerve lie close
to the skin. A powerful strike can cause unconsciousness and brain concussion. If the artery is
severed, the resulting massive hemorrhage compresses the brain, causing coma and or death.
(4) Eyes. A slight jab in the eyes causes uncontrollable watering and blurred vision. A forceful jab
or poke can cause temporary blindness, or the eyes can be gouged out. Death can result if the
fingers penetrate through the thin bone behind the eyes and into the brain.
(5) Ears. A strike to the ear with cupped hands can rupture the eardrum and may cause a brain
concussion.
(6) Nose. Any blow can easily break the thin bones of the nose, causing extreme pain and eye
watering.
(7) Under the nose. A blow to the nerve center, which is close to the surface under the nose, can
cause great pain and watery eyes.
(8) Jaw. A blow to the jaw can break or dislocate it. If the facial nerve is pinched against the lower
jaw, one side of the face will be paralyzed.
(9) Chin. A blow to the chin can cause paralysis, mild concussion, and unconsciousness. The jawbone
acts as a lever that can transmit the force of a blow to the back of the brain where the cardiac
and respiratory mechanisms are controlled.
(10) Back of ears and base of skull. A moderate blow to the back of the ears or the base of the skull
can cause unconsciousness by the jarring effect on the back of the brain. However, a powerful
blow can cause a concussion or brain hemorrhage and death.
(11) Throat. A powerful blow to the front of the throat can cause death by crushing the windpipe. A
forceful blow causes extreme pain and gagging or vomiting.
(12) Side of neck. A sharp blow to the side of the neck causes unconsciousness by shock to the carotid
artery, jugular vein, and vagus nerve. For maximum effect, the blow should be focused below
and slightly in front of the ear. A less powerful blow causes involuntary muscle spasms and
intense pain. The side of the neck is one of the best targets to use to drop an opponent immediately
or to disable him temporarily to finish him later.
555
556 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 4-1: Vital targets. (continued)
Medium-Range Combatives 557
Figure 4-1: (continued)
558 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
(13) Back of neck. A powerful blow to the back of one’s neck can cause whiplash, concussion, or even
a broken neck and death.
b. Middle Section. The middle section extends from the shoulders to the area just above the hips. Most
blows to vital points in this region are not fatal but can have serious, long-term complications that
range from trauma to internal organs to spinal cord injuries.
(1) Front of shoulder muscle. A large bundle of nerves passes in front of the shoulder joint. A forceful
blow causes extreme pain and can make the whole arm ineffective if the nerves are struck
just right.
(2) Collarbone. A blow to the collarbone can fracture it, causing intense pain and rendering the arm
on the side of the fracture ineffective. The fracture can also sever the brachial nerve or subclavian
artery.
(3) Armpit. A large nerve lies close to the skin in each armpit. A blow to this nerve causes severe
pain and partial paralysis. A knife inserted into the armpit is fatal as it severs a major artery
leading from the heart.
(4) Spine. A blow to the spinal column can sever the spinal cord, resulting in paralysis or in death.
(5) Nipples. A large network of nerves passes near the skin at the nipples. A blow here can cause
extreme pain and hemorrhage to the many blood vessels beneath.
(6) Heart. A jolting blow to the heart can stun the opponent and allow time for follow-up or finishing
techniques.
(7) Solar plexus. The solar plexus is a center for nerves that control the cardiorespiratory system.
A blow to this location is painful and can take the breath from the opponent. A powerful blow
causes unconsciousness by shock to the nerve center. A penetrating blow can also damage internal
organs.
(8) Diaphragm. A blow to the lower front of the ribs can cause the diaphragm and the other muscles
that control breathing to relax. This causes loss of breath and can result in unconsciousness due
to respiratory failure.
(9) Floating ribs. A blow to the floating ribs can easily fracture them because they are not attached
to the rib cage. Fractured ribs on the right side can cause internal injury to the liver; fractured
ribs on either side can possibly puncture or collapse a lung.
(10) Kidneys. A powerful blow to the kidneys can induce shock and can possibly cause internal
injury to these organs. A stab to the kidneys induces instant shock and can cause death from
severe internal bleeding.
(11) Abdomen below navel. A powerful blow to the area below the navel and above the groin can
cause shock, unconsciousness, and internal bleeding.
(12) Biceps. A strike to the biceps is most painful and renders the arm ineffective. The biceps is an
especially good target when an opponent holds a weapon.
(13) Forearm muscle. The radial nerve, which controls much of the movement in the hand, passes
over the forearm bone just below the elbow. A strike to the radial nerve renders the hand and
arm ineffective. An opponent can be disarmed by a strike to the forearm; if the strike is powerful
enough, he can be knocked unconscious.
(14) Back of hand. The backs of the hands are sensitive. Since the nerves pass over the bones in the
hand, a strike to this area is intensely painful. The small bones on the back of the hand are easily
broken and such a strike can also render the hand ineffective.
c.
Low Section. The low section of the body includes everything from the groin area to the feet. Strikes
to these areas are seldom fatal, but they can be incapacitating.
(1) Groin. A moderate blow to the groin can incapacitate an opponent and cause intense pain. A
powerful blow can result in unconsciousness and shock.
(2) Outside of thigh. A large nerve passes near the surface on the outside of the thigh about four fingerwidths
above the knee. A powerful strike to this region can render the entire leg ineffective,
causing an opponent to drop. This target is especially suitable for knee strikes and shin kicks.
Medium-Range Combatives 559
(3) Inside of thigh. A large nerve passes over the bone about in the middle of the inner thigh. A
blow to this area also incapacitates the leg and can cause the opponent to drop. Knee strikes and
heel kicks are the weapons of choice for this target.
(4) Hamstring. A severe strike to the hamstring can cause muscle spasms and inhibit mobility. If
the hamstring is cut, the leg is useless.
(5) Knee. Because the knee is a major supporting structure of the body, damage to this joint is
especially detrimental to an opponent. The knee is easily dislocated when struck at an opposing
angle to the joint’s normal range of motion, especially when it is bearing the opponent’s weight.
The knee can be dislocated or hyperextended by kicks and strikes with the entire body.
(6) Calf. A powerful blow to the top of the calf causes painful muscle spasms and also inhibits
mobility.
(7) Shin. A moderate blow to the shin produces great pain, especially a blow with a hard object. A
powerful blow can possibly fracture the bone that supports most of the body weight.
(8) Achilles tendon. A powerful strike to the Achilles tendon on the back of the heel can cause ankle
sprain and dislocation of the foot. If the tendon is torn, the opponent is incapacitated. The Achilles
tendon is a good target to cut with a knife.
(9) Ankle. A blow to the ankle causes pain; if a forceful blow is delivered, the ankle can be sprained
or broken.
(10) Instep. The small bones on the top of the foot are easily broken. A strike here will hinder the
opponent’s mobility.
4-2. Striking Principles. Effective striking with the weapons of the body to the opponent’s vital points is
essential for a victorious outcome in a hand-to-hand struggle. A soldier must be able to employ the principles
of effective striking if he is to emerge as the survivor in a fight to the death.
a.
Attitude. Proper mental attitude is of primary importance in the soldier’s ability to strike an opponent.
In hand-to-hand combat, the soldier must have the attitude that he will defeat the enemy and
complete the mission, no matter what. In a fight to the death, the soldier must have the frame of
mind to survive above all else; the prospect of losing cannot enter his mind. He must commit himself
to hit the opponent continuously with whatever it takes to drive him to the ground or end his
resistance. A memory aid is, “Thump him and dump him!”
b. Fluid Shock Wave. A strike should be delivered so that the target is hit and the weapon remains on
the impact site for at least a tenth of a second. This imparts all of the kinetic energy of the strike into
the target area, producing a fluid shock wave that travels into the affected tissue and causes maximum
damage. It is imperative that all strikes to vital points and nerve motor points are delivered
with this principle in mind. The memory aid is, “Hit and stick!”
c.
Target Selection. Strikes should be targeted at the opponent’s vital points and nerve motor points.
The results of effective strikes to vital points are discussed in paragraph 4-1. Strikes to nerve motor
points cause temporary mental stunning and muscle motor dysfunction to the affected areas of the
body. Mental stunning results when the brain is momentarily disoriented by overstimulation from
too much input—for example, a strike to a major nerve. The stunning completely disables an opponent
for three to seven seconds and allows the soldier to finish off the opponent, gain total control
of the situation, or make his escape. Sometimes, such a strike causes unconsciousness. A successful
strike to a nerve motor center also renders the affected body part immovable by causing muscle
spasms and dysfunction due to nerve overload. (Readily available nerve motor points are shown in
Figure 4-1)
(1) Jugular notch pressure point. Located at the base of the neck just above the breastbone; pressure
to this notch can distract and take away his balance. Pressure from fingers jabbed into the notch
incurs intense pain that causes the opponent to withdraw from the pressure involuntarily.
560 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
(2) Suprascapular nerve motor point. This nerve is located where the trapezius muscle joins the
side of the neck. A strike to this point causes intense pain, temporary dysfunction of the affected
arm and hand, and mental stunning for three to seven seconds. The strike should be a downward
knife-hand or hammerfist strike from behind.
(3) Brachial plexus origin. This nerve motor center is on the side of the neck. It is probably the most
reliable place to strike someone to stun them. Any part of the hand or arm may be applied—the
palm heel, back of the hand, knife hand, ridge hand, hammer fist, thumb tip, or the forearm. A
proper strike to the brachial plexus origin causes—
• Intense pain.
• Complete cessation of motor activity.
• Temporary dysfunction of the affected arm.
• Mental stunning for three to seven seconds.
• Possible unconsciousness.
(4) Brachial plexus clavicle notch pressure point. This center is behind the collarbone in a hollow
about halfway between the breastbone and the shoulder joint. The strike should be delivered
with a small impact weapon or the tip of the thumb to create high-level mental stunning and
dysfunction of the affected arm.
(5) Brachial plexus tie-in motor point. Located on the front of the shoulder joint, a strike to this
point can cause the arm to be ineffective. Multiple strikes may be necessary to ensure total dysfunction
of the arm and hand.
(6) Stellate ganglion. The ganglion is at the top of the pectoral muscle centered above the nipple. A
severe strike to this center can cause high-level stunning, respiratory dysfunction, and possible
unconsciousness. A straight punch or hammer fist should be used to cause spasms in the nerves
affecting the heart and respiratory systems.
(7) Cervical vertebrae. Located at the base of the skull, a strike to this particular vertebrae can cause
unconsciousness or possibly death. The harder the strike, the more likely death will occur.
(8) Radial nerve motor point. This nerve motor point is on top of the forearm just below the elbow.
Strikes to this point can create dysfunction of the affected arm and hand. The radial nerve should
be struck with the hammer fist or the forearm bones or with an impact weapon, if available.
Striking the radial nerve can be especially useful when disarming an opponent armed with a
knife or other weapon.
(9) Median nerve motor point. This nerve motor point is on the inside of the forearm at the base of
the wrist, just above the heel of the hand. Striking this center produces similar effects to striking
the radial nerve, although it is not as accessible as the radial nerve.
(10) Sciatic nerve. A sciatic nerve is just above each buttock, but below the belt line. A substantial
strike to this nerve can disable both legs and possibly cause respiratory failure. The sciatic nerve
is the largest nerve in the body besides the spinal cord. Striking it can affect the entire body,
especially if an impact weapon is used.
(11) Femoral nerve. This nerve is in the center of the inside of the thigh; striking the femoral nerve
can cause temporary motor dysfunction of the affected leg, high-intensity pain, and mental
stunning for three to seven seconds. The knee is best to use to strike the femoral nerve.
(12) Common peroneal nerve motor point. The peroneal nerve is on the outside of the thigh about
four fingers above the knee. A severe strike to this center can cause collapse of the affected leg
and high intensity pain, as well as mental stunning for three to seven seconds. This highly accessible
point is an effective way to drop an opponent quickly. This point should be struck with a
knee, shin kick, or impact weapon.
4-3. Short Punches and Strikes. During medium-range combat, punches and strikes are usually short
because of the close distance between fighters. Power is generated by using the entire body mass in motion
behind all punches and strikes.
Medium-Range Combatives 561
a.
Hands as Weapons. A knowledge of hand-to-hand combat fighting provides the fighter another means
to accomplish his mission. Hands can become deadly weapons when used by a skilled fighter.
(1) Punch to solar plexus. The defender uses this punch for close-in fighting when the opponent rushes
or tries to grab him. The defender puts his full weight and force behind the punch and strikes his
opponent in the solar plexus (Figure 4-2), knocking the breath out of his lungs. The defender can
then follow-up with a knee to the groin, or he can use other disabling blows to vital areas.
(2) Thumb strike to throat. The defender uses the thumb strike to the throat (Figure 4-3) as an effective
technique when an opponent is rushing him or trying to grab him. The defender thrusts
his right arm and thumb out and strikes his opponent in the throat-larynx area while holding
his left hand high for protection. He can follow up with a disabling blow to his opponent’s vital
areas.
(3) Thumb strike to shoulder joint. The opponent rushes the defender and tries to grab him. The
defender strikes the opponent’s shoulder joint or upper pectoral muscle with his fist or thumb
(Figure 4-4). This technique is painful and renders the opponent’s arm numb. The defender then
follows up with a disabling movement.
(4) Hammer-fist strike to face. The opponent rushes the defender. The defender counters by rotating
his body in the direction of his opponent and by striking him in the temple, ear, or face
(Figure 4-5). The defender follows up with kicks to the groin or hand strikes to his opponent’s
other vital areas.
(5) Hammer-fist strike to side of neck. The defender catches his opponent off guard, rotates at
the waist to generate power, and strikes his opponent on the side of the neck (carotid artery)
(Figure 4-6) with his hand clenched into a fist. This strike can cause muscle spasms at the least
and may knock his opponent unconscious.
Figure 4-2: Punch to solar plexus.
562 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 4-3: Thumb strike to throat.
Figure 4-4: Thumb strike to shoulder joint.
Medium-Range Combatives 563
Figure 4-5: Hammer-fist strike to face.
Figure 4-6: Hammer-fist strike to neck.
564 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
(6) Hammer fist to pectoral muscle. When the opponent tries to grapple with the defender, the
defender counters by forcefully striking his opponent in the pectoral muscle (Figure 4-7). This
blow stuns the opponent, and the defender immediately follows up with a disabling blow to a
vital area of his opponent’s body.
(7) Hook punch to solar plexus or floating ribs. The opponent tries to wrestle the defender to the
ground. The defender counters with a short hook punch to his opponent’s solar plexus or floating
ribs (Figure 4-8). A sharply delivered blow can puncture or collapse a lung. The defender
then follows up with a combination of blows to his opponent’s vital areas.
(8) Uppercut to chin. The defender steps between his opponent’s arms and strikes with an uppercut
punch (Figure 4-9) to the chin or jaw. The defender then follows up with blows to his opponent’s
vital areas.
(9) Knife-hand strike to side of neck. The defender executes a knife-hand strike to the side of his
opponent’s neck (Figure 4-10) the same way as the hammer-fist strike (Figure 4-6) except he uses
the edge of his striking hand.
(10) Knife-hand strike to radial nerve. The opponent tries to strike the defender with a punch. The
defender counters by striking his opponent on the top of the forearm just below the elbow
(radial nerve) (Figure 4-11) and uses a follow-up technique to disable his opponent.
(11) Palm-heel strike to chin. The opponent tries to surprise the defender by lunging at him. The
defender quickly counters by striking his opponent with a palm-heel strike to the chin (Figure
4- 12), using maximum force.
(12) Palm-heel strike to solar plexus. The defender meets his opponent’s rush by striking him with a
palm-heel strike to the solar plexus (Figure 4-13). The defender then executes a follow-up technique
to his opponent’s vital organs.
Figure 4-7: Hammer-fist to pectoral muscle.
Medium-Range Combatives 565
Figure 4-8: Hook punch to solar plexus or floating ribs.
Figure 4-9: Uppercut to chin.
566 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 4-10: Knife-hand to side of neck.
Figure 4-11: Knife-hand strike to radial nerve.
Medium-Range Combatives 567
Figure 4-12: Palm heel strike to chin.
568 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 4-13: Palm-heel strike to solar plexus.
Medium-Range Combatives 569
(13) Palm-heel strike to kidneys. The defender grasps his opponent from behind by the collar and
pulls him off balance. He quickly follows up with a hard palm-heel strike to the opponent’s kidney
(Figure 4-14). The defender can then take down his opponent with a follow-up technique to
the back of his knee.
Figure 4-14: Palm-heel strike to kidneys.
570 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
b. Elbows as Weapons. The elbows are also formidable weapons; tremendous striking power can be
generated from them. The point of the elbow should be the point of impact. The elbows are strongest
when kept in front of the body and in alignment with the shoulder joint; that is, never strike
with the elbow out to the side of the body.
(1) Elbow strikes. When properly executed, elbow strikes (Figures 4-15 through 4-21) render an
opponent ineffective. When using elbow strikes, execute them quickly, powerfully, and repetitively
until the opponent is disabled.
(2) Repetitive elbow strikes. The attacker on the right throws a punch (Figure 4-22, Step 1).
The defender counters with an elbow strike to the biceps (Figure 4-22, Step 2). The attacker follows
with a punch from his other arm.
The defender again counters with an elbow strike to the shoulder joint (Figure 4-22, Step 3). He
next strikes with an elbow from the opposite side to the throat.
Figure 4-15: Elbow strike to face.
Medium-Range Combatives 571
Figure 4-16: Elbow strike to temple.
Figure 4-17: Rising elbow strike.
572 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 4-18: Elbow strike to head.
Figure 4-19: Elbow srike to solar plexus.
Medium-Range Combatives 573
Figure 4-20: Elbow strike to biceps.
Figure 4-21: Elbow strike to inside of shoulder.
574 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 4-22: Repetitive elbow strike.
c.
Knees as Weapons. When the knees are used to strike opponents, they are especially potent weapons
and are hard to defend or protect against. Great power is generated by thrusting the hips in
with a knee strike; however, use the point of the knee as the impact surface. All knee strikes should
be executed repetitively until the opponent is disabled. The following techniques are the most effective
way to overpower or disable the opponent.
(1) Front knee strike. When an opponent tries to grapple with the defender, the defender strikes his
opponent in the stomach or solar plexus with his knee (Figure 4-23). This stuns the opponent
and the defender can follow up with another technique.
(2)
Knee strike to outside of thigh. The defender delivers a knee strike to the outside of his opponent’s
thigh (common peroneal nerve) (Figure 4-24). This strike causes intense pain and renders
the opponent’s leg ineffective.
Medium-Range Combatives 575
(3) Knee strike to inside of thigh. An effective technique for close-in grappling is when the defender
delivers a knee strike to the inside of his opponent’s thigh (peroneal nerve) (Figure 4- 25). The
defender then executes a follow-up technique to a vital point.
(4) Knee strike to groin. The knee strike to the groin is effective during close-in grappling. The
defender gains control by grabbing his opponent’s head, hair, ears, or shoulders and strikes him
in the groin with his knee (Figure 4-26).
(5) Knee strike to face. The defender controls his opponent by grabbing behind his head with both
hands and forcefully pushing his head down. At the same time, the defender brings his knee up
and smashes the opponent in the face (Figure 4-27). When properly executed, the knee strike to
the face is a devastating technique that can cause serious injury to the opponent.
Figure 4-23: Front knee strike.
576 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 4-24: Knee to outside of thigh.
Figure 4-25: Knee to inside of thigh.
Medium-Range Combatives 577
Figure 4-26: Knee strike to groin.
Figure 4-27: Knee strike to face.
CHAPTER 5
Long-range Combatives
In long-range combatives, the distance between opponents is such that the combatants can engage one
another with fully extended punches and kicks or with handheld weapons, such as rifles with fixed bayonets
and clubs. As in medium-range combatives, a fighter must continuously monitor his available body
weapons and opportunities for attack, as well as possible defense measures. He must know when to
increase the distance from an opponent and when to close the gap. The spheres of influence that surround
each fighter come into contact in long-range combatives. (See Chapter 6 for interval gaps and spheres of
influence.)
SECTION I: NATURAL WEAPONS
The most dangerous natural weapons a soldier possesses are his hands and feet. This section describes natural
weapon techniques of various punches, strikes, and kicks and stresses aggressive tactics with which
to subdue an opponent.
5-1. Extended Arm Punches and Strikes. Extended arm punches and strikes in long-range combatives, like
those in medium-range combatives, should be directed at vital points and nerve motor points. It is essential
to put the entire body mass in motion behind long-range strikes. Closing the distance to the target gives
the fighter an opportunity to take advantage of this principle.
a.
In extended punches, the body weapon is usually the fist, although the fingers may be used—
for example, eye gouging. When punching, hold the fist vertically or horizontally. Keep the wrist
straight to prevent injury and use the first two knuckles in striking.
b. Another useful variation of the fist is to place the thumb on top of the vertical fist so that the tip
protrudes beyond the curled index finger that supports it. The thumb strike is especially effective
against soft targets. Do not fully lock out the arm when punching; keep a slight bend in the elbow
to prevent hyperextension if the intended target is missed.
5-2. Kicks. Kicks during hand-to-hand combat are best directed to low targets and should be simple but
effective. Combat soldiers are usually burdened with combat boots and LCE. His flexibility level is usually
low during combat, and if engaged in hand-to-hand combat, he will be under high stress. He must rely on
gross motor skills and kicks that do not require complicated movement or much training and practice to
execute.
a.
Side Knee Kick. When an opponent launches an attack—for example, with a knife (Figure 5-1, Step 1),
it is most important for the defender to first move his entire body off the line of attack as the attacker
moves in.
As the defender steps off at 45 degrees to the outside and toward the opponent, he strikes with a
short punch to the floating ribs (Figure 5-1, Step 2).
Then the defender turns his body by rotating on the leading, outside foot and raises the knee of
his kicking leg to his chest. He then drives his kick into the side of the attacker’s knee with his foot
turned 45 degrees outward (Figure 5-1, Step 3). This angle makes the most of the striking surface
and reduces his chances of missing the target.
579
580 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
step 1
step 2
step 3
Figure 5-1: Side knee kick.
b. Front Knee Kick. As the attacker moves in, the defender immediately shifts off the line of attack and
drives his kicking foot straight into the knee of the attacker (Figure 5-2). He turns his foot 45 degrees
to make the most of the striking surface and to reduce the chances of missing the target. If the kick
is done right, the attacker’s advance will stop abruptly, and the knee joint will break.
c.
Heel Kick to Inside of Thigh. The defender steps 45 degrees outside and toward the attacker to
get off the line of attack. He is now in a position where he can drive his heel into the inside of the
opponent’s thigh (femoral nerve) (Figure 5-3, Steps 1 and 2). Either thigh can be targeted because
the kick can still be executed if the defender moves to the inside of the opponent rather than to
the outside when getting off the line of attack.
Long-range Combatives 581
Figure 5-2: Front knee kick.
Figure 5-3: Heel kick to inside of thigh.
582 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
d. Heel Kick to Groin. The defender drives a heel kick into the attacker’s groin (Figure 5-4) with his full
body mass behind it. Since the groin is a soft target, the toe can also be used when striking it.
e.
Shin Kick. The shin kick is a powerful kick, and it is easily performed with little training. When
the legs are targeted, the kick is hard to defend against (Figure 5-5), and an opponent can be
dropped by it.
Figure 5-4: Heel kick to groin.
Figure 5-5: Shin kick to legs.
Long-range Combatives 583
The calves and common peroneal nerve (Figure 5-6) are the best striking points.
The shin kick can also be used to attack the floating ribs (Figure 5-7).
f.
Stepping Side Kick. A soldier starts a stepping side kick (Figure 5-8, Step 1) by stepping either
behind or in front of his other foot to close the distance between him and his opponent. The
movement is like that in a skip.
Figure 5-6: Shin kick to common peroneal nerve.
Figure 5-7: Shin kick to floating ribs.
584 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-8: Stepping side kick.
The soldier now brings the knee of his kicking foot up and thrusts out a side kick (Figure 5-8, Step 2).
Tremendous power and momentum can be developed in this kick.
g. Counter to Front Kick. When the attacker tries a front kick, the defender traps the kicking foot
by meeting it with his own (Figure 5-9, Step 1). The defender turns his foot 45 degrees outward
to increase the likelihood of striking the opponent’s kicking foot. This counter requires good
timing by the defender, but not necessarily speed. Do not look at the feet; use your peripheral
vision.
When an attacker tries a front kick (Figure 5-9, Step 2), the defender steps off the line of attack of the
incoming foot to the outside.
As the attacker’s kicking leg begins to drop, the defender kicks upward into the calf of the attacker’s
leg (Figure 5-9, Step 3). This kick is extremely painful and will probably render the leg ineffective.
This technique does not rely on the defender’s speed, but on proper timing.
Long-range Combatives 585
Figure 5-9: Counter to front kick.
The defender can also kick to an opponent’s kicking leg by moving off the line of attack to the inside
and by using the heel kick to the inside of the thigh or groin (Figure 5-9, Step 4).
h. Counter to Roundhouse-Type Kick. When an opponent prepares to attack with a roundhouse-type
kick (Figure 5-10, Step 1), the defender moves off the line of attack by stepping to the inside of the
knee of the kicking leg.
He then turns his body to receive the momentum of the leg (Figure 5-10, Step 2). By moving to
the inside of the knee, the defender lessens the power of the attacker’s kicking leg. The harder the
attacker kicks, the more likely he is to hyperextend his own knee against the body of the defender,
but the defender will not be harmed. However, the defender must get to the inside of the knee, or
586 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-10: Counter to roadhouse kick.
an experienced opponent can change his roundhouse kick into a knee strike. The defender receives
the energy of the kicking leg and continues turning with the momentum of the kick.
The attacker will be taken down by the defender’s other leg with no effort (Figure 5-10, Step 3).
i. Kick as a Defense Against Punch. As the opponent on the left throws a punch (Figure 5-11, Step 1),
the defender steps off the line of attack to the outside.
He then turns toward the opponent, brings his knee to his chest, and launches a heel kick to the
outside of the opponent’s thigh (Figure 5-11, Step 2). He keeps his foot turned 45 degrees to ensure
striking the target and to maintain balance.
Long-range Combatives 587
Figure 5-11: Kick as a defense against punch.
SECTION II: DEFENSIVE TECHNIQUES
A knife (or bayonet), properly employed, is a deadly weapon; however, using defensive techniques, such
as maintaining separation, will greatly enhance the soldier’s ability to fight and win.
5-3. Defense Against an Armed Opponent. An unarmed defender is always at a distinct disadvantage
facing an armed opponent. It is imperative therefore that the unarmed defender understand and use the
following principles to survive:
a.
Separation. Maintain a separation of at least 10 feet plus the length of the weapon from the attacker.
This distance gives the defender time to react to any attempt by the attacker to close the gap and be
upon the defender. The defender should also try to place stationary objects between himself and the
attacker.
b.
Unarmed Defense. Unarmed defense against an armed opponent should be a last resort. If it is
necessary, the defender’s course of action includes:
(1) Move the body out of the line of attack of the weapon. Step off the line of attack or redirect the
attack of the weapon so that it clears the body.
(2) Control the weapon. Maintain control of the attacking arm by securing the weapon, hand, wrist,
elbow, or arm by using joint locks, if possible.
588 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
(3) Stun the attacker with an effective counterattack. Counterattack should be swift and devastating.
Take the vigor out of the attacker with a low, unexpected kick, or break a locked joint of the
attacking arm. Strikes to motor nerve centers are effective stuns, as are skin tearing, eye gouging,
and attacking of the throat. The defender can also take away the attacker’s balance.
(4) Ground the attacker. Take the attacker to the ground where the defender can continue to disarm
or further disable him.
(5) Disarm the attacker. Break the attacker’s locked joints. Use leverage or induce pain to disarm the
attacker and finish him or to maintain physical control.
c.
Precaution. Do not focus full attention on the weapon because the attacker has other body weapons
to use. There may even be other attackers that you have not seen.
d.
Expedient Aids. Anything available can become an expedient aid to defend against an armed
attack. The kevlar helmet can be used as a shield; similarly, the LCE and shirt jacket can be used
to protect the defender against a weapon. The defender can also throw dirt in the attacker’s eyes
as a distraction.
5-4. Angles of Attack. Any attack, regardless of the type weapon, can be directed along one of nine angles
(Figure 5-12). The defense must be oriented for each angle of attack.
Figure 5-12: Angles of attack.
Long-range Combatives 589
a.
No. 1 Angle of Attack. A downward diagonal slash, stab, or strike toward the left side of the defender’s
head, neck, or torso.
b. No. 2 Angle of Attack. A downward diagonal slash, stab, or strike toward the right side of the
defender’s head, neck, or torso.
c.
No. 3 Angle of Attack. A horizontal attack to the left side of the defender’s torso in the ribs, side, or
hip region.
d. No. 4 Angle of Attack. The same as No. 3 angle, but to the right side.
e.
No. 5 Angle of Attack. A jabbing, lunging, or punching attack directed straight toward the defender’s
front.
f. No. 6 Angle of Attack. An attack directed straight down upon the defender.
g. No. 7 Angle of Attack. An upward diagonal attack toward the defender’s lower-left side.
h. No. 8 Angle of Attack. An upward diagonal attack toward the defender’s lower-right side.
i. No. 9 Angle of Attack. An attack directed straight up—for example, to the defender’s groin.
