COMBAT+USA(part2)

EXAMPLE



FIRE MISSION



FRONT



TROOPS



SIX HUNDRED



CORRECTION



THREE HUNDRED



TRAVERSE



AT MY COMMAND





(2) When the leader makes an error in the subsequent fire command, he may correct it by announcing “correction,” and then repeating the entire subsequent fire command.



EXAMPLE



LEFT FIVE METERS, DROP ONE METER



CORRECTION



LEFT FIVE METERS, DROP ONE HUNDRED METERS





e. Abbreviated Fire Commands. Fire commands need not be complete to be effective. In combat, the leader gives only the elements necessary to place fire on a target quickly and without confusion. During training, however, he should use all of the elements to get gunners in the habit of thinking and reacting properly when a target is to be engaged. After the gunner’s initial training in fire commands, he should be taught to react to abbreviated fire commands, using one of the following methods.



(1) Oral.The leader may want to place the fire of one machine gun on an enemy machine gun.





EXAMPLE



GUN NUMBER ONE, FIRE MISSION



MACHINE GUN



FOUR HUNDRED



FIRE





(2) Arm-and-Hand Signals. Battlefield noise and the distance between the gunner and the leader often make it necessary to use arm-and-hand signals to control fire (Figure 2-25). When an action or movement is to be executed by only one of the gunners, a preliminary signal is given to that gunner only. The following are commonly used signals for fire control.





Figure 2-25: Arm-and-hand signals.





(a) Ready. The gunner indicates that he is ready to fire by yelling “up” or having the assistant gunner raise his hand above his head toward the leader.



(b) Commence Firing or Change Rate of Firing. The leader brings his hand (palm down) to the front of his body about waist level, and moves it horizontally in front of his body. To signal an increase in the rate of fire, he increases the speed of the hand movement to signal slower fire, and he decreases the speed of the hand movement.



(c) Change Direction or Elevation. The leader extends his arm and hand in the new direction and indicates the amount of change necessary by the number of fingers extended. The fingers must be spread, so the gunner can easily see the number of fingers extended. Each finger indicates 1 meter of change for the weapon. If the desired change is more than 5 meters, the leader extends his hand the number of times necessary to indicate the total amount of change. For example, right nine would be indicated by extending the hand once with five fingers showing and a second time with four fingers showing for a total of nine fingers.



(d) Interrupt or Cease Firing. The leader raises his arm and hand (palm outward) in front of his forehead and brings it downward sharply.



(e) Other Signals. The leader can devise other signals to control his weapons.





SECTION VI. RANGE DETERMINATION



During combat, ranges are seldom known. Poor visibility and damp ground often make adjustment of fire by observation difficult if not impossible. Therefore, correct range determination is critical for accurate effective fire. Range estimation and lateral distance measurements are two methods used to determine the range to the target.


2-19. RANGE ESTIMATION



Range estimation is determining the distance between two points. In most situations, one of these points is the gunner’s own position; the other point may be a target or prominent terrain feature. The gunner must accurately determine the range to set the sights and effectively fire on a target with the first burst.

a. Not only does the accurate estimation of range affect marksmanship, but it is also required in the reporting of information and the adjustment of artillery and mortar fire (Table 2-1).



b. There are several methods of estimating range. They include measuring distance on a map, pacing the distance between two points, and using an optical range finder. The gunner does not usually have a map and rarely has access to an optical range finder. He can pace the distance between two points if the enemy is not within range. Firing rounds to determine the range is not desirable, since it may reveal your position to the enemy. Most of the time, the gunner must use techniques that do not require equipment and can be used without exposing himself or revealing his position. There are two methods that meet these requirements: the appearance-of-objects and the 100-meter-unit-of-measure.



(1) Appearance-of-Objects Method. This method is a means of estimating range by the size and other characteristic details of the object.



(a) This is a common method of determining distances and is used most often. For example, a motorist trying to pass another car must judge the distance of oncoming vehicles based on his knowledge of how vehicles appear at various distances. In this example, the motorist is not interested in precise distances but only in having enough road space to safely pass the car. Suppose, however, the motorist knew that at a distance of 1 kilometer, an oncoming vehicle appeared to be 1 centimeter between headlights. Then, anytime he saw other oncoming vehicles that fit these dimensions, he would know they were about 1 kilometer away. This technique can be used by a gunner to estimate ranges on the battlefield. If the gunner knows the characteristic size and detail of men and equipment at known ranges, he can compare these characteristics to similar objects at unknown ranges. When characteristics match, so does the range.



(b) To use the appearance-of-objects method with any degree of accuracy, the gunner must know the characteristic details of objects as they appear at various ranges. For example, the gunner should study the appearance of a man standing at a range of 100 meters. He fixes the man’s appearance firmly in his mind, carefully noting details of size and the characteristics of uniform and equipment. Next, he studies the same man in a kneeling position and then in a prone position. By comparing the appearance of the man at known ranges from 100 to 500 meters, the gunner can establish a series of mental images that will help determine range on unfamiliar terrain. Training should also be conducted in the appearance of other familiar objects such as weapons or vehicles. Because the successful use of this method depends upon visibility, anything that limits visibility (such as weather, smoke, or darkness) will also limit the effectiveness of this method.



Table 2-1: Factors of range estimation.





(2) 100-Meter-Unit-of-Measure Method. To use this method, the gunner visualizes a distance of 100-meters on the ground. For ranges up to 500-meters (Figure 2-26), he determines the number of 100-meter increments between the two points he wishes to measure. Beyond 500-meters (Figure 2-27), he selects a point halfway to the target, determines the number of 100-meter increments to the halfway point, and then doubles it to find the range to the target.



(a) During training, the gunner must become familiar with the effect that sloping terrain has on the appearance of a 100-meter increment. Terrain that slopes upward gives the illusion of longer distance, and observers have a tendency to overestimate the 100-meter increment. Terrain that slopes downward gives the illusion of shorter distance. In this case, the gunner’s tendency is to underestimate the 100-meter increment and thus underestimate the range.



(b) Proficiency in the 100-meter-unit-of-measure method requires constant practice. When training in this technique, the gunner should make frequent comparisons between the range as determined by the himself and by pacing or other accurate means of measurement. The best training technique is to pace the range after he has visually determined it. In this way, he discovers the actual range for himself, which makes a much greater impression than if he is told the correct range.



(c) A limitation of the 100-meter-unit-of-measure method is that its accuracy is directly related to the amount of terrain visible to the gunner. This is particularly true at greater ranges. If a target appears at a range of 500 meters or more and the gunner can only see a portion of the ground between himself and the target, it becomes difficult to use the 100-meter-unit-of-measure method of range estimation with any degree of accuracy.



(3) Combination of Methods. Under ideal conditions, either the appearance-of-objects method or 100-meter-unit-of-measure method is an effective method of estimating range. However, ideal conditions rarely exist on the battlefield, so the gunner must use a combination of methods. The terrain might limit the use of the appearance-of-objects method. For example, a gunner may not be able to see all the terrain out to the target; however, he may see enough to get a general idea of the distance. A slight haze may obscure many of the target details, but the gunner should still be able to judge its size. By carefully considering the ranges estimated by both methods, an experienced gunner should arrive at a figure close to the true range. The best way to reduce errors using these two methods is to train often.





Figure 2-26: Applying the 100-meter-unit-of-measure method for ranges up to 500 meters.





Figure 2-27: Applying the 100-meter-unit-of-measure method for ranges up to 800 meters





2-20. LATERAL DISTANCE MEASUREMENT



In addition to estimating range accurately, the gunner needs a quick method of measuring lateral distance (right or left) from a reference point to a target. When the machine gun is tripod-mounted, width can be measured by aiming on a point, manipulating the traversing handwheel, and counting the clicks from one point of aim to another point of aim. Each click equals 1 mil and is equivalent to 1 meter at 1,000 meters, or half a meter at 500 meters. When the machine gun is bipod-mounted, the gunner can use his fingers to measure the lateral distance between a reference point and a target. He extends his arm with his palm outward, lowers his fingers, and locks his elbow. Then, he closes one eye, raises his index finger, and sights along its edge, placing the edge of his finger so that it appears to be along the flank of the target or reference point. The gunner fills the space remaining between the points by raising his fingers until the space is covered. He states the measurement from the reference point to the target as being one or more fingers, depending upon how many fingers are raised to cover this distance.



SECTION VII. ADVANCED GUNNERY



Once the gunner masters the four fundamentals of marksmanship in the prone position and fighting position, he needs practice in engaging targets that will most likely replicate the battlefield. The advanced gunnery field firing exercise for the gunner exposes him to different types of targets at various ranges to simulate combat conditions.


2-21. OBJECTIVES



The objectives of this training are to reinforce the fundamentals and increase the effectiveness of the gunner by building his confidence (not for qualification). He must acquire targets quickly and deliver an accurate volume of fire.


2-22. ORGANIZATION



The unit is assembled in the bleachers, given the training objectives, a range briefing, and a safety briefing. Gunners are then organized into firing orders with a gunner and an assistant gunner. (Concurrent training stations must be set up for those soldiers not on the firing line.)


2-23. AMMUNITION



This exercise requires 392 rounds of 7.62-mm linked ammunition (zero is included). The gunner is allotted two 7-round bursts for each target and fires twice.


2-24. FIRING SEQUENCE



The sequence of firing is to be conducted IAW Firing Table IV (Table 2-2). Commanders may score their soldiers to determine their most proficient gunners, to assess the marksmanship program, and to encourage competition.

a. Task 1, Field Zeroing the 500-Meter, Single E-Type Silhouette. The gunner is allocated 28 rounds of ammunition.



b. Task 2, Engage Single E-Type Silhouettes From the Prone and Fighting Position, Bipod Supported (Point Targets) at Various Ranges. The gunner will use his NBC equipment (Mask and Gloves). Targets are at 100, 200, 250, 300, and 400 meters. The gunner is allocated 70 rounds of ammunition.



c. Task 3, Engage Double E-Type Silhouettes (Automatic Weapon Positions) at Various Ranges. Targets are at 250, 300, 400, 500, and 600 meters. The gunner is allocated 70 rounds of ammunition.



d. Task 4, Engage Linear E-Type Silhouettes (Troops on Line) at Various Ranges. The gunner uses his NBC equipment (Mask and Gloves). Targets are at 300 and 600 meters. The gunner is allocated 28 rounds of ammunition.





WARNING





The M240B is carried loaded with the bolt locked to the rear in tactical situations where noise discipline is critical to the success of the mission. Trained gun crews are the only personnel authorized to load the M240B and only when command directs the crew to do so. During normal training exercises, the M240B is loaded and carried with the bolt in the forward position.





2-25. ALTERNATE FIRING POSITIONS



All gunners must master the bipod-supported prone firing fighting position, and tripod-supported prone firing position to be effective. But it is also equally important that they know other positions. Each gunner must be trained to assume different positions quickly during various combat conditions. The situation determines the appropriate position. The gunner must establish his position so that he can effectively observe and engage the target yet minimize his exposure to enemy fire.

a. Positions. The underarm firing position and the hip firing position are used.



(1) Underarm Firing Position. This position is used almost exclusively when moving in and around the objective during the assault (Figure 2-28). To assume this position, the gunner—



(a) Puts the bipod legs and rear sight down for instant use in the prone position if necessary.



(b) Faces the target with his feet spread about shoulder width apart.



(c) Places his left foot in front of the right with most of his weight on his left foot.



Table 2-2: Firing Table II.





(d) Bends both legs at the knees and leans forward at the waist.



(e) With his right hand, firmly grasps the pistol grip, and with his right forearm holds the stock firmly against the side of his body at a point between his armpit and waist.



(f) With his left hand, grasps the handguard firmly.



(g) Points his left foot in the direction of the target while his right foot provides stability.



(h) Depresses the muzzle of the machine gun slightly so the strike of rounds can be observed. (This reduces shooting high and takes advantage of ricochets.)



(i) Leans toward the target before and during firing.



(2) Hip Firing Position. This position is used when closing with the enemy, when a heavy volume of fire in the target area is required, and when rapid movement is not necessary (Figure 2-29). The only differences between this position and the underarm position are that the gunner—



(a) Holds the rear of the stock firmly against the forward position of his right thigh.



(b) Extends his arms fully downward.



b. Alternate Firing Position Exercises. The assault fire exercise challenges the gunner. It consists of point and area targets during a variety of conditions replicating the battlefield. These exercises, which involve fire and maneuver, must be carefully controlled for safety purposes.



(1) Objectives. This exercise gives the gunner practice on engaging targets as quickly as possible, using any of the alternate firing positions.



(2) Organization. The unit is assembled in the bleachers, given instructions, and briefed on training that will be conducted while they are on the range. After the briefing, they are organized into firing orders and moved to firing lanes. Lanes are conducted and used IAW local range policies.



(3) Ammunition. This exercise requires a total of 168 rounds of 7.62-mm linked ammunition. The gunner is allowed two bursts per exposure, and he is also required to conduct at least one rapid reload during the exercise and the gunner will fire this twice. The commander has the option of when the rapid reload may take place. Ammunition is configured into two belts of any size that requires the gunner to reload.





Figure 2-28: Underarm firing position





Figure 2-29: Hip firing position





(4) Firing Sequence.The sequence of firing is conducted IAW Firing Table V (Table 2-3). The suggested sequence of firing is as follows.



(a) Task 1, Dry Fire Walk-Through. Upon his arrival at the firing position, the gunner walks through his respective lane to become familiar with the targets. No ammunition is fired at this time. When he returns, he draws his ammunition.





NOTE



Commanders ensure that ammunition is used in such a manner that the gunner is required to rapidly reload sometime during his movement phases.





(b) Task 2, Engage Single E-Type Silhouette from the Hip-Firing Position. After being issued the ammunition, the gunner begins his movement. When targets are exposed, he uses the hip-firing technique. He is given a single exposed target at a distance of 25 meters, with an exposure time of 5 seconds.



(c) Task 3, Engage Single E-Type Silhouettes from the Underarm-Firing Position. As the gunner continues to move through the course, he is given two single exposed E-type silhouettes at distances of 50 and 25 meters, where he engages each silhouette using the underarm-firing position. The exposure time for each target is 5 seconds.