5-5. Defense Against a Knife. When an unarmed soldier is faced with an enemy armed with a knife, he
must be mentally prepared to be cut. The likelihood of being cut severely is less if the fighter is well trained
in knife defense and if the principles of weapon defense are followed. A slash wound is not usually lethal
or shock inducing; however, a stab wound risks injury to vital organs, arteries, and veins and may also
cause instant shock or unconsciousness.
a.
Types of Knife Attacks. The first line of defense against an opponent armed with a knife is to avoid
close contact. The different types of knife attacks follow:
(1) Thrust. The thrust is the most common and most dangerous type of knife attack. It is a strike
directed straight into the target by jabbing or lunging.
(2) Slash. The slash is a sweeping surface cut or circular slash. The wound is usually a long cut,
varying from a slight surface cut to a deep gash.
(3) Flick. This attack is delivered by flicking the wrist and knife to extended limbs, inflicting numerous
cuts. The flick is very distractive to the defender since he is bleeding from several cuts if the
attacker is successful.
(4) Tear. The tear is a cut made by dragging the tip of the blade across the body to create a ripping
type cut.
(5) Hack. The hack is delivered by using the knife to block or chop with.
(6) Butt. The butt is a strike with the knife handle.
b. Knife Defense Drills. Knife defense drills are used to familiarize soldiers with defense movement
techniques for various angles of attack. For training, the soldiers should be paired off; one partner
is named as the attacker and one is the defender. It is important that the attacker make his attack
realistic in terms of distance and angling during training. His strikes must be accurate in hitting
the defender at the intended target if the defender does not defend himself or move off the line of
attack. For safety, the attacks are delivered first at one-quarter and one-half speed, and then at threequarter
speed as the defender becomes more skilled. Variations can be added by changing grips,
stances, and attacks.
(1) No. 1 angle of defense—check and lift. The attacker delivers a slash along the No. 1 angle of
attack. The defender meets and checks the movement with his left forearm bone, striking the
inside forearm of the attacker (Figure 5-13, Step 1).
The defender’s right hand immediately follows behind the strike to lift, redirect, and take control
of the attacker’s knife arm (Figure 5-13, Step 2).
The defender brings the attacking arm around to his right side where he can use an arm bar,
wrist lock, and so forth, to disarm the attacker (Figure 5-13, Step 3).
He will have better control by keeping the knife hand as close to his body as possible (Figure
5-13, Step 4).
590 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-13: No. 1 angle of defense—check and lift.
(2) No. 2 angle of defense—check and ride. The attacker slashes with a No. 2 angle of attack. The
defender meets the attacking arm with a strike from both forearms against the outside forearm,
his bone against the attacker’s muscle tissue (Figure 5-14, Step 1).
The strike checks the forward momentum of the attacking arm. The defender’s right hand is
then used to ride the attacking arm clear of his body (Figure 5-14, Step 2).
He redirects the attacker’s energy with strength starting from the right elbow (Figure 5-14, Step 3).
(3) No. 3 angle of defense—check and lift. The attacker delivers a horizontal slash to the defender’s
ribs, kidneys, or hip on the left side (Figure 5-15, Step 1). The defender meets and checks the
Long-range Combatives 591
Figure 5-14: No. 2 angle of defense—check and ride.
attacking arm on the left side of his body with a downward circular motion across the front of
his own body.
At the same time, he moves his body off the line of attack. He should meet the attacker’s forearm
with a strike forceful enough to check its momentum (Figure 5-15, Step 2). The defender then
rides the energy of the attacking arm by wiping downward along the outside of his own left
forearm with his right hand.
He then redirects the knife hand around to his right side where he can control or disarm the
weapon (Figure 5-15, Step 3).
592 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-15: No. 3 angle of defense—check and lift.
(4) No. 4 angle of defense—check. The attacker slashes the defender with a backhand slashing
motion to the right side at the ribs, kidneys, or hips. The defender moves his right arm in a
downward circular motion and strikes the attacking arm on the outside of the body (Figure 5-16,
Step 1).
At the same time, he moves off the line of attack (Figure 5-16, Step 2). The strike must be forceful
enough to check the attack.
The left arm is held in a higher guard position to protect from a redirected attack or to assist in
checking (Figure 5-16, Step 3).
Long-range Combatives 593
Figure 5-16: No. 4 angle of defense—check.
The defender moves his body to a position where he can choose a proper disarming maneuver
(Figure 5-16, Step 4).
(5) Low No. 5 angle of defense—parry. A lunging thrust to the stomach is made by the attacker
along the No. 5 angle of attack (Figure 5-17, Step 1).
The defender moves his body off the line of attack and deflects the attacking arm by parrying
with his left hand (Figure 5-17, Step 2). He deflects the attacking hand toward his right side by
redirecting it with his right hand.
As he does this, the defender can strike downward with the left forearm or the wrist onto the
forearm or wrist of the attacker (Figure 5-17, Step 3).
594 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-17: Low No. 5 angle of defense—parry.
The defender ends up in a position to lock the elbow of the attacking arm across his body if he
steps off the line of attack properly (Figure 5-17, Step 4).
(6) High No. 5 angle of defense. The attacker lunges with a thrust to the face, throat, or solar plexus
(Figure 5-18, Step 1).
The defender moves his body off the line of attack while parrying with either hand. He redirects
the attacking arm so that the knife clears his body (Figure 5-18, Step 2).
He maintains control of the weapon hand or arm and gouges the eyes of the attacker, driving
him backward and off balance (Figure 5-18, Step 3). If the attacker is much taller than the
defender, it may be a more natural movement for the defender to raise his left hand to strike and
Long-range Combatives 595
Figure 5-18: High No. 5 angle of defense.
deflect the attacking arm. He can then gouge his thumb or fingers into the jugular notch of the
attacker and force him to the ground.
Still another possibility for a high No. 5 angle of attack is for the defender to move his body off
the line of attack while parrying. He can then turn his body, rotate his shoulder under the elbow
joint of the attacker, and lock it out (Figure 5-18, Step 4).
(7) No. 6 angle of defense. The attacker strikes straight downward onto the defender with a stab
(Figure 5-19, Step 1).
The defender reacts by moving his body out of the weapon’s path and by parrying or checking
and redirecting the attacking arm, as the movement in the high No. 5 angle of defense (Figure
5-19, Step 2). The reactions may vary as to what is natural for the defender.
596 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-19: No. 6 angle of defense.
The defender then takes control of the weapon and disarms the attacker (Figure 5-19, Step 3).
c.
Follow-Up Techniques. Once the instructor believes the soldiers are skilled in these basic reactions
to attack, follow-up techniques may be introduced and practiced. These drills make up the defense
possibilities against the various angles of attack. They also enable the soldier to apply the principles
of defense against weapons and allow him to feel the movements. Through repetition, the reactions
become natural, and the soldier instinctively reacts to a knife attack with the proper defense. It is
important not to associate specific movements or techniques with certain types of attack. The knife
fighter must rely on his knowledge of principles and his training experience in reacting to a knife
attack. No two attacks or reactions will be the same; thus, memorizing techniques will not ensure a
soldier’s survival.
(1) Defend and clear. When the defender has performed a defensive maneuver and avoided an
attack, he can push the attacker away and move out of the attacker’s reach.
Long-range Combatives 597
(2) Defend and stun. After the defender performs his first defensive maneuver to a safer position,
he can deliver a stunning blow as an immediate counterattack. Strikes to motor nerve points or
attacker’s limbs, low kicks, and elbow strikes are especially effective stunning techniques.
(3) Defend and disarm. The defender also follows up his first defensive maneuver by maintaining
control of the attacker’s weapon arm, executing a stunning technique, and disarming the
attacker. The stun distracts the attacker and also gives the defender some time to gain possession
of the weapon and to execute his disarming technique.
5-6. Unarmed Defense Against a Rifle with Fixed Bayonet. Defense against a rifle with a fixed bayonet
involves the same principles as knife defense. The soldier considers the same angles of attack and the
proper response for any attack along each angle.
a.
Regardless of the type weapon used by the enemy, his attack will always be along one of the nine
angles of attack at any one time. The soldier must get his entire body off the line of attack by moving
to a safe position. A rifle with a fixed bayonet has two weapons: a knife at one end and a butt stock
at the other end. The soldier will be safe as long as he is not in a position where he can be struck by
either end during the attack.
b.
Usually, he is in a more advantageous position if he moves inside the length of the weapon. He can
then counterattack to gain control of the situation as soon as possible. The following counterattacks can
be used as defenses against a rifle with a fixed bayonet; they also provide a good basis for training.
(1) Unarmed defense against No. 1 angle of attack. The attacker prepares to slash along the No. 1
angle of attack (Figure 5-20, Step 1).
The defender waits until the last possible moment before moving so he is certain of the angle
along which the attack is directed (Figure 5-20, Step 2). This way, the attacker cannot change his
attack in response to movement by the defender.
When the defender is certain that the attack is committed along a specific angle (No. 1, in this
case), he moves to the inside of the attacker and gouges his eyes (Figure 5-20, Step 2) while the
other hand redirects and controls the weapon. He maintains control of the weapon and lunges
his entire body weight into the eye gouge to drive the attacker backward and off balance. The
defender now ends up with the weapon, and the attacker is in a poor recovery position (Figure
5- 20, Step 3).
(2) Unarmed defense against No. 2 angle of attack. The attacker makes a diagonal slash along the
No. 2 angle of attack (Figure 5-21, Step 1). Again, the defender waits until he is sure of the attack
before moving.
The defender then moves to the outside of the attacker and counterattacks with a thumb jab into
the right armpit (Figure 5-21, Step 2). He receives the momentum of the attacking weapon and
controls it with his free hand.
He uses the attacker’s momentum against him by pulling the weapon in the direction it is going
with one hand and pushing with his thumb of the other hand (Figure 5-21, Step 3). The attacker
is completely off balance, and the defender can gain control of the weapon.
(3) Unarmed defense against No. 3 angle of attack. The attacker directs a horizontal slash along the
No. 3 angle of attack (Figure 5-22, Step 1).
The defender turns and moves to the inside of the attacker; he then strikes with his thumb into
the jugular notch (Figure 5-22, Step 2).
His entire body mass is behind the thumb strike and, coupled with the incoming momentum of
the attacker, the strike drives the attacker’s head backward and takes his balance (Figure 5-22,
Step 3).
The defender turns his body with the momentum of the weapon’s attack to strip the weapon
from the attacker’s grip (Figure 5-22, Step 4).
598 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-20: Unarmed defense against No. 1 angle of attack.
(4) Unarmed defense against No. 4 angle of attack. The attack is a horizontal slash along the No. 4
angle of attack (Figure 5-23, Step 1).
The defender moves into the outside of the attacker (Figure 5-23, Step 2).
He then turns with the attack, delivering an elbow strike to the throat (Figure 5-23, Step 3). At
the same time, the defender’s free hand controls the weapon and pulls it from the attacker as he
is knocked off balance from the elbow strike.
(5) Unarmed defense against low No. 5 angle of attack. The attacker thrusts the bayonet at the
stomach of the defender (Figure 5-24, Step 1).
Long-range Combatives 599
Figure 5-21: Unarmed defense against No. 2 angle of attack.
The defender shifts his body to the side to avoid the attack and to gouge the eyes of the attacker
(Figure 5-24, Step 2).
The defender’s free hand maintains control of and strips the weapon from the attacker as he is
driven backward with the eye gouge (Figure 5-24, Step 3).
(6) Unarmed defense against high No. 5 angle of attack. The attacker delivers a thrust to the throat
of the defender (Figure 5-25, Step 1).
The defender then shifts to the side to avoid the attack, parries the thrust, and controls the
weapon with his trail hand (Figure 5-25, Step 2).
600 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-22: Unarmed defense against No. 3 angle of attack.
He then shifts his entire body mass forward over the lead foot, slamming a forearm strike into
the attacker’s throat (Figure 5-25, Step 3).
(7) Unarmed defense against No 6 angle of attack. The attacker delivers a downward stroke along
the No. 6 angle of attack (Figure 5-26, Step 1).
The defender shifts to the outside to get off the line of attack and he grabs the weapon. Then, he
pulls the attacker off balance by causing him to overextend himself (Figure 2-26, Step 2).
The defender shifts his weight backward and causes the attacker to fall, as he strips the weapon
from him (Figure 5-26, Step 3).
5-7. Advanced Weapons Techniques and Training. For advanced training in weapons techniques,
training partners should have the same skill level. Attackers can execute attacks along multiple angles
of attack in combinations. The attacker must attack with a speed that offers the defender a challenge, but
Long-range Combatives 601
Figure 5-23: Unarmed defense against No. 4 angle of attack.
does not overwhelm him. It should not be a contest to see who can win, but a training exercise for both
individuals.
a. Continued training in weapons techniques will lead to the partners’ ability to engage in free-response
fighting or sparring—that is, the individuals become adept enough to understand the principles of
weapons attacks, defense, and movements so they can respond freely when attacking or defending
from any angle.
b. Instructors must closely monitor training partners to ensure that the speed and control of the individuals
does not become dangerous during advanced training practice. Proper eye protection and
padding should be used, when applicable. The instructor should stress the golden rule in freeresponse
fighting—Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
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Figure 5-24: Unarmed defense against low No. 5 angle of attack.
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Figure 5-25: Unarmed defense against high No. 5 angle of attack.
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Figure 5-26: Unarmed defense against No. 6 angle of attack.
SECTION III: OFFENSIVE TECHNIQUES
At ranges of 10 meters or more in most combat situations, small arms and grenades are the weapons of
choice. However, in some scenarios, today’s combat soldier must engage the enemy in confined areas, such
as trench clearing or room clearing where noncombatants are present or when silence is necessary. In these
instances, the bayonet or knife may be the ideal weapon to dispatch the enemy. Other than the side arm,
the knife is the most lethal weapon in close-quarter combat.
5-8. Bayonet/Knife. As the bayonet is an integral part of the combat soldier’s equipment, it is readily available
for use as a multipurpose weapon. The bayonet produces a terrifying mental effect on the enemy
when in the hands of a well-trained and confident soldier. The soldier skilled in the use of the knife also
increases his ability to defend against larger opponents and multiple attackers. Both these skills increase
his chances of surviving and accomplishing the mission. (Although the following paragraphs say “knife,”
the information also applies to bayonets.)
Long-range Combatives 605
a. Grips. The best way to hold the knife is either with the straight grip or the reverse grip.
(1) Straight Grip. Grip the knife in the strong hand by forming a vee and by allowing the knife to
fit naturally, as in gripping for a handshake. The handle should lay diagonally across the palm.
Point the blade toward the enemy, usually with the cutting edge down. The cutting edge can
also be held vertically or horizontally to the ground. Use the straight grip when thrusting and
slashing.
(2) Reverse Grip. Grip the knife with the blade held parallel with the forearm, cutting edge facing
outward. This grip conceals the knife from the enemy’s view. The reverse grip also affords the
most power for lethal insertion. Use this grip for slashing, stabbing, and tearing.
b. Stances. The primary stances are the knife fighter’s stance and the modified stance.
(1) Knife fighter’s stance. In this stance, the fighter stands with his feet about shoulder-width apart,
dominant foot toward the rear. About 70 percent of his weight is on the front foot and 30 percent
on the rear foot. He stands on the balls of both feet and holds the knife with the straight grip. The
other hand is held close to his body where it is ready to use, but protected (Figure 5-27).
Figure 5-27: Stance.
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(2) Modified stance. The difference in the modified stance is the knife is held close to the body with
the other hand held close over the knife hand to help conceal it (Figure 5-28).
c.
Range. The two primary ranges in knife fighting are long range and medium range. In long-range
knife fighting, attacks consist of figure-eight slashes along the No. 1, No. 2, No. 7, and No. 8 angles
of attack; horizontal slashes along the No. 3 and No. 4 angles of attack; and lunging thrusts to vital
areas on the No. 5 angle of attack. Usually, the straight grip is used. In medium-range knife fighting,
the reverse grip provides greater power. It is used to thrust, slash, and tear along all angles of
attack.
Figure 5-28: Modified stance.
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5-9. Knife-Against-Knife Sequence. The knife fighter must learn to use all available weapons of his
body and not limit himself to the knife. The free hand can be used to trap the enemy’s hands to create
openings in his defense. The enemy’s attention will be focused on the weapon; therefore, low kicks
and knee strikes will seemingly come from nowhere. The knife fighter’s priority of targets are the eyes,
throat, abdominal region, and extended limbs. Some knife attack sequences that can be used in training
to help develop soldiers’ knowledge of movements, principles, and techniques in knife fighting follow:
a. Nos. 1 and 4 Angles. Two opponents assume the knife fighter’s stance (Figure 5-29, Step 1).
Figure 5-29: Nos. 1 and 4 angles.
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The attacker starts with a diagonal slash along the No. 1 angle of attack to the throat (Figure 5-29,
Step 2).
He then follows through with a slash and continues with a horizontal slash back across the abdomen
along the No. 4 angle of attack (Figure 5-29, Step 3).
He finishes the attack by using his entire body mass behind a lunging stab into the opponent’s solar
plexus (Figure 5-29, Step 4).
b. Nos. 5, 3, and 2 Angles. In this sequence, one opponent (attacker) starts an attack with a lunge along
the No. 5 angle of attack. At the same time, the other opponent (defender) on the left moves his body
off the line of attack, parries the attacking arm, and slices the biceps of his opponent (Figure 5-30,
Step 1).
Figure 5-30: Nos. 5, 3, and 2 angles.
Long-range Combatives 609
The defender slashes back across the groin along the No. 3 angle of attack (Figure 5-30, Step 2).
He finishes the attacker by continuing with an upward stroke into the armpit or throat along the
No. 2 angle of attack (Figure 5-30, Step 3). Throughout this sequence, the attacker’s weapon hand is
controlled with the defender’s left hand as he attacks with his own knife hand.
c.
Low No. 5 Angle. In the next sequence, the attacker on the right lunges to the stomach along a low
No. 5 angle of attack.
The defender on the left moves his body off the line of attack while parrying and slashing the wrist
of the attacking knife hand as he redirects the arm (Figure 5-31, Step 1).
After he slashes the wrist of his attacker, the defender continues to move around the outside and
stabs the attacker’s armpit (Figure 5-31, Step 2).
He retracts his knife from the armpit, continues his movement around the attacker, and slices his
hamstring (Figure 5-31, Step 3).
d. Optional Low No. 5 Angle. The attacker on the right lunges to the stomach of his opponent (the
defender) along the low No. 5 angle of attack. The defender moves his body off the line of attack of
Figure 5-31: Low No. 5 angle.
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the knife. Then he turns and, at the same time, delivers a slash to the attacker’s throat along the No.
1 angle of attack (Figure 5-32, Step 1).
The defender immediately follows with another slash to the opposite side of the attacker’s throat
along the No. 2 angle of attack (Figure 5-32, Step 2).
The attacker is finished as the opponent on the left (defender) continues to slice across the abdomen
with a stroke along the No. 3 angle (Figure 5-32, Step 3).
5-10. Rifle with Fixed Bayonet. The principles used in fighting with the rifle and fixed bayonet are the
same as when knife fighting. Use the same angles of attack and similar body movements. The principles
of timing and distance remain paramount; the main difference is the extended distance provided by
the length of the weapon. It is imperative that the soldier fighting with rifle and fixed bayonet use the
movement of his entire body behind all of his fighting techniques—not just upper-body strength. Unit
trainers should be especially conscious of stressing full body mass in motion for power and correcting
Figure 5-32: Optional low No. 5 angle.
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all deficiencies during training. Whether the enemy is armed or unarmed, a soldier fighting with rifle
and fixed bayonet must develop the mental attitude that he will survive the fight. He must continuously
evaluate each moment in a fight to determine his advantages or options, as well as the enemy’s.
He should base his defenses on keeping his body moving and off the line of any attacks from his opponent.
The soldier seeks openings in the enemy’s defenses and starts his own attacks, using all available
body weapons and angles of attack. The angles of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet are shown in
Figures 5-33 through 5-39.
a.
Fighting Techniques. New weapons, improved equipment, and new tactics are always being introduced;
however, firepower alone will not always drive a determined enemy from his position.
He will often remain in defensive emplacements until driven out by close combat. The role of the
soldier, particularly in the final phase of the assault, remains relatively unchanged: His mission is
to close with and disable or capture the enemy. This mission remains the ultimate goal of all individual
training. The rifle with fixed bayonet is one of the final means of defeating an opponent in an
assault.
(1) During infiltration missions at night or when secrecy must be maintained, the bayonet is an
excellent silent weapon.
Figure 5-33: No. 1 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.
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Figure 5-34: No. 2 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.
Figure 5-35: No. 3 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.
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Figure 5-36: No. 4 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.
Figure 5-37: No. 5 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.
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Figure 5-38: High No. 5 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.
Figure 5-39: No. 6 angle of attack with rifle and fixed bayonet.
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(2) When close-in fighting determines the use of small-arms fire or grenades to be impractical, or
when the situation does not permit the loading or reloading of the rifle, the bayonet is still the
weapon available to the soldier.
(3) The bayonet serves as a secondary weapon should the rifle develop a stoppage.
(4) In hand-to-hand encounters, the detached bayonet may be used as a handheld weapon.
(5) The bayonet has many nonfighting uses, such as to probe for mines, to cut vegetation, and to use
for other tasks where a pointed or cutting tool is needed.
b. Development. To become a successful rifle-bayonet fighter, a soldier must be physically fit and
mentally alert. A well-rounded physical training program will increase his chances of survival in
a bayonet encounter. Mental alertness entails being able to quickly detect and meet an opponent’s
attack from any direction. Aggressiveness, accuracy, balance, and speed are essential in training as
well as in combat situations. These traits lead to confidence, coordination, strength, and endurance,
which characterize the rifle-bayonet fighter. Differences in individual body physique may require
slight changes from the described rifle-bayonet techniques. These variations will be allowed if the
individual’s attack is effective.
c.
Principles. The bayonet is an effective weapon to be used aggressively; hesitation may mean sudden
death. The soldier must attack in a relentless assault until his opponent is disabled or captured. He
should be alert to take advantage of any opening. If the opponent fails to present an opening, the
bayonet fighter must make one by parrying his opponent’s weapon and driving his blade or rifle
butt into the opponent with force.
(1) The attack should be made to a vulnerable part of the body: face, throat, chest, abdomen, or
groin.
(2) In both training and combat, the rifle-bayonet fighter displays spirit by sounding off with a low
and aggressive growl. This instills a feeling of confidence in his ability to close with and disable
or capture the enemy.
(3) The instinctive rifle-bayonet fighting system is designed to capitalize on the natural agility and
combatives movements of the soldier. It must be emphasized that precise learned movements
will NOT be stressed during training.
d. Positions. The soldier holds the rifle firmly but not rigidly. He relaxes all muscles not used in a specific
position; tense muscles cause fatigue and may slow him down. After proper training and thorough
practice, the soldier instinctively assumes the basic positions. All positions and movements
described in this manual are for right-handed men. A left-handed man, or a man who desires to
learn lefthanded techniques, must use the opposite hand and foot for each phase of the movement
described. All positions and movements can be executed with or without the magazine and with or
without the sling attached.
(1) Attack position. This is the basic starting position (A and B, Figure 5-40) from which all attack
movements originate. It generally parallels a boxer’s stance. The soldier assumes this position
when running or hurdling obstacles. The instructor explains and demonstrates each move.
(a) Take a step forward and to the side with your left foot so that your feet are a comfortable
distance apart.
(b) Hold your body erect or bend slightly forward at the waist. Flex your knees and balance
your body weight on the balls of your feet. Your right forearm is roughly parallel to the
ground. Hold the left arm high, generally in front of the left shoulder. Maintain eye-to-eye
contact with your opponent, watching his weapon and body through peripheral vision.
(c) Hold your rifle diagonally across your body at a sufficient distance from the body to add
balance and protect you from enemy blows. Grasp the weapon in your left hand just below
the upper sling swivel, and place the right hand at the small of the stock. Keep the sling facing
outward and the cutting edge of the bayonet toward your opponent. The command is,
ATTACK POSITION, MOVE. The instructor gives the command, and the soldiers perform
the movement.
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Figure 5-40: Attack position.
(2) Relaxed position. The relaxed position (Figure 5-41) gives the soldier a chance to rest during
training. It also allows him to direct his attention toward the instructor as he discusses and
demonstrates the positions and movements. To assume the relaxed position from the attack
position, straighten the waist and knees and lower the rifle across the front of your body by
extending the arms downward. The command is, RELAX. The instructor gives the command,
and the soldiers perform the movement.
e. Movements. The soldier will instinctively strike at openings and become aggressive in his attack once he
has learned to relax and has developed instinctive reflexes. His movements do not have to be executed
in any prescribed order. He will achieve balance in his movements, be ready to strike in any direction,
and keep striking until he has disabled his opponent. There are two basic movements used throughout
bayonet instruction: the whirl and the crossover. These movements develop instant reaction to commands
and afford the instructor maximum control of the training formation while on the training field.
(1) Whirl movement. The whirl (Figure 5-42, Steps 1, 2, and 3), properly executed, allows the rifle
bayonet fighter to meet a challenge from an opponent attacking him from the rear. At the completion
of a whirl, the rifle remains in the attack position. The instructor explains and demonstrates
how to spin your body around by pivoting on the ball of the leading foot in the direction
of the leading foot, thus facing completely about. The command is, WHIRL. The instructor gives
the command, and the soldiers perform the movement.
(2) Crossover movement. While performing certain movements in rifle-bayonet training, two ranks
will be moving toward each other. When the soldiers in ranks come too close to each other to
Long-range Combatives 617
Figure 5-41: Relaxed position.
safely execute additional movements, the crossover is used to separate the ranks a safe distance
apart. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to move straight forward and pass your
opponent so that your right shoulder passes his right shoulder, continue moving forward about
six steps, halt, and without command, execute the whirl. Remain in the attack position and wait
for further commands. The command is, CROSSOVER. The instructor gives the command, and
the soldiers perform the movement.
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Figure 5-42: Whirl movement.
Note: Left-handed personnel cross left shoulder to left shoulder.
(3) Attack movements. There are four attack movements designed to disable or capture the opponent:
thrust, butt stroke, slash, and smash. Each of these movements may be used for the initial
attack or as a follow-up should the initial movement fail to find its mark. The soldiers learn
these movements separately. They will learn to execute these movements in a swift and continuous
series during subsequent training. During all training, the emphasis will be on conducting
natural, balanced movements to effectively damage the target. Precise, learned movements will
not be stressed.
(a) Thrust. The objective is to disable or capture an opponent by thrusting the bayonet blade
into a vulnerable part of his body. The thrust is especially effective in areas where movement
is restricted—for example, trenches, wooded areas, or built-up areas. It is also effective
when an opponent is lying on the ground or in a fighting position. The instructor explains
and demonstrates how to lunge forward on your leading foot without losing your balance
(Figure 5-43, Step 1) and, at the same time, drive the bayonet with great force into any
unguarded part of your opponent’s body.
To accomplish this, grasp the rifle firmly with both hands and pull the stock in close to the right
hip; partially extend the left arm, guiding the point of the bayonet in the general direction of the
opponent’s body (Figure 5-43, Step 2).
Quickly complete the extension of the arms and body as the leading foot strikes the ground
so that the bayonet penetrates the target (Figure 5-43, Step 3).
To withdraw the bayonet, keep your feet in place, shift your body weight to the rear, and
pull rearward along the same line of penetration (Figure 5-43, Step 4).
Next, assume the attack position in preparation to continue the assault (Figure 5-43, Step 5).
Long-range Combatives 619
Figure 5-43: Thrust movement.
This movement is taught by the numbers in three phases:
1. THRUST AND HOLD, MOVE.
2. WITHDRAW AND HOLD, MOVE.
3. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
At combat speed, the command is, THRUST SERIES, MOVE. Training emphasis will be
placed on movement at combat speed. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers
perform the movements.
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(b) Butt stroke. The objective is to disable or capture an opponent by delivering a forceful blow
to his body with the rifle butt (Figure 5-44, Steps 1, 2, 3, and 4, and Figure 5-45, Steps 1, 2,
3, and 4). The aim of the butt stroke may be the opponent’s weapon or a vulnerable portion
of his body. The butt stroke may be vertical, horizontal, or somewhere between the two
planes. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to step forward with your trailing
foot and, at the same time using your left hand as a pivot, swing the rifle in an arc and drive
the rifle butt into your opponent. To recover, bring your trailing foot forward and assume
the attack position. The movement is taught by the numbers in two phases:
1. BUTT STROKE TO THE (head, groin, kidney) AND HOLD, MOVE.
2. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
At combat speed, the command is, BUTT STROKE TO THE (head, groin, kidney) SERIES,
MOVE. Training emphasis will be placed on movement at combat speed. The instructor
gives the commands, and the soldiers perform the movement.
(c) Slash. The objective is to disable or capture the opponent by cutting him with the blade of
the bayonet. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to step forward with your lead
foot (Figure 5-46, Step 1).
At the same time, extend your left arm and swing the knife edge of your bayonet forward
and down in a slashing arc (Figure 5-46, Steps 2 and 3).
To recover, bring your trailing foot forward and assume the attack position (Figure 5-46, Step 4).