(d) Task 4, Engage Single E-Type Silhouettes from the Underarm or Hip-Firing Position. Once the gunner reaches this point, he is be given three single exposed E-type silhouettes at distances of 25, 50, and 75 meters. The exposure time for each target is 5 seconds.



Table 2-3: Firing Table VIII.





NOTE



The commander may integrate firing under NBC conditions for selected tasks while negotiating the course, or he may conduct the course during limited visibility unaided.





2-26. MOVEMENT, SPEED, AND ALIGNMENT



The gunner must keep up with the other soldiers of the assaulting element through individual movement techniques. To do this, he moves as rapidly as possible, consistent with his ability to fire accurately and maintain alignment.


2-27. RELOADING



The gunner must reload rapidly to avoid lulls in the firing. This can be achieved by practicing and by applying the following techniques.

a. Before the assault, the gunner conducts prefire checks on the machine gun. He inspects ammunition to ensure that it is clean and serviceable, and he checks the box for serviceability.



b. During the assault, the gunner must continue moving forward and reload as rapidly as possible. The sling allows the gunner to reload using both hands.





Army Combat Guide

to Use & Identification

of Hand Grenades





CHAPTER 1





Types of Hand Grenades





1-1. DESCRIPTION



The hand grenade is a handheld, hand-armed, and hand-thrown weapon. U.S. forces use colored smoke, white smoke, riot-control, special purpose, offensive, and practice hand grenades. Each grenade has a different capability that provides the soldier with a variety of options to successfully complete any given mission. Hand grenades give the soldier the ability to kill enemy soldiers and destroy enemy equipment. Historically, the most important hand grenade has been the fragmentation grenade, which is the soldier’s personal indirect weapon system. Offensive grenades are much less lethal than fragmentation grenades on an enemy in the open, but they are very effective against an enemy within a confined space. Smoke and special purpose grenades can be used to signal, screen, control crowds or riots, start fires, or destroy equipment. The hand grenade is thrown by hand; therefore, the range is short and the casualty radius is small. The 4- to 5-second delay on the fuze allows the soldier to safely employ the grenade.


1-2. COMPONENTS



The hand grenade is made up of the following components:

a. Body. The body contains filler and, in certain grenades, fragmentation.



b. Filler. The filler is composed of a chemical or explosive substance, which determines the type of hand grenade for employment factors.



c. Fuze Assembly. The fuze causes the grenade to ignite or explode by detonating the filler.




1-3. MECHANICAL FUNCTION



The following is the sequence for the M67 fragmentation hand grenade safety clip insertion and arming.

a. Insert the Safety Clip. All hand grenades do not have safety clips (NSN 1330-00-183-5996). However, safety clips are available through Class V ammunition supply channels for some types of grenades. The safety clip is adaptable to the M26 and M67 series, the MK2, and the M69 practice grenade. The safety clip prevents the safety lever from springing loose even if the safety pin assembly is accidentally removed. The adjustment instructions are illustrated in Figure 1-1. The safety clip installation instructions are as follows:



(1) Hold the fuzed grenade in the palm of the hand with the pull ring up.



(2) Insert the small loop at the open end of the safety clip in the slot of the fuze body beneath the safety lever.



(3) Press the clip across the safety lever until the closed end of the clip touches the safety lever and snaps securely into place around the safety lever.



b. Arming Sequence. First remove the safety clip, then the safety pin, from the fuze by pulling the pull ring. Be sure to maintain pressure on the safety lever: it springs free once the safety clip and the safety pin assembly are removed.



c. Release Pressure on Lever. Once the grenade is thrown, the pressure on the safety lever is released, and the striker is forced to rotate on its axis by the striker spring, throwing the safety lever off. The striker then detonates the primer, and the primer explodes and ignites the delay element. The delay element burns for the prescribed amount of time then activates either the detonator or the igniter. The detonator or igniter acts to either explode or burn the filler substance (Figure 1-2).





Figure 1-1: Safety clip insertion.





Figure 1-2: Fuze functioning.





1-4. FUZES



The two types of fuzes used in current U.S. hand grenades are detonating and ignition. Both function in the same manner; the difference is how they activate the filler substance.

a. Detonating Fuze. Detonating fuzes explode within the grenade body to initiate the main explosion of the filler substance. Detonating fuzes include the M213 and M228.



(1) M213 fuze. The M213 fuze (Figure 1-3) is designed for use with the M67 fragmentation grenade. It has a safety clip. The standard delay element is a powder train requiring 4 to 5 seconds to burn to the detonator. In some cases, the delay element may vary from less than 4 seconds to more than 5 seconds due to defective fuzes.





Figure 1-3: M213 fuze.





WARNING





If pressure on the safety lever is relaxed after the safety clip and safety pin have been removed, it is possible that the striker can rotate and strike the primer while the thrower is still holding the grenade. This is called “milking” the grenade. Throwers must be instructed to maintain enough pressure on the safety lever so the striker cannot rotate.





(2) M228 fuze. The M228 fuze (Figure 1-4) is used with the M69 practice grenade to replicate the fuze delay of the M67 fragmentation hand grenade. The time delay element is a powder train with a 4- to 5-second delay burn. In some cases, however, the delay element may vary from less than 4 seconds to more than 5 seconds due to defective fuzes.





Figure 1-4: M228 fuze.





b. Igniting Fuze. Igniting fuzes are designed for use with chemical hand grenades. They burn at high temperatures and ignite the chemical filler. The M201A1 (Figure 1-5) is designed for use with the AN-M83HC white smoke grenade, the AN-M14 TH3 incendiary grenade, and the M18 colored smoke grenade. This fuze is interchangeable with any standard firing device. The time delay element is a powder train requiring 1.2 to 2 seconds to burn to the igniter. The igniter ignites the filler or a pyrotechnic starter with a violent burning action and expels the filler from the grenade body.





Figure 1-5: M201A1 fuze.





1-5. FRAGMENTATION HAND GRENADES



The following is a description of the M67 fragmentation hand grenade (Figure 1-6):

a. Body. The body is a steel sphere.



b. Filler. The filler has 6.5 ounces of Composition B.



c. Fuze. The fuze is an M213.



d. Weight. The grenade weighs 14 ounces.



e. Safety Clip. The grenade has a safety clip. (See paragraph 1-3.)



f. Capabilities. The average soldier can throw the M67 grenade 35 meters effectively. The effective casualty-producing radius is 15 meters and the killing radius is 5 meters.



g. Color and Markings. The grenade has an olive drab body with a single-yellow band at the top. Markings are in yellow.





Figure 1-6: M67 fragmentation hand grenade.





WARNING





Although the killing radius of this grenade is 5 meters and the casualty-producing radius is 15 meters, fragmentation can disperse as far away as 230 meters.





1-6. SMOKE HAND GRENADES



Smoke hand grenades are used as ground-to-ground or ground-to-air signaling devices, target or landing zone marking devices, or screening devices for unit movements.

a. M18 Colored Smoke Hand Grenade. The following is a description of the M18 colored smoke hand grenade and its components (Figure 1-7).



(1) Body. The body has a sheet steel cylinder with four emission holes at the top and one at the bottom. The holes allow smoke to escape when the grenade is ignited.



(2) Filler. The filler has 11.5 ounces of colored smoke mixture (red, yellow, green and violet).





Figure 1-7: M18 colored smoke hand grenade.





(3) Fuze. The fuze is an M201A1.



(4) Weight. The grenade weighs 19 ounces.



(5) Safety clip. This grenade does not have a safety clip.



(6) Capabilities. The average soldier can throw this grenade 35 meters. It produces a cloud of colored smoke for 50 to 90 seconds.



(7) Color and markings. The grenade has an olive drab body with the top indicating the smoke color.



(8) Field expedient. In combat, you may need to use the M18 hand grenade without the fuze. Use the following procedures in combat only:



• Remove the tape from the grenade bottom to expose the filler.



• Remove the fuze by unscrewing it from the grenade.



• Ignite the starter mixture with an open flame.



• Throw the grenade immediately to avoid burn injury.





WARNING





Do not use a smoke grenade in an enclosed area. If you must remain in the area with the smoke, always wear a protective mask.





b. AN-M83 HC White Smoke Hand Grenade. The AN-M83 HC white smoke hand grenade (Figure 1-8) is used for screening the activities of small units and for ground-to-air signaling.



(1) Body. The body is a cylinder of thin sheet metal, 2.5 inches in diameter.



(2) Filler. The filler has 11 ounces of terephthalic acid.



(3) Fuze. The fuze is an M201A1.



(4) Weight. The grenade weighs 16 ounces and is 2.5 inches in diameter and 5.7 inches in length.



(5) Safety clip. This grenade does not have a safety clip.



(6) Capabilities. The AN-M83 produces a cloud of white smoke for 25 to 70 seconds.



(7) Color and markings. The grenade has a forest green body with light green markings, a blue band, and a white top.





Figure 1-8: AN-M83 white smoke hand grenade.





1-7. RIOT-CONTROL HAND GRENADES



The ABC-M7A2 and ABC-M7A3 riot-control hand grenades (Figure 1-9) contain only CS as a filler. They differ only in the amount of filler and the form of the CS they contain. Description and components are as follows:

a. Body. The bodies of both grenades are sheet metal with four emission holes at the top and one at the bottom.



b. Filler. The ABC-7A2 grenade has 5.5 ounces of burning mixture and 3.5 ounces of CS in gelatin capsules. The ABC-M7A3 has 7.5 ounces of burning mixture and 4.5 ounces of pelletized CS agent.



c. Fuze. The fuze for either grenade is an M201A1.



d. Weight. Each grenade weighs about 15.5 ounces.



e. Safety. These grenades do not have safety clips.



f. Capabilities. The average soldier can throw these grenades 40 meters. Both grenades produce a cloud of irritant agent for 15 to 35 seconds.



g. Color and Markings. Both grenades have gray bodies with red bands and markings.





Figure 1-9: ABC-M7A2 and M7A3 riot-control hand grenades.





WARNING





Do not use a riot control grenade in an enclosed area. If you must remain in the area, always wear a protective mask.





1-8. SPECIAL-PURPOSE HAND GRENADES



a. Incendiary. The AN-M14 TH3 incendiary hand grenade (Figure 1-10) is used to destroy equipment or start fires. It can also damage, immobilize, or destroy vehicles, weapons systems, shelters, or munitions. The description and components are as follows:



(1) Body. The body is sheet metal.



(2) Filler. The filler has 26.5 ounces of thermate (TH3) mixture.



(3) Fuze. The fuze is an M201A1.



(4) Weight. The grenade weighs 32 ounces.





Figure 1-10: AN-M14 TH3 incendiary hand grenade.





(5) Safety clip. This grenade does not have a safety clip.



(6) Capabilities. The average soldier can throw this grenade 25 meters. A portion of thermate mixture is converted to molten iron, which burns at 4,000 degrees Fahrenheit. The mixture fuzes together the metallic parts of any object that it contacts. Thermate is an improved version of thermite, the incendiary agent used in hand grenades during World War II. The thermate filler can burn through a 1/2-inch homogenous steel plate. It produces its own oxygen and burns under water.



(7) Color and markings. The grenade is gray in color with purple markings and a single purple band (current grenades). Under the standard color-coding system, incendiary grenades are light red with black markings.





WARNING





Avoid looking directly at the incendiary hand grenade as it burns. The intensity of the light is hazardous to the retina and can cause permanent eye damage.





b. Offensive. The MK3A2 offensive hand grenade (Figure 1-11), commonly referred to as the concussion grenade, is designed to produce casualties during close combat while minimizing danger to friendly personnel. The grenade is also used for concussion effects in enclosed areas, for blasting, and for demolition tasks. The shock waves (overpressure) produced by this grenade when used in enclosed areas are greater than those produced by the fragmentation grenade. It is, therefore, very effective against enemy soldiers located in bunkers, buildings, and fortified areas.





Figure 1-11: MK3A2 offensive grenade.





(1) Body. The body is fiber (similar to the packing container for the fragmentation grenade.)



(2) Filler. The filler has 8 ounces of TNT.



(3) Fuze. The fuze is an M206A1 or M206A2 (see paragraph 1-4).



(4) Weight. The grenade weighs 15.6 ounces.



(5) Safety clip. The MK3A2 may be issued with or without a safety clip (see paragraph 1-3).



(6) Capabilities. The average soldier can throw this grenade 40 meters. It has an effective casualty radius of 2 meters in open areas, but secondary missiles and bits of fuze may be projected as far as 200 meters from the detonation point.



(7) Color and markings. The grenade is black with yellow markings around its middle.




1-9. PRACTICE HAND GRENADES



The M69 practice hand grenade (Figure 1-12) simulates the M67 series of fragmentation hand grenades for training purposes. The grenade provides realistic training and familiarizes the soldier with the functioning and characteristics of the fragmentation hand grenade. The following is a description of the M69 practice hand grenade and its components:

a. Body. The body is a steel sphere.



b. Fuze. The fuze is an M228, which is inserted into the grenade body.



c. Weight. The grenade weighs 14 ounces.



d. Safety Clip. The M69 grenade has a safety clip.



e. Capabilities. The average soldier can throw the M69 hand grenade 40 meters. After a delay of 4 to 5 seconds, the M69 emits a small puff of white smoke and makes a loud popping noise. The grenade body can be used repeatedly by replacing the fuze assembly.



f. Color and Markings. The grenade is light blue with white markings. The safety lever of the fuze is light blue with black markings and a brown tip.





Figure 1-12: M69 practice hand grenade.





WARNING





Fuze fragments may exit the hole in the base of the grenade body and cause injuries.





1-10. STUN HAND GRENADES



Stun hand grenades are used as diversionary or distraction devices during building and room clearing operations when the presence of noncombatants is likely or expected and the assaulting element is attempting to achieve surprise. The following is a description of the M84 diversionary/flash-bang stun hand grenade and its components (Figure 1-13).

a. Body. The body is a steel hexagon tube with holes along the sides to allow for the emission of intense light and sound when the grenade is ignited.



b. Fuze and safety pin. The fuze is the M201A1. The M84 also has a secondary safety pin with a triangular pull ring.



c. Weight. The grenade weighs 8.33 ounces.



d. Capabilities. The handheld device is designed to be thrown into a room (through an open door, a standard glass window, or other opening) where it delivers a loud bang and bright flash sufficient to temporarily disorient personnel in the room.



e. Field-expedient early warning device. In combat, you may need to use the M84 stun hand grenade as an early warning device. Use the following procedures in combat only:



(1) Attach the grenade to a secure object such as a tree, post, or picket.



(2) Attach a tripwire to a secure object, extend it across a path, and attach it to the pull ring of the grenade.



(3) Bend the end of the pull pin flat to allow for easy pulling.



(4) Remove the secondary safety pin.





Figure 1-13: M84 stun hand grenade.





CAUTION



Use stun grenades as field-expedient early warning devices only when in a combat environment.





CHAPTER 2





Maintenance





2-1. GENERAL ASSEMBLY



Hand grenades within the U.S. inventory are composed of a body and a fuze. Most hand grenades come assembled with the exception of the M69 practice hand grenade and the fuzes for the M69, which come in flats of 45 fuzes.


2-2. INSPECTION PROCEDURES



Hand grenades within the U.S. inventory are specifically designed and manufactured to overcome any situation during combat or training missions. Grenades can be used to save or take lives. Hand grenades are simple yet powerful weapons used in combat or any training mission. As simple as they may seem, however, hand grenades—like any other weapon—must be inspected before use in order to avoid serious injury or death. The following inspection procedures apply to all hand grenades within the U.S. inventory.

a. Newly Issued Hand Grenades.



(1) Remove the tape and the top cover from the shipping canister.



(2) Look down into the canister; if the hand grenade is upside down, return the canister to the issuing person (NCOIC or OIC).



(3) Ensure all required safeties are properly attached to the hand grenade. If a safety pin is missing, return it.



(4) Check the hand grenade for rust on the body or the fuze. If it has rusted, return it.



(5) Check for holes on the body and the fuze. If any holes are visible, return the hand grenade.



(6) If the hand grenade seems to be in order, remove the grenade carefully from the canister and make a visual check for proper fitting of the safety pins. Then, properly secure the grenade to the ammunition pouch.



b. Grenades That Are Unpacked or Stored on Ammunition Pouches.



(1) Inspect unpacked grenades daily to ensure safety pins are present. Under hostile conditions, the safety clip must be removed from the fragmentation hand grenade since soldiers under stressful situations sometimes forget to remove the clip when throwing the grenade.



(2) Check the body for rust or dirt.



(3) Make sure the lever is not broken or bent.




2-3. CLEANING, LUBRICATION, AND PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE



Hand grenades are like any other weapon; they must be inspected and cleaned weekly when exposed to the environment. The body of the hand grenade is made of metal, which rusts when it is exposed to moisture or submerged in water. If not removed, dirt or rust can cause the hand grenade to malfunction.

a. Cleaning. Wipe the dirt off the body of the hand grenade using a slightly damp cloth or a light brush. For the fuze head, a light brush is recommended since it can reach into the crevices.



b. Lubrication. Depending on weather conditions, a light coat of CLP may be needed.



c. Preventive Maintenance. For most hand grenades, keeping them clean and lubricated is sufficient maintenance. With the M69 practice grenade, however, maintenance is more difficult since the bodies are used repeatedly. The M69 practice grenade must be cleaned with a wire brush and painted at least quarterly. The threads must be cleaned with a wire brush on a monthly basis, and fuze residue must be removed from the body immediately after each use. Cleaning the threads and removing the residue from the hand grenade body make replacement of the fuzes easier. The grenade body lasts longer if these preventive maintenance procedures are performed.





CHAPTER 3





Employment of Hand Grenades





SECTION I. INTRODUCTION TO HAND GRENADE TRAINING



The rifle, the bayonet, and the hand grenade are the soldier’s basic lethal weapons. Historically, hand grenade training has received less emphasis than marksmanship and bayonet training. The hand grenade must receive greater emphasis in training programs and field training exercises. The proper use of hand grenades could determine the fate of the soldier or the success of the mission.

Leaders at all levels should study the employment of grenades in conjunction with the unit mission and implement a training program that supports that mission. Once soldiers can safely arm and throw live fragmentation grenades, units should integrate the use of grenades into collective tasks, rather than training these skills as a separate event. Hand grenades must be integrated with other available weapons systems to enhance the unit’s combat power on the modern battlefield. We must conduct hand grenade training in the same manner in which we plan to fight.

We cannot let the danger associated with hand grenades deter our training efforts. Proper control and safety procedures allow us to conduct hand grenade training in a safe manner. Train soldiers to standard, and safety is inherent.

Hand grenades include more than casualty-producing instruments of war. They are used to signal, screen, and control crowds. The current inventory provides a specific hand grenade for most circumstances. Soldiers must be familiar with current grenades, their descriptions, and how best to employ each.


3-1. HAND GRENADE STORING



The storing of hand grenades on ammunition pouches is one of the most neglected aspects of hand grenade training. Experiences of American infantry, both in combat and in training, point out the need for specific training in storing hand grenades on ammunition pouches and integration of this type of training into tactical training exercises. Commanders should make every effort to issue training hand grenades for wear and use during all training activities. The soldier must be as confident in carrying and using hand grenades as he is with his rifle and bayonet. Before storing a hand grenade, take the following safety precautions:

a. Check the grenade fuze assembly for tightness. It must be tightly fitted in the grenade fuze well to prevent the grenade from working loose and separating from the grenade body. Never remove the fuze from a grenade.



b. If the grenade safety lever is broken, do not use the grenade. A broken safety lever denies the thrower the most critical safety mechanism of the grenade.



c. Do not bend the ends of the safety pin back flush against the fuze body. This practice, intended to preclude the accidental pulling of the pin, makes the removal of the safety pin difficult. Repeated working of the safety pin in this manner causes the pin to break, creating a hazardous condition.



d. Carry hand grenades either on the ammunition pouch, using the carrying safety straps that are designed specifically for this purpose (Figure 3-1), or in the grenade pockets of the enhanced tactical load-bearing vest (Figure 3-2).



(1) Standard ammunition pouch. Open the web carrying sleeve on the side of the ammunition pouch and slide the grenade into the sleeve with the safety lever against the side of the ammunition pouch. Be sure the pull ring is in the downward position. Wrap the carrying strap around the neck of the fuze and snap the carrying strap to the carrying sleeve.



(2) Enhanced tactical load-bearing vest. The enhanced tactical load-bearing vest (ETLBV) has slanted pockets for carrying hand grenades. The grenades are not exposed and are safer to carry than in the standard ammunition pouch. The ETLBV is intended to provide the combat soldier with a comfortable and efficient method of transporting the individual fighting load.





Figure 3-1: Standard ammunition pouch.





Figure 3-2: Enhanced tactical load-bearing vest.





• Description. The ETLBV has permanently attached ammunition and grenade pockets. The vest is compatible with the standard equipment belt. It incorporates adjustments to allow for proper fitting.



• Components materials. The ETLBV has 7 yards and 5 ounces of nylon fabric and nylon webbing.



• Color. The coloring of the ETLBV is woodland camouflage.



• Weight. The ETLBV weighs 1.9 pounds.



• Size. The ETLBV comes in one size that fits all.



• Basis of issue. Each infantry soldier should receive one ETLBV.




3-2. HAND GRENADE GRIPPING PROCEDURES



The importance of properly gripping the hand grenade cannot be overemphasized. Soldiers must understand that a grenade not held properly is difficult to arm. Sustainment training is the key to maintaining grip efficiency. Gripping procedures differ slightly for right-and left-handed soldiers:

a. Holding the grenade in the throwing hand with the safety lever placed between the first and second joints of the thumb provides safety and throwing efficiency.



b. Right-handed soldiers hold the grenade upright with the pull ring away from the palm of the throwing hand so that the pull ring can be easily removed by the index or middle finger of the free hand (Figure 3-3).



c. Left-handed soldiers invert the grenade with the fingers and thumb of the throwing hand positioned in the same manner as by right-handed personnel (Figure 3-4).





Figure 3-3: Right-handed grip.





Figure 3-4: Left-handed grip.





3-3. HAND GRENADE THROWING



Since few soldiers throw in the same manner, it is difficult to establish firm rules or techniques for throwing hand grenades. How accurately they are thrown is more important than how they are thrown. If a soldier can achieve more distance and accuracy using his own personal style, he should be allowed to do so as long as his body is facing sideways, towards the enemy’s position, and he throws basically overhand. There is, however, a recommended method of throwing hand grenades.

a. Employ Grenades. Use the following procedures:



(1) Observe the target to mentally establish the distance between your throwing position and the target area. In observing the target, minimize your exposure time to the enemy (no more than 3 seconds).



(2) Grip the hand grenade in your throwing hand.



(3) Grasp the pull ring with the index or middle finger of your nonthrowing hand. Remove the safety pin with a pulling and twisting motion. If the tactical situation permits, observe the safety pin’s removal.



(4) Look at the target and throw the grenade using the overhand method so that the grenade arcs, landing on or near the target.



(5) Allow the motion of your throwing arm to continue naturally once you release the grenade. This follow-through improves distance and accuracy and lessens the strain on your throwing arm.



(6) Practice the necessary throws that are used in combat, such as the underhand and sidearm throws. Soldiers can practice these throws with practice grenades, but they must throw live fragmentation grenades overhand in a training environment.



b. Throwing Positions. In training, throwing positions are used for uniformity, control, and to familiarize soldiers with the proper manner of throwing grenades in combat if the situation gives you a choice. Consider the following throwing positions when employing grenades:



(1) Standing. The standing position (Figure 3-5) is the most desirable and natural position from which to throw grenades. It allows you to obtain the greatest possible throwing distance. Soldiers normally use this position when occupying a fighting position or during operations in fortified positions or urban terrain. Use the following procedures when throwing from this position:



(a) Observe the target to mentally estimate the distance. Use the proper handgrip and arm the grenade while behind cover.



(b) Assume a natural stance with your weight balanced equally on both feet. Hold the grenade shoulder high and hold the nonthrowing hand at a 45-degree angle with the fingers and thumb extended, joined, and pointing toward the intended target.



(c) Throw the grenade with a natural motion, using the procedures described in paragraph 3-3.



(d) Seek cover to avoid being hit by fragments or direct enemy fire. If no cover is available, drop to the prone position with your Kevlar facing the direction of the grenade’s detonation.





Figure 3-5: Standing throwing position.





(2) Kneeling. The kneeling position (Figure 3-6) reduces the distance a soldier can throw a grenade. It is used primarily when a soldier has only a low wall, a shallow ditch, or similar cover to protect him. Use the following procedures when throwing from this position:



(a) Observe the target to mentally estimate the throwing distance. Using the proper grip, arm the grenade while behind cover.



(b) Hold the grenade shoulder high and bend your nonthrowing knee at a 90-degree angle, placing that knee on the ground. Keep your throwing leg straight and locked, with the side of your boot firmly on the ground. Move your body to face sideways toward the target position. Keep your nonthrowing hand at a 45-degree angle with your fingers and thumb extended, joined, and pointing toward the enemy position.



(c) Throw the grenade with a natural throwing motion. Push off with your throwing foot to give added force to your throw. Follow through with your throwing arm as described in paragraph 3-3.





Figure 3-6: Kneeling throwing position.





(d) Drop to the prone position or behind available cover to reduce exposure to fragmentation and direct enemy fire.



(3) Alternate prone. The alternate prone position (Figure 3-7) reduces both distance and accuracy. It is used only when an individual is pinned down by hostile fire and is unable to rise to engage his target. Use the following procedures when throwing from this position:



(a) Lie down on your back with your body parallel to the grenade’s intended line of flight. Hold the grenade at chin-chest level and remove the safety pins.



(b) Cock your throwing leg at a 45-degree angle, maintaining knee-to-knee contact and bracing the side of your boot firmly on the ground. Hold the grenade 4 to 6 inches behind your ear with your arm cocked for throwing.



(c) With your free hand, grasp any object that is capable of giving added leverage to increase your throwing distance. In throwing the grenade, push off with your rearward foot to give added force to your throw. Do not lift your head or body when attempting to throw a grenade as this exposes you to direct enemy fire.



(d) After throwing the grenade, roll over onto your stomach and press flat against the ground.





Figure 3-7: Alternate prone throwing position.





SECTION II. TACTICAL EMPLOYMENT



Hand grenades provide the individual soldier with a number of highly versatile and effective weapons systems. Soldiers employ hand grenades throughout the spectrum of warfare, from low to high intensity conflict, to prevent giving away positions, to save ammunition, and to inflict greater casualties.


3-4. APPLICATION



Soldiers use hand grenades in defensive missions, offensive missions, and retrograde operations. All soldiers use hand grenades during close, deep, and rear operations, during all conditions of combat, and in all types of terrain. Hand grenades have the following specific applications:


• Fragmentation hand grenades are mainly used to kill or wound enemy soldiers but can also be used to destroy or disable equipment.



• Incendiary hand grenades are mainly used to destroy equipment and start fires but can also be used to destroy or disable vehicles and weapons.



• Colored smoke is mainly used to identify or mark positions but can also be used to mark areas for ground-to-ground operations or ground-to-air operations.



• White smoke is mainly used to conceal or create a smoke screen for offensive or retrograde operations.



• Riot-control hand grenades are used to control crowds or riots.



• Stun grenades are used to temporarily stun or disorient the occupants of an enclosed area such as a building or room.



While all hand grenades have application in modern combat, the fragmentation hand grenade remains the most important because it is not only the primary killing hand grenade but also the most dangerous to employ. Fragmentation hand grenades are equally lethal to friendly and enemy soldiers; therefore, we must employ them properly to protect our own soldiers.