This movement is taught by the number in two phases:
1. SLASH AND HOLD, MOVE.
2. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
Figure 5-44: Butt stroke to the head.
Long-range Combatives 621
Figure 5-45: Butt stroke to the groin.
At combat speed, the command is, SLASH SERIES, MOVE. Training emphasis will be
placed on movement at combat speed. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers
perform the movements.
(d) Smash. The objective is to disable or capture an opponent by smashing the rifle butt into a
vulnerable part of his body. The smash is often used as a follow-up to a butt stroke and is also
622 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-46: Slash movement.
effective in wooded areas and trenches when movement is restricted. The instructor explains
and demonstrates how to push the butt of the rifle upward until horizontal (Figure 5-47,
Step 1) and above the left shoulder with the bayonet pointing to the rear, sling up (Figure 5-47,
Step 2). The weapon is almost horizontal to the ground at this time.
Step forward with the trailing foot, as in the butt stroke, and forcefully extend both arms,
slamming the rifle butt into the opponent (Figure 5-47, Step 3).
Long-range Combatives 623
Figure 5-47: Smash movement.
To recover, bring your trailing foot forward (Figure 5-47, Step 4) and assume the attack
position (Figure 5-47, Step 5). This movement is taught by the numbers in two phases:
1. SMASH AND HOLD, MOVE.
2. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
At combat speed, the command is, SMASH SERIES, MOVE. Training emphasis will be
placed on movement at combat speed. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers
perform the movements.
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(4) Defensive movements. At times, the soldier may lose the initiative and be forced to defend
himself. He may also meet an opponent who does not present a vulnerable area to attack. Therefore,
he must make an opening by initiating a parry or block movement, then follow up with a
vicious attack. The follow-up attack is immediate and violent.
CAUTION
TO MINIMIZE WEAPON DAMAGE WHILE USING BLOCKS AND PARRIES, LIMIT
WEAPON-TO-WEAPON CONTACT TO HALF SPEED DURING TRAINING.
(a) Parry movement. The objective is to counter a thrust, throw the opponent off balance, and
hit a vulnerable area of his body. Timing, speed, and judgment are essential factors in these
movements. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to—
•
Parry right. If your opponent carries his weapon on his left hip (left-handed), you will
parry it to your right. In execution, step forward with your leading foot (Figure 5-48, Step
1), strike the opponent’s rifle (Figure 5-48, Step 2), deflecting it to your right (Figure 5-48,
Step 3), and follow up with a thrust, slash, or butt stroke.
•
Parry left. If your opponent carries his weapon on his right hip (right-handed), you will
parry it to your left. In execution, step forward with your leading foot (Figure 5-49, Step
1), strike the opponent’s rifle (Figure 5-49, Step 2), deflecting it to your left (Figure 5-49,
Step 3), and follow up with a thrust, slash, or butt stroke.
A supplementary parry left is the follow-up attack (Figure 5-50, Steps 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
•
Recovery. Immediately return to the attack position after completing each parry and
follow-up attack.
The movement is taught by the numbers in three phases:
1. PARRY RIGHT (OR LEFT), MOVE.
2. THRUST MOVE.
3. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
At combat speed, the command is, PARRY RIGHT (LEFT) or PARRY (RIGHT OR LEFT)
WITH FOLLOW-UP ATTACK. The instructor gives the commands, and the soldiers perform
the movements.
(b) Block. When surprised by an opponent, the block is used to cut off the path of his attack by
making weapon-to-weapon contact. A block must always be followed immediately with a
vicious attack. The instructor explains and demonstrates how to extend your arms using
the center part of your rifle as the strike area, and cut off the opponent’s attack by making
weapon-to-weapon contact. Strike the opponent’s weapon with enough power to throw
him off balance.
•
High block (Figure 5-51, Steps 1, 2, and 3). Extend your arms upward and forward at a
45- degree angle. This action deflects an opponent’s slash movement by causing his bayonet
or upper part of his rifle to strike against the center part of your rifle.
•
Low block (Figure 5-52, Steps 1, 2, and 3). Extend your arms downward and forward
about 15 degrees from your body. This action deflects an opponent’s butt stroke aimed
at the groin by causing the lower part of his rifle stock to strike against the center part of
your rifle.
•
Side block (Figure 5-53, Steps 1 and 2). Extend your arms with the left hand high and
right hand low, thus holding the rifle vertical. This block is designed to stop a butt stroke
aimed at your upper body or head. Push the rifle to your left to cause the butt of the
opponent’s rifle to strike the center portion of your rifle.
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Figure 5-48: Parry right.
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Figure 5-49: Parry left.
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Figure 5-50: Parry left, slash, with follow-up butt stroke to kidney region.
628 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-51: High block against slash.
Long-range Combatives 629
Figure 5-52: Low block against butt stroke to groin.
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Figure 5-53: Side block against butt stroke.
•
Recovery. Counterattack each block with a thrust, butt stroke, smash, or slash.
Blocks are taught by the numbers in two phases:
1. HIGH (LOW) or (SIDE) BLOCK.
2. ATTACK POSITION, MOVE.
At combat speed, the command is the same. The instructor gives the commands, and the
soldiers perform the movement.
(5) Modified movements. Two attack movements have been modified to allow the rifle-bayonet
fighter to slash or thrust an opponent without removing his hand from the pistol grip of the M16
rifle should the situation dictate.
(a) The modified thrust (Figure 5-54, Steps 1 and 2) is identical to the thrust (as described in
paragraph (3)(a)) with the exception of the right hand grasping the pistol grip.
(b) The modified slash (Figure 5-55, Steps 1, 2, 3, and 4) is identical to the slash (as described in
paragraph (3)(c)) with the exception of the right hand grasping the pistol grip.
(6) Follow-up movements. Follow-up movements are attack movements that naturally follow from
the completed position of the previous movement. If the initial thrust, butt stroke, smash, or
slash fails to make contact with the opponent’s body, the soldier should instinctively follow
up with additional movements until he has disabled or captured the opponent. It is important
Long-range Combatives 631
Figure 5-54: Modified thrust.
to follow up the initial attack with another aggressive action so the initiative is not lost. The
instructor explains and demonstrates how instinct should govern your selection of a specific
follow-up movement. For example—
•
PARRY LEFT, BUTT STROKE TO THE HEAD, SMASH, SLASH, ATTACK POSITION.
•
PARRY LEFT, SLASH, BUTT STROKE TO THE KIDNEY, ATTACK POSITION.
•
PARRY RIGHT THRUST, BUTT STROKE TO THE GROIN, SLASH, ATTACK POSITION.
Two examples of commands using follow-up movements are—
•
PARRY LEFT (soldier executes), THRUST (soldier executes), BUTT STROKE TO THE HEAD
(soldier executes), SMASH (soldier executes), SLASH (soldier executes), ATTACK POSITION
(soldier assumes the attack position).
632 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 5-55: Modified slash.
Long-range Combatives 633
•
THRUST (soldier executes), THRUST (soldier executes), THRUST (soldier executes), BUTT
STROKE TO THE GROIN (soldier executes), SLASH (soldier executes), ATTACK POSITION
(soldier assumes the attack position).
All training will stress damage to the target and violent action, using natural movements as
opposed to precise, stereotyped movements. Instinctive, aggressive action and balance are the
keys to offense with the rifle and bayonet.
NOTE: For training purposes, the instructor may and should mix up the series of movements.
SECTION IV: FIELD-EXPEDIENT WEAPONS
To survive, the soldier in combat must be able to deal with any situation that develops. His ability to
adapt any nearby object for use as a weapon in a win-or-die situation is limited only by his ingenuity and
resourcefulness. Possible weapons, although not discussed herein, include ink pens or pencils; canteens
tied to string to be swung; snap links at the end of sections of rope; kevlar helmets; sand, rocks, or liquids
thrown into the enemy’s eyes; or radio antennas. The following techniques demonstrate a few expedient
weapons that are readily available to most soldiers for defense and counterattack against the bayonet and
rifle with fixed bayonet.
5-11. Entrenching Tool. Almost all soldiers carry the entrenching tool. It is a versatile and formidable
weapon when used by a soldier with some training. It can be used in its straight position—locked out and
fully extended—or with its blade bent in a 90-degree configuration.
a.
To use the entrenching tool against a rifle with fixed bayonet, the attacker lunges with a thrust to the
stomach of the defender along a low No. 5 angle of attack (Figure 5-56, Step 1).
The defender moves just outside to avoid the lunge and meets the attacker’s arm with the blade of
the fully extended entrenching tool (Figure 5-56, Step 2).
The defender gashes all the way up the attacker’s arm with the force of both body masses coming
together. The hand gripping the entrenching tool is given natural protection from the shape of the
handle. The defender continues pushing the blade of the entrenching tool up and into the throat of
the attacker, driving him backward and downward (Figure 5-56, Step 3).
b. An optional use of entrenching tool against a rifle with fixed bayonet is for the attacker to lunge to
the stomach of the defender (Figure 5-57, Step 1).
The defender steps to the outside of the line of attack at 45 degrees to avoid the weapon. He then
turns his body and strikes downward onto the attacking arm (on the radial nerve) with the blade of
the entrenching tool (Figure 5-57, Step 2).
He drops his full body weight down with the strike, and the force causes the attacker to collapse
forward. The defender then strikes the point of the entrenching tool into the jugular notch, driving
it deeply into the attacker (Figure 5-57, Step 3).
c.
In the next two sequences, the entrenching tool is used in the bent configuration—that is, the blade
is bent 90 degrees to the handle and locked into place.
(1) The attacker tries to stick the bayonet into the chest of the defender (Figure 5-58, Step 1).
When the attack comes, the defender moves his body off the line of attack by stepping to the
outside. He allows his weight to shift forward and uses the blade of the entrenching tool to drag
along the length of the weapon, scraping the attacker’s arm and hand (Figure 5-58, Step 2). The
defender’s hand is protected by the handle’s natural design.
He continues to move forward into the attacker, strikes the point of the blade into the jugular
notch, and drives it downward (Figure 5-58, Step 3).
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Figure 5-56: Entrenching tool against rifle with fixed bayonet.
Long-range Combatives 635
Figure 5-57: Optional use of entrenching tool against rifle with fixed bayonet.
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Figure 5-58: Entrenching tool in bent configuration.
Long-range Combatives 637
(2) The attacker lunges with a fixed bayonet along the No. 5 angle of attack (Figure 5-59, Step 1).
The defender then steps to the outside to move off the line of attack and turns; he strikes the
point of the blade of the entrenching tool into the side of the attacker’s throat (Figure 5-59,
Step 2).
5-12. Three-foot Stick. Since a stick can be found almost anywhere, a soldier should know its uses as a
field-expedient weapon. The stick is a versatile weapon; its capability ranges from simple prisoner control
to lethal combat.
a.
Use a stick about 3 feet long and grip it by placing it in the vee formed between the thumb and index
finger, as in a handshake. It may also be grasped by two hands and used in an unlimited number of
techniques. The stick is not held at the end, but at a comfortable distance from the butt end.
b. When striking with the stick, achieve maximum power by using the entire body weight behind
each blow. The desired point of contact of the weapon is the last 2 inches at the tip of the stick. The
primary targets for striking with the stick are the vital body points in Chapter 4. Effective striking
points are usually the wrist, hand, knees, and other bony protuberances. Soft targets include the
side of the neck, jugular notch, solar plexus, and various nerve motor points. Attack soft targets by
striking or thrusting the tip of the stick into the area. Three basic methods of striking are—
(1) Thrusting. Grip the stick with both hands and thrust straight into a target with the full body
mass behind it.
(2) Whipping. Hold the stick in one hand and whip it in a circular motion; use the whole body mass
in motion to generate power.
(3) Snapping. Snap the stick in short, shocking blows, again with the body mass behind each
strike.
c.
When the attacker thrusts with a knife to the stomach of the defender with a low No. 5 angle of
attack, the defender moves off the line of attack to the outside and strikes vigorously downward
onto the attacking wrist, hand, or arm (Figure 5-60, Step 1).
The defender then moves forward, thrusts the tip of the stick into the jugular notch of the attacker
(Figure 5-60, Step 2), and drives him to the ground with his body weight—not his upper body
strength (Figure 5-60, Step 3).
d. When using a three-foot stick against a rifle with fixed bayonet, the defender grasps the stick with
two hands, one at each end, as the attacker thrusts forward to the chest (Figure 5-61, Step 1).
He steps off the line of attack to the outside and redirects the weapon with the stick (Figure 5-61,
Step 2).
He then strikes forward with the forearm into the attacker’s throat (Figure 5-61, Step 3). The force
of the two body weights coming together is devastating. The attacker’s neck is trapped in the notch
formed by the stick and the defender’s forearm.
Using the free end of the stick as a lever, the defender steps back and uses his body weight to drive
the attacker to the ground. The leverage provided by the stick against the neck creates a tremendous
choke with the forearm, and the attacker loses control completely (Figure 5-61, Step 4).
5-13. Three-foot Rope. A section of rope about 3 feet long can provide a useful means of self-defense for
the unarmed combat soldier in a hand-to-hand fight. Examples of field-expedient ropes are a web belt,
boot laces, a portion of a 120-foot nylon rope or sling rope, or a cravat rolled up to form a rope. Hold the
rope at the ends so the middle section is rigid enough to almost serve as a stick-like weapon, or the rope can
be held with the middle section relaxed, and then snapped by vigorously pulling the hands apart to strike
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Figure 5-59: Optional use of entrenching tool in bent configuration.
Long-range Combatives 639
Figure 5-60: Three-foot stick against knife.
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Figure 5-61: Three-foot stick against rifle with fixed bayonet.
Long-range Combatives 641
parts of the enemy’s body, such as the head or elbow joint, to cause serious damage. It can also be used to
entangle limbs or weapons held by the opponent, or to strangle him.
a.
When the attacker lunges with a knife to the stomach (Figure 5-62, Step 1), the defender moves off
the line of attack 45 degrees to the outside.
He snaps the rope downward onto the attacking wrist, redirecting the knife (Figure 5-62, Step 2).
Then, he steps forward, allowing the rope to encircle the attacker’s neck (Figure 5-62, Step 3).
Figure 5-62: Three-foot rope against knife.
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He continues to turn his body and sinks his weight to drop the attacker over his hip (Figure 5-62, Step 4).
b. When the attacker thrusts with a fixed bayonet (Figure 5-63, Step 1), the defender moves off the line
of attack and uses the rope to redirect the weapon (Figure 5-63, Step 2).
Then, he moves forward and encircles the attacker’s throat with the rope (Figure 5-63, Step 3). He
continues moving to unbalance the attacker and strangles him with the rope (Figure 5-63, Step 4).
Figure 5-63: Three-foot rope against rifle with fixed bayonet.
Long-range Combatives 643
c.
The 3-foot rope can also be a useful tool against an unarmed opponent. The defender on the left
prepares for an attack by gripping the rope between his hands (Figure 5-64, Step 1).
When the opponent on the right attacks, the defender steps completely off the line of attack and
raises the rope to strike the attacker’s face (Figure 5-64, Step 2).
He then snaps the rope to strike the attacker either across the forehead, just under the nose, or under
the chin by jerking his hands forcefully apart. The incoming momentum of the attacker against the
Figure 5-64: Three-foot rope against unarmed opponent.
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rope will snap his head backward, will probably break his neck, or will at least knock him off his
feet (Figure 5-64, Step 3).
5-14. Six-Foot Pole. Another field-expedient weapon that can mean the difference between life and death
for a soldier in an unarmed conflict is a pole about 6 feet long. Examples of poles suitable for use are mop
handles, pry bars, track tools, tent poles, and small trees or limbs cut to form a pole. A soldier skilled in the
use of a pole as a weapon is a formidable opponent. The size and weight of the pole requires him to move
his whole body to use it effectively. Its length gives the soldier an advantage of distance in most unarmed
situations. There are two methods usually used in striking with a pole:
a.
Swinging. Becoming effective in swinging the pole requires skilled body movement and practice.
The greatest power is developed by striking with the last 2 inches of the pole.
b. Thrusting. The pole is thrust straight along its axis with the user’s body mass firmly behind it.
(1) An attacker tries to thrust forward with a fixed bayonet (Figure 5-65, Step 1).
Figure 5-65: Thrusting with 6-foot pole.
Long-range Combatives 645
The defender moves his body off the line of attack; he holds the tip of the pole so that the
attacker runs into it from his own momentum. He then aims for the jugular notch and anchors
his body firmly in place so that the full force of the attack is felt at the attacker’s throat (Figure
5-65, Step 2).
(2) The defender then shifts his entire body weight forward over his lead foot and drives the attacker
off his feet (Figure 5-65, Step 3).
NOTE: During high stress, small targets, such as the throat, may be difficult to hit. Good, large
targets include the solar plexus and hip/thigh joint.
CHAPTER 6
Sentry Removal
Careful planning, rehearsal, and execution are vital to the success of a mission that requires the removal of
a sentry. This task may be necessary to gain access to an enemy location or to escape confinement.
6-1. Planning Considerations. A detailed schematic of the layout of the area guarded by sentries must be
available. Mark known and suspected locations of all sentries. It will be necessary—
a.
To learn the schedule for the changing of the guards and the checking of the posts.
b. To learn the guard’s meal times. It may be best to attack a sentry soon after he has eaten when his
guard is lowered. Another good time to attack the sentry is when he is going to the latrine.
c.
To post continuous security.
d. To develop a contingency plan.
e.
To plan infiltration and exfiltration routes.
f. To carefully select personnel to accomplish the task.
g. To carry the least equipment necessary to accomplish the mission because silence, stealth, and ease
of movement are essential.
h. To conceal or dispose of killed sentries.
6-2. Rehearsals. Reproduce and rehearse the scenario of the mission as closely as possible to the execution
phase.
Conduct the rehearsal on similar terrain, using sentries, the time schedule, and the contingency plan.
Use all possible infiltration and exfiltration routes to determine which may be the best.
6-3. Execution. When removing a sentry, the soldier uses his stalking skills to approach the enemy undetected.
He must use all available concealment and keep his silhouette as low as possible.
a.
When stepping, the soldier places the ball of his lead foot down first and checks for stability and
silence of the surface to be crossed. He then lightly touches the heel of his lead foot. Next, he transfers
his body weight to his lead foot by shifting his body forward in a relaxed manner. With the
weight on the lead foot, he can bring his rear foot forward in a similar manner.
b.
When approaching the sentry, the soldier synchronizes his steps and movement with the enemy’s,
masking any sounds. He also uses background noises to mask his sounds. He can even follow the sentry
through locked doors this way. He is always ready to strike immediately if he is discovered. He
focuses his attention on the sentry’s head since that is where the sentry generates all of his movement
and attention. However, it is important not to stare at the enemy because he may sense the stalker’s
presence through a sixth sense. He focuses on the sentry’s movements with his peripheral vision. He
gets to within 3 or 4 feet and at the proper moment makes the kill as quickly and silently as possible.
c.
The attacker’s primary focus is to summon all of his mental and physical power to suddenly explode
onto the target. He maintains an attitude of complete confidence throughout the execution. He must
control fear and hesitation because one instant of hesitation could cause his defeat and compromise
the entire mission.
6-4. Psychological Aspects. Killing a sentry is completely different than killing an enemy soldier while
engaged in a firefight. It is a cold and calculated attack on a specific target. After observing a sentry for
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hours, watching him eat or look at his wife’s photo, an attachment is made between the stalker and the
sentry. Nonetheless, the stalker must accomplish his task efficiently and brutally. At such close quarters,
the soldier literally feels the sentry fight for his life. The sights, sounds, and smells of this act are imprinted
in the soldier’s mind; it is an intensely personal experience. A soldier who has removed a sentry should be
observed for signs of unusual behavior for four to seven days after the act.
6-5. Techniques. The following techniques are proven and effective ways to remove sentries. A soldier
with moderate training can execute the proper technique for his situation, when he needs to.
a.
Brachial Stun, Throat Cut. This technique relies on complete mental stunning to enable the soldier
to cut the sentry’s throat, severing the trachea and carotid arteries. Death results within 5 to 20
seconds. Some sounds are emitted from the exposed trachea, but the throat can be cut before the
sentry can recover from the effect of the stunning strike and cry out. The soldier silently approaches
to within striking range of the sentry (Figure 6-1, Step 1). The soldier strikes the side of the sentry’s
Figure 6-1: Brachial stun, throat cut.
Sentry Removal 649
neck with the knife butt or a hammer fist strike (Figure 6-1, Step 2), which completely stuns the
sentry for three to seven seconds. He then uses his body weight to direct the sentry’s body to sink
in one direction and uses his other hand to twist the sentry’s head to the side, deeply cutting the
throat across the front in the opposite direction (Figure 6-1, Step 3). He executes the entire length of
the blade in a slicing motion. The sentry’s sinking body provides most of the force—not the soldier’s
upper-arm strength (Figure 6-1, Step 4).
b. Kidney Stab, Throat Cut. This technique relies on a stab to the kidney (Figure 6-2, Step 1) to
induce immediate shock. The kidney is relatively accessible and by inducing shock with such
a stab, the soldier has the time to cut the sentry’s throat. The soldier completes his stalk and
stabs the kidney by pulling the sentry’s balance backward and downward and inserts the knife
upward against his weight. The sentry will possibly gasp at this point, but shock immediately
follows. By using the sentry’s body weight that is falling downward and turning, the soldier
executes a cut across the front of the throat (Figure 6-2, Step 2). This completely severs the trachea
and carotid arteries.
Figure 6-2: Kidney stab, throat cut.
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c.
Pectoral Muscle Strike, Throat Cut. The stun in this technique is produced by a vigorous strike
to the stellate ganglia nerve center at the top of the pectoral muscle (Figure 6-3, Step 1). The
strike is delivered downward with the attacker’s body weight. Use the handle of the knife for
impact. Care should be taken to avoid any equipment worn by the sentry that could obstruct
the strike. Do not try this technique if the sentry is wearing a ballistic vest or bulky LCE. The
sentry is unable to make a sound or move if the stun is properly delivered. The throat is then
cut with a vertical stab downward into the subclavian artery at the junction of the neck and
clavicle (Figure 6-3, Step 2). Death comes within 3 to 10 seconds, and the sentry is lowered to
the ground.
d. Nose Pinch, Mouth Grab, Throat Cut. In this technique, completely pinch off the sentry’s mouth
and nose to prevent any outcry. Then cut his throat or stab his subclavian artery (Figure 6-4). The
Figure 6-3: Pectoral muscle strike, throat cut.
Sentry Removal 651
Figure 6-4: Nose pinch, mouth grab, throat cut.
danger with this technique is that the sentry can resist until he is killed, although he cannot make
a sound.
e.
Crush Larynx, Subclavian Artery Stab. Crush the sentry’s larynx by inserting the thumb and two or
three fingers behind his larynx, then twisting and crushing it. The subclavian artery can be stabbed
at the same time with the other hand (Figure 6-5).
f.
Belgian Takedown. In the Belgian take down technique, the unsuspecting sentry is knocked to the ground
and kicked in the groin, inducing shock. The soldier can then kill the sentry by any proper means. Since
surprise is the essential element of this technique, the soldier must use effective stalking techniques (Figure
6-6, Step 1). To initiate his attack, he grabs both of the sentry’s ankles (Figure 6-6, Step 2). Then he
heaves his body weight into the hips of the sentry while pulling up on the ankles. This technique slams the
sentry to the ground on his face. Then, the soldier follows with a kick to the groin (Figure 6-6, Step 3).
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Figure 6-5: Crush larynx, subclavian artery stab.
g. Neck Break With Sentry Helmet. The soldier can break the sentry’s neck by vigorously snatching
back and down on the sentry’s helmet (Figure 6-7, Step 1) while forcing the sentry’s body weight
forward with a knee strike (Figure 6-7, Step 2). The chin strap of the helmet must be fastened for this
technique to work.
h. Knockout With Helmet. The sentry’s helmet is stripped from his head and used by the soldier to
knock him out (Figure 6-8, Step 1). The soldier uses his free hand to stabilize the sentry during the
Sentry Removal 653
Figure 6-6: Belgian takedown.
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Figure 6-7: Break neck with sentry helmet.
Figure 6-8: Knockdown with helmet.
Sentry Removal 655
attack. This technique can only be used when the sentry’s chin strap is loose. The preferred target
area for striking with the helmet is at the base of the skull or on the temple (Figure 6-8, Step 2).
i. The Garrote. In this technique, use a length of wire, cord, rope, or webbed belt to takeout a sentry.
Silence is not guaranteed, but the technique is effective if the soldier is unarmed and must escape
from a guarded area. The soldier carefully stalks the sentry from behind with his garrote ready
(Figure 6-9, Step 1). He loops the garrote over the sentry’s head across the throat (Figure 6-9, Step 2)
and forcefully pulls him backward as he turns his own body to place his hips in low against the hips
of the sentry. The sentry’s balance is already taken at this point, and the garrote becomes crossed
around the sentry’s throat when the turn is made. The sentry is thrown over the soldier’s shoulder
and killed by strangling or breaking his neck (Figure 6-9, Step 3).
Figure 6-9: The garrote.
CHAPTER 7
Cover, Concealment, and Camouflage
GENERAL
In a survival situation where you are in hostile territory, if the enemy can see you, he can hit you with his
fire. So you must be concealed from enemy observation and have cover from enemy fire.
When the terrain does not provide natural cover and concealment, you must prepare your cover and use
natural and man-made materials to camouflage yourself, your equipment, and your position. This chapter
provides guidance on the preparation and use of cover, concealment, and camouflage.
COVER
Cover gives protection from bullets, fragments of exploding rounds, flame, nuclear effects, and biological
and chemical agents. Cover can also conceal you from enemy observation. Cover can be natural or manmade.
Natural cover includes such things as logs, trees, stumps, ravines, and hollows. Man-made cover includes
such things as fighting positions, trenches, walls, rubble, and craters. Even the smallest depression or fold
in the ground can give some cover. Look for and use every bit of cover the terrain offers.
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In combat, you need protection from enemy direct and indirect fire.
To get this protection in the defense, build a fighting position (man-made cover) to add to the natural
cover afforded by the terrain.
To get protection from enemy fire in the offense or when moving, use routes that put cover between you
and the places where the enemy is known or thought to be. Use ravines, gullies, hills, wooded areas, walls,
and other cover to keep the enemy from seeing and firing at you. Avoid open areas, and do not skyline
yourself on hilltops and ridges.
CONCEALMENT
Concealment is anything that hides you from enemy observation. Concealment does not protect you from
enemy fire. Do not think that you are protected from the enemy’s fire just because you are concealed. Concealment,
like cover, can also be natural or man-made.
Natural concealment includes such things as bushes, grass, trees, and shadows. If possible, natural concealment
should not be disturbed. Man-made concealment includes such things as battle-dress uniforms,
camouflage nets, face paint, and natural material that has been moved from its original location. Manmade
concealment must blend into the natural concealment provided by the terrain.
Light discipline, noise discipline, movement discipline, and the use of camouflage contribute to concealment.
Light discipline is controlling the use of lights at night by such things as not smoking in the open,
not walking around with a flashlight on, and not using vehicle headlights. Noise discipline is taking action
to deflect sounds generated by your unit (such as operating equipment) away from the enemy and, when
possible, using methods to communicate that do not generate sounds (arm-and-hand signals). Movement
discipline is such things as not moving about fighting positions unless necessary, and not moving on
routes that lack cover and concealment. In the defense, build a well-camouflaged fighting position and
avoid moving about. In the offense, conceal yourself and your equipment with camouflage and move in
woods or on terrain that gives concealment. Darkness cannot hide you from enemy observation in either
offense or defense. The enemy’s night vision devices and other detection means let them find you in both
daylight and darkness.
CAMOUFLAGE
Camouflage is anything you use to keep yourself, your equipment, and your position from looking like
what they are. Both natural and man-made material can be used for camouflage.
Cover, Concealment, and Camouflage 659
Change and improve your camouflage often. The time between changes and improvements depends
on the weather and on the material used. Natural camouflage will often die, fade, or otherwise lose its
effectiveness. Likewise, man-made camouflage may wear off or fade. When those things happen, you and
your equipment or position may not blend with the surroundings. That may make it easy for the enemy
to spot you.
CAMOUFLAGE CONSIDERATIONS
Movement draws attention. When you give arm-and-hand signals or walk about your position, your movement
can be seen by the naked eye at long ranges. In the defense, stay low and move only when necessary.
In the offense, move only on covered and concealed routes.
Positions must not be where the enemy expects to find them. Build positions on the side of a hill, away
from road junctions or lone buildings, and in covered and concealed places. Avoid open areas.
Outlines and shadows may reveal your position or equipment to air or ground observers. Outlines and
shadows can be broken up with camouflage. When moving, stay in the shadows when possible.
Shine may also attract the enemy’s attention. In the dark, it may be a light such as a burning cigarette
or flashlight. In daylight, it can be reflected light from polished surfaces such as shiny mess gear, a worn
helmet, a windshield, a watch crystal and band, or exposed skin. A light, or its reflection, from a position
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may help the enemy detect the position. To reduce shine, cover your skin with clothing and face paint.
However, in a nuclear attack, darkly painted skin can absorb more thermal energy and may burn more
readily than bare skin. Also, dull the surfaces of equipment and vehicles with paint, mud, or some type of
camouflage material.