3-5. CLOSE COMBAT



On the modern battlefield, the close-in fight can occur anywhere, anytime. The rifle, bayonet, and hand grenade are basic weapons of warfare for the individual soldier. The rifle gives the soldier the ability to kill enemy soldiers with direct fire out to the maximum effective line-of-sight range. Fragmentation hand grenades, on the other hand, allow the soldier to effectively engage and kill enemy soldiers located within a radius of 40 meters where line-of-sight systems, including the rifle, are no longer effective. Since there is no muzzle flash, grenades also help conceal a soldier’s position as he engages the enemy. While the rifle is the safest and most discriminating weapon at close ranges, the fragmentation hand grenade is the weapon of choice when the enemy is within range but the terrain masks engagement areas. The fragmentation hand grenade is the soldier’s indirect-fire weapon system.

a. Many times in combat, the nature of the targets confronting the infantryman make normal methods of target engagement inadequate. Against soldiers or weapons in trenches or fighting positions, for example, having a grenade burst over the target is more effective. Furthermore, if the targets are on sloping ground, then a grenade needs to detonate as near impact as possible to prevent its rolling away from the target before detonating. Such aboveground detonation also prevents the enemy from securing the grenade and throwing it back within the 4- to 5-second fuze delay.



b. Aboveground detonation is especially critical when engaging bunker-type emplacements. To achieve aboveground detonation or near-impact detonation, remove the grenade’s safety pin, release the safety lever, count ONE THOUSAND ONE, ONE THOUSAND TWO, and throw the grenade. This is called cooking-off. Cooking-off expends a sufficient period (about 2 seconds) of the grenade’s 4- to 5-second delay. This causes the grenade to detonate above ground or shortly after impact with the target. Do not cook-off fragmentation or white phosphorous hand grenades when in training.



CAUTION



Use cook-off procedure only when in a combat environment.





3-6. PLANS AND PREPARATIONS FOR COMBAT



The theater commander normally establishes basic and combat loads of hand grenades. The combat load is not a fixed quantity; it can be altered as the situation dictates. Units vary their combat load depending upon the commander’s analysis of METT-T. The most important factor in determining the combat load for hand grenades is unit mission. It influences the type and quantity of hand grenades needed. Other factors used in determining the hand grenade combat load are as follows:

a. Weight. Each hand grenade weighs close to one pound. Consequently, each grenade that the soldier carries adds another pound to his total load.



b. Weapons Tradeoff. Soldiers cannot carry everything commanders would like to take into battle. Commanders must consider the value of various weapons and munitions with a view toward determining which contribute the most to the mission accomplishment. For example, tradeoff may be required between hand grenades and mines, between hand grenades and mortar ammunition, or between different types of grenades.



c. Balance. Different types of hand grenades are required on all missions. Generally, fragmentation and colored smoke grenades are required for all missions. Distribute hand grenades selected for a mission among several soldiers, if not among all of them.



d. Individual Duties. Distribute to each soldier the hand grenades that are required for his job and assigned tasks.




3-7. EMPLOYMENT RULES



The rules to remember before employing hand grenades, or when in areas where they are in use, are as follows:

• Know where all friendly forces are located.



• Know your sector of fire.



• Use the buddy or team system.



• Ensure the projected arc of the fragmentation hand grenade is clear of obstacles.



• Evacuate positions into which you plan to throw a fragmentation hand grenade, if possible. If not, then use the grenade sump.




3-8. OFFENSIVE EMPLOYMENT



The fragmentation hand grenade is the primary type of grenade used during offensive operations. These grenades provide the violent, destructive, close-in firepower essential for the individual soldier to overcome and kill the enemy. The fragmentation hand grenade makes the individual soldier’s movement easier by suppressing the enemy and disrupting the continuity of the enemy’s defensive fires. Fragmentation hand grenades contribute greatly in destroying the enemy’s will to continue the fight. The noise, flash, and concussion generated by fragmentation hand grenades have severe psychological effects on enemy soldiers. Offensive grenades are much less lethal than fragmentation grenades on an enemy in the open, but they are very effective against an enemy within a confined space. The concussion they produce is capable of killing or severely injuring enemy personnel, not just stunning them. Consider the following factors when employing hand grenades:

a. The critical phase of the attack is the final assault, that moment when a soldier closes with the enemy to kill him. The individual soldier uses the rifle, the hand grenade, and the bayonet during the assault. The soldier first uses the rifle, firing controlled, well-aimed shots at known or suspected enemy positions. The soldier does this as part of a buddy team, fire team, and squad. He is controlled and disciplined in his movement and application of fires by using the established unit SOPs and battle drills. These battle drills are rehearsed extensively during preparation for combat. As the soldier closes to hand grenade range, he engages the enemy with a combination of rifle fire and hand grenades. He uses fragmentation grenades to kill and suppress enemy soldiers in the open, in defilades, or in trenches. Movement toward the enemy is rapid and violent.



b. Soldiers must throw hand grenades accurately into enemy positions to reduce the chances of hand grenades hitting friendly forces. Movement forward is done as part of a buddy team. One soldier within the buddy team provides overwatching, direct suppressive fire while the other soldier moves forward. Both soldiers must take advantage of the grenade explosion to immediately continue their movement forward. If the enemy is located in an enclosed area, such as a bunker or room within a building, the offensive grenade may be more appropriate than the fragmentation hand grenade. Choosing between them depends upon availability and mission analysis beforehand. Offensive grenades are less lethal to the enemy, but because of this, they are also safer to employ in confined spaces. Soldiers should follow offensive grenade employment immediately with violent rifle fire unless capturing enemy personnel is a mission requirement. Remember, an enemy who is only temporarily stunned can still kill you. The shock waves from an offensive grenade also provide better overall interior effect in an enclosed space. Another advantage of the offensive grenade is that it covers more of an enclosed space than the fragmentation grenade.



c. In an assault against a dug-in, well-prepared enemy, the soldier uses hand grenades to clear crew-served weapons first. Once the first defensive belt has been penetrated, he uses hand grenades in a priority effort to attack command bunkers and communications equipment and to kill or capture enemy leaders within those bunkers.



d. In the assault, the soldier participates as a squad member in clearing trenches, destroying bunkers, and clearing rooms. The soldier employs unit procedures, which have been rehearsed during preparation for combat. In clearing a trench within a fortified position (Figure 3-8), the buddy team forms the basis for all fragmentation grenade employment in the following manner:





Figure 3-8: Enemy trench assault.





(1) Before entering the trench, the first clearing team throws or drops hand grenades into the trench, attempting to keep the individual grenades separated by at least five meters.



(2) After the grenades explode, the first clearing team rolls into the trench, landing on their feet and firing their weapons down both directions of the trench.



(3) The first clearing team holds the entry point.



(4) The teams following the first clearing team enter at the same position and begin clearing in one direction only.



(5) As the lead buddy team moves to the right (or left), one soldier is the designated grenadier. He moves along the wall closest to the next bend in the trench. His movement is covered by his buddy, who is ready to fire at any enemy soldiers advancing toward them. The grenadier holds a grenade at the ready as he moves rapidly down the trench.



(6) At the bend in the trench, the designated grenadier throws a grenade around the bend. After the explosion, the rifleman moves rapidly around the bend and fires rapid bursts horizontally and alternately along the long axis of the trench.



(7) Movement down the trench continues by alternating the designated rifleman and grenadier roles or maintaining the same roles throughout. Fire teams and squads are bounded forward to continue clearing the trench line.





NOTE



The unit SOP specifies many of these tasks. If a three-man clearing team is used, the third member guards the back of the other team members and stands by to provide fire on point targets.





e. Clearing an enemy bunker and killing the enemy soldiers inside requires violence and speed of execution, plus synchronization of effort at the buddy and squad level, in order to succeed. The following are procedures for clearing a bunker (Figure 3-9):





Figure 3-9: Enemy bunker assault.





(1) A two-man team assaults a single bunker using a combination of grenades and rifle fire. One member of the buddy team provides overwatching suppressive fire while the other member moves rapidly toward the bunker, using a combination of individual movement techniques. He uses the best available covered route to move toward the bunker.



(2) As he approaches to within 75 meters of the bunker, the grenadier can use white smoke to help conceal his movement for the remaining distance. The white smoke grenade should be thrown on line with the bunker and as close to the enemy’s firing port as possible.



(3) Once the grenadier member of the buddy team is at the side of the bunker, he holds the grenade at a 90-degree angle from his body, releases the safety lever, mentally counts two seconds (ONE THOUSAND ONE, ONE THOUSAND TWO), and throws or pushes the grenade into the firing port of the bunker.



Once he releases the grenade, he rolls away from the bunker and faces to the rear of the bunker, prepared to engage escaping enemy soldiers with his rifle.



(4) After the grenade detonates, he enters the position from the rear to kill or capture remaining enemy soldiers.



f. When clearing a room or moving through an urban area, the following considerations apply:



• What types of grenades do the ROE permit and restrict?



• What effect do I want to achieve—kill, stun, obscure, destroy equipment, mark a location, and so forth?



• Does the structural integrity of the room and building permit the types of grenades selected for use?



• Will the scheme of maneuver permit the use of fragmentation grenades and not cause fratricide?



• Will the type of grenade used cause an urban fire in an undesired location?



If employing grenades during room clearing, the following procedure should be used in conjunction with Battle Drill 6, or Battle Drill 5:

(1) The Number 2 man throws a grenade into the room and yells FRAG OUT, STUN OUT, or CONCUSSION OUT, if stealth is not a factor, to alert friendly personnel that a grenade has been thrown toward the threat. After the grenade explodes, the Number 1 man enters the room, eliminates any threat, and moves to his point of domination IAW Battle Drill 6.



(2) Numbers 3 and 4 men enter the room, move to their points of domination, and eliminate any threat.



(3) The team clears and marks the room IAW unit SOP.





NOTE



Grenades tend to roll back down stairs and either nullify the desired effect(s) or cause friendly casualties.





g. The use of hand grenades during raids always depends on the mission. The raid, as a type of offensive operation, is characterized by heavy use of fragmentation and offensive grenades, but it may also require other types of grenades. Use grenades according to the following guidelines:



(1) If the mission is to secure prisoners, the employment of offensive grenades is appropriate.



(2) If the mission calls for the destruction of vehicles, weapons, or special equipment, then incendiary grenades and fragmentation grenades are appropriate.



(3) Smoke grenades are often used to create a smoke screen covering the advance of friendly forces or to mark the location of friendly forces and pickup points. Colored smoke is used mainly for signaling purposes.



h. Reaction to an enemy ambush requires an immediate, rapid, and violent response. The longer friendly forces remain in the ambush kill zone, the greater the probability of friendly force destruction. Using a combination of fragmentation hand grenades to kill the enemy and white smoke grenades to obscure the enemy’s sight and rifle fire, the soldiers within a squad assault the enemy force. Train and drill soldiers to throw fragmentation grenades first, then smoke grenades.




3-9. DEFENSIVE EMPLOYMENT



Hand grenades are used in defensive operations during the final phase of the close-in battle. The primary hand grenade in all defensive operations is the fragmentation grenade. It is used in conjunction with other weapons and man-made or natural obstacles to destroy remnants of the attacking enemy force that have succeeded in penetrating the more distant barriers and final protective fires. The fragmentation hand grenade further disrupts the continuity of the enemy attack, demoralizes the enemy soldier, and forces the enemy into areas covered by direct-fire weapons, such as rifle and machine gun fire and Claymore mines. Using fragmentation hand grenades on dismounted enemy forces at a critical moment in the assault can be the final blow in taking the initiative away from the enemy.

a. Defense From Individual Fighting Positions (Figure 3-10). From individual fighting positions, fragmentation hand grenades are used primarily to cover close-in dead space approaches on the friendly side of the protective wire and in front of a squad’s position. Soldiers should use these grenades in conjunction with ground flares positioned along the protective wire. Enemy soldiers who are stopped at the protective wire are engaged first with Claymore mines. If time permits during the preparation of the defensive position, soldiers should identify dead space in their sectors, especially dead space that may intersect the protective wire and move toward the friendly fighting positions. These potential avenues of approach through the protective wire should be marked with a reference to identify them as primary hand grenade targets. The following rules apply when employing fragmentation hand grenades from fighting positions:



(1) Clear overhead obstructions that may interfere with the path of the thrown grenade. Do this at the same time direct-fire fields of fire are cleared.



(2) Rehearse grenade employment; know where your primary target is located.



(3) Keep 50 percent of your fragmentation grenades at the ready in your fighting position, leaving the remaining fragmentation grenades on your load-carrying equipment (LCE).



(4) Rehearse actions needed if an enemy grenade lands in your fighting position.



(5) Employ fragmentation hand grenades against enemy soldiers located in defilade positions as first priority. This lessens the danger to friendly soldiers and helps cover terrain not covered by direct-fire weapons. Use the rifle to kill enemy soldiers not in defilade positions.



(6) Reconnoiter the alternate and supplementary positions and determine the priority for the fragmentation hand grenade target.



(7) Redistribute hand grenades after each enemy engagement.





WARNING





Former Soviet Union grenades use fuzes with only a 3- to 4-second delay, which means you have very little time to react. The preferred course of action if an enemy grenade lands in your position or near you is to immediately roll out of your fighting position or throw yourself flat on the ground.





Figure 3-10: Defense from an individual fighting position.





b. Defense Against Enemy Armored and Tracked Vehicles (Figure 3-11). On occasion, friendly dismounted soldiers may come in close contact with enemy armored formations. Dismounted infantry should first use antitank weapons to defeat enemy armor and motorized infantry. Soldiers can also use satchel charges, as described in FM 5-250, to defeat enemy armor. If these are not available, it is still possible to destroy, immobilize, or render inoperative the vehicle or system, or to kill the crew inside the vehicle. In either case, the soldier must approach the armored vehicle to kill it or the crew with hand grenades. An understanding of some characteristics and vulnerabilities of former Soviet Union armor can help kill or disable the enemy armored vehicle or its crew. Vulnerabilities common to most threat vehicles are the fuel cells, ammunition storage areas, and power trains. Figure 3-12 highlights vulnerable areas on selected threat vehicles.





Figure 3-11: Attack of a former Soviet Union tank.





Figure 3-12: Former Soviet Union vehicle vulnerabilities.





(1) Turret rotation. The turrets of older former Soviet Union tanks rotate much slower than those on U.S. and NATO tanks. It takes more than 21 seconds for T60and T70-series tanks to rotate through a full 360 degrees. The T80- and T90-series (Figure 3-13) tanks rotate a full 360 degrees in just 6 seconds, which is as fast as the US’s Ml Abrams and M2 BFV. With the older former Soviet Union tanks, a soldier can actually run around the tank before the turret traverses from the front deck to the rear. The newer tanks have been fitted with explosive reactive armor, which makes them more difficult to engage with antitank weapons. Therefore, engagement with hand grenades should be considered only as a last resort.



(2) Visual dead space. From the gunner’s station of a former Soviet Union tank, nothing at ground level within 30 feet can be seen through the frontal 180 degrees of turret rotation. If the turret is oriented over the rear 180 degrees (the rear deck), the dead space increases to 50 feet. This means gunners on former Soviet Union tanks cannot see soldiers in fighting positions within these distances of the tank.



(3) Fire extinguisher system. A fire extinguisher system can be triggered manually or automatically by one of eight heat sensors. The fire extinguisher’s ethylene bromide gas creates a poisonous vapor when exposed to flames. If the extinguisher discharges, the crew may have to bail out. Any weapon that can trigger a fire and the fire extinguisher system might possibly knock out a former Soviet Union tank.





Figure 3-13: T80- and T90-series former Soviet Union tanks.





(4) BMP visual dead space. The BMP has nine vision blocks for the eight infantrymen in the rear of the vehicle. Eight of these vision blocks, four on each side, correspond to the firing ports for the squad’s weapons. These vision blocks are oriented at a 45-degree angle toward the vehicle’s direction of movement. The soldier at the left rear of the vehicle mans either the left rear vision block or the last vision block and firing port on the left side. If the flank firing port is being manned, the vehicle is vulnerable to an approach from the rear. Dismounted soldiers should attempt to destroy or disable enemy armor only as a last resort. When employing hand grenades for this purpose, follow these procedures:



• Remain in a covered fighting position until the vehicle closes to within its visual dead space. Approach the vehicle from the rear, moving aggressively.



• Place an incendiary grenade over the engine compartment.



• Attempt to drop a fragmentation grenade into an open hatch if incendiary grenades are not available.



• Engage any crewmen who exit the vehicle.



c. Defensive Employment on Urban Terrain. The considerations for the defensive employment of grenades on urban terrain are generally the same as offensive considerations with respect to ROE, structural integrity of the building, fratricide avoidance, and desired effects of the type of grenade to be used. Additionally, the following also apply:



(1) Fragmentation grenades can be very effective in producing casualties when thrown at assaulting enemy troops between buildings or on streets from windows, doors, mouseholes, or other building apertures.



(2) Stun grenades can cause confusion and hesitation when thrown at assaulting enemy soldiers, allowing time for withdrawal from rooms. This is especially useful if the structural integrity of the building does not permit the use of fragmentation or concussion grenades.



(3) Use of smoke grenades inside buildings may displace oxygen in poorly ventilated rooms and make breathing difficult while also rendering protective masks ineffective.




3-10. RETROGRADE OPERATIONS EMPLOYMENT



Most of the employment considerations applicable to the use of hand grenades in the defense are equally applicable to retrograde operations. Special applications or considerations for hand grenade use during retrograde operations relate to creating obstacles, marking friendly force locations, and breaking contact.

a. Create Obstacles. When terrain conditions permit, soldiers can use incendiary grenades to impede and disrupt enemy movement by initiating fires in specific areas.



b. Mark Locations. Soldiers can use colored smoke hand grenades to mark friendly force positions and identify friendly forces.



c. Break Contact. During retrograde operations, some elements of the friendly force most often become decisively engaged. Soldiers can use fragmentation, white smoke, and CS grenades to break contact and regain flexibility of maneuver. Use of hand grenades in volley fire following the employment of white smoke is especially effective. The smoke obscures enemy observation of friendly force movement from covered positions, and the fragmentation grenades force the enemy to cover.




3-11. REAR AREA OPERATIONS EMPLOYMENT



Army operations doctrine recognizes that the nature of a future war poses a significant threat to rear areas. These threats range from large operational maneuver groups to highly trained, special operating forces and even terrorists. All U.S. soldiers in combat, CS, and CSS units must be prepared to fight using small arms, antitank weapons, Claymore mines, and fragmentation grenades. At every element level throughout the corps battle area, individual U.S. soldiers must react to every action by aggressive, violent employment of grenades, and individual weapons. There is no safe zone on the battlefield; therefore, leaders must plan for the following:

a. Special Considerations. Two features of rear area operations provide for unique considerations concerning hand grenade employment. In certain areas of the world, the U.S. Army and its allies must anticipate a large number of civilian refugees moving into and through the rear area. This situation can be confusing with the large numbers of CS and CSS units operating throughout the rear area. These factors dictate the following guidelines for hand grenade employment in the rear areas:



(1) Offensive grenades. Individual soldiers throw offensive grenades at enemy soldiers in situations where noncombatants and support troops may be intermingled with threat forces.



(2) Riot-control grenades. It is reasonable to expect enemy special forces, special agent provocateurs, and fifth columnists to attempt to incite riots in our rear areas, especially if the conflict begins to stalemate and does not result in the rapid victory for either side. Forces in the rear area must quell these riots as rapidly as possible while reducing damage to the lives and property of noncombatants. Riot-control grenades, which are usually associated with peacetime law and order functions, also have relevancy in maintaining control of the rear area.



b. Base Cluster Defense. Base cluster commanders must organize the defense of their positions in much the same manner as tactical commanders in the MBA. Accordingly, the employment of hand grenades from defense positions surrounding the base cluster should follow the same considerations as hand grenade employment by combat units in the MBA.




3-12. USE UNDER ADVERSE CONDITIONS



While hand grenade procedures do not change when employed under adverse conditions, special cautions must be considered.

a. MOPP4. Exercise additional caution when employing hand grenades in MOPP gear. The thrower should execute arming and throwing procedures carefully and deliberately and should concentrate on using the proper grip. Observing each arming action (removal of safety clip and safety pin) is also recommended in MOPP. Note that wearing gloves inhibits the thrower’s feel and could decrease his throwing ability and range.



b. Night. Throwers must have clear fields of fire with no overhead obstructions. Depth perception is generally impaired under limited visibility conditions.





CHAPTER 4





Threat Hand Grenades



This chapter provides general information on common threat hand grenade identification, functions, and capabilities. North Korea, China, and many former Soviet Union nations have an extensive inventory of hand grenades. As with most equipment in use by these nations, older hand grenades remain in circulation and use long after being classified obsolete.



SECTION I. FORMER SOVIET UNION NATIONS




4-1. RGN OFFENSIVE HAND GRENADE



• Type: Offensive. (Figure 4-1)



• Weight: 310 grams.



• Body Material: Aluminum.



• Filler Material: 114 grams A-1X-1 (RDX 96 percent, wax 4 percent) explosive.



• Fuze Type: Striker release, impact, or self-destruct.



• Fuze Delay: Impact, 1 to 2 seconds; time, 3.5 to 4 seconds (self-destruct).



• Range Thrown: 30 meters.



• Lethal Radius: 4 meters.





Figure 4-1: RGN hand grenade.





4-2. RGO DEFENSIVE HAND GRENADE



• Type: Defensive. (Figure 4-2)



• Weight: 530 grams.



• Body Material: Aluminum.



• Filler Material: 92 grams A-1X-1 (RDX 96 percent, wax 4 percent) explosive.



• Fuze Type: Striker release, impact, or self-destruct.



• Fuze Delay: Impact, 1 to 2 seconds; time, 3.5 to 4 seconds.



• Range Thrown: 30 to 40 meters.



• Lethal Radius: 6 meters.





Figure 4-2: RGO hand grenade.





4-3. F1 FRAGMENTATION HAND GRENADE



• Type: Fragmentation. (Figure 4-3)



• Weight: 700 grams.



• Body Material: Cast iron.



• Filler Material: 60 grams TNT.



• Fuze Type: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 3 to 4 seconds; for booby traps, 0 to 13 seconds.



• Range Thrown: 30 meters.



• Lethal Radius: 20 to 30 meters.





Figure 4-3: F1 hand grenade.





NOTE



The F1 has been copied and produced by numerous other countries throughout the world.





4-4. RKG-3M ANTITANK HAND GRENADE



• Type: Antitank. (Figure 4-4)



• Weight: With fuze, 1.07 kilograms.



• Weight of HE Filling: TNT/RDX, 540 grams.



• Penetration: 125 millimeters.



• Fuze Type: Instantaneous impact, base detonating.



• Effective Fragment Radius: 20 meters.



• Length: 350 millimeters.



• Diameter: 65 millimeters.





Figure 4-4: RKG-3M antitank hand grenade.





NOTE



The RKG-3 family of grenades has been copied and produced by numerous other countries throughout the world.





4-5. RGD-5 FRAGMENTATION HAND GRENADE



• Type: Fragmentation. (Figure 4-5)



• Weight: 310 grams.



• Filler Material: 110 grams of TNT.



• Fuze Delay: 3 to 4 seconds.



• Range Thrown: 40 meters.



• Effective Fragment Radius: 15 to 20 meters, maximum fragment range about 30 meters.





Figure 4-5: RGD-5 hand grenade.





NOTE



The RGD-5 has been copied and produced by numerous other countries throughout the world.





4-6. RG-42 FRAGMENTATION HAND GRENADE



• Type: Fragmentation. (Figure 4-6)



• Weight: 435 grams.



• Body Material: Steel.



• Filler Material: 110 to 120 grams TNT.



• Fuze Type: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 3.2 to 4.2 seconds.



• Range Thrown: 30 meters.



• Effective Fragment Radius: 20 meters.





Figure 4-6: RG-42 hand grenade.





NOTE



The RG-42 has been copied and produced by numerous other countries throughout the world.





4-7. RDG-1



• Type: Hand, smoke. (Figure 4-7)



• Weight: 500 grams.



• Body Material: Cardboard, handle



wood/cardboard.



• Burning Time: 60 to 90 seconds.



• Fuze: Friction fuze.



• Fuze Delay: Unknown.



• Filler: Smoke mixture.



• Range Thrown: 35 meters.





Figure 4-7: RDG-1 smoke grenade.





NOTE



This grenade is used to screen river crossings because it floats.





4-8. RDG-2 AND RDG-3



• Type: Smoke. (Figure 4-8)



• Weight: 500 grams.



• Body Material: Cardboard coated with wax, handle wood/cardboard.



• Burning Time: 50 to 90 seconds.



• Fuze: Friction fuze.



• Fuze Delay: Unknown.



• Filler: Smoke mixture.



• Range Thrown: 35 meters.





Figure 4-8: RDG-2 and RDG-3 smoke grenade.





NOTE



This grenade does not float and is unsuitable for water use.





SECTION II. NORTH KOREA




4-9. ROUND FRAGMENTATION GRENADE



• Type: Fragmentation. (Figure 4-9)



• Weight: 600 grams.



• Body Material: Cast aluminum body with 140 to 150 cast iron balls embedded in it.



• Fuze: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 3.2 to 4.2 seconds.



• Filler: TNT, 60 grams.



• Effective Casualty Radius: 20 meters.





Figure 4-9: North Korean fragmentation grenade (round).





NOTE



A variation of this grenade has a plastic body.





4-10. RECTANGULAR FRAGMENTATION GRENADE



• Type: Fragmentation. (Figure 4-10)



• Weight: 370 grams.



• Body Material: Sheet steel with about 1,300 steel balls in a cavity between the outer wall and the explosive filler.



• Fuze: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 3.2 to 4.2 seconds.



• Filler: Composition B, 55 grams.



• Effective Casualty Radius: 20 meters.





Figure 4-10: North Korean fragmentation grenade (rectangular).





4-11. LACHRYMATORY GRENADE



• Type: Lachrymatory. (Figure 4-11)



• Weight: 350 grams.



• Body Material: Sheet steel with a wooden handle.



• Fuze: Pull friction.



• Fuze Delay: 3 to 4 seconds.



• Filler: CS mixture/TNT.



• Range Thrown: 20 meters.



• Effective Radius: 10 meters.





Figure 4-11: North Korean lachrymatory grenade.





SECTION III. CHINA




4-12. TYPE 1 FRAGMENTATION GRENADE



• Type: Fragmentation. (Figure 4-12)



• Weight: 600 grams.



• Body Material: Cast iron.



• Fuze: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 3 to 4 seconds.



• Filler: TNT, 50 grams.



• Lethal Range: 20 meters.





Figure 4-12: Type 1 fragmentation grenade.





4-13. TYPE 73 FRAGMENTATION GRENADE



• Type: Fragmentation. (Figure 4-13)



• Weight: 190 grams.



• Body Material: Two-piece sheet metal body enclosing a layer of 580 steel balls.



• Fuze: Percussion.



• Fuze Delay: 0.5 to 1 second.



• Filler: Unknown.



• Effective Casualty Radius: 7 meters.





Figure 4-13: Type 73 fragmentation grenade.





NOTE



A variation of this grenade may be in use as a rifle grenade with a tail fin assembly.





4-14. TYPE 77-1 FRAGMENTATION STICK



• Type: Fragmentation. (Figure 4-14)



• Weight: 380 grams.



• Body Material: Cast iron with a plastic handle and sheet metal or plastic fuze cover cap.



• Fuze: Pull friction.



• Fuze Delay: 2.8 to 4 seconds.



• Filler: TNT, 70 grams.



• Lethal Radius: 7 meters.





Figure 4-14: Type 77-1 fragmentation stick.





4-15. SC-2 LACHRYMATORY GRENADE



• Type: Lachrymatory (explosively dispersed). (Figure 4-15)



• Weight: 110 grams.



• Body Material: Plastic.



• Fuze: Striker release or friction.



• Fuze Delay: 2.8 to 3.6 seconds.



• Filler: Tear agent, 25 grams.



• Coverage: 300 cubic meters.





Figure 4-15: SC-2 lachrymatory grenade.