Shape is outline or form. The shape of a helmet is easily recognized. A human body is also easily recognized.
Use camouflage and concealment to breakup shapes and blend them with their surroundings. Be
careful not to overdo it.
The colors of your skin, uniform, and equipment may help the enemy detect you if the colors contrast
with the background. For example, a green uniform will contrast with snow-covered terrain. Camouflage
yourself and your equipment to blend with the surroundings.
Dispersion is the spreading of men, vehicles, and equipment over a wide area. It is usually easier for the
enemy to detect soldiers when they are bunched. So, spread out. The distance between you and your fellow
soldier will vary with the terrain, degree of visibility, and enemy situation. Distances will normally be
set by unit leaders or by a unit’s standing operating procedure (SOP).
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HOW TO CAMOUFLAGE
Before camouflaging, study the terrain and vegetation of the area in which you are operating. Then pick
and use the camouflage material that best blends with that area. When moving from one area to another,
change camouflage as needed to blend with the surroundings. Take grass, leaves, brush, and other material
from your location and apply it to your uniform and equipment and put face paint on your skin.
Fighting Positions. When building a fighting position, camouflage it and the dirt taken from it. Camouflage
the dirt used as frontal, flank, rear, and overhead cover. Also camouflage the bottom of the hole to
prevent detection from the air. If necessary, take excess dirt away from the position (to the rear).
Do not overcamouflage. Too much camouflage material may actually disclose a position. Get your camouflage
material from a wide area. An area stripped of all or most of its vegetation may draw attention. Do
not wait until the position is complete to camouflage it. Camouflage the position as you build.
Do not leave shiny or light-colored objects lying about. Hide mess kits, mirrors, food containers, and
white underwear and towels. Do not remove your shirt in the open. Your skin may shine and be seen.
Never use fires where there is a chance that the flame will be seen or the smoke will be smelled by the
enemy. Also, cover up tracks and other signs of movement.
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When camouflage is complete, inspect the position from the enemy’s side. This should be done from
about 35 meters forward of the position. Then check the camouflage periodically to see that it stays naturallooking
and conceals the position. When the camouflage becomes ineffective, change and improve it.
Helmets. Camouflage your helmet with the issue helmet cover or make a cover of cloth or burlap that is
colored to blend with the terrain. The cover should fit loosely with the flaps folded under the helmet or left
hanging. The hanging flaps may break up the helmet outline. Leaves, grass, or sticks can also be attached
to the cover. Use camouflage bands, strings, burlap strips, or rubber bands to hold those in place. If there is
no material for a helmet cover, disguise and dull helmet surface with irregular patterns of paint or mud.
Uniforms. Most uniforms come already camouflaged. However, it may be necessary to add more camouflage
to make the uniform blend better with the surroundings. To do this, put mud on the uniform or attach
leaves, grass, or small branches to it. Too much camouflage, however, may draw attention.
When operating on snow-covered ground, wear overwhites (if issued) to help blend with the snow. If
overwhites are not issued, use white cloth, such as white bedsheets, to get the same effect.
Skin. Exposed skin reflects light and may draw the enemy’s attention. Even very dark skin, because of
its natural oil, will reflect light. Use the following methods when applying camouflage face paint to camouflage
the skin.
When applying camouflage stick to your skin, work with a buddy (in pairs) and help each other. Apply a
two-color combination of camouflage stick in an irregular pattern. Paint shiny areas (forehead, cheekbones,
Cover, Concealment, and Camouflage 665
nose, ears, and chin) with a dark color. Paint shadow areas (around the eyes, under the nose, and under the
chin) with a light color. In addition to the face, paint the exposed skin on the back of the neck, arms, and
hands. Palms of hands are not normally camouflaged if arm-and-hand signals are to be used. Remove all
jewelry to further reduce shine or reflection.
When camouflage sticks are not issued, use burnt cork, bark, charcoal, lamp black, or light-colored mud.
CHAPTER 8
Tracking
GENERAL
In all operations, you must be alert for signs of enemy activity. Such signs can often alert you to an enemy’s
presence and give your unit time to prepare for contact. The ability to track an enemy after he has broken
contact also helps you regain contact with him.
TRACKER QUALITIES
Visual tracking is following the path of men or animals by the signs they leave, primarily on the ground or
vegetation. Scent tracking is following men or animals by their smell.
Tracking is a precise art. You need a lot of practice to achieve and keep a high level of tracking skill. You
should be familiar with the general techniques of tracking to enable you to detect the presence of a hidden
enemy and to follow him, to find and avoid mines or booby- traps, and to give early warning of ambush.
With common sense and a degree of experience, you can track another person. However, you must
develop the following traits and qualities:
•
Be patient.
•
Be able to move slowly and quietly, yet steadily, while detecting and interpreting signs.
•
Avoid fast movement that may cause you to overlook signs, lose the trail, or blunder into an enemy
unit.
•
Be persistent and have the skill and desire to continue the mission even though signs are scarce or
weather or terrain is unfavorable.
•
Be determined and persistent when trying to find a trail that you have lost.
•
Be observant and try to see things that are not obvious at first glance.
•
Use your senses of smell and hearing to supplement your sight.
•
Develop a feel for things that do not look right. It may help you regain a lost trail or discover additional
signs.
•
Know the enemy, his habits, equipment, and capability.
FUNDAMENTALS OF TRACKING
When tracking an enemy, you should build a picture of him in your mind. Ask yourself such questions as:
How many persons am I following? How well are they trained? How are they equipped? Are they healthy?
How is their morale? Do they know they are being followed?
To find the answer to such questions, use all available signs. A sign can be anything that shows you that
a certain act took place at a particular place and time. For instance, a footprint tells a tracker that at a certain
time a person walked on that spot.
The six fundamentals of tracking are:
•
Displacement.
•
Staining.
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• Weathering.
• Littering.
• Camouflaging.
• Interpretation and/or immediate use intelligence.
Any sign that you find can be identified as one or more of the first five fundamentals.
In the sixth fundamental, you combine the first five and use all of them to form a picture of the enemy.
DISPLACEMENT
Displacement takes place when something is moved from its original position. An example is a footprint
in soft, moist ground. The foot of the person that left the print displaced the soil, leaving an indentation in
the ground. By studying the print, you can determine many facts. For example, a print that was left by a
barefoot person or a person with worn or frayed footgear indicates that he may have poor equipment.
HOW TO ANALYZE FOOTPRINTS
Footprints show the following:
• The direction and rate of movement of a party.
• The number of persons in a party.
• Whether or not heavy loads are carried.
• The sex of the members of a party.
• Whether the members of a party know they are being followed.
If the footprints are deep and the pace is long, the party is moving rapidly. Very long strides and deep
prints, with toe prints deeper than heel prints, indicate that the party is running. If the prints are deep,
short, and widely spaced, with signs of scuffing or shuffling, a heavy load is probably being carried by the
person who left the prints.
You can also determine a person’s sex by studying the size and position of the footprints.
Women generally tend to be pigeon-toed, while men usually walk with their feet pointed straight ahead
or slightly to the outside. Women’s prints are usually smaller than men’s, and their strides are usually
shorter.
If a party knows that it is being followed, it may attempt to hide its tracks. Persons walking backward
have a short, irregular stride. The prints have an unusually deep toe. The soil will be kicked in the direction
of movement.
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The last person walking in a group usually leaves the clearest footprints. Therefore, use his prints as the
key set. Cut a stick the length of each key print and notch the stick to show the print width at the widest
part of the sole. Study the angle of the key prints to determine the direction of march. Look for an identifying
mark or feature on the prints, such as a worn or frayed part of the footwear. If the trail becomes vague
or obliterated, or if the trail being followed merges with another, use the stick to help identify the key
prints. That will help you stay on the trail of the group being followed.
Use the box method to count the number of persons in the group. There are two ways to use the box
method—the stride as a unit of measure method and the 36-inch box method.
The stride as a unit of measure method is the most accurate of the two. Up to 18 persons can be counted
using this method. Use it when the key prints can be determined. To use this method, identify a key print
on a trail and draw a line from its heel across the trail. Then move forward to the key print of the opposite
foot and draw a line through its instep. This should form a box with the edges of the trail forming two
sides, and the drawn lines forming the other two sides. Next, count every print or partial print inside the
box to determine the number of persons. Any person walking normally would have stepped in the box at
least one time. Count the key prints as one.
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To use the 36-inch box method, mark off a 30- to 36-inch cross section of a trail, count the prints in the
box, then divide by two to determine the number of persons that used the trail. (Your M16 rifle is 39 inches
long and may be used as a measuring device.)
OTHER SIGNS OF DISPLACEMENT
Footprints are only one example of displacement. Displacement occurs when anything is moved from its
original position. Other examples are such things as foliage, moss, vines, sticks, or rocks that are moved
from their original places; dew droplets brushed from leaves; stones and sticks that are turned over and
show a different color underneath; and grass or other vegetation that is bent or broken in the direction of
movement.
Bits of cloth may be torn from a uniform and left on thorns, snags, or the ground, and dirt from boots
may make marks on the ground.
Another example of displacement is the movement of wild animals and birds that are flushed from their
natural habitats. You may hear the cries of birds that are excited by strange movements. The movement of
tall grass or brush on a windless day indicates that something is moving the vegetation from its original
position.
When you clear a trail by either breaking or cutting your way through heavy vegetation, you displace
the vegetation. Displacement signs can be made while you stop to rest with heavy loads. The prints made
by the equipment you carry can help to identify its type. When loads are set down at a rest halt or campsite,
grass and twigs may be crushed. A sleeping man may also flatten the vegetation.
In most areas, there will be insects. Any changes in the normal life of these insects may be a sign that
someone has recently passed through the area. Bees that are stirred up, and holes that are covered by someone
moving over them, or spider webs that are torn down are good clues.
If a person uses a stream to cover his trail, algae and water plants may be displaced in slippery footing
or in places where he walks carelessly. Rocks may be displaced from their original position, or turned over
to show a lighter or darker color on their opposite side. A person entering or leaving a stream may create
slide marks, wet banks, or footprints, or he may scuff bark off roots or sticks. Normally, a person or animal
will seek the path of least resistance. Therefore, when you search a stream for exit signs, look for open
places on the banks or other places where it would be easy to leave the stream.
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STAINING
A good example of staining is the mark left by blood from a bleeding wound. Bloodstains often will be in
the form of drops left by a wounded person. Blood signs are found on the ground and smeared on leaves
or twigs.
You can determine the location of a wound on a man being followed by studying the bloodstains. If the
blood seems to be dripping steadily, it probably came from a wound on his trunk. A wound in the lungs
will deposit bloodstains that are pink, bubbly, frothy. A bloodstain deposited from a head wound will
appear heavy, wet, and slimy, like gelatin. Abdominal wounds often mix blood with digestive juices so
that the deposit will have an odor. The stains will be light in color.
Staining can also occur when a person walks over grass, stones, and shrubs with muddy boots. Thus,
staining and displacement together may give evidence of movement and indicate the direction taken.
Crushed leaves may stain rocky ground that is too hard for footprints.
Roots, stones, and vines may be stained by crushed leaves or berries when walked on. Yellow stains in
snow may be urine marks left by personnel in the area.
In some cases, it may be hard to determine the difference between staining and displacement. Both
terms can be applied to some signs. For example, water that has been muddied may indicate recent movement.
The mud has been displaced and it is staining the water. Stones in streams may be stained by mud
from boots. Algae can be displaced from stones in streams and can stain other stones or bark.
Water in footprints in swampy ground may be muddy if the tracks are recent. In time, however, the mud
will settle and the water will clear. The clarity of the water can be used to estimate the age of the prints.
Normally, the mud will clear in 1 hour. That will vary with terrain.
WEATHERING
Weather may either aid or hinder tracking. It affects signs in ways that help determine how old they are,
but wind, snow, rain, and sunlight can also obliterate signs completely.
By studying the effects of weather on signs, you can determine the age of the sign. For example, when
bloodstains are fresh, they may be bright red. Air and sunlight will change the appearance of blood first to
a deep ruby-red color, and then to a dark brown crust when the moisture evaporates. Scuff marks on trees
or bushes darken with time. Sap oozes from fresh cuts on trees but it hardens when exposed to the air.
FOOTPRINTS
Footprints are greatly affected by weather. When a foot displaces soft, moist soil to form a print, the moisture
holds the edges of the print intact and sharp. As sunlight and air dry the edges of the print, small particles
that were held in place by the moisture fall into the print, making the edges appear rounded. Study
this process carefully to estimate the age of a print. If particles are just beginning to fall into a print, it is
probably fresh. If the edges of the print are dried and crusty, the prints are probably at least an hour old.
The effects of weather will vary with the terrain, so this information is furnished as a guide only.
A light rain may round out the edges of a print. Try to remember when the last rain occurred in order to
put prints into a proper time frame. A heavy rain may erase all signs.
Wind also affects prints. Besides drying out a print, the wind may blow litter, sticks, or leaves into it. Try
to remember the wind activity in order to help determine the age of a print. For example, you may think,
“It is calm now, but the wind blew hard an hour ago. These prints have litter blown into them, so they
must be over an hour old.” You must be sure, however, that the litter was blown into the prints, and was
not crushed into them when the prints were made.
Trails leaving streams may appear to be weathered by rain because of water running into the footprints
from wet clothing or equipment. This is particularly true if a party leaves a stream in a file. From this formation,
each person drips water into the prints. A wet trail slowly fading into a dry trail indicates that the
trail is fresh.
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WIND, SOUNDS, AND ODORS
Wind affects sounds and odors. If the wind is blowing from the direction of a trail you are following,
sounds and odors are carried to you. If the wind is blowing in the same direction as the trail you are
following, you must be cautious as the wind will carry your sounds toward the enemy. To find the wind
direction, drop a handful of dry dirt or grass from shoulder height.
To help you decide where a sound is coming from, cup your hands behind your ears and slowly turn.
When the sound is loudest, you are probably facing the origin of sound. When moving, try to keep the
wind in your face.
SUN
You must also consider the effects of the sun. It is hard to look or aim directly into the sun. If possible, keep
the sun at your back.
LITTERING
Poorly trained units may leave trails of litter as they move. Gum or candy wrappers, ration cans, cigarette
butts, remains of fires, or human feces are unmistakable signs of recent movement.
Weather affects litter. Rain may flatten or wash litter away, or turn paper into pulp. Winds may blow litter
away from its original location. Ration cans exposed to weather will rust. They first rust at the exposed
edge where they were opened. Rust then moves in toward the center. Use your memory to determine the
age of litter. The last rain or strong wind can be the basis of a time frame.
CAMOUFLAGE
If a party knows that you are tracking it, it will probably use camouflage to conceal its movement and to slow
and confuse you. Doing so, however, will slow it down. Walking backward, brushing out trails, and moving
over rocky ground or through streams are examples of camouflage that can be used to confuse you.
The party may move on hard surfaced, frequently traveled roads or try to merge with traveling civilians.
Examine such routes with extreme care, because a well-defined approach that leads to the enemy will
probably be mined, ambushed, or covered by snipers.
The party may try to avoid leaving a trail. Its members may wrap rags around their boots, or wear softsoled
shoes to make the edges of their footprints rounder and less distinct. The party may exit a stream in
column or line to reduce the chance of leaving a well-defined exit.
If the party walks backward to leave a confusing trail, the footprints will be deepened at the toe, and the
soil will be scuffed or dragged in the direction of movement.
If a trail leads across rocky or hard ground, try to work around that ground to pick up the exit trail. This
process works in streams as well. On rocky ground, moss or lichens growing on the stones could be displaced
by even the most careful evader. If you lose the trail, return to the last visible sign. From there, head in the
direction of the party’s movement. Move in ever-widening circles until you find some signs to follow.
INTERPRETATION/IMMEDIATE USE INTELLIGENCE
When reporting, do not report your interpretations as facts. Report that you have seen signs of certain
things, not that those things actually exist.
Report all information quickly. The term “immediate use intelligence” includes information of the enemy
that can be put to use at once to gain surprise, to keep the enemy off balance, or to keep him from escaping an
area . A commander has many sources of intelligence. He puts the information from those sources together
to help determine where an enemy is, what he may be planning, and where he maybe going.
Information you report gives your leader definite information on which he can act at once. For example,
you may report that your leader is 30 minutes behind an enemy unit, that the enemy is moving north, and
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that he is now at a certain place. That gives your leader information on which he can act at once. He could
then have you keep on tracking and move another unit to attack the enemy. If a trail is found that has signs
of recent enemy activity, your leader can set up an ambush on it.
TRACKING TEAMS
Your unit may form tracking teams. The lead team of a moving unit can be a tracking team, or a separate
unit may be a tracking team. There are many ways to organize such teams, and they can be any size. There
should, however, be a leader, one or more trackers, and security for the trackers. A typical organization has
three trackers, three security men, and a team leader with a radiotelephone operator (RATELO).
When a team is moving, the best tracker should be in the lead, followed by his security. The two other
trackers should be on the flanks, each one followed and overmatched by his security. The leader should be
where he can best control the team. The RATELO should be with the leader.
COUNTERTRACKING
In addition to knowing how to track, you must know how to counter an enemy tracker’s efforts to track
you. Some countertracking techniques are discussed in the following paragraphs:
•
While moving from close terrain to open terrain, walk past a big tree (30 cm [12 in] in diameter or
larger) toward the open area for three to five paces. Then walk backward to the forward side of the
tree and make a 90-degree change of direction, passing the tree on its forward side. Step carefully
and leave as little sign as possible. If this is not the direction that you want to go, change direction
again about 50 meters away using the same technique. The purpose of this is to draw the enemy
tracker into the open area where it is harder for him to track. That also exposes him and causes him
to search the wrong area.
•
When approaching a trail (about 100 meters from it), change your direction of movement and
approach it at a 45-degree angle. When arriving at the trail, move along it for about 20 to 30 meters.
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Leave several signs of your presence. Then walk backward along the trail to the point where you
join edit. At that point, cross the trail and leave no sign of your leaving it. Then move about 100
meters at an angle of 45 degrees, but this time on the other side of the trail and in the reverse of your
approach. When changing direction back to your original line of march, the big tree technique can
be used. The purpose of this technique is to draw the enemy tracker along the easier trail. You have,
by changing direction before reaching the trail, indicated that the trail is your new line of march.
•
To leave a false trail and to get an enemy tracker to look in the wrong direction, walk backward
over soft ground. Continue this deception for about 20 to 30 meters or until you are on hard ground.
Use this technique when leaving a stream. To further confuse the enemy tracker, use this technique
several times before actually leaving the stream.
•
When moving toward a stream, change direction about 100 meters before reaching the stream and
approach it at a 45-degree angle. Enter the stream and proceed down it for at least 20 to 30 meters.
Then move back upstream and leave the stream in your initial direction. Changing direction before
entering the stream may confuse the enemy tracker. When he enters the stream, he should follow
the false trail until the trail is lost. That will put him well away from you.
•
When your direction of movement parallels a stream, use the stream to deceive an enemy tracker.
Some tactics that will help elude a tracker are as follows:
o
Stay in the stream for 100 to 200 meters.
o
Stay in the center of the stream and in deep water.
o
Watch for rocks or roots near the banks that are not covered with moss or vegetation and
leave the stream at that point.
o
Walk out backward on soft ground.
o
Walk up a small, vegetation-covered tributary and exit from it.
•
When being tracked by an enemy tracker, the best bet is to either try to out-distance him or to
double back and ambush him.
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CHAPTER 9
Movement
GENERAL
Normally, you will spend more time moving than fighting. You must use proper movement techniques to
avoid contact with the enemy when you are not prepared for contact.
The fundamentals of movement discussed in this chapter provide techniques that all soldiers should
learn. These techniques should be practiced until they become second nature.
MOVEMENT TECHNIQUES
Your unit’s ability to move depends on your movement skills and those of your fellow soldiers. Use the
following techniques to avoid being seen or heard by the enemy:
•
Camouflage yourself and your equipment.
•
Tape your dog tags together and to the chain so they cannot slide or rattle. Tape or pad the parts
of your weapon and equipment that rattle or are so loose that they may snag (the tape or padding
must not interfere with the operation of the weapon or equipment).
•
Jump up and down and listen for rattles.
•
Wear soft, well-fitting clothes.
•
Do not carry unnecessary equipment. Move from covered position to revered position (taking no
longer than 3 to 5 seconds between positions).
•
Stop, look, and listen before moving. Look for your next position before leaving a position.
•
Look for covered and concealed routes on which to move.
•
Change direction slightly from time to time when moving through tall grass.
•
Stop, look, and listen when birds or animals are alarmed (the enemy may be nearby).
•
Use battlefield noises, such as weapon noises, to conceal movement noises.
•
Cross roads and trails at places that have the most cover and concealment (large culverts, low spots,
curves, or bridges).
•
Avoid steep slopes and places with loose dirt or stones.
•
Avoid cleared, open areas and tops of hills and ridges.
METHODS OF MOVEMENT
In addition to walking, you may move in one of three other methods—low crawl, high crawl, or rush.
The low crawl gives you the lowest silhouette. Use it to cross places where the concealment is very
low and enemy fire or observation prevents you from getting up. Keep your body flat against the
ground. With your firing hand, grasp your weapon sling at the upper sling—swivel. Let the front hand
guard rest on your forearm (keeping the muzzle off the ground), and let the weapon butt drag on the
ground.
To move, push your arms forward and pull your firing side leg forward. Then pull with your arms and
push with your leg. Continue this throughout the move.
The high crawl lets you move faster than the low crawl and still gives you a low silhouette. Use this
crawl when there is good concealment but enemy fire prevents you from getting up. Keep your body
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off the ground and resting on your forearms and lower legs. Cradle your weapon in your arms and
keep its muzzle off the ground. Keep your knees well behind your buttocks so your body will stay
low.
To move, alternately advance your right elbow and left knee, then your left elbow and right knee.
The rush is the fastest way to move from one position to another. Each rush should last from 3 to 5
seconds. The rushes are kept short to keep enemy machine gunners or riflemen from tracking you. However,
do not stop and hit the ground in the open just because 5 seconds have passed. Always try to hit the
ground behind some cover. Before moving, pick out your next covered and concealed position and the best
route to it.
Make your move from the prone position as follows:
• Slowly raise your head and pick your next position and the route to it.
• Slowly lower your head.
• Draw your arms into your body (keeping your elbows in).
• Pull your right leg forward.
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• Raise your body by straightening your arms.
• Get up quickly.
• Run to the next position.
When you are ready to stop moving, do the following:
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•
Plant both of your feet.
•
Drop to your knees (at the same time slide a hand to the butt of your rifle).
•
Fall forward, breaking the fall with the butt of the rifle.
•
Go to a prone firing position.
If you have been firing from one position for some time, the enemy may have spotted you and may be waiting
for you to come up from behind cover. So, before rushing forward, roll or crawl a short distance from your position.
By coming up from another spot, you may fool an enemy who is aiming at one spot, waiting for you to rise.
When the route to your next position is through an open area, rush by zigzagging. If necessary, hit the
ground, roll right or left, then rush again.
MOVING WITH STEALTH
Moving with stealth means moving quietly, slowly, and carefully. This requires great patience.
To move with stealth, use the following techniques:
•
Hold your rifle at port arms (ready position).
•
Make your footing sure and solid by keeping your body’s weight on the foot on the ground while
stepping.
•
Raise the moving leg high to clear brush or grass.
•
Gently let the moving foot down toe first, with your body’s weight on the rear leg.
•
Lower the heel of the moving foot after the toe is in a solid place.
•
Shift your body’s weight and balance to the forward foot before moving the rear foot.
•
Take short steps to help maintain balance.
At night, and when moving through dense vegetation, avoid making noise. Hold your weapon with one
hand, and keep the other hand forward, feeling for obstructions.
When going into a prone position, use the following techniques:
•
Hold your rifle with one hand and crouch slowly.
•
Feel for the ground with your freehand to make sure it is clear of mines, tripwires, and other hazards.
•
Lower your knees, one at a time, until your body’s weight is on both knees and your free hand.
•
Shift your weight to your free hand and opposite knee.
•
Raise your free leg up and back, and lower it gently to that side.
•
Move the other leg into position the same way.
•
Roll quietly into a prone position.
Use the following techniques when crawling:
•
Crawl on your hands and knees. Hold your rifle in your firing hand.
•
Use your nonfiring hand to feel for and make clear spots for your hands and knees to move to.
•
Move your hands and knees to those spots, and put them down softly.
IMMEDIATE ACTIONS WHILE MOVING
This section furnishes guidance for the immediate actions you should take when reacting to enemy indirect
fire and flares.
Reacting to indirect fire. If you come under indirect fire while moving, quickly look to your leader for orders.
He will either tell you to run out of the impact area in a certain direction or will tell you to follow him. If
you cannot see your leader, but can see other team members, follow them. If alone, or if you cannot see
your leader or the other team members, run out of the area in a direction away from the incoming fire.
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It is hard to move quickly on rough terrain, but the terrain may provide good cover. In such terrain, it may
be best to take cover and wait for flares to burn out. After they burn out, move out of the area quickly.
Reacting to Ground Flares. The enemy puts out ground flares as warning devices. He sets them off himself
or attaches tripwires to them for you to trip on and set them off. He usually puts the flares in places he can
watch.
If you are caught in the light of a ground flare, move quickly out of the lighted area. The enemy will
know where the ground flare is and will be ready to fire into that area. Move well away from the lighted
area. While moving out of the area, look for other team members. Try to follow or join them to keep the
team together.
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Reacting to Aerial Flares. The enemy uses aerial flares to light up vital areas. They can be set off like
ground flares; fired from hand projectors, grenade launchers, mortars, and artillery; or dropped from
aircraft.
If you hear the firing of an aerial flare while you are moving, hit the ground (behind cover if possible)
while the flare is rising and before it bursts and illuminates.
If moving where it is easy to blend with the background (such as in a forest) and you are caught in the
light of an aerial flare, freeze in place until the flare burns out.
If you are caught in the light of an aerial flare while moving in an open area, immediately crouch low
or lie down.
If you are crossing an obstacle, such as a barbed-wire fence or a wall, and get caught in the light of an
aerial flare, crouch low and stay down until the flare burns out.
The sudden light of a bursting flare may temporarily blind both you and the enemy. When the
enemy uses a flare to spot you, he spoils his own night vision. To protect your night vision, close one
eye while the flare is burning. When the flare burns out, the eye that was closed will still have its night
vision.
MOVING WITHIN A TEAM
You will usually move as a member of a team. Small teams, such as infantry fire teams, normally move in a
wedge formation. Each soldier in the team has a set position in the wedge, determined by the type weapon
he carries. That position, however, may be changed by the team leader to meet the situation. The normal
distance between soldiers is 10 meters.
You may have to make a temporary change in the wedge formation when moving through close terrain.
The soldiers in the sides of the wedge close into a single file when moving in thick brush or through
a narrow pass. After passing through such an area, they should spread out, again forming the wedge. You
should not wait for orders to change the formation or the interval. You should change automatically and
stay in visual contact with the other team members and the team leader.
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The team leader leads by setting the example. His standing order is, FOLLOW ME AND DO AS I DO.
When he moves to the left, you should move to the left. When he gets down, you should get down. When
he fires, you should fire.
When visibility is limited, control during movement may become difficult. Two l-inch horizontal strips
of luminous tape, sewn directly on the rear of the helmet camouflage band with a l-inch space between
them, are a device for night identification.
Night identification for your patrol cap could be two l-inch by 1/2-inch strips of luminous tape sewn
vertically, directly on the rear of the cap. They should be centered, with the bottom edge of each tape even
with the bottom edge of the cap and with a l-inch space between the two tapes.
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FIRE AND MOVEMENT
When a unit makes contact with the enemy, it normally starts firing at and moving toward the enemy. Sometimes
the unit may move away from the enemy. That technique is called fire and movement. It is conducted
either to close with and destroy the enemy, or to move away from the enemy so as to break contact with him.
The firing and moving take place at the same time. There is a fire element and a movement element.
These elements may be single soldiers, buddy teams, fire teams, or squads. Regardless of the size of the
elements, the action is still fire and movement.
The fire element covers the move of the movement element by firing at the enemy. This helps keep the
enemy from firing back at the movement element.
The movement element moves either to close with the enemy or to reach a better position from which to
fire at him. The movement element should not move until the fire element is firing.
Depending on the distance to the enemy position and on the available cover, the fire element and the
movement element switch roles as needed to keep moving.
Before the movement element moves beyond the supporting range of the fire element (the distance
within which the weapons of the fire element can fire and support the movement element), it should take
a position from which it can fire at the enemy. The movement element then becomes the next fire element
and the fire element becomes the next movement element.
If your team makes contact, your team leader should tell you to fire or to move. He should also tell you where
to fire from, what to fire at, or where to move to. When moving, use the low crawl, high crawl, or rush.
FOOT MARCH LOADS
The fighting load for a conditioned soldier should not exceed 48 pounds and the approach march load should
not exceed 72 pounds. These load weights include all clothing and equipment that are worn and carried.
a.
A soldier’s ability to react to the enemy is reduced by the burden of his load. Load carrying causes
fatigue and lack of agility, placing soldiers at a disadvantage when rapid reaction to the enemy is
required. For example, the time a soldier needs to complete an obstacle course is increased from 10
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to 15 percent, depending on the configuration of the load, for every 10 pounds of equipment carried.
It is likely that a soldier’s agility in the assault will be degraded similarly.
b. Speed of movement is as important a factor in causing exhaustion as the weight of the load carried.
The chart at Figure 5-1 shows the length of time that work rates can be sustained before soldiers
become exhausted and energy expenditure rates for march speeds and loads. A burst rate of energy
expenditure of 900 to 1,000 calories per hour can only be sustained for 6 to 10 minutes. Fighting
loads must be light so that the bursts of energy available to a soldier are used to move and to fight,
rather than to carry more than the minimum fighting equipment.
c.
When carrying loads during approach marches, a soldier’s speed can cause a rate-of-energy expenditure
of over 300 calories per hour and can erode the reserves of energy needed upon enemy
contact. March speeds must be reduced when loads are heavier to stay within reasonable energy
expenditure rates. Carrying awkward loads and heavy handheld items causes further degradation
of march speed and agility. The distance marched in six hours decreases by about 2 km for every 10
pounds carried over 40 pounds.
Work rate and energy expenditure.
March speeds.
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Battlefield stress decreases the ability of soldiers to carry their loads. Fear burns up the glycogen in the
muscles required to perform physical tasks. This wartime factor is often overlooked in peacetime, but the
commander must consider such a factor when establishing the load for each soldier. However, applying
strong leadership to produce well-trained, highly motivated soldiers can lessen some of the effects of stress.
As the modern battlefield becomes more sophisticated, potential enemies develop better protected equipment,
which could be presented as fleeting targets. Unless technological breakthroughs occur, increasingly
heavy munitions and new types of target acquisition and communications equipment will be required by
frontline soldiers to defeat the enemy.
a.
In the future, the foot soldier’s load can be decreased only by sending him into battle inadequately
equipped or by providing some means of load-handling equipment to help him carry required
equipment.
Weights of selected items.
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b. Unless part of the load is removed from the soldier’s back and carried elsewhere, all individual load
weights are too heavy. Even if rucksacks are removed, key teams on the battlefield cannot fulfill
their roles unless they carry excessively heavy loads. Soldiers who must carry heavy loads restrict
the mobility of their units.
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CHAPTER 10
Field-expedient Direction Finding
In a survival situation, you will be extremely fortunate if you happen to have a map and compass. If you
do have these two pieces of equipment, you will most likely be able to move toward help. If you are not
proficient in using a map and compass, you must take the steps to gain this skill.
There are several methods by which you can determine direction by using the sun and the stars. These
methods, however, will give you only a general direction. You can come up with a more nearly true direction
if you know the terrain of the territory or country.
You must learn all you can about the terrain of the country or territory to which you or your unit may
be sent, especially any prominent features or landmarks. This knowledge of the terrain together with using
the methods explained below will let you come up with fairly true directions to help you navigate.
USING THE SUN AND SHADOWS
The earth’s relationship to the sun can help you to determine direction on earth. The sun always rises in the
east and sets in the west, but not exactly due east or due west. There is also some seasonal variation. In the
northern hemisphere, the sun will be due south when at its highest point in the sky, or when an object casts
no appreciable shadow. In the southern hemisphere, this same noonday sun will mark due north. In the
northern hemisphere, shadows will move clockwise. Shadows will move counterclockwise in the southern
hemisphere. With practice, you can use shadows to determine both direction and time of day. The shadow
methods used for direction finding are the shadow-tip and watch methods.
Shadow-Tip Methods. In the first shadow-tip method, find a straight stick 1 meter long, and a level spot
free of brush on which the stick will cast a definite shadow. This method is simple and accurate and consists
of four steps:
Step 1. Place the stick or branch into the ground at a level spot where it will cast a distinctive shadow.
Mark the shadow’s tip with a stone, twig, or other means. This first shadow mark is always west—everywhere
on earth.
Step 2. Wait 10 to 15 minutes until the shadow tip moves a few centimeters. Mark the shadow tip’s new
position in the same way as the first.
Step 3. Draw a straight line through the two marks to obtain an approximate east-west line.
Step 4. Stand with the first mark (west) to your left and the second mark to your right—you are now
facing north. This fact is true everywhere on earth.
An alternate method is more accurate but requires more time. Set up your shadow stick and mark the
first shadow in the morning. Use a piece of string to draw a clean arc through this mark and around the
stick. At midday, the shadow will shrink and disappear. In the afternoon, it will lengthen again and at the
point where it touches the arc, make a second mark. Draw a line through the two marks to get an accurate
east-west line (see Figure 10-1).
The Watch Method. You can also determine direction using a common or analog watch—one that has
hands. The direction will be accurate if you are using true local time, without any changes for daylight savings
time. Remember, the further you are from the equator, the more accurate this method will be. If you
only have a digital watch, you can overcome this obstacle. Quickly draw a watch on a circle of paper with
the correct time on it and use it to determine your direction at that time.
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Figure 10-1: Shadow-tip method.
In the northern hemisphere, hold the watch horizontal and point the hour hand at the sun. Bisect the
angle between the hour hand and the 12 o’clock mark to get the north-south line (Figure 10-2). If there is
any doubt as to which end of the line is north, remember that the sun rises in the east, sets in the west, and
is due south at noon. The sun is in the east before noon and in the west after noon.
Note: If your watch is set on daylight savings time, use the midway point between the hour hand and
1 o’clock to determine the north-south line.
In the southern hemisphere, point the watch’s 12 o’clock mark toward the sun and a midpoint halfway
between 12 and the hour hand will give you the north-south line (Figure 10-2).
USING THE MOON
Because the moon has no light of its own, we can only see it when it reflects the sun’s light. As it orbits the
earth on its 28-day circuit, the shape of the reflected light varies according to its position. We say there is
a new moon or no moon when it is on the opposite side of the earth from the sun. Then, as it moves away
from the earth’s shadow, it begins to reflect light from its right side and waxes to become a full moon
before waning, or losing shape, to appear as a sliver on the left side. You can use this information to identify
direction.
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Figure 10-2: Watch method.
If the moon rises before the sun has set, the illuminated side will be the west. If the moon rises after
midnight, the illuminated side will be the east. This obvious discovery provides us with a rough east-west
reference during the night.
USING THE STARS
Your location in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere determines which constellation you use to determine
your north or south direction.
The Northern Sky. The main constellations to learn are the Ursa Major, also known as the Big Dipper or
the Plow, and Cassiopeia (Figure 10-3). Neither of these constellations ever sets. They are always visible on
a clear night. Use them to locate Polaris, also known as the polestar or the North Star. The North Star forms
part of the Little Dipper handle and can be confused with the Big Dipper. Prevent confusion by using both
the Big Dipper and Cassiopeia together. The Big Dipper and Cassiopeia are always directly opposite each
other and rotate counterclockwise around Polaris, with Polaris in the center. The Big Dipper is a seven star
constellation in the shape of a dipper. The two stars forming the outer lip of this dipper are the “pointer
stars” because they point to the North Star. Mentally draw a line from the outer bottom star to the outer
top star of the Big Dipper’s bucket. Extend this line about five times the distance between the pointer stars.
You will find the North Star along this line.
Cassiopeia has five stars that form a shape like a “W” on its side. The North Star is straight out from
Cassiopeia’s center star.
After locating the North Star, locate the North Pole or true north by drawing an imaginary line directly
to the earth.
The Southern Sky. Because there is no star bright enough to be easily recognized near the south celestial
pole, a constellation known as the Southern Cross is used as a signpost to the South (Figure 10-4). The
Southern Cross or Crux has five stars. Its four brightest stars form a cross that tilts to one side. The two
stars that make up the cross’s long axis are the pointer stars. To determine south, imagine a distance five
times the distance between these stars and the point where this imaginary line ends is in the general direction
of south. Look down to the horizon from this imaginary point and select a landmark to steer by. In a
static survival situation, you can fix this location in daylight if you drive stakes in the ground at night to
point the way.
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Figure 10-3: The Big Dipper and Cassiopeia.
MAKING IMPROVISED COMPASSES
You can construct improvised compasses using a piece of ferrous metal that can be needle shaped or a flat
double-edged razor blade and a piece of nonmetallic string or long hair from which to suspend it. You can
magnetize or polarize the metal by slowly stroking it in one direction on a piece of silk or carefully through
your hair using deliberate strokes. You can also polarize metal by stroking it repeatedly at one end with a
magnet. Always rub in one direction only. If you have a battery and some electric wire, you can polarize
the metal electrically. The wire should be insulated. If not insulated, wrap the metal object in a single, thin
strip of paper to prevent contact. The battery must be a minimum of 2 volts. Form a coil with the electric
wire and touch its ends to the battery’s terminals. Repeatedly insert one end of the metal object in and out
of the coil. The needle will become an electromagnet. When suspended from a piece of nonmetallic string,
or floated on a small piece of wood in water, it will align itself with a north-south line.
You can construct a more elaborate improvised compass using a sewing needle or thin metallic object,
a nonmetallic container (for example, a plastic dip container), its lid with the center cut out and waterproofed,
and the silver tip from a pen. To construct this compass, take an ordinary sewing needle and
break in half. One half will form your direction pointer and the other will act as the pivot point. Push the
portion used as the pivot point through the bottom center of your container; this portion should be flush on
the bottom and not interfere with the lid. Attach the center of the other portion (the pointer) of the needle
on the pen’s silver tip using glue, tree sap, or melted plastic. Magnetize one end of the pointer and rest it
on the pivot point.
OTHER MEANS OF DETERMINING DIRECTION
The old saying about using moss on a tree to indicate north is not accurate because moss grows completely
around some trees. Actually, growth is more lush on the side of the tree facing the south in the Northern
Hemisphere and vice versa in the Southern Hemisphere. If there are several felled trees around for comparison,
look at the stumps. Growth is more vigorous on the side toward the equator and the tree growth
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Figure 10-4: The Southern Cross.
rings will be more widely spaced. On the other hand, the tree growth rings will be closer together on the
side toward the poles.
Wind direction may be helpful in some instances where there are prevailing directions and you know
what they are.
Recognizing the differences between vegetation and moisture patterns on north- and south-facing
slopes can aid in determining direction. In the northern hemisphere, north-facing slopes receive less sun
than south-facing slopes and are therefore cooler and damper. In the summer, north-facing slopes retain
patches of snow. In the winter, the trees and open areas on south-facing slopes are the first to lose their
snow, and ground snow pack is shallower.
PART VI
Environment-Specific
Survival
CHAPTER 1
Tropical Survival
Most people think of the tropics as a huge and forbidding tropical rain forest through which every step
taken must be hacked out, and where every inch of the way is crawling with danger. Actually, over half of
the land in the tropics is cultivated in some way.
A knowledge of field skills, the ability to improvise, and the application of the principles of survival
will increase the prospects of survival. Do not be afraid of being alone in the jungle; fear will lead to panic.
Panic will lead to exhaustion and decrease your chance of survival.
Everything in the jungle thrives, including disease germs and parasites that breed at an alarming rate.
Nature will provide water, food, and plenty of materials to build shelters.
Indigenous peoples have lived for millennia by hunting and gathering. However, it will take an outsider
some time to get used to the conditions and the nonstop activity of tropical survival.
TROPICAL WEATHER
High temperatures, heavy rainfall, and oppressive humidity characterize equatorial and subtropical
regions, except at high altitudes. At low altitudes, temperature variation is seldom less than 10 degrees C
and is often more than 35 degrees C. At altitudes over 1,500 meters, ice often forms at night. The rain has a
cooling effect, but when it stops, the temperature soars.
Rainfall is heavy, often with thunder and lightning. Sudden rain beats on the tree canopy, turning trickles
into raging torrents and causing rivers to rise. Just as suddenly, the rain stops. Violent storms may
occur, usually toward the end of the summer months.
Hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons develop over the sea and rush inland, causing tidal waves and devastation
ashore. In choosing campsites, make sure you are above any potential flooding. Prevailing winds
vary between winter and summer. The dry season has rain once a day and the monsoon has continuous
rain. In Southeast Asia, winds from the Indian Ocean bring the monsoon, but it is dry when the wind blows
from the landmass of China.
Tropical day and night are of equal length. Darkness falls quickly and daybreak is just as sudden.
Figure 1-1: Five layers of tropical rain forest vegetation.
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TYPES OF JUNGLES
The jungle environment includes densely forested areas, grasslands, cultivated areas, and swamps. Jungles
are classified as primary or secondary jungles based on the terrain and vegetation.
Primary Jungles. These are tropical forests. Depending on the type of trees growing in these forests, primary
jungles are classified either as tropical rain forests or as deciduous forests.
Tropical Rain Forests. The climate varies little in rain forests. You find these forests across the equator in the
Amazon and Congo basins, parts of Indonesia, and several Pacific islands. Up to 3.5 meters of rain fall evenly
throughout the year. Temperatures range from about 32 degrees C in the day to 21 degrees C at night.
TROPICAL RAIN FOREST DECIDUOUS FOREST
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There are five layers of vegetation in this jungle. Where untouched by man, jungle trees rise from buttress
roots to heights of 60 meters. Below them, smaller trees produce a canopy so thick that little light
reaches the jungle floor. Seedlings struggle beneath them to reach light, and masses of vines and lianas
twine up to the sun. Ferns, mosses, and herbaceous plants push through a thick carpet of leaves, and a
great variety of fungi grow on leaves and fallen tree trunks.
Because of the lack of light on the jungle floor, there is little undergrowth to hamper movement, but
dense growth limits visibility to about 50 meters. A wet and soggy surface make vehicular traffic difficult.
Foot movement is easier in tropical forests than in other types of jungle. You can easily lose your sense of
direction in this jungle, and it is extremely hard for aircraft to see you.
Deciduous Forests. These are found in semitropical zones where there are both wet and dry seasons. In the
wet season, trees are fully leaved; in the dry season, much of the foliage dies. Trees are generally less dense
in deciduous forests than in rain forests. This allows more rain and sunlight to filter to the ground, producing
thick undergrowth. In the wet season, with the trees in full leaf, observation both from the air and on
the ground is limited. Movement is more difficult than in the rain forest. In the dry season, however, both
observation and trafficability improve.
The characteristics of the American and African semievergreen seasonal forests correspond with those
of the Asian monsoon forests. These characteristics are—
•
Their trees fall into two stories of tree strata. Those in the upper story average 18 to 24 meters; those
in the lower story average 7 to 13 meters.
•
The diameter of the trees averages 0.5 meter.
•
Their leaves fall during a seasonal drought.
Except for the sage, nipa, and coconut palms, the same edible plants grow in these areas as in the tropical
rain forests.
You find these forests in portions of Columbia and Venezuela and the Amazon basin in South America;
in portions of southeast coastal Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique in Africa; in Northeastern India, much
of Burma, Thailand, Indochina, Java, and parts of other Indonesian islands in Asia.
Secondary Jungles. These are found at the edge of the rain forest and the deciduous forest, and in areas
where jungles have been cleared and abandoned. Secondary jungles appear when the ground has been
repeatedly exposed to sunlight. These areas are typically overgrown with weeds, grasses, thorns, ferns,
canes, and shrubs. Foot movement is extremely slow and difficult. Vegetation may reach to a height of
2 meters. This will limit observation to the front to only a few meters.
SECONDARY JUNGLE
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Such growth happens mainly along river banks, on jungle fringes, and where man has cleared rain forest.
When abandoned, tangled masses of vegetation quickly reclaim these cultivated areas. You can often
find cultivated food plants among this vegetation.
Tropical Scrub and Thorn Forests. The chief characteristics of tropical scrub and thorn forests are—
• There is a definite dry season.
• Trees are leafless during the dry season.
• The ground is bare except for a few tufted plants in bunches; grasses are uncommon.
• Plants with thorns predominate.
• Fires occur frequently.
You find tropical scrub and thorn forests on the west coast of Mexico, Yucatan peninsula, Venezuela,
Brazil; on the northwest coast and central parts of Africa; and in Asia, in Turkestan and India.
Within the tropical scrub and thorn forest areas, you will find it hard to obtain food plants during the
dry season. During the rainy season, plants are considerably more abundant.
COMMON JUNGLE FEATURES
Swamps. These are common to all low jungle areas where there is water and poor drainage. There are two
basic types of swamps—mangrove and palm.
Mangrove Swamps. These are found in coastal areas wherever tides influence water flow. The mangrove
is a shrub-like tree which grows 1 to 5 meters high. These trees have tangled root systems, both above and
below the water level, which restrict movement to foot or small boats. Observation in mangrove swamps,
both on the ground and from the air, is poor, and movement is extremely difficult. Sometimes, streams that
you can raft form channels, but you usually must travel on foot through this swamp.
You find saltwater swamps in West Africa, Madagascar, Malaysia, the Pacific islands, Central and South
America, and at the mouth of the Ganges River in India. The swamps at the mouths of the Orinoco and
Amazon rivers and rivers of Guyana consist of mud and trees that offer little shade. Tides in saltwater
swamps can vary as much as 12 meters.
Everything in a saltwater swamp may appear hostile to you, from leeches and insects to crocodiles and
caimans. Avoid the dangerous animals in this swamp.
MANGROVE SWAMP PALM SWAMP
Tropical Survival 705
Avoid this swamp altogether if you can. If there are water channels through it, you may be able to use
a raft to escape.
Palm Swamps. These exist in both salt and fresh water areas. Their characteristics are masses of thorny
undergrowth, reeds, grasses, and occasional short palms that reduce visibility and make travel difficult.
There are often islands that dot these swamps, allowing you to get out of the water. Wildlife is abundant
in these swamps. Like movement in the mangrove swamps, movement through palm swamps is mostly
restricted to foot (sometimes small boats). Vehicular traffic is nearly impossible except after extensive road
construction by engineers. Observation and fields-of-fire are very limited. Concealment from both air and
ground observation is excellent.
Savanna. This is a broad, open jungle grassland in which trees are scarce. The thick grass is broad-bladed
and grows 1 to 5 meters high. It looks like a broad, grassy meadow, and frequently has red soil. It grows
scattered trees that usually appear stunted and gnarled like apple trees. Palms also occur on savannas.
Movement in the savanna is generally easier than in other types of jungle areas, especially for vehicles.
The sharp-edged, dense grass and extreme heat make foot movement a slow and tiring process. Depending
on the height of the grass, ground observation may vary from poor to good. Concealment from air
observation is poor for both troops and vehicles. You find savannas in parts of Venezuela, Brazil, and the
Guianasin South America. In Africa, you find them in the southern Sahara (north-central Cameroon and
Gabon and southern Sudan), Benin, Togo, most of Nigeria, northeastern Zaire, northern Uganda, western
Kenya, part of Malawi, part of Tanzania, southern Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and western Madagascar.
Bamboo. This grows in clumps of varying size in jungles throughout the tropics. Large stands of bamboo
are excellent obstacles for wheeled or tracked vehicles. Troop movement through bamboo is slow, exhausting,
and noisy. Troops should bypass bamboo stands if possible.
Cultivated Areas. These exist in jungles throughout the tropics and range from large, well-planned and
well-managed farms and plantations to small tracts cultivated by individual farmers. There are three general
types of cultivated areas—rice paddies, plantations, and small farms.
Rice Paddies. These are flat, flooded fields in which rice is grown. Flooding of the fields is controlled by a
network of dikes and irrigation ditches which make movement by vehicles difficult even when the fields
are dry. Concealment is poor in rice paddies. Cover is limited to the dikes, and then only from ground fire.
Observation and fields of fire are excellent. Foot movement is poor when the fields are wet because soldiers
must wade through water about 1/2 meter (2 feet) deep and soft mud. When the fields are dry, foot movement
becomes easier. The dikes, about 2 to 3 meters tall, are the only obstacles.
SAVANNA
BAMBOO
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Plantations. These are large farms or estates where tree crops, such as rubber and coconut, are grown.
They are usually carefully planned and free of undergrowth (like a well-tended park). Movement through
plantations is generally easy. Observation along the rows of trees is generally good. Concealment and
cover can be found behind the trees, but soldiers moving down the cultivated rows are exposed.
Small Farms. These exist throughout the tropics. These small cultivated areas are usually hastily planned.
After 1 or 2 years’ use, they usually are abandoned, leaving behind a small open area which turns into secondary
jungle. Movement through these areas may be difficult due to fallen trees and scrub brush.
Generally, observation and fields-of-fire are less restricted in cultivated areas than in uncultivated jungles.
However, much of the natural cover and concealment are removed by cultivation, and troops will be
more exposed in these areas.
LIFE IN THE JUNGLE
The jungle environment affects everyone. The degree to which you are trained to live and fight in harsh
environments will determine your survival.
There is very little to fear from the jungle environment. Fear itself can be an enemy. Soldiers must be
taught to control their fear of the jungle. A man overcome with fear is of little value in any situation. Soldiers
in a jungle must learn that the most important thing is to keep their heads and calmly think out any
situation.
Many of the stories written about out-of-the-way jungle places were written by writers who went there in
search of adventure rather than facts. Practically without exception, these authors exaggerated or invented
many of the thrilling experiences they relate. These thrillers are often a product of the author’s imagination
and are not facts.
Most Americans, especially those raised in cities, have lost the knack of taking care of themselves under
all conditions. It would be foolish to say that, without proper training, they would be in no danger if lost
in the jungles of Southeast Asia, South America, or some Pacific island. On the other hand, they would be
in just as much danger if lost in the mountains of western Pennsylvania or in other undeveloped regions
of our own country. The only difference would be that you are less likely to panic when lost in your homeland
than abroad.
Immediate Considerations. There is less likelihood of your rescue from beneath a dense jungle canopy
than in other survival situations. You will probably have to travel to reach safety.
RICE PADDIES
PLANTATIONS
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SMALL FARMS
If you are the victim of an aircraft crash, the most important items to take with you from the crash site
are a machete, a compass, a first aid kit, and a parachute or other material for use as mosquito netting and
shelter.
Take shelter from tropical rain, sun, and insects. Malaria-carrying mosquitoes and other insects are
immediate dangers, so protect yourself against bites.
Do not leave the crash area without carefully blazing or marking your route. Use your compass. Know
what direction you are taking.
In the tropics, even the smallest scratch can quickly become dangerously infected. Promptly treat any
wound, no matter how minor.
Effect of Climate. The discomforts of tropical climates are often exaggerated, but it is true that the heat is
more persistent. In regions where the air contains a lot of moisture, the effect of the heat may seem worse
than the same temperature in a dry climate. Many people experienced in jungle operations feel that the
heat and discomfort in some US cities in the summertime are worse than the climate in the jungle.
Strange as it may seem, there may be more suffering from cold in the tropics than from the heat. Of
course, very low temperatures do not occur, but chilly days and nights are common. In some jungles, in
winter months, the nights are cold enough to require a wool blanket or poncho liner for sleeping.
Rainfall in many parts of the tropics is much greater than that in most areas of the temperate zones.
Tropical downpours usually are followed by clear skies, and in most places the rains are predictable at
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certain times of the day. Except in those areas where rainfall may be continuous during the rainy season,
there are not many days when the sun does not shine part of the time.
People who live in the tropics usually plan their activities so that they are able to stay under shelter during
the rainy and hotter portions of the day. After becoming used to it, most tropical dwellers prefer the
constant climate of the torrid zones to the frequent weather changes in colder climates.
Insects. Malaria-carrying mosquitoes are probably the most harmful of the tropical insects. Soldiers can
contract malaria if proper precautions are not taken.
Mosquitoes are most prevalent early at night and just before dawn. Soldiers must be especially cautious
at these times. Malaria is more common in populated areas than in uninhabited jungle, so soldiers must
also be especially cautious when operating around villages. Mud packs applied to mosquito bites offer
some relief from itching.
Wasps and bees may be common in some places, but they will rarely attack unless their nests are disturbed.
When a nest is disturbed, the troops must leave the area and reassemble at the last rally point. In
case of stings, mud packs are helpful. In some areas, there are tiny bees, called sweatbees, which may collect
on exposed parts of the body during dry weather, especially if the body is sweating freely. They are
annoying but stingless and will leave when sweating has completely stopped, or they may be scraped off
with the hand.
The larger centipedes and scorpions can inflict stings which are painful but not fatal. They like dark
places, so it is always advisable to shake out blankets before sleeping at night, and to make sure before
dressing that they are not hidden in clothing or shoes. Spiders are commonly found in the jungle. Their
bites may be painful, but are rarely serious. Ants can be dangerous to injured men lying on the ground and
unable to move. Wounded soldiers should be placed in an area free of ants.
In Southeast Asian jungles, the rice-borer moth of the lowlands collects around lights in great numbers
during certain seasons. It is a small, plain-colored moth with a pair of tiny black spots on the wings. It
should never be brushed off roughly, as the small barbed hairs of its body may be ground into the skin.
This causes a sore, much like a burn, that often takes weeks to heal.
Leeches. Leeches are common in many jungle areas, particularly throughout most of the Southwest
Pacific, Southeast Asia, and the Malay Peninsula. They are found in swampy areas, streams, and moist
jungle country. They are not poisonous, but their bites may become infected if not cared for properly.
The small wound that they cause may provide a point of entry for the germs which cause tropical ulcers
or “jungle sores.” Soldiers operating in the jungle should watch for leeches on the body and brush them
off before they have had time to bite. When they have taken hold, they should not be pulled off forcibly
because part of the leech may remain in the skin. Leeches will release themselves if touched with insect
repellent, a moist piece of tobacco, the burning end of a cigarette, a coal from a fire, or a few drops of
alcohol.
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Straps wrapped around the lower part of the legs (“leech straps”) will prevent leeches from crawling up
the legs and into the crotch area. Trousers should be securely tucked into the boots. For more information
on dangerous insects, se Part IV, Chapter 3, “Dangerous Insects and Arachnids.”
Snakes. A soldier in the jungle probably will see very few snakes. When he does see one, the snake most
likely will be making every effort to escape.
If a soldier should accidentally step on a snake or otherwise disturb a snake, it will probably attempt to
bite. The chances of this happening to soldiers traveling along trails or waterways are remote if soldiers
are alert and careful. Most jungle areas pose less of a snakebite danger than do the uninhabited areas of
New Mexico, Florida, or Texas. This does not mean that soldiers should be careless about the possibility
of snakebites, but ordinary precautions against them are enough. Soldiers should be particularly watchful
when clearing ground. Treat all snakebites as poisonous.
Crocodiles and Caymans. Crocodiles and caymans are meat-eating reptiles which live in tropical areas.
“Crocodile-infested rivers and swamps” is a catch-phrase often found in stories about the tropics. Asian
jungles certainly have their share of crocodiles, but there are few authenticated cases of crocodiles actually
attacking humans. Caymans, found in South and Central America, are not likely to attack unless provoked.
Wild Animals. In Africa, where lions, leopards, and other flesh-eating animals abound, they are protected
from hunters by local laws and live on large preserves. In areas where the beasts are not protected, they
are shy and seldom seen. When encountered, they will attempt to escape. All large animals can be dangerous
if cornered or suddenly startled at close quarters. This is especially true of females with young. In
the jungles of Sumatra, Bali, Borneo, Southeast Asia, and Burma there are tigers, leopards, elephants, and
buffalo. Latin America’s jungles have the jaguar. Ordinarily, these will not attack a man unless they are
cornered or wounded.
Certain jungle animals, such as water buffalo and elephants, have been domesticated by the local people.
Soldiers should also avoid these animals. They may appear tame, but this tameness extends only to
people the animals are familiar with.
Poisonous Vegetation. Another area of danger is that of poisonous plants and trees. For example, nettles,
particularly tree nettles, are one of the dangerous items of vegetation. These nettles have a severe stinging
that will quickly educate the victim to recognize the plant. There are ringas trees in Malaysia which affect
some people in much the same way as poison oak. The poison ivy and poison sumac of the continental US
can cause many of the same type troubles that may be experienced in the jungle. The danger from poisonous
plants in the woods of the US eastern seaboard is similar to that of the tropics. Thorny thickets, such as
rattan, should be avoided as one would avoid a blackberry patch.
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Some of the dangers associated with poisonous vegetation can be avoided by keeping sleeves down and
wearing gloves when practical. For more information on poisonous plants, see Part IV, Chapter 7, “Poisonous
Plants.”
Health and Hygiene. The climate in tropical areas and the absence of sanitation facilities increase the
chance that soldiers may contract a disease. Disease is fought with good sanitation practices and preventive
medicine. In past wars, diseases accounted for a significantly high percentage of casualties.
Waterborne Diseases. Water is vital in the jungle and is usually easy to find. However, water from natural
sources should be considered contaminated. Water purification procedures must be taught to all soldiers.
Germs of serious diseases, like dysentery, are found in impure water. Other waterborne diseases, such as
blood fluke, are caused by exposure of an open sore to impure water.
Soldiers can prevent waterborne diseases by:
•
Obtaining drinking water from approved engineer water points.
•
Using rainwater; however, rainwater should be collected after it has been raining at least 15 to 30
minutes. This lessens the chances of impurity being washed from the jungle canopy into the water
container. Even then the water should be purified.
•
Insuring that all drinking water is purified.
•
Not swimming or bathing in untreated water.
•
Keeping the body fully clothed when crossing water obstacles.