4-16. SC-2 LACHRYMATORY/SMOKE GRENADE



• Type: Lachrymatory/smoke. (Figure 4-16)



• Weight: 110 grams.



• Body Material: Plastic.



• Fuze: Striker release or friction.



• Fuze Delay: 1.8 to 2.8 seconds.



• Filler: Tear agent/smoke mixture, 70 grams.



• Coverage: 300 cubic meters.





Figure 4-16: SC-2 lachrymatory/smoke grenade.





4-17. JYD-1



• Type: Rubber ball. (Figure 4-17)



• Weight: 150 grams.



• Body Material: Plastic.



• Fuze: Striker release or friction.



• Fuze Delay: 2.8 to 3.4 seconds.



• Filler: 840 rubber balls; bursting charge, 4 grams.



• Effective radius: 0.3 to 3 meters.





Figure 4-17: JYD-1 rubber ball grenade.





4-18. JYB-1



• Type: Stun. (Figure 4-18)



• Weight: 150 grams.



• Body Material: Plastic.



• Fuze: Striker release or friction.



• Fuze Delay: 3 to 4 seconds.



• Filler: Pyrotechnic mixture, 45 grams.



• Coverage: Sound level over 150 decibels within 10 meters.





Figure 4-18: JYB-1 stun grenade.





4-19. JYS-1



• Type: Flash/bang. (Figure 4-19)



• Weight: 45 grams.



• Body Material: Plastic.



• Fuze: Striker release or friction.



• Fuze Delay: Unknown.



• Filler: Pyrotechnic mixture, 25 grams.



• Effective Range: 10 meters.



• Flash Intensity: 40,000,000 candella.





Figure 4-19: JYS-1 flash/bang grenade.





CHAPTER 5





Obsolete Hand Grenades



This chapter provides data for identifying and understanding the description and capabilities of obsolete U.S. hand grenades. Although these grenades are no longer common to the U.S. inventory, the majority of them are still in use by other services or nations.


5-1. M30 PRACTICE HAND GRENADE



The M30 practice grenade (Figure 5-1) simulates the M26 series of fragmentation hand grenades for training purposes. The M30 adds realism to training and familiarizes the soldier with the functioning and description of the fragmentation hand grenade.

a. Body. The grenade body is cast iron and is reusable.



b. Fuze. The fuze is an M205A1 or M205A2.



c. Weight. The grenade weighs 16 ounces.



d. Safety Clip. See paragraph 1–3.



e. Capabilities. The average soldier can throw the grenade 40 meters. The M30 emits a small puff of white smoke after a delay of 4 to 5 seconds and makes a loud popping sound.



f. Color and Markings. The grenade is light blue with white markings.





WARNING





Fuze fragments can exit the hole in the base of the grenade body and cause injury.





]Figure 5-1: M30 practice grenade.





5-2. MK1 ILLUMINATION HAND GRENADE



The MK1 illumination hand grenade (Figurg 5-2) is a ground signaling and ground pyrotechnic signal, except that the grenade burns only at ground level whereas pyrotechnic signals burn in flight or while suspended from a parachute. The MK1 should not be used in deep mud or swampy ground, which would result in little or no illumination. The grenade burns with a very hot flame and may be used as an incendiary agent. Because it is incendiary, soldiers should use caution to prevent fires that would be detrimental to tactical operations.

a. Body. The body of the MK1 illumination grenade is sheet metal.



b. Filler. The filler has 3.5 ounces of illuminating pyrotechnic composition.



c. Fuze. The fuze is a special igniter, which differs from other igniting type fuzes in that it contains a quick match rather than a powder delay train. The quick match has a burning time of 7 seconds, after which it sets off an igniter charge. The igniter charge initiates the burning process of the grenade’s filler.



d. Weight. The grenade weighs 10 ounces.



e. Capabilities. The average soldier can throw the MK1 40 meters. The filler burns for 25 seconds, producing 55,000 candlepower and illuminating an area 200 meters in diameter.



f. Color and Markings. Older MK1 grenades are white with black markings; newer models are unpainted with black markings.





WARNING





Avoid looking directly at the illumination grenade as it burns, since the intensity of the light may damage the retina.





Figure 5-2: MK1 illumination pyrotechnic hand grenade.





5-3. MK2 FRAGMENTATION HAND GRENADE



The MK2 (Figure 5-3) is used to supplement small arms fire against the enemy in close combat. The grenade produces casualties by high-velocity projection of fragments.

a. Body. The MK2 grenade body is cast iron.



b. Filler. The filler has TNT, either flaked or granular.



c. Fuze. The fuze is an M204A1 or M204A2.



d. Weight. The grenade weighs 21 ounces.



e. Capabilities. The average soldier can throw the grenade 30 meters. The MK2 grenade has a bursting radius of 10 meters.



f. Color and Markings. The grenade has an olive drab body with a single yellow band, which indicates a highexplosive filler.





WARNING





If the fuze is loose, do not try to tighten it. This could set off the granular TNT in the grenade.





Figure 5-3: MK2 fragmentation hand grenades.





5-4. M26 AND M26A1 FRAGMENTATION HAND GRENADES



These grenades (Figure 5-4) are used to supplement small arms fire against an enemy in close combat. They produce casualties through the high-velocity projection of fragments.

a. Body. The M26 and M26A1 grenade bodies are cast iron.



b. Filler. The fillers have TNT, either flaked or granular.



c. Fuze. The fuze is an M204A1 or M204A2.



d. Weight. Each grenade weighs 21 ounces.



e. Capabilities. The average soldier can throw these grenades 40 meters. They have an effective casualty radius of 15 meters.



f. Color and Markings. These grenades have an olive drab body with a single yellow band at the top and yellow markings, which indicate a high-explosive filler.





WARNING





Although the casualty-producing radius of the M26 grenade is 15 meters, fragments can disperse out to 230 meters.





Figure 5-4: M26 and M26A1 fragmentation hand grenade.





5-5. M7 AND M7A1 CN RIOT-CONTROL HAND GRENADES



The M7 and M7A1 grenades (Figure 5-5) contain only CN (tear gas) filler. The two grenades differ in the amount of filler they contain.

a. Body. The M7 and M7A1 grenade bodies are sheet metal. The M7 has six emission holes at the top and two rows of nine emission holes each along the sides. The M7A1 has four emission holes at the top and one at the bottom.



b. Filler. The M7 grenade has 10.25 ounces of CN; the M7A1 has 12.5 ounces of CN.



c. Fuze. The fuze is an M201A1.



d. Weight. The M7 grenade weighs 17 ounces; the M7A1 weighs 18.5 ounces.



e. Capabilities. The average soldier can throw either grenade 35 meters. The grenades produce a dense cloud of irritant agent for 20 to 60 seconds.



f. Color and Markings. Each grenade has a gray body with a single red band and red markings.





WARNING





Friendly forces should don protective masks before using these grenades.





Figure 5-5: M7 and M7A1 tear gas hand grenade.





5-6. M6 AND M6A1 CN-DM RIOT-CONTROL HAND GRENADES



The M6 and M6A1 grenades (Figure 5-6) contain a combination mixture of CN and DM. They differ chiefly in external appearance and the manner in which the filler is combined.

a. Body. The M6 and M6A1 grenade bodies are sheet metal. The M6 has six emission holes at the top and two rows of nine emission holes each along the sides. The M6A1 has four emission holes at the top and one at the bottom.



b. Filler. The M6 grenade has 10.5 ounces of CN-DM mixture; the M6A1 has 9.5 ounces of CN-DM mixture.



c. Fuze. The fuze is an M201A1.



d. Weight. The M6 grenade weighs 17 ounces; the M6A1 weighs 20 ounces.



e. Capabilities. The average soldier can throw either grenade 35 meters. The grenades emit a dense cloud of irritant agent for 20 to 60 seconds.



f. Color and Markings. These grenades have gray bodies with a single red band and red markings. (Under the standard color-coding system, the single red band and markings indicate nonpersistent riot-control filler. A double red band and markings indicate persistent riot-control filler, and any combination of green bands and markings indicates casualty-producing filler. Currently, there are no casualty-producing agents in hand grenade form.)





WARNING





Friendly forces should don protective masks before using these grenades.





Figure 5-6: M6 and M6A1 riot-control hand grenade.





5-7. ABC-B25A1 AND ABC-M25A2 RIOT-CONTROL HAND GRENADES



The ABC riot-control hand grenade is a bursting munition with an integral fuze (Figure 5-7). The M25A2 grenade is an improved version of the M25A1 grenade. The two types of grenades differ primarily in body construction. They are used to deliver all three types of riot-control agents presently used in hand grenades.

a. Body. The body of this grenade is compressed fiber or plastic sphere.



b. Filler. The fillers of the M25 series of riot-control hand grenades vary in weight and composition according to the type of agent contained in the grenade. All fillers are mixed with silica aerosol for increased dissemination efficiency.



c. Fuze. The fuze type is integral.



d. Weight. Each grenade weighs 7.5 to 8 ounces, depending on the type of filler.



e. Capabilities. The average soldier can throw the grenade 50 meters. The M25 series of riot-control hand grenades have a radius burst (visible cloud grenade) of about 5 meters, but fragments of the grenade are occasionally projected up to 25 meters.



f. Color and Markings. The color and markings are the same as the M6 and M6A1 grenades (paragraph 5–6f). Most grenades of the M25 series currently in use are not painted according to any color-coding system. They are either totally unpainted or have only a red band and red markings.





WARNING





When the ABC-M25A1 grenade is employed, do not drop it because it may go off immediately. Do not attempt to replace a pulled safety pin and do not relax thumb pressure arming sleeve after the safety pin is pulled. Friendly forces should don protective masks before using these grenades.





Figure 5-7: The ABC-M25A1 riot-control hand grenade.





5-8. M34 WHITE PHOSPHORUS HAND GRENADE



The M34 chemical smoke grenade is the most versatile of all hand grenades (Figure 5-8). The grenade can be used for signaling, screening, or incendiary missions, or for producing casualties. The use of this grenade also has a psychological impact on the enemy.

a. Body. The M34 WP grenade body is compressed fiber or plastic sphere.



b. Filler. The filler has 15 ounces of white phosphorous.



c. Fuze. The fuze is an M206A2.



d. Weight. The grenade weighs 27 ounces.



e. Capabilities. The average soldier can throw the grenade 30 meters. The grenade has a bursting radius of 35 meters. All friendly personnel within this 35-meter area should be in a covered position to avoid being struck by burning particles. The WP filler burns for about 60 seconds at a temperature of 5,000 degrees Fahrenheit. This intense heat causes the smoke produced by the grenade to rise rapidly, especially in cool climates, making the M34 grenade less desirable for use as a screening agent. (The M15WP smoke hand grenade is similar to the M34. For more information, refer to TM 9-1330-200-12.)



f. Color and Markings. Under the old ammunition color-coding system, the white phosphorous grenade is light gray with a single yellow band and yellow markings. Under the new standard color-coding system, the M34 grenade is light green with a single yellow band and light red markings.





NOTE



Most M34WP smoke hand grenades presently in use were manufactured before the standard color-coding system agreement and are painted according to the old color code.





WARNING





The M34 has a bursting radius of 35 meters, which is farther than the average soldier can throw it; therefore, the thrower must be in a covered or protected position.





Figure 5-8: M34WP smoke hand grenade.





5-9. AN-M8 HC WHITE SMOKE



This grenade is used to produce dense clouds of white smoke for signaling and screening (Figure 5-9).

a. Body. The grenade body is a sheet steel cylinder.



b. Filler. The filler has 19 ounces of Type C, HC smoke mixture.



c. Fuze. The fuze is an M201A1.



d. Weight. The grenade weighs 24 ounces.



e. Capabilities. The average soldier can throw the AN-M8 30 meters. The grenade emits a dense cloud of white smoke for 105 to 150 seconds.



f. Color and Markings. The grenade has a light green body with black markings and a white top.





WARNING





The AN-M8 hand grenade produces harmful hydrochloric fumes that irritate the eyes, throat, and lungs. It should not be used in closed-in areas unless soldiers are wearing protective masks.





WARNING





Any damaged AN-M8 HC grenades that expose the filler are hazardous. Exposure of the filler to moisture and air could result in a chemical reaction that will ignite the grenade.





Figure 5-9: AN-M8 HC white smoke grenade.





5-10. SAFETY CLIPS



Improvements have been made in safety clips. There are four types of safety clips that might be encountered on the obsolete grenades (Figure 5-10).





Figure 5-10: Safety clips on obsolete grenades.





CHAPTER 6





NATO Hand Grenades



This chapter provides general information on the identification, functions, and capabilities of NATO hand grenades. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization nations have an extensive inventory of grenades. This chapter describes only the more common grenades that the U.S. soldier might encounter during joint operations.





SECTION I. NETHERLANDS




6-1. NR17



• Type: Offensive. (Figure 6-1)



• Weight: 475 grams.



• Length: 125 millimeters.



• Diameter: 56 millimeters.



• Body Material: Plastic.



• Fuze Type: Striker release.



• Filler Material: TNT.



• Filler Weight: 205 grams.



• Fuze Delay: 3–4 seconds.



• Effective Radius: 5 meters.



• Range Thrown: 30 to 40 meters.





Figure 6-1: NR17 hand grenade.





6-2. RR13C1



• Type: Fragmentation, offensive. (Figure 6-2)



• Weight: 475 grams.



• Length: 143 millimeters.



• Diameter: 54 millimeters.



• Body Material: Steel.



• Filler Weight: 225 grams.



• Filler Material: High explosive.



• Fuze Type: Pyrotechnic delay.



• Fuze Delay: 5 seconds.



• Range Thrown: 30 meters.





Figure 6-2: NR13C1 fragmentation hand grenade.





6-3. MARK 2



• Type: Fragmentation. (Figure 6-3)



• Length: 114 millimeters.



• Diameter: 57 millimeters:



• Body Material: Cast iron.



• Filler Weight: 55 grams.



• Filler Material: TNT powdered.



• Fuze Type: Pyrotechnic delay.



• Fuze Delay: 3 seconds.





Figure 6-3: Mark 2 fragmentation hand grenade.