Fungus Diseases. These diseases are caused by poor personal health practices. The jungle environment
promotes fungus and bacterial diseases of the skin and warm water immersion skin diseases. Bacteria and
fungi are tiny plants which multiply fast under the hot, moist conditions of the jungle. Sweat-soaked skin
invites fungus attack. The following are common skin diseases that are caused by long periods of wetness
of the skin:
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Warm Water Immersion Foot. This disease occurs usually where there are many creeks, streams, and
canals to cross, with dry ground in between. The bottoms of the feet become white, wrinkled, and tender.
Walking becomes painful.
Chafing. This disease occurs when soldiers must often wade through water up to their waists, and the
trousers stay wet for hours. The crotch area becomes red and painful to even the lightest touch.
Most skin diseases are treated by letting the skin dry.
Heat Injuries. These result from high temperatures, high humidity, lack of air circulation, and physical
exertion. All soldiers must be trained to prevent heat disorders.
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Natives. Like all other regions of the world, the jungle also has its native inhabitants. Soldiers should be
aware that some of these native tribes can be hostile if not treated properly.
There may be occasions, however, when hostile tribes attack without provocation.
Food. Food of some type is always available in the jungle—in fact, there is hardly a place in the world
where food cannot be secured from plants and animals. All animals, birds, reptiles, and many kinds of
insects of the jungle are edible. Some animals, such as toads and salamanders, have glands on the skin
which should be removed before their meat is eaten. Fruits, flowers, buds, leaves, bark, and often tubers
(fleshy plant roots) may be eaten. Fruits eaten by birds and monkeys usually may be eaten by man.
There are various means of preparing and preserving food found in the jungle. Fish, for example, can be
cleaned and wrapped in wild banana leaves. This bundle is then tied with string made from bark, placed
on a hastily constructed wood griddle, and roasted thoroughly until done. Another method is to roast the
bundle of fish underneath a pile of red-hot stones.
Other meats can be roasted in a hollow section of bamboo, about 60 centimeters (2 feet) long. Meat
cooked in this manner will not spoil for three or four days if left inside the bamboo stick and sealed.
Yams, taros, yuccas, and wild bananas can be cooked in coals. They taste somewhat like potatoes. Palm
hearts can make a refreshing salad, and papaya a delicious dessert. For more information on game, edible
plants, and water, see Part IV.
Shelter. Jungle shelters are used to protect personnel and equipment from the harsh elements of the jungle.
Shelters are necessary while sleeping, planning operations, and protecting sensitive equipment. See Part
III, “Shelters” for more information.
Clothing and Equipment. Before deploying for jungle operations, troops are issued special uniforms and
equipment. Some of these items are:
Jungle Fatigues. These fatigues are lighter and faster drying than standard fatigues. To provide the best
ventilation, the uniform should fit loosely. It should never be starched.
Jungle Boots. These boots are lighter and faster drying than all-leather boots. Their cleated soles will maintain
footing on steep, slippery slopes. The ventilating insoles should be washed in warm, soapy water
when the situation allows.
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Insect (Mosquito) Bar. The insect (mosquito) bar or net should be used any time soldiers sleep in the
jungle. Even if conditions do not allow a shelter, the bar can be hung inside the fighting position or from
trees or brush. No part of the body should touch the insect net when it is hung, because mosquitoes can
bite through the netting. The bar should be tucked or laid loosely, not staked down. Although this piece
of equipment is very light, it can be bulky if not folded properly. It should be folded inside the poncho as
tightly as possible.
JUNGLE TRAVEL, NAVIGATION AND TRACKING
Travel Through Jungle Areas. With practice, movement through thick undergrowth and jungle can be
done efficiently. Always wear long sleeves to avoid cuts and scratches.
To move easily, you must develop “jungle eye,” that is, you should not concentrate on the pattern of
bushes and trees to your immediate front. You must focus on the jungle further out and find natural breaks
in the foliage. Look through the jungle, not at it. Stop and stoop down occasionally to look along the jungle
floor. This action may reveal game trails that you can follow.
Stay alert and move slowly and steadily through dense forest or jungle. Stop periodically to listen and
take your bearings. Use a machete to cut through dense vegetation, but do not cut unnecessarily or you
will quickly wear yourself out. If using a machete, stroke upward when cutting vines to reduce noise
because sound carries long distances in the jungle. Use a stick to part the vegetation. Using a stick will also
help dislodge biting ants, spiders, or snakes. Do not grasp at brush or vines when climbing slopes; they
may have irritating spines or sharp thorns.
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Many jungle and forest animals follow game trails. These trails wind and cross, but frequently lead to
water or clearings. Use these trails if they lead in your desired direction of travel.
In many countries, electric and telephone lines run for miles through sparsely inhabited areas. Usually,
the right-of-way is clear enough to allow easy travel. When traveling along these lines, be careful as you
approach transformer and relay stations. In enemy territory, they maybe guarded.
Jungle Navigation. Navigating in the jungle can be difficult for those troops not accustomed to it. This
appendix outlines techniques which have been used successfully in jungle navigation. With training and
practice, troops should be able to use these techniques to navigate in even the thickest jungle.
Navigation Tools
Maps. Because of the isolation of many jungles, the rugged ground, and the presence of the canopy, topographic
survey is difficult and is done mainly from the air. Therefore, although maps of jungle areas generally
depict the larger features (hill, ridges, larger streams, etc.) fairly accurately, some smaller terrain
features (gullies, small or intermittent streams, small swamps, etc.), which are actually on the ground, may
not appear on the map. Also, many older maps are inaccurate. So, before going into the jungle, bring your
maps up to date.
Compass. No one should move in the jungle without a compass. It should be tied to the clothing by a string
or bootlace. The three most common methods used to follow the readings of a compass are:
Sighting along the desired azimuth. The compass man notes an object to the front (usually a tree or bush)
that is on line with the proper azimuth and moves to that object. This is not a good method in the jungle as trees
and bushes tend to look very much alike.
Holding the compass at waist level and walking in the direction of a set azimuth. This is a good method
for the jungle. The compass man sets the compass for night use with the long luminous line placed over
the luminous north arrow and the desired azimuth under the black index line. There is a natural tendency
to drift either left or right using this method. Jungle navigators must learn their own tendencies and allow
for this drift.
Sighting along the desired azimuth and guiding a man forward until he is on line with the azimuth. The
unit then moves to the man and repeats the process. This is the most accurate method to use in the jungle
during daylight hours, but it is slow. In this method, the compass man cannot mistake the aiming point
and is free to release the compass on its string and use both hands during movement to the next aiming
point.
The keys to navigation are maintaining the right direction and knowing the distance traveled. Skill
with the compass (acquired through practice) takes care of the first requirement. Ways of knowing the
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distance traveled include checking natural features with the map, knowing the rate of movement, and
pacing.
Checking Features. Major recognizable features (hills, rivers, changes in the type of vegetation) should be
noted as they are reached and then identified on the map. Jungle navigators must BE CAUTIOUS ABOUT
TRAILS—the trail on the ground may not be the one on the map.
Rate of Movement. Speed will vary with the physical condition of the troops, the load they carry, the danger
of enemy contact, and the type of jungle growth. The normal error is to overestimate the distance traveled.
The following can be used as a rough guide to the maximum distance covered in 1 hour during daylight.
Pacing. In thick jungle, this is the best way of measuring distance. It is the only method which lets the soldier
know how far he has traveled. With this information, he can estimate where he is at any given time.
To be accurate, you must practice pacing over different types of terrain, and should make a PERSONAL
PACE TABLE like the one below.
If possible, at least two men in each independent group should be compass men, and three or four
should be keeping a pace count.
Location of an Objective. In open terrain, an error in navigation can be easily corrected by orienting
on terrain features which are often visible from a long distance. In thick jungle, however, it is possible
to be within 50 meters of a terrain feature and still not see it. Here are two methods which can aid in
navigation.
Offset Method. This method is useful in reaching an objective that is not large or not on readily
identifiable terrain but is on a linear feature, such as a road, stream, or ridge. The unit plans a route
following an azimuth which is a few degrees to the left or right of the objective. The unit then follows
the azimuth to that terrain feature. Thus, when the unit reaches the terrain feature, the members know
the objective is to their right or left, and the terrain feature provides a point of reference for movement
to the objective.
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Attack Method. This method is used when moving to an objective not on a linear feature. An easily
recognizable terrain feature is chosen as close as possible to the objective. The unit then moves to that
feature. Once there, the unit follows the proper azimuth and moves the estimated distance to get to the
objective.
What to do if Lost. Do not panic. Few have ever been permanently lost in the jungle, although many have
taken longer to reach their destination than they should.
Disoriented navigators should try to answer these questions. (If there are other navigators in the group,
they all should talk it over.)
What was the last known location?
Did you go too far and pass the objective? (Compare estimates of time and distance traveled.)
Does the terrain look the way it should? (Compare the surroundings with the map.)
What features in the area will help to fix your location? (Try to find these features.)
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Night Movement. The principles for navigation at night are the same as those for day movement. The
problem in night movement is one of control, not navigation. In clear weather, through sparse vegetation
and under a bright moon, a unit can move almost as fast by night as by day. If the sky is overcast, vegetation
is thick, or there is little or no moon, movement will be slow and hard to control. The following points
can assist a unit during night movement.
Attach luminous tape to the back of each soldier’s headgear. Two strips, side by side, each about the
size of a lieutenant’s bar, are recommended. The two strips aid depth perception and reduce the hypnotic
effect that one strip can cause.
When there is no light at all, distance between soldiers should be reduced. When necessary to prevent
breaks in contact, each soldier should hold on to the belt or the pack of the man in front of him.
The leader should carry a long stick to probe for sudden dropoffs or obstacles.
In limited visibility conditions, listening may become more important to security than observing. A unit
which hears a strange noise should halt and listen for at least 1 minute. If the noise is repeated or cannot
be identified, patrols should be sent out to investigate. Smell, likewise, can be an indication of enemy presence
in an area.
All available night vision devices should be used.
Navigational Tips
•
Trust the map and compass, but understand the map’s possible shortcomings. Use the compass
bezel ring, especially during night navigation.
•
Break brush. Do not move on trails or roads.
•
Plan the move, and use the plan.
•
Do not get frustrated. If in doubt, stop and think back over the route.
•
Practice leads to confidence.
Visual tracking is following the paths of men or animals by the signs they leave, primarily on the ground
or vegetation. Scent tracking is following men or animals by the odors they leave.
Practice in tracking is required to achieve and maintain a high standard of skill. Because of the excellent
natural concealment the jungle offers, all soldiers should be familiar with the general techniques of visual
tracking to enable them to detect the presence of a concealed enemy, to follow the enemy, to locate and
avoid mines or booby-traps, and to give early warning of ambush.
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Signs. Men or animals moving through jungle areas leave signs of their passage. Some examples of these
signs are listed below.
Deception. The enemy may use any of the following methods to deceive or discourage trackers. They may,
at times, mislead an experienced tracker.
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MOVING ACROSS WATER OBSTACLES
Crossing Rivers and Streams. There are several expedient ways to cross rivers and streams. The ways
used in any situation depends on the width and depth of the water, the speed of the current, the time and
equipment available, and the friendly and enemy situation.
There is always a possibility of equipment failure. For this reason, you should be able to swim. In all
water crossings several strong swimmers should be stationed either at the water’s edge or, if possible, in
midstream to help anyone who gets into trouble.
If you accidentally fall into the water, swim with the current to the nearer bank. Swimming against the
current is dangerous because the swimmer is quickly exhausted by the force of the current.
Fording. A good site to ford a stream has these characteristics:
•
Good concealment on both banks.
•
Few large rocks in the river bed. (Submerged large rocks are usually slippery and make it difficult
to maintain footing.)
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•
Shallow water or a sandbar in the middle of the stream. Troops may rest or regain their footing on
these sandbars.
•
Low banks to make entry and exit easier. High banks normally mean deep water. Deep water near
the far shore is especially dangerous as the soldiers may be tired and less able to get out.
You should cross at an angle against the current. Keep your feet wide apart and drag your legs through
the water, do not lift them, so that the current will not throw you off balance. Poles can be used to probe to
help find deep holes and maintain footing.
Floating Aids. For deeper streams which have little current, soldiers can use a number of floating aids such
as the following:
When launching any poncho raft or leaving the water with it, take care not to drag it on the ground as
this will cause punctures or tears.
Rope Bridges. For crossing streams and small rivers quickly, rope bridges offer a suitable temporary system,
especially when there is a strong current. Because of the stretch factor of nylon ropes, they should not
be used to cross gaps of more than 20 meters. For larger gaps, manila rope should be used.
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In order to erect a rope bridge, the first thing to be done is to get one end of the rope across the stream.
This task can be frustrating when there is a strong current. To get the rope across, anchor one end of a rope
that is at least double the width of the stream at point A. Take the other end of the line upstream as far as it
will go. Then, tie a sling rope around the waist of a strong swimmer and, using a snaplink, attach the line
to him. He should swim diagonally downstream to the far bank, pulling the rope across.
One-Rope Bridge. A one-rope bridge can be constructed either above water level or at water level. The
leader must decide which to construct. The bridge is constructed the same regardless of the level.
Crossing Method above Water Level. Use one of the following methods.
Commando crawl. Lie on the top of the rope with the instep of the right foot hooked on the rope. Let the left
leg hang to maintain balance. Pull across with the hands and arms, at the same time pushing on the rope
with the right foot. (For safety, tie a rappel seat and hooks the snaplink to the rope bridge.)
Monkey crawl. Hang suspended below the rope, holding the rope with the hands and crossing the knees
over the top of the rope. Pull with the hands and push with the legs. (For safety, tie a rappel seat and hook
the snaplink to the rope bridge.) This is the safest and the best way to cross the one-rope bridge.
Crossing Method at Water Level. Hold onto the rope with both hands, face upstream, and walk into the
water. Cross the bridge by sliding and pulling the hands along the rope. (For safety, tie a sling rope around
your waist, leaving a working end of about 3 to 4 feet. Tie a bowline in the working end and attach a
snaplink to the loop. Then, hook the snaplink to the rope bridge.)
To recover the rope, the last person unties the rope, ties it around his waist and, after all slack is taken
up, is pulled across.
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Two-rope bridge. Construction of this bridge is similar to that of the one-rope bridge, except two ropes,
a hand rope, and a foot rope are used. These ropes are spaced about 1.5 meters apart vertically at the
anchor points. (For added safety, make snaplink attachments to the hand and foot ropes from a rope tied
around the waist. Move across the bridge using the snaplink to allow the safety rope to slide.) To keep the
ropes a uniform distance apart as men cross, spreader ropes should be tied between the two ropes every 15
feet. A sling rope is used and tied to each bridge rope with a round turn and two half-hitches.
CHAPTER 2
Desert Survival
To survive and evade in arid or desert areas, you must understand and prepare for the environment you
will face. You must determine your equipment needs, the tactics you will use, and how the environment
will affect you and your tactics. Your survival will depend upon your knowledge of the terrain, basic
climatic elements, your ability to cope with these elements, and your will to survive.
Desert terrain also varies considerably from place to place, the sole common denominator being lack of
water with its consequent environmental effects, such as sparse, if any, vegetation. The basic land forms
are similar to those in other parts of the world, but the topsoil has been eroded due to a combination of
lack of water, heat, and wind to give deserts their characteristic barren appearance. The bedrock may be
covered by a flat layer of sand, or gravel, or may have been exposed by erosion. Other common features
are sand dunes, escarpments, wadis, and depressions.
It is important to realize that deserts are affected by seasons. Those in the Southern Hemisphere have
summer between 21 December and 21 March. This 6-month difference from the United States makes acclimatization
more difficult for persons coming from winter conditions.
TERRAIN
Key terrain in the desert is largely dependent on the restrictions to movement that are present. If the
desert floor will not support wheeled vehicle traffic, the few roads and desert tracks become key terrain.
Figure 2-1: Deserts of the World.
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Figure 2-2: Desert locations of the world.
Crossroads are vital as they control military operations in a large area. Desert warfare is often a battle for
control of the lines of communication (LOC). The side that can protect its own LOC while interdicting
those of the enemy will prevail. Water sources are vital, especially if a force is incapable of long distance
resupply of its water requirements. Defiles play an important role, where they exist. In the Western Desert
of Libya, an escarpment that paralleled the coast was a barrier to movement except through a few
passes. Control of these passes was vital. Similar escarpments are found in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.
Types of Desert Terrain. There are three types of desert terrain: mountain, rocky plateau, and sandy or
dune terrain. The following paragraphs discuss these types of terrain.
Mountain Deserts. Mountain deserts are characterized by scattered ranges or areas of barren hills or mountains,
separated by dry, flat basins. See Figure 2-3 for an example of mountain desert terrain. High ground
may rise gradually or abruptly from flat areas, to a height of several thousand feet above sea level. Most
of the infrequent rainfall occurs on high ground and runs off in the form of flash floods, eroding deep gullies
and ravines and depositing sand and gravel around the edges of the basins. Water evaporates rapidly,
leaving the land as barren as before, although there may be short-lived vegetation. If sufficient water enters
the basin to compensate for the rate of evaporation, shallow lakes may develop, such as the Great Salt Lake
in Utah or the Dead Sea; most of these have a high salt content.
Rocky Plateau Deserts. Rocky plateau deserts are extensive flat areas with quantities of solid or broken
rock at or near the surface. See Figure 2-4 for an example of a rocky plateau desert. They may be wet or
dry, steep-walled eroded valleys, known as wadis, gulches, or canyons. Narrow valleys can be extremely
dangerous to men and material due to flash flooding after rains; although their flat bottoms may be superficially
attractive as assembly areas. The National Training Center and the Golan Heights are examples of
rocky plateau deserts.
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Sandy or Dune Deserts. Sandy or dune deserts are extensive flat areas covered with sand or gravel, the
product of ancient deposits or modern wind erosion. “Flat” is relative in this case, as some areas may
contain sand dunes that are over 1,000 feet high and 10-15 miles long; trafficability on this type of terrain
will depend on windward/leeward gradients of the dunes and the texture of the sand. See Figure 2-5 for
an example of a sandy desert. Other areas, however, may be totally flat for distances of 3,000 meters and
beyond. Plant life may vary from none to scrub, reaching over 6 feet high. Examples of this type of desert
include the ergs of the Sahara, the Empty Quarter of the Arabian desert, areas of California and New
Mexico, and the Kalahari in South Africa. See Figure 2-6 for an example of a dune desert.
Salt Marshes. Salt marshes are flat, desolate areas, sometimes studded with clumps of grass but devoid of
other vegetation. They occur in arid areas where rainwater has collected, evaporated, and left large deposits
of alkali salts and water with a high salt concentration. The water is so salty it is undrinkable. A crust
that may be 2.5 to 30 centimeters thick forms over the saltwater.
In arid areas there are salt marshes hundreds of kilometers square. These areas usually support many
insects, most of which bite. Avoid salt marshes. This type of terrain is highly corrosive to boots, clothing,
and skin. A good example is the Shat-el-Arab waterway along the Iran-Iraq border.
Trafficability. Roads and trails are rare in the open desert. Complex road systems beyond simple commercial
links are not needed. Road systems have been used for centuries to connect centers of commerce,
or important religious shrines such as Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia. These road systems are supplemented
by routes joining oil or other mineral deposits to collection outlet points. Some surfaces, such as
lava beds or salt marshes, preclude any form of routine vehicular movement, but generally ground movement
is possible in all directions. Speed of movement varies depending on surface texture. Rudimentary
trails are used by minor caravans and nomadic tribesmen, with wells or oases approximately every 20 to 40
miles; although there are some waterless stretches which extend over 100 miles. Trails vary in width from
a few meters to over 800 meters.
Vehicle travel in mountainous desert country may be severely restricted. Available mutes can be easily
blinked by the enemy or by climatic conditions. Hairpin turns are common on the edges of precipitous
mountain gorges, and the higher passes may be blocked by snow in the winter.
Natural Factors. The following terrain features require special considerations regarding trafficability.
Figure 2-3: Example of mountain desert terrain.
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Figure 2-4: Example of rocky plateau desert terrian.
Wadis or dried water courses vary from wide, but barely perceptible depressions of soft sand, dotted
with bushes, to deep, steep-sided ravines. There frequently is a passable route through the bottom of a
dried wadi. Wadis can provide cover from ground observation and camouflage from visual air reconnaissance.
The threat of flash floods after heavy rains poses a significant danger to troops and equipment
downstream. Flooding may occur in these areas even if it is not raining in the immediate area. See Figure
2-7 for an example of a wadi.
Salt marsh (sebkha) terrain is impassable to tracks and wheels when wet. When dry it has a brittle,
crusty surface, negotiable by light wheel vehicles only. Salt marshes develop at points where the water
in the subsoil of the desert rose to the surface. Because of the constant evaporation in the desert, the salts
carried by the water are deposited, and results in a hard, brittle crust.
Salt marshes are normally impassable, the worst type being those with a dry crust of silt on top. Marsh
mud used on desert sand will, however, produce an excellent temporary road. Many desert areas have
salt marshes either in the center of a drainage basin or near the sea coast. Old trails or paths may cross
Figure 2-5: Example of sandy desert terrian.
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Figure 2-6: Example of dune desert terrian.
the marsh, which are visible during the dry season but not in the wet season. In the wet season trails are
indicated by standing water due to the crust being too hard or too thick for it to penetrate. However, such
routes should not be tried by load-carrying vehicles without prior reconnaissance and marking. Vehicles
may become mired so severely as to render equipment and units combat ineffective. Heavier track-laying
vehicles, like tanks, are especially susceptible to these areas, therefore reconnaissance is critical.
Man-made Factors. The ruins of earlier civilizations, scattered across the deserts of the world, often are
sited along important avenues of approach and frequently dominate the only available passes in difficult
terrain. Control of these positions may be imperative for any force intending to dominate the immediate
area. Currently occupied dwellings have little impact on trafficability except that they are normally located
near roads and trails. Apart from nomadic tribesmen who live in tents (see Figure 2-8 for an example
of desert nomads), the population lives in thick-walled structures with small windows, usually built of
masonry or a mud and straw (adobe) mixture. Figure 2-9 shows common man-made desert structures.
Because of exploration for and production of oil and other resources, wells, pipelines, refineries, quarries,
and crushing plants may be of strategic importance in the desert. Pipelines are often raised 1 meter
off the ground—where this is the case, pipelines will inhibit movement. Subsurface pipelines can also be
Figure 2-7: Example of a wadi.
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Figure 2-8: Example of desert nomads.
an obstacle. In Southwest Asia, the subsurface pipelines were indicated on maps. Often they were buried
at such a shallow depth that they could be damaged by heavy vehicles traversing them. Furthermore, if a
pipeline is ruptured, not only is the spill of oil a consideration, but the fumes may be hazardous as well.
Agriculture in desert areas has little effect on trafficability except that canals limit surface mobility.
Destruction of an irrigation system, which may be a result of military operations, could have a devastating
effect on the local population and should be an important consideration in operational estimates. Figure
2-10 shows an irrigation ditch.
TEMPERATURE
The highest known ambient temperature recorded in a desert was 136 degrees Fahrenheit (58 degrees
Celsius). Lower temperatures than this produced internal tank temperatures approaching 160 degrees
Figure 2-9: Common man-made desert structures.
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Figure 2-10: Irrigation ditch.
Fahrenheit (71 degrees Celsius) in the Sahara Desert during the Second World War. Winter temperatures
in Siberian deserts and in the Gobi reach minus 50 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 45 degrees Celsius). Low
temperatures are aggravated by very strong winds producing high windchill factors. The cloudless sky
of the desert permits the earth to heat during sunlit hours, yet cool to near freezing at night. In the inland
Sinai, for example, day-to-night temperature fluctuations are as much as 72 degrees Fahrenheit.
Winds. Desert winds can achieve velocities of near hurricane force; dust and sand suspended within them
make life intolerable, maintenance very difficult, and restrict visibility to a few meters. The Sahara “Khamseen”,
for example, lasts for days at a time; although it normally only occurs in the spring and summer. The
deserts of Iran are equally well known for the “wind of 120 days,” with sand blowing almost constantly
from the north at wind velocities of up to 75 miles per hour.
Although there is no danger of a man being buried alive by a sandstorm, individuals can become separated
from their units. In all deserts, rapid temperature changes invariably follow strong winds. Even without
wind, the telltale clouds raised by wheels, tracks, and marching troops give away movement. Wind
aggravates the problem. As the day gets warmer the wind increases and the dust signatures of vehicles
may drift downwind for several hundred meters.
In the evening the wind normally settles down. In many deserts a prevailing wind blows steadily from
one cardinal direction for most of the year, and eventually switches to another direction for the remaining
months. The equinoctial gales raise huge sandstorms that rise to several thousand feet and may last
for several days. Gales and sandstorms in the winter months can be bitterly cold. See Figure 2-11 for an
example of wind erosion.
Mirages. Mirages are optical phenomena caused by the refraction of light through heated air rising from
a sandy or stony surface. They occur in the interior of the desert about 10 kilometers from the coast. They
make objects that are 1.5 kilometers or more away appear to move.
This mirage effect makes it difficult for you to identify an object from a distance. It also blurs distant range
contours so much that you feel surrounded by a sheet of water from which elevations stand out as “islands.”
The mirage effect makes it hard for a person to identify targets, estimate range, and see objects clearly.
However, if you can get to high ground (3 meters or more above the desert floor), you can get above the
superheated air close to the ground and overcome the mirage effect. Mirages make land navigation difficult
because they obscure natural features. You can survey the area at dawn, dusk, or by moonlight when
there is little likelihood of mirage.
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Figure 2-11: Example of wind erosion.
Light levels in desert areas are more intense than in other geographic areas. Moonlit nights are usually
crystal clear, winds die down, haze and glare disappear, and visibility is excellent. You can see lights, red
flashlights, and blackout lights at great distances. Sound carries very far.
Conversely, during nights with little moonlight, visibility is extremely poor. Traveling is extremely hazardous.
You must avoid getting lost, falling into ravines, or stumbling into enemy positions. Movement
during such a night is practical only if you have a compass and have spent the day in a shelter, resting,
observing and memorizing the terrain, and selecting your route.
Sandstorms are likely to form suddenly and stop just as suddenly. In a severe sandstorm, sand permeates
everything making movement nearly impossible, not only because of limited visibility, but also
because blowing sand damages moving parts of machinery.
Water. The lack of water is the most important single characteristic of the desert. The population, if any,
varies directly with local water supply. A Sahara oasis may, for its size, be one of the most densely occupied
places on earth (see Figure 2-12 for a typical oasis).
Desert rainfall varies from one day in the year to intermittent showers throughout the winter. Severe
thunderstorms bring heavy rain, and usually far too much rain falls far too quickly to organize collection
on a systematic basis. The water soon soaks into the ground and may result in flash floods. In some cases
the rain binds the sand much like a beach after the tide ebbs allowing easy maneuver. However, it also
turns loam into an impassable quagmire obstacle. Rainstorms tend to be localized, affecting only a few
square kilometers at a time. Whenever possible, as storms approach, vehicles should move to rocky areas
or high ground to avoid flash floods and becoming mired.
Permanent rivers such as the Nile, the Colorado, or the Kuiseb in the Namib Desert of Southwest Africa
are fed by heavy precipitation outside the desert so the river survives despite a high evaporation rate.
Subsurface water may be so far below the surface, or so limited, that wells are normally inadequate to
support any great number of people. Because potable water is absolutely vital, a large natural supply may
be both tactically and strategically important. Destruction of a water supply system may become a political
rather than military decision, because of its lasting effects on the resident civilian population.
Finding Water. When there is no surface water, tap into the earth’s water table for ground water. Access
to this table and its supply of generally pure water depends on the contour of the land and the type of soil.
See Figure 2-13 for water tables.
From Rocky Soil. Look for springs and seepages. Limestone has more and larger springs than any other
type rock. Because limestone is easily dissolved, caverns are readily etched in it by ground water. Look in
these caverns for springs. Lava rock is a good source of seeping ground water because it is porous. Look
for springs along the walls of valleys that cross the lava flow. Look for seepage where a dry canyon cuts
through a layer of porous sandstone.
Desert Survival 739
Figure 2-12: Typical oasis.
Watch for water indicators in desert environments. Some signs to look for are the direction in which
certain birds fly, the location of plants, and the convergence of game trails. Asian sand grouse, crested
larks, and zebra birds visit water holes at least once a day. Parrots and pigeons must live within reach of
water. Cattails, greasewoods, willows, elderberry, rushes, and salt grass grow only where ground water is
near the surface. Look for these signs and dig. If you do not have a bayonet or entrenching tool, dig with
a flat rock or sharp stick.
Desert natives often know of lingering surface pools in low places. They cover their surface pools, so
look under brush heaps or in sheltered nooks, especially in semiarid and brush country.
Places that are visibly damp, where animals have scratched, or where flies hover, indicate recent surface
water. Dig in such places for water. Collect dew on clear nights by sponging it up with a handkerchief.
During a heavy dew you should be able to collect about a pint an hour.
Dig in dry stream beds because water may be found under the gravel. When in snow fields, put in a
water container and place it in the sun out of the wind.
From Plants. If unsuccessful in your search for ground or runoff water, or if you do not have time to purify
the questionable water, a water-yielding plant may be the best source. Clear sap from many plants is easily
obtained. This sap is pure and is mostly water.
Plant tissues. Many plants with fleshy leaves or stems store drinkable water. Try them wherever you find
them. The barrel cactus of the southwestern United States is a possible source of water (see Figure 2-14). Use
it only as a last resort and only if you have the energy to cut through the tough, spine-studded outer rind.