6-4. NR1C1



• Type: Fragmentation. (Figure 6-4)



• Weight: 670 grams.



• Length: 122 millimeters.



• Body Material: Cast iron.



• Filler Weight: 55 grams.



• Filler Material: TNT powdered.



• Fuze Type: Pyrotechnic delay.



• Fuze Delay: 3 seconds.





Figure 6-4: NR1C1 fragmentation hand grenade.





6-5. JNS 62–65



• Type: Smoke. (Figure 6-5)



• Weight: 660 grams.



• Length: 151 millimeters.



• Diameter: 63 millimeters.



• Body Material: Tinned steel.



• Filler Material: Colored smoke.



• Fuze Delay: 2 to 3 seconds.



• Burn Time: 1 to 2 minutes.





Figure 6-5: JNS 62-65 smoke hand grenade.





6-6. NR12



• Type: Incendiary. (Figure 6-6)



• Weight: 820 grams.



• Length: 153 millimeters.



• Diameter: 63 millimeters.



• Body Material: Tinned steel.



• Filler Material: Thermite.



• Fuze Type: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 1 to 3 seconds.



• Range Thrown: 40 meters.



• Burn Time: 40 seconds.



• Peak Intensity: 2200ºC





Figure 6-6: NR12 incendiary hand grenade.





6-7. NR16



• Type: Smoke. (Figure 6-7)



• Weight: 284 grams.



• Length: 101 millimeters.



• Diameter: 50 millimeters.



• Body Material: Tinned Steel.



• Filler Material: White phosphorus.



• Fuze Type: Delay.



• Fuze Delay: 4 seconds.



• Range Thrown: 37 meters.





Figure 6-7: NR16 smoke hand grenade.





6-8. NR20C1



• Type: Fragmentation. (Figure 6-8)



• Weight: 390 grams.



• Length: 103 millimeters.



• Diameter: 60 millimeters.



• Body Material: Plastic.



• Filler Weight: 150 grams.



• Filler Material: Composition B.



• Fuze Type: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 3 to 4 seconds.



• Lethal Radius: 5 meters, safety range 15 to 20 meters.





Figure 6-8: NR20C1 fragmentation hand grenade.





SECTION II. GERMANY




6-9. DM 24/68



• Type: Incendiary smoke. (Figure 6-9)



• Weight: 340 grams.



• Length: 133 millimeters.



• Diameter: 67 millimeters.



• Body Material: Plastic.



• Filler Weight: 255 grams.



• Filler Material. Red phosphorus.



• Fuze Type: Mechanical ignition.



• Fuze Delay: 2.5 seconds after ignition.



• Burn Time: 5 minutes.





Figure 6-9: DM 24/68 incendiary hand grenade.





6-10. HC DM 15



• Type: Smoke. (Figure 6-10)



• Weight: 1,200 grams.



• Length: 175 millimeters.



• Diameter: 76 millimeters.



• Body Material: Hexachlorethane.



• Fuze Type: Mechanical ignition.



• Fuze Delay: 2.5 seconds after ignition.



• Burn Time: 2.5 minutes.





Figure 6-10: HC DM 15 smoke hand grenade.





6-11. M-DN 11



• Type: Fragmentation, defensive. (Figure 6-11)



• Weight: 467 grams.



• Length: 97 millimeters.



• Diameter: 60 millimeters.



• Body Material: Plastic.



• Filler Weight: 43 grams, plasticized PETN.



• Fuze Type: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 3.5 to 4.5 seconds.





Figure 6-11: M-DN 11 fragmentation hand grenade.





SECTION III. BELGIUM




6-12. 35Г—65 MECAR



• Type: Fragmentation, defensive. (Figure 6-12)



• Weight: 230 grams.



• Length: 88 millimeters.



• Diameter: 35 millimeters.



• Body Material. Metal.



• Filler Material: Composition B.



• Fuze Type: Delay.



• Fuze Delay: 4 seconds.



• Range Thrown: 40 meters.



• Effective Radius: 10 meters.





Figure 6-12: 35Г—65 MECAR fragmentation hand grenade.





SECTION IV. UNITED KINGDOM




6-13. NO. 36M



• Type: Defensive. (Figure 6-13)



• Weight: 600 grams.



• Length: 102 millimeters.



• Diameter: 60 millimeters.



• Body Material: Cast iron.



• Filler Weight: TNT, 60 grams.



• Fuze Type: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 3.5 to 4.5 seconds.



• Range Thrown: 25 meters.



• Effective Radius: 30 to 100 meters (40 fragments).





Figure 6-13: No. 36M hand grenade.





6-14. PC1



• Type: Practice. (Figure 6-14)



• Weight: 265 grams.



• Length: 95 millimeters.



• Diameter: 56 millimeters.



• Body Material: Soft plastic.



• Filler Weight: 80 grams.



• Filler Material: White powder.



• Fuze Type: Delay.



• Fuze Delay: 4.4 seconds + 0.5 seconds.



• Range Thrown: 40 meters.





Figure 6-14: PC1 practice hand grenade.





6-15. L2A2



• Type: Fragmentation. (Figure 6-15)



• Weight: 395 grams.



• Length: 106 millimeters.



• Diameter: 60 millimeters.



• Body Material: Two-piece sheet-steel body with spiral wrapped fragmentation sleeve inside.



• Filler Material: RDX/TNT, 170 grams.



• Fuze Type: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 4 to 5 seconds.



• Range Thrown: 40 meters.



• Lethal Radius: 10 meters.





Figure 6-15: L2A2 hand grenade.





NOTE



Copy of U.S. M26, being replaced by RO 01A1, a product improved model.





6-16. NO. 83 N 201



• Type: Lachrymatory. (Figure 6-16)



• Weight: 340 grams.



• Length: 135 millimeters.



• Diameter: 63 millimeters.



• Body Material: Tin.



• Filler Weight: 205 grams.



• Filler Material: CS, gas.



• Fuze Type: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 2 to 3 seconds.



• Range Thrown: 25 to 30 meters.



• Burn Time: About 25 seconds.





Figure 6-16: No. 83 N 201 riot-control hand grenade.





6-17. RUBBER BURSTING CS



• Type: Riot control, L13A1 (N225 is similar). (Figure 6-17)



• Weight: 550 Grams.



• Length: 175 millimeters.



• Diameter: 66 millimeters.



• Body Material: Rubber.



• Filler Weight: 470 grams.



• Filler Material: CS, 23 separate CS pellets.



• Fuze Type: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 2 to 2.4 seconds.



• Range Thrown: 25 to 35 meters.



• Burn Time: 12 seconds.



• Effective Radius: 15 meters.





Figure 6-17: Rubber bursting CS hand grenade.





SECTION V. AUSTRIA




6-18. SPL HGR 77



• Type: Defensive. (Figure 6-18)



• Weight: 470 grams.



• Length: 96 millimeters.



• Diameter: 63 millimeters.



• Body Material: Rigid plastic.



• Filler Material: Plasticized PETN, 70 g.



• Fuze Type: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 3.5 to 4.5 seconds.



• Range Thrown: 45 meters.



• Effective Radius: 10 to 12 meters.





Figure 6-18: Spl HGr 77 hand grenade.





6-19. HDGR 78



• Type: Defensive. (Figure 6-19)



• Weight: 520 grams.



• Length: 115 millimeters.



• Diameter: 60 millimeters.



• Body Material: Plastic with steel pellets.



• Filler Weight: 70 grams.



• Filler Material: Plasticized PETN.



• Fuze Type: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 3 to 5 seconds.



• Range Thrown: 35 to 40 meters.



• Effective Radius: 10 meters.





Figure 6-19: HdGr 78 hand grenade.





6-20. HGR 79



• Type: Defensive. (Figure 6-20)



• Weight: 370 grams.



• Length: 96 millimeters.



• Diameter: 58 millimeters.



• Body Material: Plastic.



• Filler Weight: 45 grams.



• Filler Material: Plasticized PETN.



• Fuze Type: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 3.5 to 4.5 seconds.



• Range Thrown: 45 meters.



• Effective Radius: 10 meters.





Figure 6-20: HGr 79 hand grenade.





6-21. SPL HGR 84



• Type: Defensive. (Figure 6-21)



• Weight: 490 grams.



• Length: 115 millimeters.



• Diameter: 61 millimeters.



• Body Material: Plastic.



• Filler Weight: 96 grams.



• Fuze Type: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 3.5 to 4.5 seconds nominal.



• Range Thrown: 35 to 40 meters.



• Effective Radius: 10 meters.





Figure 6-21: Spl HGr 84 hand grenade.





6-22. HDGR 72



• Type: Defensive. (Figure 6-22)



• Weight: 485 grams.



• Length: 115 millimeters.



• Diameter: 60 millimeter.



• Body Material: Rigid plastic.



• Filler Weight: 65 grams.



• Filler Material: Plasticized PETN.



• Fuze Type: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 3 to 5 seconds.



• Effective Radius: 10 meters.





Figure 6-22: HdGr 72 hand grenade.





6-23. HDGR 73



• Type: Defensive. (Figure 6-23)



• Weight: 355 grams.



• Length: 91 millimeters.



• Diameter: 57 millimeters.



• Body Material: Plastic.



• Filler Weight: 37 grams.



• Filler Material: Plasticized PETN.



• Fuze Type: Striker release.



• Fuze Delay: 3 to 5 seconds.



• Effective Radius: 10 meters.





Figure 6-23: HdGr 73 hand grenade.





The Claymore Antipersonnel Mine





CHAPTER 1





Introduction





SECTION I. GENERAL




1. PURPOSE AND SCOPE



a. This manual provides guidance for commanders and instructors presenting instruction and training on the functioning, installation, and employment of the antipersonnel mine, CLAYMORE.



b. This manual describes the M18A1 antipersonnel mine, CLAYMORE, its functioning, and installation. It provides a basis for conducting training utilizing the electric firing system issued with the mine. It also gives guidance for tactical employment and safety requirements. An earlier model of the CLAYMORE antipersonnel mine, the M18, is covered in appendix II.



c. The material contained herein is applicable without modification to both nuclear and nonnuclear warfare.



d. Users of this manual are encouraged to submit recommended changes or comments to improve the publication. Comments should be keyed to the specific page, paragraph, and line of the text in which the change is recommended. Reasons should be provided for each comment to insure understanding and complete evaluation. Comments should be forwarded direct to the Commandant, United States Army Infantry School, Fort Benning, Ga. 31905.




2. ROLES OF THE ANTIPERSONNEL MINE CLAYMORE



The number of ways in which the CLAYMORE may be employed is limited only by the imagination of the user. The CLAYMORE is used primarily as a defensive weapon, but has its application in the offensive role. It must be emphasized that when the CLAYMORE is referred to as a weapon, this implies that it is employed in the controlled role. In the uncontrolled role, the CLAYMORE is considered a mine or boobytrap (FM 20–32).



SECTION II. DESCRIPTION




3. GENERAL



The M18A1 antipersonnel mine was standardized in 1960, and replaced the M18 antipersonnel mine (app. II). Both mines are similar in appearance and functioning. The M18A1 (fig. 1) is a directional, fixed-fragmentation mine. When employed in the controlled role, it is treated as a one-shot weapon. It is primarily designed for use against massed infantry attacks; however, its fragments are also effective against light vehicles. The M18A1 mine is equipped with a fixer plastic slit-type sight (knife-edge sight on later model), adjustable legs, and two detonator wells. An instruction sheet for the M18A1 mine is attached to the inside cover of the bandoleer. The instruction sheet which accompanies the M18A1 mine having the knife-edge sight is shown in figure 3.





Figure 1: The M18A1 antipersonnel mine (CLAYMORE).





4. CASUALTY EFFECTS



When detonated, the M18A1 mine will deliver spherical steel fragments over a 60Вє fan-shaped pattern that is 2 meters high and 50 meters wide at a range of 50 meters (fig. 4). These fragments are moderately effective up to a range of 100 meters and can travel up to 250 meters forward of the mine. The optimum effective range (the range at which the most desirable balance is achieved between lethality and area coverage) is 50 meters.


5. DANGER AREA



a. Danger From Fragments (fig. 4). The danger area consists of a 180Вє fan with a radius of 250 meters centered in the direction of aim.



b. Danger Area of Backblast and Secondary Missiles (figs. 4 and 24). Within an area of 16 meters to the rear and sides of the mine, backblast can cause injury by concussion (ruptured eardrums) and create a secondary missile hazard.



(1) Friendly troops are prohibited to the rear and sides of the mine within a radius of 16 meters.



(2) The minimum safe operating distance from the mine is 16 meters. At this distance, and regardless of how the mine is employed, the operator should be in a foxhole, behind cover, or lying prone in a depression. The operator and all friendly troops within 100 meters of the mine must take cover to prevent being injured by flying secondary objects such as sticks, stones, and pebbles.





Figure 2: The M18A1 antipersonnel mine and accessories packed in the M7 bandoleer.





Figure 3: The instruction sheet attached to the M7 bandoleer.





Figure 4: Danger radius and effects of the M18A1.





CHAPTER 2





Mechanical Training




SECTION I. INTRODUCTION




6. GENERAL



This section describes and illustrates the M18A1 antipersonnel mine and the electric and nonelectric firing systems that can be used to detonate the mine.


7. DETAILED DESCRIPTION



a. Mine.



(1) Nomenclature Mine, antipersonnel, M18A1.

(2) Common name CLAYMORE.

(3) Type Antipersonnel.

(4) Weight 3ВЅ pounds.

(5) Dimensions 8ВЅ inches long; 13вЃ„8 inches wide; 3Вј inches high (legs folded); 6Вѕ inches high (legs unfolded).

(6) Firing unit construction The outer surface of the mine is a curved, rectangular, olive-drab, molded case of fiberglass-filled polystyrene (plastic). In the front portion of the case is a fragmentation face containing steel spheres embbedded in a plastic matrix. The back portion of the case behind the matrix contains a layer of explosive.

(7) Explosive 1ВЅ pounds of composition C4.