Cut off the top of the cactus and smash the pulp within the plant. Catch the liquid in a container. Chunks
may be carried as an emergency water source. A barrel cactus 3-1/2 feet high will yield about a quart of
milky juice and is an exception to the rule that milky or colored sap-bearing plants should not be eaten.
740 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 2-13: Water tables.
Roots of desert plants. Desert plants often have their roots near the surface. The Australian water tree,
desert oak, and bloodwood are some examples. Pry these roots out of the ground, cut them into 24-36 inch
lengths, remove the bark, and suck the water.
Vines. Not all vines yield palatable water, but try any vine found. Use the following method for tapping
a vine—it will work on any species:
Step 1. Cut a deep notch in the vine as high up as you can reach.
Step 2. Cut the vine off close to the ground and let the water drip into your mouth or into a container.
Step 3. When the water ceases to drip, cut another section off the top. Repeat this until the supply
of fluid is exhausted.
Palms. Burl, coconut, sugar and nipa palms contain a drinkable sugary fluid. To start the flow in coconut
palm, bend the flower stalk downward and cut off the top. If a thin slice is cut off the stalk every 12 hours,
you can renew the flow and collect up to a quart a day.
Figure 2-14: Barrel cactus as possible source of water.
Desert Survival 741
Coconut. Select green coconuts. They can be opened easily with a knife and they have more milk than
ripe coconuts. The juice of a ripe coconut is extremely laxative; therefore, do not drink more than three or
four cups a day.
The milk of a coconut can be obtained by piercing two eyes of the coconut with a sharp object such as
a stick or a nail. To break off the outer fibrous covering of the coconut without a knife, slam the coconut
forcefully on the point of a rock or protruding stump.
Survival Water Still. You can build a cheap and simple survival still that will produce drinking water in a
dry desert. Basic materials for setting up this still are—
• 6-foot square sheet of clean plastic.
• A 2- to 4-quart capacity container.
• A 5-foot piece of flexible plastic tubing.
Pick an unshaded spot for the still, and dig a hole. If no shovel is available, use a stick or even your
hands. The hole should be about 3 feet across for a few inches down, then slope the hole toward the bottom
as shown in Figure 2-15 which depicts a cross section of a survival still. The hole should be deep enough
so the point of the plastic cone will be about 18 inches below ground and will still clear the top of the container.
Once the hole is properly dug, tape one end of the plastic drinking tube inside the container and
center the container in the bottom of the hole. Leave the top end of the drinking tube free, lay the plastic
sheet over the hole, and pile enough dirt around the edge of the plastic to hold it securely. Use a fist-size
rock to weight down the center of the plastic; adjust the plastic as necessary to bring it within a couple of
inches of the top of the container. Heat from the sun vaporizes the ground water. This vapor condenses
under the plastic, trickles down, and drops into the container.
Vegetation. The indigenous vegetation and wildlife of a desert have physiologically adapted to the conditions
of the desert environment. For example, the cacti of the American desert store moisture in enlarged
stems. Some plants have drought-resistant seeds that may lie dormant for years, followed by a brief, but
colorful display of growth after a rainstorm. The available vegetation is usually inadequate to provide
Figure 2-15: Cross-section of a survival still.
742 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
much shade, shelter, or concealment, especially from the air. Some plants, like the desert gourd, have vines
which grow to 4.5 meters (15 feet). Others have wide lateral roots just below the surface to take advantage
of rain and dew, while still others grow deep roots to tap subsurface water. Presence of palm trees usually
indicates water within a meter of the surface, salt grass within 2 meters, cottonwood and willows up to 4
meters. In addition to indicating the presence of water, some plants are edible. For more information on
edible plants, see Part IV, Chapter 6 “Survival Use of Plants.”
Wildlife. Invertebrates such as ground-dwelling spiders, scorpions, and centipedes, together with insects
of almost every type, are in the desert. Drawn to man as a source of moisture or food, lice, mites, and flies
can be extremely unpleasant and carry diseases such as scrub typhus and dysentery. The stings of scorpions
and the bites of centipedes and spiders are extremely painful, though seldom fatal. Some species of
scorpion, as well as black widow and recluse spiders, can cause death. The following paragraphs describe
some of the wildlife that are encountered in desert areas and the hazards they may pose to man.
Scorpions. Scorpions are prevalent in desert regions. They prefer damp locations and are particularly active
at night. Scorpions are easily recognizable by their crab-like appearance, and by their long tail which ends
in a sharp stinger. Adult scorpions vary from less than an inch to almost 8 inches in length. Colors range
from nearly black to straw to striped. Scorpions hide in clothing, boots, or bedding, so troops should routinely
shake these items before using. Although scorpion stings are rarely fatal, they can be painful.
Flies. Flies are abundant throughout desert environments. Filth-borne disease is a major health problem
posed by flies. Dirt or insects in the desert can cause infection in minor cuts and scratches.
Fleas. Avoid all dogs and rats which are the major carriers of fleas. Fleas are the primary carriers of plague
and murine typhus. For more information on dangerous insects, see Part IV, Chapter 3, “Dangerous Insects
and Arachnids.”
Reptiles. Reptiles are perhaps the most characteristic group of desert animals. Lizards and snakes occur
in quantity, and crocodiles are common in some desert rivers. Lizards are normally harmless and can be
ignored; although exceptions occur in North America and Saudi Arabia.
Snakes, ranging from the totally harmless to the lethal, abound in the desert. A bite from a poisonous
snake under two feet long can easily become infected. Snakes seek shade (cool areas) under bushes,
rocks, trees, and shrubs. These areas should be checked before sitting or resting. Troops should always
check clothing and boots before putting them on. Vehicle operators should look for snakes when initially
conducting before-operations maintenance. Look for snakes in and around suspension components and
engine compartments as snakes may seek the warm areas on recently parked vehicles to avoid the cool
night temperatures.
Sand vipers have two long and distinctive fangs that may be covered with a curtain of flesh or folded
back into the mouth. Sand vipers usually are aggressive and dangerous in spite of their size. A sand viper
usually buries itself in the sand and may strike at a passing man; its presence is alerted by a characteristic
coiling pattern left on the sand.
The Egyptian cobra can be identified by its characteristic cobra combative posture. In this posture, the
upper portion of the body is raised vertically and the head tilted sharply forward. The neck is usually
flattened to form a hood. The Egyptian cobra is often found around rocky places and ruins and is fairly
common. The distance the cobra can strike in a forward direction is equal to the distance the head is raised
above the ground. Poking around in holes and rock piles is particularly dangerous because of the likelihood
of encountering a cobra. See Figure 2-16 for an example of a viper and cobra. For more information
on dangerous snakes, see Part IV, Chapter 4, “Poisonous Snakes and Lizards.”
Mammals. The camel is the best known desert mammal. The urine of the camel is very concentrated to
reduce water loss, allowing it to lose 30 percent of its body weight without undue distress. A proportionate
loss would be fatal to man. The camel regains this weight by drinking up to 27 gallons (120 liters) of water
at a time. It cannot, however, live indefinitely without water and will die of dehydration as readily as man
Desert Survival 743
in equivalent circumstances. Other mammals, such as gazelles, obtain most of their required water supply
from the vegetation they eat and live in areas where there is no open water. Smaller animals, including
rodents, conserve their moisture by burrowing underground away from the direct heat of the sun, only
emerging for foraging at night. All these living things have adapted to the environment over a period of
thousands of years; however, man has not made this adaptation and must carry his food and water with
him and must also adapt to this severe environment.
Dogs are often found near mess facilities and tend to be in packs of 8 or 10. Dogs are carriers of rabies
and should be avoided. Commanders must decide how to deal with packs of dogs; extermination and
avoidance are two options. Dogs also carry fleas which may be transferred upon bodily contact. Rabies is
present in most desert mammal populations. Do not take any chances of contracting fleas or rabies from
any animal by adopting pets.
Rats are carriers of various parasites and gastrointestinal diseases due to their presence in unsanitary
locations.
There is no reason to fear the desert environment, and it should not adversely affect the morale of a soldier/
marine who is prepared for it. Lack of natural concealment has been known to induce temporary agoraphobia
(fear of open spaces) in some troops new to desert conditions, but this fear normally disappears
with acclimatization. Remember that there is nothing unique about either living or fighting in deserts;
native tribesmen have lived in the Sahara for thousands of years. The British maintained a field army and
won a campaign in the Western Desert in World War II at the far end of a 12,000-mile sea line of communication
with equipment considerably inferior to that in service now. The desert is neutral, and affects both
sides equally; the side whose personnel are best prepared for desert operations has a distinct advantage.
The desert is fatiguing, both physically and mentally. A high standard of discipline is essential, as a
single individual’s lapse may cause serious damage to his unit or to himself. Commanders must exercise
a high level of leadership and train their subordinate leaders to assume greater responsibilities required
by the wide dispersion of units common in desert warfare. Soldiers/marines with good leaders are more
apt to accept heavy physical exertion and uncomfortable conditions. Every soldier/marine must clearly
understand why he is fighting in such harsh conditions and should be kept informed of the operational
situation. Ultimately, however, the maintenance of discipline will depend on individual training.
Commanders must pay special attention to the welfare of troops operating in the desert, as troops are
unable to find any “comforts” except those provided by the command. Welfare is an essential factor in the
maintenance of morale in a harsh environment, especially to the inexperienced. There is more to welfare
Figure 2-16: Sand viper and cobra.
744 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Figure 2-17: Types of heat gain.
than the provision of mail and clean clothing. Troops must be kept healthy and physically fit; they must
have adequate, palatable, regular food, and be allowed periods of rest and sleep. These things will not
always be possible and discomfort is inevitable, but if troops know that their commanders are doing
everything they can to make life tolerable, they will more readily accept the extremes brought on by the
environment.
Heat. The extreme heat of the desert can cause heat exhaustion and heatstroke and puts troops at risk
of degraded performance. For optimum mental and physical performance, body temperatures must be
maintained within narrow limits. Thus, it is important that the body lose the heat it gains during work.
The amount of heat accumulation in the human body depends upon the amount of physical activity, level
of hydration, and the state of personal heat acclimatization. Unit leaders must monitor their troops carefully
for signs of heat distress and adjust schedules, work rates, rest, and water consumption according to
conditions.
Normally, several physical and physiological mechanisms (e.g., convection and evaporation) assure
transfer of excess body heat to the air. But when air temperature is above skin temperature (around 92
degrees Fahrenheit) the evaporation of sweat is the only operative mechanism. Following the loss of sweat,
water must be consumed to replace the body’s lost fluids. If the body fluid lost through sweating is not
replaced, dehydration will follow. This will hamper heat dissipation and can lead to heat illness. When
humidity is high, evaporation of sweat is inhibited and there is a greater risk of dehydration or heat stress.
Consider the following to help prevent dehydration:
Desert Survival 745
Figure 2-18: Daily water requirements for three levels of activity.
•
Heat, wind, and dry air combine to produce a higher individual water requirement, primarily
through loss of body water as sweat. Sweat rates can be high even when the skin looks and feels
dry.
•
Dehydration nullifies the benefits of heat acclimatization and physical fitness, it increases the susceptibility
to heat injury, reduces the capacity to work, and decreases appetite and alertness. A lack
of alertness can indicate early stages of dehydration.
•
Thirst is not an adequate indicator of dehydration. The soldier/marine will not sense when he
is dehydrated and will fail to replace body water losses, even when drinking water is available.
The universal experience in the desert is that troops exhibit “voluntary dehydration” that is, they
maintain their hydration status at about 2 percent of body weight (1.5 quarts) below their ideal
hydration status without any sense of thirst.
746 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Chronic dehydration increases the incidence of several medical problems: constipation (already an issue
in any field situation), piles (hemorrhoids), kidney stones, and urinary infections. The likelihood of these
problems occurring can be reduced by enforcing mandatory drinking schedules.
Resting on hot sand will increase heat stress—the more a body surface is in contact with the sand, the
greater the heat stress. Ground or sand in full sun is hot, usually 30-45 degrees hotter than the air, and
may reach 150 degrees Fahrenheit when the air temperature is 120 degrees Fahrenheit. Cooler sand is just
inches below the surface; a shaded trench will provide a cool resting spot.
At the first evidence of heat illness, have the troops stop work, get into shade, and rehydrate. Early intervention
is important. Soldiers/marines who are not taken care of can become more serious casualties.
WARNING
One heat casualty is usually followed by others and is a warning that the entire
unit may be at risk. This is the “Weak Link Rule.” The status of the whole unit is
assessed at this point.
ACCLIMATIZATION
Acclimatization to heat is necessary to permit the body to reach and maintain efficiency in its cooling process.
A period of approximately 2 weeks should be allowed for acclimatization, with progressive increases
in heat exposure and physical exertion. Significant acclimatization can be attained in 4-5 days, but full
acclimatization takes 7-14 days, with 2-3 hours per day of exercise in the heat. Gradually increase physical
activity until full acclimatization is achieved.
Acclimatization does not reduce, and may increase, water requirements. Although this strengthens heat
resistance, there is no such thing as total protection against the debilitating effects of heat. Situations may
arise where it is not possible for men to become fully acclimatized before being required to do heavy labor.
When this happens heavy activity should be limited to cooler hours and troops should be allowed to rest
frequently. Check the weather daily. Day-to-day and region-to-region variations in temperatures, wind,
and humidity can be substantial.
Climatic Stress. Climatic stress on the human body in hot deserts can be caused by any combination of
air temperature, humidity, air movement, and radiant heat. The body is also adversely affected by such
factors as lack of acclimatization, being overweight, dehydration, alcohol consumption, lack of sleep, old
age, and poor health.
The body maintains its optimum temperature of 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit by conduction/convection,
radiation, and evaporation (sweat). The most important of these in the daytime desert is evaporation, as
air temperature alone is probably already above skin temperature. If, however, relative humidity is high,
air will not easily evaporate sweat and the cooling effect is reduced. The following paragraphs describe the
effects of radiant light, wind, and sand on personnel in desert areas.
Radiant Light. Radiant light comes from all directions. The sun’s rays, either direct or reflected off the
ground, affect the skin and can also produce eyestrain and temporarily impaired vision. Not only does
glare damage the eyes but it is very tiring; therefore, dark glasses or goggles should be worn.
Overexposure to the sun can cause sunburn. Persons with fair skin, freckled skin, ruddy complexions,
or red hair are more susceptible to sunburn than others, but all personnel are susceptible to some degree.
Personnel with darker complexions can also sunburn. This is difficult to monitor due to skin pigmentation,
so leaders must be ever vigilant to watch for possible sunburn victims. Sunburn is characterized by painful
reddened skin, and can result in blistering and lead to other forms of heat illness.
Soldier/marines should acquire a suntan in gradual stages (preferably in the early morning or late afternoon)
to gain some protection against sunburn. They should not be permitted to expose bare skin to the
Desert Survival 747
sun for longer than five minutes on the first day, increasing exposure gradually at the rate of five minutes
per day. They should be fully clothed in loose garments in all operational situations. This will also reduce
sweat loss. It is important to remember that—
•
The sun is as dangerous on cloudy days as it is on sunny days.
•
Sunburn ointment is not designed to give complete protection against excessive exposure.
•
Sunbathing or dozing in the desert sun can be fatal.
Wind. The wind can be as physically demanding as the heat, burning the face, arms, and any exposed skin
with blown sand. Sand gets into eyes, nose, mouth, throat, lungs, ears, and hair, and reaches every part of
the body. Even speaking and listening can be difficult. Continual exposure to blown sand is exhausting
and demoralizing. Technical work spaces that are protected from dust and sand are likely to be very hot.
Work/rest cycles and enforced water consumption will be required.
The combination of wind and dust or sand can cause extreme irritation to mucous membranes, chap the
lips and other exposed skin surfaces, and can cause nosebleed. Cracked, chapped lips make eating difficult
and cause communication problems. Irritative conjunctivitis, caused when fine particles enter the eyes, is
a frequent complaint of vehicle crews, even those wearing goggles. Lip balm and skin and eye ointments
must be used by all personnel. Constant wind noise is tiresome and increases soldier/marine fatigue, thus
affecting alertness.
When visibility is reduced by sandstorms to the extent that military operations are impossible, soldiers/
marines should not be allowed to leave their group for any purpose unless secured by lines for recovery.
The following are special considerations when performing operations in dust or sand:
•
Contact lenses are very difficult to maintain in the dry dusty environment of the desert and should
not be worn except by military personnel operating in air conditioned environments, under command
guidance.
•
Mucous membranes can be protected by breathing through a wet face cloth, snuffing small amounts
of water into nostrils (native water is not safe for this purpose) or coating the nostrils with a small
amount of petroleum jelly. Lips should be protected by lip balm.
•
Moving vehicles create their own sandstorms and troops traveling in open vehicles should be protected.
•
Scarves and bandannas can be used to protect the head and face.
•
The face should be washed as often as possible. The eyelids should be cleaned daily.
High Mineral Content. All arid regions have areas where the surface soil has a high mineral content (borax,
salt, alkali, and lime). Material in contact with this soil wears out quickly, and water in these areas is
extremely hard and undrinkable. Wetting your uniform in such water to cool off may cause a skin rash.
The Great Salt Lake area in Utah is an example of this type of mineral-laden water and soil. There is little
or no plant life; therefore, shelter is hard to find. Avoid these areas if possible.
BASIC HEAT INJURY PREVENTION
The temperature of the body is regulated within very narrow limits. Too little salt causes heat cramps; too
little salt and insufficient water causes heat exhaustion. Heat exhaustion will cause a general collapse of the
body’s cooling mechanism. This condition is heatstroke, and is potentially fatal. To avoid these illnesses,
troops should maintain their physical fitness by eating adequately, drinking sufficient water, and consuming
adequate salt. If soldiers/marines expend more calories than they take in, they will be more prone to
heat illnesses. Since troops may lose their desire for food in hot climates, they must be encouraged to eat,
with the heavier meal of the day scheduled during the cooler hours.
748 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
It is necessary to recognize heat stress symptoms quickly. When suffering from heatstroke, the
most dangerous condition, there is a tendency for a soldier/marine to creep away from his comrades and
attempt to hide in a shady and secluded spot; if not found and treated, he will die. When shade is required
during the day, it can best be provided by tarpaulins or camouflage nets, preferably doubled to allow air
circulation between layers and dampened with any surplus water.
Approximately 75 percent of the human body is fluid. All chemical activities in the body occur in a water
solution, which assists in the removal of toxic body wastes and plays a vital part in the maintenance of an
even body temperature. A loss of 2 quarts of body fluid (2.5 percent of body weight) decreases efficiency
by 25 percent and a loss of fluid equal to 15 percent of body weight is usually fatal. The following are some
considerations when operating in a desert environment:
•
Consider water a tactical weapon. Reduce heat injury by forcing water consumption. Soldiers/
marines in armored vehicles, MOPP gear, and in body armor need to increase their water intake.
•
When possible, drink cool (50-55 degrees Fahrenheit) water.
•
Drink one quart of water in the morning, at each meal, and before strenuous work. In hot climates
drink at least one quart of water each hour. At higher temperatures hourly water requirements
increase to over two quarts.
•
Take frequent drinks since they are more often effective than drinking the same amount all at once.
Larger soldiers/marines need more water.
•
Replace salt loss through eating meals.
•
When possible, work loads and/or duration of physical activity should be less during the first days
of exposure to heat, and then should gradually be increased to follow acclimatization.
•
Modify activities when conditions that increase the risk of heat injury (fatigue/loss of sleep, previous
heat exhaustion, taking medication) are present.
•
Take frequent rest periods in the shade, if possible. Lower the work rate and work loads as the heat
condition increases.
•
Perform heavy work in the cooler hours of the day such as early morning or late evening, if possible.
A description of the symptoms and treatment for heat illnesses follows:
•
Heat cramps.
o
Symptoms: Muscle cramps of arms, legs, and/or stomach. Heavy sweating (wet skin) and
extreme thirst.
o
First aid: Move soldier/marine to a shady area and loosen clothing. Slowly give large
amounts of cool water. Watch the soldier/marine and continue to give him water, if he
accepts it. Get medical help if cramps continue.
•
Heat exhaustion.
o
Symptoms: Heavy sweating with pale, moist, cool skin; headache, weakness, dizziness,
and/or loss of appetite; heat cramps, nausea (with or without vomiting), rapid breathing,
confusion, and tingling of the hands and/or feet.
o
First aid: Move the soldier/marine to a cool, shady area and loosen/remove clothing. Pour
water on the soldier/marine and fan him to increase the cooling effect. Have the soldier/
marine slowly drink at least one full canteen of water. Elevate the soldier’s/marine’s legs.
Get medical help if symptoms continue; watch the soldier/marine until the symptoms are
gone or medical aid arrives.
•
Heatstroke.
o
Symptoms: Sweating stops (red, flushed, hot dry skin).
o
First aid: Evacuate to a medical facility immediately. Move the soldier/marine to a cool, shady
area and loosen or remove clothing if the situation permits. Start cooling him immediately.
Desert Survival 749
Immerse him in water and fan him. Massage his extremities and skin and elevate his legs. If
conscious, have the soldier/marine slowly drink one full canteen of water.
Water Supply. Maintaining safe, clean, water supplies is critical. The best containers for small quantities
of water (5 gallons) are plastic water cans or coolers. Water in plastic cans will be good for up to 72 hours;
storage in metal containers is safe only for 24 hours. Water trailers, if kept cool, will keep water fresh up
to five days. If the air temperature exceeds 100 degrees Fahrenheit, the water temperature must be monitored.
When the temperature exceeds 92 degrees Fahrenheit, the water should be changed, as bacteria
will multiply. If the water is not changed the water can become a source of sickness, such as diarrhea. Ice
in containers keeps water cool. If ice is put in water trailers, the ice must be removed prior to moving the
trailer to prevent damage to the inner lining of the trailer.
Potable drinking water is the single most important need in the desert. Ensure nonpotable water is never
mistaken for drinking water. Water that is not fit to drink but is not otherwise dangerous (it may be merely
oversalinated) may be used to aid cooling. It can be used to wet clothing, for example, so the body does not
use too much of its internal store of water.
Use only government-issued water containers for drinking water. Carry enough water on a vehicle to
last the crew until the next planned resupply. It is wise to provide a small reserve. Carry water containers
in positions that—
• Prevent vibration by clamping them firmly to the vehicle body.
• Are in the shade and benefit from an air draft.
• Are protected from puncture by shell splinters.
• Are easily dismounted in case of vehicle evacuation.
Troops must be trained not to waste water. Water that has been used for washing socks, for example, is
perfectly adequate for a vehicle cooling system.
Obtain drinking water only from approved sources to avoid disease or water that may have been deliberately
polluted. Be careful to guard against pollution of water sources. If rationing is in effect, water
should be issued under the close supervision of officers and noncommissioned officers.
Humans cannot perform to maximum efficiency on a decreased water intake. An acclimatized soldier/
marine will need as much (if not more) water as the nonacclimatized soldier/marine, as he sweats more
readily. If the ration water is not sufficient, there is no alternative but to reduce physical activity or restrict
it to the cooler parts of the day.
In very hot conditions it is better to drink smaller quantities of water often rather than large quantities
occasionally. Drinking large quantities causes excessive sweating and may induce heat cramps. Use of
alcohol lessens resistance to heat due to its dehydrating effect. As activities increase or conditions become
more severe, increase water intake accordingly.
The optimum water drinking temperature is between 10 degrees Celsius and 15.5 degrees Celsius (50-60
degrees Fahrenheit). Use lister bags or even wet cloth around metal containers to help cool water.
Units performing heavy activities on a sustained basis, such as a forced march or digging in, at 80 degrees
wet bulb globe temperature index, may require more than 3 gallons of drinking water per man. Any
increase in the heat stress will increase this need. In high temperatures, the average soldier/marine will
require 9 quarts of water per day to survive, but 5 gallons are recommended. Details on water consumption
and planning factors are contained in Appendix G.
While working in high desert temperatures, a man at rest may lose as much as a pint of water per hour
from sweating. In very high temperatures and low humidity, sweating is not noticeable as it evaporates so
fast the skin will appear dry. Whenever possible, sweat should be retained on the skin to improve the cooling
process; however, the only way to do this is to avoid direct sun on the skin. This is the most important
reason why desert troops must remain fully clothed. If a soldier/marine is working, his water loss through
sweating (and subsequent requirement for replenishment) increases in proportion to the amount of work
750 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
done (movement). Troops will not always drink their required amount of liquid readily and will need to be
encouraged or ordered to drink more than they think is necessary as the sensation of thirst is not felt until
there is a body deficit of 1 to 2 quarts of water. This is particularly true during the period of acclimatization.
Packets of artificial fruit flavoring encourages consumption due to the variety of pleasant tastes.
All unit leaders must understand the critical importance of maintaining the proper hydration status.
Almost any contingency of military operations will act to interfere with the maintenance of hydration.
Urine provides the best indicator of proper hydration. The following are considerations for proper hydration
during desert operations:
•
Water is the key to your health and survival. Drink before you become thirsty and drink often,
When you become thirsty you will be about a “quart and a half low.”
•
Carry as much water as possible when away from approved sources of drinking water. Man can
live longer without food than without water. Drink before you work; carry water in your belly, do
not “save” it in your canteen. Learn to drink a quart or more of water at one time and drink frequently
to replace sweat losses.
•
Ensure troops have at least one canteen of water in reserve, and know where and when water
resupply will be available.
•
Carbohydrate/electrolyte beverages (e.g., Gatorade) are not required, and if used, should not be
the only source of water. They are too concentrated to be used alone. Many athletes prefer to dilute
these 1:1 with water. Gaseous drinks, sodas, beer, and milk are not good substitutes for water
because of their dehydrating effects.
•
If urine is more colored than diluted lemonade, or the last urination cannot be remembered, there
is probably insufficient water intake. Collect urine samples in field expedient containers and spot
check the color as a guide to ensuring proper hydration. Very dark urine warns of dehydration.
Soldiers/marines should observe their own urine, and use the buddy system to watch for signs of
dehydration in others.
•
Diseases, especially diarrheal diseases, will complicate and often prevent maintenance of proper
hydration.
Salt, in correct proportions, is vital to the human body; however, the more a man sweats, the more salt he
loses. The issue ration has enough salt for a soldier/marine drinking up to 4 quarts of water per day. Unacclimatized
troops need additional salt during their first few days of exposure and all soldiers/marines
need additional salt when sweating heavily. If the water demand to balance sweat loss rises, extra salt must
be taken under medical direction. Salt, in excess of body requirements, may cause increased thirst and a
feeling of sickness, and can be dangerous. Water must be tested before adding salt as some sources are
already saline, especially those close to the sea.
What can individuals or small groups do when they are totally cut off from normal water supply? If
you are totally cut off from the normal water supply, the first question you must consider is whether you
should try to walk to safety or stay put and hope for rescue. Walking requires 1 gallon of water for every
20 miles covered at night, and 2 gallons for every 20 miles covered during the day. Without any water
and walking only at night, you may be able to cover 20 to 25 miles before you collapse. If your chance of
being rescued is not increased by walking 20 miles, you may be better off staying put and surviving one
to three days longer. If you do not know where you are going, do not try to walk with a limited supply
of water.
If you decide to walk to safety, follow the following guidelines in addition to the general conservation
practices listed in the next section:
•
Take as much water as you have and can carry, and carry little or no food.
•
Drink as much as you can comfortably hold before you set out.
•
Walk only at night.
Desert Survival 751
Whether you decide to walk or not, you should follow the principles listed below to conserve water in
emergency situations:
•
Avoid the sun. Stay in shade as much as possible. If you are walking, rest in shade during the day.
This may require some ingenuity. You may want to use standard or improvised tents, lie under
vehicles, or dig holes in the ground.
•
Cease activity. Do not perform any work that you do not have to for survival.
•
Remain clothed. It will reduce the water lost to evaporation.
•
Shield yourself from excessive winds. Winds, though they feel good also increase the evaporation
rate.
•
Drink any potable water you have as you feel the urge. Saving it will not reduce your body’s need
for it or the rate at which you use it.
•
Do not drink contaminated water from such sources as car radiators or urine. It will actually require
more water to remove the waste material. Instead, in emergencies, use such water to soak your
clothing as this reduces sweating.
•
Do not eat unless you have plenty of water.
Do not count on finding water if you are stranded in the desert. Still, in certain cases, some water can be
found. It does rain sometimes in the desert (although it may be 20 years between showers) and some water
will remain under the surface. Signs of possible water are green plants or dry lake beds. Sometimes water can
be obtained in these places by digging down until the soil becomes moist and then waiting for water to seep
into the hole. Desert trails lead from one water point to another, but they may be further apart than you can
travel without water. Almost all soils contain some moisture.
Cold. The desert can be dangerously cold. The dry air, wind, and clear sky can combine to produce bonechilling
discomfort and even injury. The ability of the body to maintain body temperature within a narrow
range is as important in the cold as in the heat. Loss of body heat to the environment can lead to cold
injury; a general lowering of the body temperature can result in hypothermia, and local freezing of body
tissues can lead to frostbite. Hypothermia is the major threat from the cold in the desert, but frostbite also
occurs.
Troops must have enough clothing and shelter to keep warm. Remember, wood is difficult to find;
any that is available is probably already in use. Troops may be tempted to leave clothing and equipment
behind that seems unnecessary (and burdensome) during the heat of the day. Cold-wet injuries (immersion
foot or trench foot) may be a problem for dismounted troops operating in the coastal marshes of the
Persian Gulf during the winter. Some guidelines to follow when operating in the cold are:
•
Anticipate an increased risk of cold-wet injuries if a proposed operation includes lowland or
marshes. Prolonged exposure of the feet in cold water causes immersion foot injury, which is completely
disabling.
•
Check the weather—know what conditions you will be confronting. The daytime temperature is no
guide to the nighttime temperature; 90-degree-Fahrenheit days can turn into 30-degree-Fahrenheit
nights.
•
The effects of the wind on the perception of cold is well known. Windchill charts contained in FM
21-10 allow estimation of the combined cooling power of air temperature and wind speed compared
to the effects of an equally cooling still-air temperature.
Clothing. Uniforms should be worn to protect against sunlight and wind. Wear the uniform loosely. Use
hats, goggles, and sunscreen. Standard lightweight clothing is suitable for desert operations but should be
camouflaged in desert colors, not green. Wear nonstarched long-sleeved shirts, and full-length trousers
tucked into combat boots. Wear a scarf or triangular bandanna loosely around the neck (as a sweat rag) to
752 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
protect the face and neck during sandstorms against the sand and the sun. In extremely hot and dry conditions
a wet sweat rag worn loosely around the neck will assist in body cooling.
Combat boots wear out quickly in desert terrain, especially if the terrain is rocky. The leather drys out
and cracks unless a nongreasy mixture such as saddle soap is applied. Covering the ventilation holes on
jungle boots with glue or epoxies prevents excessive sand from entering the boots. Although difficult to do,
keep clothing relatively clean by washing in any surplus water that is available. When water is not available,
air and sun clothing to help kill bacteria.
Change socks when they become wet. Prolonged wear of wet socks can lead to foot injury. Although dry
desert air promotes evaporation of water from exposed clothing and may actually promote cooling, sweat
tends to accumulate in boots.
Soldier/marines may tend to stay in thin clothing until too late in the desert day and become susceptible
to chills—so respiratory infections may be common. Personnel should gradually add layers of clothing at
night (such as sweaters), and gradually remove them in the morning. Where the danger of cold weather
injury exists in the desert, commanders must guard against attempts by inexperienced troops to discard
cold weather clothing during the heat of the day.
Compared to the desert battle dress uniform (DBDU) the relative impermeability of the battle dress overgarment
(BDO) reduces evaporative cooling capacity. Wearing underwear and the complete DBDU, with
sleeves rolled down and under the chemical protective garment, provides additional protection against
chemical poisoning. However, this also increases the likelihood of heat stress casualties.
Hygiene and Sanitation. Personal hygiene is absolutely critical to sustaining physical fitness. Take every
opportunity to wash. Poor personal hygiene and lack of attention to siting of latrines cause more casualties
than actual combat. Field Marshal Rommel lost over 28,400 soldiers of his Afrika Corps to disease in 1942.
During the desert campaigns of 1942, for every one combat injury, there were three hospitalized for disease.
Proper standards of personal hygiene must be maintained not only as a deterrent to disease but as a
reinforcement to discipline and morale. If water is available, shave and bathe daily. Cleaning the areas of
the body that sweat heavily is especially important; change underwear and socks frequently, and use foot
powder often. Units deployed in remote desert areas must have a means of cutting hair therefore, barber
kits should be maintained and inventoried prior to any deployment. If sufficient water is not available,
troops should clean themselves with sponge baths, solution-impregnated pads, a damp rag, or even a
dry, clean cloth. Ensure that waste water is disposed of in an approved area to prevent insect infestation.
If sufficient water is not available for washing, a field expedient alternative is powder baths, that is, using
talcum or baby powder to dry bathe.
Check troops for any sign of injury, no matter how slight, as dirt or insects can cause infection in minor
cuts and scratches. Small quantities of disinfectant in washing water reduces the chance of infection. Minor
sickness can have serious effects in the desert. Prickly heat for example, upsets the sweating mechanism
and diarrhea increases water loss, making the soldier/marine more prone to heat illnesses. The buddy system
helps to ensure that prompt attention is given to these problems before they incapacitate individuals.
Intestinal diseases can easily increase in the desert. Proper mess sanitation is essential. Site latrines well
away and downwind of troop areas and lagers. Trench-type latrines should be used where the soil is suitable
but must be dug deeply, as shallow latrines become exposed in areas of shifting sand. Funnels dug
into a sump work well as urinals. Layer the bottom of slit trenches with lime and cover the top prior to
being filled in. Ensure lime is available after each use of the latrine. Flies are a perpetual source of irritation
and carry infections. Only good sanitation can keep the fly problem to a minimum. Avoid all local tribe
camps since they are frequently a source of disease and vermin.
Desert Sickness. Diseases common to the desert include plague, typhus, malaria, dengue fever, dysentery,
cholera, and typhoid. Diseases which adversely impact hydration, such as those which include nausea,
vomiting, and diarrhea among their symptoms, can act to dramatically increase the risk of heat (and cold)
illness or injury. Infectious diseases can result in a fever; this may make it difficult to diagnose heat illness.
Occurrences of heat illness in troops suffering from other diseases complicate recovery from both ailments.
Desert Survival 753
Many native desert animals and plants are hazardous. In addition to injuries as a result of bites, these
natural inhabitants of the desert can be a source of infectious diseases.
Many desert plants and shrubs have a toxic resin that can cause blisters, or spines that can cause infection.
Consider milky sap, all red beans, and smoke from burning oleander shrubs, poisonous. Poisonous
snakes, scorpions, and spiders are common in all deserts. Coastal waters of the Persian Gulf contain
hazardous marine animals including sea snakes, poisonous jellyfish, and sea urchins.
Skin diseases can result from polluted water so untreated water should not be used for washing clothes;
although it can be used for vehicle cooling systems or vehicle decontamination.
The excessive sweating common in hot climates brings on prickly heat and some forms of fungus infections
of the skin. The higher the humidity, the greater the possibility of their occurrence. Although many
deserts are not humid, there are exceptions, and these ailments are common to humid conditions.
The following are additional health-related considerations when operating in a desert environment:
•
The most common and significant diseases in deserts include diarrheal and insectborne febrile
(i.e., fever causing) illnesses—both types of these diseases are preventable.
•
Most diarrheal diseases result from ingestion of water or food contaminated with feces. Flies, mosquitoes,
and other insects carry fever—causing illnesses such as malaria, sand fly fever, dengue
(fever with severe pain in the joints), typhus, and tick fevers.
•
There are no safe natural water sources in the desert. Standing water is usually infectious or too
brackish to be safe for consumption. Units and troops must always know where and how to get safe
drinking water.
•
Avoid brackish water (i.e., salty). It, like sea water, increases thirst; it also dehydrates the soldier/
marine faster than were no water consumed. Brackish water is common even in public water supplies,
Iodine tablets only kill germs, they do not reduce brackishness.
•
Water supplies with insufficient chlorine residuals, native food and drink, and ice from all sources
are common sources of infective organisms.
Preventive Measures. Both diarrheal and insectborne diseases can be prevented through a strategy
which breaks the chain of transmission from infected sources to susceptible soldiers/marines by effectively
applying preventive measures. Additional preventive measures are described below:
•
Careful storage, handling and purification/preparation of water and food are the keys to prevention
of diarrheal disease. Procure all food, water, ice, and beverages from US military approved
sources and inspect them routinely.
•
Well-cooked foods that are “steaming hot” when eaten are generally safe, as are peeled fruits and
vegetables.
•
Local dairy products and raw leafy vegetables are generally unsafe.
•
Consider the food in native markets hazardous. Avoid local food unless approved by medical
personnel officials.
•
Assume raw ice and native water to be contaminated—raw ice cannot be properly disinfected. Ice has
been a major source of illness in all prior conflicts; therefore, use ice only from approved sources.
•
If any uncertainty exists concerning the quality of drinking water, troops should disinfect their
supplies using approved field-expedient methods (e.g., hypochlorite for lister bags, iodine tablets
for canteens, boiling).
•
Untreated water used for washing or bathing risks infection.
•
Hand washing facilities should be established at both latrines and mess facilities. Particular attention
should be given to the cleanliness of hands and fingernails. Dirty hands are the primary means
of transmitting disease.
•
Dispose of human waste and garbage. Additional considerations regarding human waste and
garbage are—
754 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
o
Sanitary disposal is important in preventing the spread of disease from insects, animals, and
infected individuals, to healthy soldiers/marines.
o
Construction and maintenance of sanitary latrines are essential.
o
Burning is the best solution for waste.
o
Trench latrines can be used if the ground is suitable, but they must be dug deeply enough so
that they are not exposed to shifting sand, and they must have protection against flies and
other insects that can use them as breeding places.
o
Food and garbage attract animals—do not sleep where you eat and keep refuse areas away
from living areas.
o
Survey the unit area for potential animal hazards.
o
Shakeout boots, clothing, and bedding before using them.
CHAPTER 3
Cold Weather Survival
One of the most difficult survival situations is a cold weather scenario. Remember, cold weather is
an adversary that can be as dangerous as an enemy soldier. Every time you venture into the cold,
you are pitting yourself against the elements. With a little knowledge of the environment, proper
plans, and appropriate equipment, you can overcome the elements. As you remove one or more of
these factors, survival becomes increasingly difficult. Remember, winter weather is highly variable.
Prepare yourself to adapt to blizzard conditions even during sunny and clear weather.
Cold is a far greater threat to survival than it appears. It decreases your ability to think and weakens
your will to do anything except to get warm. Cold is an insidious enemy; as it numbs the mind and body, it
subdues the will to survive. Cold makes it very easy to forget your ultimate goal—to survive.
COLD REGIONS AND LOCATIONS
Cold regions include arctic and subarctic areas and areas immediately adjoining them. You can classify
about 48 percent of the northern hemisphere’s total landmass as a cold region due to the influence and
extent of air temperatures. Ocean currents affect cold weather and cause large areas normally included in
the temperate zone to fall within the cold regions during winter periods. Elevation also has a marked effect
on defining cold regions.
Within the cold weather regions, you may face two types of cold weather environments—wet or dry.
Knowing in which environment your area of operations falls will affect planning and execution of a cold
weather operation.
Wet Cold Weather Environments. Wet cold weather conditions exist when the average temperature in a
24-hour period is –10 degrees C or above. Characteristics of this condition are freezing during the colder
night hours and thawing during the day. Even though the temperatures are warmer during this condition,
the terrain is usually very sloppy due to slush and mud. You must concentrate on protecting yourself from
the wet ground and from freezing rain or wet snow.
Dry Cold Weather Environments. Dry cold weather conditions exist when the average temperature in a
24-hour period remains below –10 degrees C. Even though the temperatures in this condition are much
lower than normal, you do not have to contend with the freezing and thawing. In these conditions, you
need more layers of inner clothing to protect you from temperatures as low as –60 degrees C. Extremely
hazardous conditions exist when wind and low temperature combine.
WINDCHILL
Windchill increases the hazards in cold regions. Windchill is the effect of moving air on exposed flesh. For
instance, with a 27.8-kph (15-knot) wind and a temperature of –10 degrees C, the equivalent windchill temperature
is –23 degrees C. Table 3-1 gives the windchill factors for various temperatures and wind speeds.
Remember, even when there is no wind, you will create the equivalent wind by skiing, running, being
towed on skis behind a vehicle, working around aircraft that produce wind blasts.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COLD WEATHER SURVIVAL
It is more difficult for you to satisfy your basic water, food, and shelter needs in a cold environment than
in a warm environment. Even if you have the basic requirements, you must also have adequate protective
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clothing and the will to survive. The will to survive is as important as the basic needs. There have been incidents
when trained and well-equipped individuals have not survived cold weather situations because they
lacked the will to live. Conversely, this will has sustained individuals less well-trained and equipped.
There are many different items of cold weather equipment and clothing issued by the U.S. Army today.
Specialized units may have access to newer, lightweight underwear, outerwear and boots, and other special
equipment. Remember, however, the older gear will keep you warm as long as you apply a few cold
weather principles. If the newer types of clothing are available, use them. If not, then your clothing should
be entirely wool, with the possible exception of a windbreaker.
You must not only have enough clothing to protect you from the cold, you must also know how to
maximize the warmth you get from it. For example, always keep your head covered. You can lose 40 to
45 percent of body heat from an unprotected head and even more from the unprotected neck, wrist, and
ankles. These areas of the body are good radiators of heat and have very little insulating fat. The brain is
very susceptible to cold and can stand the least amount of cooling. Because there is much blood circulation
in the head, most of which is on the surface, you can lose heat quickly if you do not cover your head.
There are four basic principles to follow to keep warm. An easy way to remember these basic principles
is to use the word COLD—
C—Keep clothing clean.
O—Avoid overheating.
L—Wear clothes loose and in layers.
D—Keep clothing dry.
Table 3-1: Windchill table.
Cold Weather Survival 757
C—Keep clothing clean. This principle is always important for sanitation and comfort. In winter, it is also
important from the standpoint of warmth. Clothes matted with dirt and grease lose much of their insulation
value. Heat can escape more easily from the body through the clothing’s crushed or filled up air
pockets.
O—Avoid overheating. When you get too hot, you sweat and your clothing absorbs the moisture. This
affects your warmth in two ways: dampness decreases the insulation quality of clothing, and as sweat
evaporates, your body cools. Adjust your clothing so that you do not sweat. Do this by partially opening
your parka or jacket, by removing an inner layer of clothing, by removing heavy outer mittens, or by
throwing back your parka hood or changing to lighter headgear. The head and hands act as efficient heat
dissipaters when overheated.
L—Wear your clothing loose and in layers. Wearing tight clothing and footgear restricts blood circulation
and invites cold injury. It also decreases the volume of air trapped between the layers, reducing its
insulating value. Several layers of lightweight clothing are better than one equally thick layer of clothing,
because the layers have dead-air space between them. The dead-air space provides extra insulation. Also,
layers of clothing allow you to take off or add clothing layers to prevent excessive sweating or to increase
warmth.
D—Keep clothing dry. In cold temperatures, your inner layers of clothing can become wet from sweat
and your outer layer, if not water repellent, can become wet from snow and frost melted by body heat.
Wear water repellent outer clothing, if available. It will shed most of the water collected from melting
snow and frost. Before entering a heated shelter, brush off the snow and frost. Despite the precautions
you take, there will be times when you cannot keep from getting wet. At such times, drying your clothing
may become a major problem. On the march, hang your damp mittens and socks on your rucksack.
Sometimes in freezing temperatures, the wind and sun will dry this clothing. You can also place damp
socks or mittens, unfolded, near your body so that your body heat can dry them. In a campsite, hang
damp clothing inside the shelter near the top, using drying lines or improvised racks. You may even be
able to dry each item by holding it before an open fire. Dry leather items slowly. If no other means are
available for drying your boots, put them between your sleeping bag shell and liner. Your body heat will
help to dry the leather.
A heavy, down-lined sleeping bag is a valuable piece of survival gear in cold weather. Ensure the down
remains dry. If wet, it loses a lot of its insulation value. If you do not have a sleeping bag, you can make one
out of parachute cloth or similar material and natural dry material, such as leaves, pine needles, or moss.
Place the dry material between two layers of the material.
Other important survival items are a knife; waterproof matches in a waterproof container, preferably
one with a flint attached; a durable compass; map; watch; waterproof ground cloth and cover; flashlight;
binoculars; dark glasses; fatty emergency foods; food gathering gear; and signaling items.
Remember, a cold weather environment can be very harsh. Give a good deal of thought to selecting the
right equipment for survival in the cold. If unsure of an item you have never used, test it in an “overnight
backyard” environment before venturing further. Once you have selected items that are essential for your
survival, do not lose them after you enter a cold weather environment.
HYGIENE
Although washing yourself may be impractical and uncomfortable in a cold environment, you must do so.
Washing helps prevent skin rashes that can develop into more serious problems.
In some situations, you may be able to take a snow bath. Take a handful of snow and wash your body
where sweat and moisture accumulate, such as under the arms and between the legs, and then wipe yourself
dry. If possible, wash your feet daily and put on clean, dry socks. Change your underwear at least
twice a week. If you are unable to wash your underwear, take it off, shake it, and let it air out for an hour
or two.
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If you are using a previously used shelter, check your body and clothing for lice each night. If your clothing
has become infested, use insecticide powder if you have any. Otherwise, hang your clothes in the cold,
then beat and brush them. This will help get rid of the lice, but not the eggs.
If you shave, try to do so before going to bed. This will give your skin a chance to recover before exposing
it to the elements.
MEDICAL ASPECTS
When you are healthy, your inner core temperature (torso temperature) remains almost constant at 37
degrees C (98.6 degrees F). Since your limbs and head have less protective body tissue than your torso,
their temperatures vary and may not reach core temperature.
Your body has a control system that lets it react to temperature extremes to maintain a temperature balance.
There are three main factors that affect this temperature balance—heat production, heat loss, and evaporation.
The difference between the body’s core temperature and the environment’s temperature governs the
heat production rate. Your body can get rid of heat better than it can produce it. Sweating helps to control the
heat balance. Maximum sweating will get rid of heat about as fast as maximum exertion produces it.
Shivering causes the body to produce heat. It also causes fatigue that, in turn, leads to a drop in body
temperature. Air movement around your body affects heat loss. It has been calculated that a naked man
exposed to still air at or about 0 degrees C can maintain a heat balance if he shivers as hard as he can. However,
he can’t shiver forever.
It has also been calculated that a man at rest wearing the maximum arctic clothing in a cold environment
can keep his internal heat balance during temperatures well below freezing. To withstand really cold
conditions for any length of time, however, he will have to become active or shiver.
COLD INJURIES
The best way to deal with injuries and sicknesses is to take measures to prevent them from happening in
the first place. Treat any injury or sickness that occurs as soon as possible to prevent it from worsening.
The knowledge of signs and symptoms and the use of the buddy system are critical in maintaining
health. Following are cold injuries that can occur.
Hypothermia. Hypothermia is the lowering of the body temperature at a rate faster than the body can produce
heat. Causes of hypothermia may be general exposure or the sudden wetting of the body by falling
into a lake or spraying with fuel or other liquids.
The initial symptom is shivering. This shivering may progress to the point that it is uncontrollable and
interferes with an individual’s ability to care for himself. This begins when the body’s core (rectal) temperature
falls to about 35.5 degrees C (96 degrees F). When the core temperature reaches 35 to 32 degrees
C (95 to 90 degrees F), sluggish thinking, irrational reasoning, and a false feeling of warmth may occur.
Core temperatures of 32 to 30 degrees C (90 to 86 degrees F) and below result in muscle rigidity, unconsciousness,
and barely detectable signs of life. If the victim’s core temperature falls below 25 degrees C (77
degrees F), death is almost certain.
To treat hypothermia, rewarm the entire body. If there are means available, rewarm the person by first
immersing the trunk area only in warm water of 37.7 to 43.3 degrees C (100 to 110 degrees F).
CAUTION
Rewarming the total body in a warm water bath should be done only in a hospital environment
because of the increased risk of cardiac arrest and rewarming shock.
One of the quickest ways to get heat to the inner core is to give warm water enemas. Such an action,
however, may not be possible in a survival situation. Another method is to wrap the victim in a warmed
sleeping bag with another person who is already warm; both should be naked.
Cold Weather Survival759
CAUTION
The individual placed in the sleeping bag with victim could also become a hypothermia
victim if left in the bag too long.
If the person is conscious, give him hot, sweetened fluids. One of the best sources of calories is honey or
dextrose; if unavailable, use sugar, cocoa, or a similar soluble sweetener.
CAUTION
Do not force an unconscious person to drink.
There are two dangers in treating hypothermia—rewarming too rapidly and “after drop.” Rewarming
too rapidly can cause the victim to have circulatory problems, resulting in heart failure. After drop is the
sharp body core temperature drop that occurs when taking the victim from the warm water. Its probable
muse is the return of previously stagnant limb blood to the core (inner torso) area as recirculation occurs.
Concentrating on warming the core area and stimulating peripheral circulation will lessen the effects of
after drop. Immersing the torso in a warm bath, if possible, is the best treatment.
Frostbite. This injury is the result of frozen tissues. Light frostbite involves only the skin that takes on a
dull whitish pallor. Deep frostbite extends to a depth below the skin. The tissues become solid and immovable.
Your feet, hands, and exposed facial areas are particularly vulnerable to frostbite.
The best frostbite prevention, when you are with others, is to use the buddy system. Check your buddy’s
face often and make sure that he checks yours. If you are alone, periodically cover your nose and lower
part of your face with your mittened hand.
The following pointers will aid you in keeping warm and preventing frostbite when it is extremely cold
or when you have less than adequate clothing:
•
Face. Maintain circulation by twitching and wrinkling the skin on your face and making faces.
Warm with your hands.
•
Ears. Wiggle and move your ears. Warm with your hands.
•
Hands. Move your hands inside your gloves. Warm by placing your hands close to your body.
•
Feet. Move your feet and wiggle your toes inside your boots.
A loss of feeling in your hands and feet is a sign of frostbite. If you have lost feeling for only a short time,
the frostbite is probably light. Otherwise, assume the frostbite is deep. To rewarm a light frostbite, use your
hands or mittens to warm your face and ears. Place your hands under your armpits. Place your feet next
to your buddy’s stomach. A deep frostbite injury, if thawed and refrozen, will cause more damage than a
nonmedically trained person can handle. Table 3-2 lists some do’s and don’ts regarding frostbite.
Trench Foot and Immersion Foot. These conditions result from many hours or days of exposure to wet or
damp conditions at a temperature just above freezing. The symptoms are a sensation of pins and needles,
tingling, numbness, and then pain. The skin will initially appear wet, soggy, white, and shriveled. As it
progresses and damage appears, the skin will take on a red and then a bluish or black discoloration. The
feet become cold, swollen, and have a waxy appearance. Walking becomes difficult and the feet feel heavy
and numb. The nerves and muscles sustain the main damage, but gangrene can occur. In extreme cases, the
flesh dies and it may become necessary to have the foot or leg amputated. The best prevention is to keep
your feet dry. Carry extra socks with you in a waterproof packet. You can dry wet socks against your torso
(back or chest). Wash your feet and put on dry socks daily.
Dehydration. When bundled up in many layers of clothing during cold weather, you may be unaware that
you are losing body moisture. Your heavy clothing absorbs the moisture that evaporates in the air. You
760 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
Table 3-2: Frostbite do’s and dont’s.
must drink water to replace this loss of fluid. Your need for water is as great in a cold environment as it
is in a warm environment (see Chapter 2). One way to tell if you are becoming dehydrated is to check the
color of your urine on snow. If your urine makes the snow dark yellow, you are becoming dehydrated and
need to replace body fluids. If it makes the snow light yellow to no color, your body fluids have a more
normal balance.
Cold Diuresis. Exposure to cold increases urine output. It also decreases body fluids that you must
replace.
Sunburn. Exposed skin can become sunburned even when the air temperature is below freezing. The
sun’s rays reflect at all angles from snow, ice, and water, hitting sensitive areas of skin—lips, nostrils, and
eyelids. Exposure to the sun results in sunburn more quickly at high altitudes than at low altitudes. Apply
sunburn cream or lip salve to your face when in the sun.
Snow Blindness. The reflection of the sun’s ultraviolet rays off a snow-covered area causes this condition.
The symptoms of snow blindness are a sensation of grit in the eyes, pain in and over the eyes that increases
with eyeball movement, red and teary eyes, and a headache that intensifies with continued exposure to
light. Prolonged exposure to these rays can result in permanent eye damage. To treat snow blindness, bandage
your eyes until the symptoms disappear.
You can prevent snow blindness by wearing sunglasses. If you don’t have sunglasses, improvise. Cut
slits in a piece of cardboard, thin wood, tree bark, or other available material (Figure 15-3). Putting soot
under your eyes will help reduce shine and glare.
Constipation. It is very important to relieve yourself when needed. Do not delay because of the cold condition.
Delaying relieving yourself because of the cold, eating dehydrated foods, drinking too little liquid,
and irregular eating habits can cause you to become constipated. Although not disabling, constipation can
cause some discomfort. Increase your fluid intake to at least 2 liters above your normal 2 to 3 liters daily
intake and, if available, eat fruit and other foods that will loosen the stool.
Insect Bites. Insect bites can become infected through constant scratching. Flies can carry various diseaseproducing
germs. To prevent insect bites, use insect repellent, netting, and wear proper clothing.
SHELTERS
Your environment and the equipment you carry with you will determine the type of shelter you can
build. You can build shelters in wooded areas, open country, and barren areas. Wooded areas usually
provide the best location, while barren areas have only snow as building-material. Wooded areas provide
timber for shelter construction, wood for fire, concealment from observation, and protection from
the wind.
Cold Weather Survival 761
- NOTE
In extreme cold, do not use metal, such as an aircraft fuselage, for shelter. The metal will
conduct away from the shelter what little heat you can generate.
Shelters made from ice or snow usually require tools such as ice axes or saws. You must also expend
much time and energy to build such a shelter. Be sure to ventilate an enclosed shelter, especially if you
intend to build a fire in it. Always block a shelter’s entrance, if possible, to keep the heat in and the wind
out. Use a rucksack or snow block. Construct a shelter no larger than needed. This will reduce the amount
of space to heat. A fatal error in cold weather shelter construction is making the shelter so large that it steals
body heat rather than saving it. Keep shelter space small.
Never sleep directly on the ground. Lay down some pine boughs, grass, or other insulating material to
keep the ground from absorbing your body heat.
Never fall asleep without turning out your stove or lamp. Carbon monoxide poisoning can result from
a fire burning in an unventilated shelter. Carbon monoxide is a great danger. It is colorless and odorless.
Anytime you have an open flame, it may generate carbon monoxide. Always check your ventilation. Even
in a ventilated shelter, incomplete combustion can cause carbon monoxide poisoning. Usually, there are
no symptoms. Unconsciousness and death can occur without warning. Sometimes, however, pressure at
the temples, burning of the eyes, headache, pounding pulse, drowsiness, or nausea may occur. The one
characteristic, visible sign of carbon monoxide poisoning is a cherry red coloring in the tissues of the lips,
mouth, and inside of the eyelids. Get into fresh air at once if you have any of these symptoms.
There are several types of field-expedient shelters you can quickly build or employ. Many use snow
for insulation. See Part III, Chapter 3, “Special Operations and Situations,” for more information on fieldexpedient
shelters.
FIRE
Fire is especially important in cold weather. It not only provides a means to prepare food, but also to get
warm and to melt snow or ice for water. It also provides you with a significant psychological boost by making
you feel a little more secure in your situation.
Use the techniques described in Part V, Chapter 1 to build and light your fire. If you are in enemy territory,
remember that the smoke, smell, and light from your fire may reveal your location. Light reflects
Figure 3-1: Improvised sunglasses.
762 The Ultimate Guide to U.S. Army Survival Skills, Tactics, and Techniques
from surrounding trees or rocks, making even indirect light a source of danger. Smoke tends to go straight
up in cold, calm weather, making it a beacon during the day, but helping to conceal the smell at night. In
warmer weather, especially in a wooded area, smoke tends to hug the ground, making it less visible in the
day, but making its odor spread.
If you are in enemy territory, cut low tree boughs rather than the entire tree for firewood. Fallen trees
are easily seen from the air.
All wood will burn, but some types of wood create more smoke than others. For instance, coniferous
trees that contain resin and tar create more and darker smoke than deciduous trees.
There are few materials to use for fuel in the high mountainous regions of the arctic. You may find some
grasses and moss, but very little. The lower the elevation, the more fuel available. You may find some scrub
willow and small, stunted spruce trees above the tree line. On sea ice, fuels are seemingly nonexistent.
Driftwood or fats may be the only fuels available to a survivor on the barren coastlines in the arctic and
subarctic regions.
Abundant fuels within the tree line are—
•
Spruce trees are common in the interior regions. As a conifer, spruce makes a lot of smoke when burned
in the spring and summer months. However, it burns almost smoke-free in late fall and winter.
•
The tamarack tree is also a conifer. It is the only tree of the pine family that loses its needles in the
fall. Without its needles, it looks like a dead spruce, but it has many knobby buds and cones on its
bare branches. When burning, tamarack wood makes a lot of smoke and is excellent for signaling
purposes.
•
Birch trees are deciduous and the wood burns hot and fast, as if soaked with oil or kerosene. Most
birches grow near streams and lakes, but occasionally you will find a few on higher ground and
away from water.
•
Willow and alder grow in arctic regions, normally in marsh areas or near lakes and streams. These
woods burn hot and fast without much smoke.
Dried moss, grass, and scrub willow are other materials you can use for fuel. These are usually plentiful
near streams in tundras (open, treeless plains). By bundling or twisting grasses or other scrub vegetation
to form a large, solid mass, you will have a slower burning, more productive fuel.
If fuel or oil is available from a wrecked vehicle or downed aircraft, use it for fuel. Leave the fuel in the
tank for storage, drawing on the supply only as you need it. Oil congeals in extremely cold temperatures,
therefore, drain it from the vehicle or aircraft while still warm if there is no danger of explosion or fire. If
you have no container, let the oil drain onto the snow or ice. Scoop up the fuel as you need it.
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