(8) Detonator wells. Two detonator wells are located on the top of the mine which allows for single or dual priming. These wells are sealed by the plug ends of the shipping plug priming-adapters which prevent entry of foreign materials into the detonator wells. The slotted end of the shipping plug priming-adapter is used to hold an electric blasting cap in place when the mine is armed. The shipping plug priming-adapter is merely reversed when the mine is to be armed.

(9) Sight and arrows. The molded slit-type peepsight (or knife-edge sight) and arrows (fig. 10) located on top of the mine are used to aim the mine.

(10) Legs. Two pairs of scissors-type folding legs located on the bottom of the mine enable it to be emplaced on the ground. The mine can also be tied to posts, trees, etc.





b. Accessories.

(1) M57 firing device.



(a) One M57 electrical firing device is issued with each M18A1. This device is a hand-held pulse generator. A squeeze of the handle produces a double (one positive, one negative) 3-volt electric pulse of sufficient energy to fire the electric blasting cap through the 100 feet of firing wire which is issued with the mine. The M57 device is 4 inches long, approximately 1ВЅ inches wide, 3Вј inches high, and weighs three-fourths of a pound. On one end of the firing device is a rubber connecting plug with a dust cover. The M57 firing device is shown in figure 5.



(b) The safety bail on the M57 electrical firing device (fig. 6) has two positions. In the upper SAFE position, it acts as a block between the firing handle and the pulse generator. In the lower FIRE position, it is clear of the firing handle and allows the pulse generator to be activated. The M18 A1 antipersonnel mine with the M57 firing device connected is shown in figure 7.



(c) The M57 electrical firing device and firing wire should not be discarded after initial use. Another electric blasting cap can be attached to the firing wire and the M57 device can be used to fire other devices, such as fougasse bombs and demolition charges, provided no more than 100 feet of firing wire and one M6 blasting cap are used.





Figure 5: The M57 firing device.





Figure 6: The M57 firing device safety bail.





(2) M4 electric blasting cap. The M4 electric blasting cap assembly (fig. 7) consists of an M6 electric blasting cap attached to 100 feet of firing wire. Attached to the firing wire connection is a combination shorting plug and dust cover. The shorting plug prevents accidental functioning of the blasting cap by static electricity; the dust cover prevents dirt and moisture from entering the connector. The firing wire is wrapped around a flat paper and then rolled to form a package 6 inches long, 4 inches wide, and 2 inches high. A piece of insulating tape is used to hold the package together.





NOTE



With minus of later manufacture, the M4 electrical blasting cap assembly is Willed on a spool.





(3) M40 test set. The M40 test set (figs. 17 and 18) is an instrument used for checking the continuity of the initiating circuit of the mine. (For further details on the M40 test set, see para 15.)





NOTE



Only one of the six bandoleers in each packing box contains a test set. The bandoleer containing the test set is marked by an identification tag on the carrying strap (fig. 2).





c. M7 Bandoleer. The M7 bandoleer (fig. 2) is constructed of water resistant canvas (olive-drab color) and has snap fasteners which secure the flap. The bandoleer has two pockets; one pocket contains the mine and the other contains a firing device, a test set, and an electric blasting cap assembly. A 2-inch wide web strap, which is used as a shoulder carrying strap, is sewn to the bag. An instruction sheet is sewn to the inside flap (fig. 3).





Figure 7: The M18A1 antipersonnel mine with the M57 firing device connected.





SECTION II. COVERAGE AND METHODS OF FIRE




8. FIRE DISCIPLINE



Since the M18A1 mine can be fired only once, fire discipline is of paramount importance. The mine should not be used against single personnel targets; rather, it should be used for its intended purpose—massed personnel. When lead elements of an enemy formation approach within 20 to 30 meters of the mine, it should be detonated. If practicable, and to insure fire discipline, actual authority and responsibility for target selection and timely detonation should rest with squad leaders or their superiors.


9. CONTROLLED FRONTAL COVERAGE



a. For effective coverage of the entire front of a position, mines can be placed in a line no closer than 5 meters and no farther apart than 45 meters. Preferred lateral and rearward separation distance is 25 meters (fig. 8).



b. If mines are placed in depth (from front to rear), the minimum rearward separation distance is 5 meters, provided secondary missiles are removed. This distance is sufficient to prevent possible disturbance or damage to the rearward mines.




10. METHODS OF FIRE



The M18A1 mine can be employed in either the controlled or uncontrolled role.

a.Controlled Role. The mine is detonated by the operator as the forward edge of the enemy approaches a point within the killing zone (20 to 30 meters) where maximum casualties can be inflicted. Controlled detonation may be accomplished by use of either an electrical or nonelectrical firing system (fig. 9). When mines are employed in the controlled role, they are treated the same as individual weapons and are reported for inclusion in the unit fire plan. They are not reported as mines; however, the emplacing unit must insure that the mines are either removed, detonated, or turned over to a relieving unit.



b. Uncontrolled Role. Uncontrolled firing is accomplished when the mine is installed in such a manner as to cause an unsuspecting enemy to detonate the mine. Mines employed in this manner must be reported and recorded as land mines.




SECTION III. FUNCTIONING AND INSTALLATION




11. FUNCTIONING



a. Electrical Firing. When the M18A1 is armed, actuating the M57 firing device handle (fig. 5) with the safety bail in the FIRE position provides sufficient electrical energy to detonate the M6 electric blasting cap. The detonation of the blasting cap, in turn, sets off the high explosive charge (composition C4). Detonation of the high explosive charge causes fragmentation of the plastic matrix and projects spherical steel fragments outward in a fan-shaped pattern (fig. 4). This mine is sufficiently waterproof to function satisfactorily after having been submerged in salt or fresh water for 2 hours.



b. Nonelectrical Firing. The M18A1 mine is deliberately detonated by the operator pulling or cutting a trip wire attached to a nonelectrical firing device (fig. 9). A nonelectric blasting cap attached to the firing device and crimped to a length of detonating cord sets off the detonating cord. At the other end of the detonating cord, a second crimped nonelectric blasting cap, which is inserted in one of the detonator wells, detonates the mine.





Figure 8: Diagram of lateral separation pattern of (CLAYMORES).





12. INSTALLATION FOR ELECTRICAL FIRING



a. Laying and Aiming.



(1) Laying.



(a) Check to see that the mine and all accessories (fig. 2) are in the bandoleer. Read the instruction sheet (fig. 3) attached inside the bandoleer cover before installing the mine.



(b) Remove the electrical firing wire leaving the mine and other accessories in the bandoleer.





WARNING





During installation the M57 firing device must be kept in the possession of the man installing the mine to prevent accidental firing by a second man.





(c) Secure the shorting plug end of the firing wire at the firing position. Place the bandoleer on your shoulder and unroll the firing wire to the position selected for emplacing the mine.





NOTE



The instructor sheet which accompanies the M18A1 mine with slit-type peepsight indicates that the firing wire can be unrolled from the mine or from the firing position; however, the firing wire should always be laid from the firing psition to the mine emplacement.





(d) Remove the mine from the bandoleer; turn the legs rearward and then downward. Spread each pair of legs about 45 degrees. One leg should protrude to the front and one to the rear of the mine. Position the mine with the surface marked “FRONT TOWARD ENEMY” and the arrows on top of the mine pointing in the direction of the enemy or the desired area of fire. On snow or extremely soft ground the bandoleer may be spread beneath the mine for support.



(e) To prevent tipping in windy areas or when the legs cannot be pressed into the ground, spread the legs to the maximum (about 180Вє so that the legs are to the front and rear of the mine). A top view of the M18A1 antipersonnel mine is shown in figure 10.



(2) Aiming.



(a) Mines with slit-type peepsight.



1. Select an aiming point which is about 50 meters (150 feet) to the front of the mine and about 2ВЅ meters (8 feet) above the ground (fig. 11).



2. Position the eye about 15 centimeters (6 inches) to the rear of the sight. Aim the mine by sighting through the peepsight. The groove of the sight should be in line with the aiming point. The aiming point should be in the center of the desired area of coverage, and the bottom edge of the peepsight should be parallel to the ground that is to be covered with the fragment spray.



(b) Mines with knife-edge sight.



1. Select an aiming point at ground level that is about 50 meters (150 feet) in front of the mine.



2. Position the eye about 15 centimeters (6 inches) to the rear of the sight. Aim the mine by alining the two edges of the sight with the aiming point (fig. 11.1).



b. Arming and Electrical Firing.



(1) Secure the firing wire about 1 meter behind the mine so it will not become misalined should the firing wire be disturbed.



(2) Test the firing device, test set, and blasting cap assembly as described in paragraph 15.





WARNING





Make certain that the combination shorting plug and dust cover are assembled to the connector of the firing wire before proceeding with installation of the mine.





(3) Unscrew one of the shipping plug priming adapters from the mine. Slide the slotted end of the shipping plug priming adapter (fig. 12) onto the firing wires of the blasting cap between the crimped connections and the blasting cap. Pull the excess wire through the slotted end of the adapter until the top of the blasting cap is firmly seated in the bottom portion of the shipping plug priming adapter. Screw the adapter with blasting cap into the detonator.





WARNING





Make certain that the face of the mine marked “Front Toward Enemy” and the arrows on top of the mine point in the direction of the enemy.





(4) Recheck the aim of the mine. Camouflage the mine and, if possible, bury the firing wire to protect it from fire and enemy detection. Make certain you have the bandoleer and other accessories and then move back to the firing position.





WARNING





The mine firing position should be in a foxhole or covered position at least 16 meters to the rear or the side of the emplaced mine.





(5) Before connecting the M57 firing device (fig. 5) to the firing wire, make certain that the safety bail is in the SAFE position and that all friendly troops within 250 meters of the front and sides and 100 meters of the rear of the mine are under cover. Do not connect the firing device to the firing wire until the actual time of firing.



(6) To fire the mine, remove the dust cover on the firing device, remove the combination shorting plug and dust cover from the end of the firing wire, and connect the firing device to the firing wire. Fire the mine by positioning the firing device safety bail in the FIRE position and actuating the firing device handle with a firm, quick squeeze.





Figure 9: Diagram of the M18A1 antipersonnel mine installed for controlled

nonelectrical and electrical detonation.





Figure 10: Top view of the M18A1 antipersonnel mine.





Figure 11: Aiming the M18A1 antipersonnel mine.





Figure 11.1: Aiming the M18A1 antipersonnel mine equipped with the knife-edge sight.





13. INSTALLATION FOR NONELECTRICAL FIRNG



A nonelectric firing system utilizing a ring main is shown in figure 13. Instructions for laying, aiming, and arming the mine using two nonelectric M7 blasting caps, a piece of detonating cord approximately 25 feet long, a pull wire, and a pull-type or pull release-type firing device, such as the M1 or the M3 is discussed in a and b below. Instructions for laying, aiming, and arming the mine using a dual firing system and a ring main is discussed in c below. To arm the mine by the methods described below, a thorough knowledge of explosives and demolition materials and the use and installation of land mines and boobytraps is required.

a. Pull Wire Initiation of the Mine (controlled).



(1) Laying and aiming the mine are performed in the same manner as for electrical firing. For details on laying and aiming, see paragraph 12a.



(2) Crimp a nonelectric blasting cap to a firing device. With the nonelectric blasting cap attached, fasten the firing device to the detonating cord with tape. Using tape, wire, twine or cord, fasten the firing device securely to a firmly emplaced stake (fig. 13). Insert the detonating cord into a second nonelectric blasting cap and crimp the cap to the detonating cord. Carefully insert the cap into the detonator well. Secure the cap in the detonator well by carefully taping or tying the detonating cord to the mine. A method of taping detonating cord to a nonelectric blasting cap is shown in figure 14.





Figure 12: Arming and testing the M18A1 mine.





Figure 13: Nonelectric firing system.





(3) Attach a pull wire securely to the pull ring of the firing device. The pull wire should be sufficiently long to allow actuation of the firing device from a protected position at least 16 meters to the rear of the mine. Care must be taken during emplacement to secure the firing device so that the mine will not be dislodged by a pull of the detonating cord of the tripwire.



b. Tripwire Initiation of the Mine (uncontrolled).



(1) Laying and aiming the mine are performed in the same manner as for electrical firing. For details on laying and aiming, see paragraph 12a.



(2) The preliminary steps used to arm the mine are the same as those described in a (1) through (3) above.



(3) The tripwire and the firing device, which are stretched across a trail or other avenues of approach, must be securely attached to two stakes firmly emplaced in the ground at a distance of 20 to 30 meters forward of the mine (fig. 15).



c. Nonelectric Method Using Dual Firing or Ring Main.



(1) Dual firing.



(a) Obtain two 10-meter lengths of detonating cord, four M7 nonelectric blasting caps, and two pull-type firing devices.



(b) Remove both shipping plug priming-adapters from the mine.



(c) Crimp an M7 nonelectric blasting cap to the end of each piece of detonating cord. Insert the caps into the detonator wells, and carefully tape or tie the detonating cord to the mine. While moving back to a safe firing position, unwind the detonating cord.



(d) Emplace the mine and the detonating cord as described in a (1) through (3) above.



(e) Attach a pull-type firing device and a tripwire (or pull wire) to the free end of each piece of detonating cord (fig. 13). Use the procedures described in a or b above.



(2) Ring Main.



(a) Follow the instructions in (1) (a) through (d) above.



(b) Make a ring main.



(c) When mines are emplaced one behind the other, the one nearest the enemy is generally fired first. Mines emplaced laterally may be fired in any order or simultaneously.



(d) The mine and the danger area around the mine must be visible from the firing position so that friendly personnel in the vicinity of the mine may be seen.





Figure 14: Method of taping MS firing device to detonating cord.





14. CAMOUFLAGE



a. Although the M18A1 is painted olive-drab to facilitate camouflaging, it is necessary to blend the mine into its surroundings to prevent its detection.



b. Only lightweight foliage, such as leaves and grass should be used to avoid increasing the secondary missile hazard to the rear of the mine.



c. Both the front and rear of the mine should be camouflaged with foliage. The firing wire should also be camouflaged or buried underground. If used, detonating cord should not be buried; however, it may be covered with light foliage.




15. TESTING



a. M40 Test Set. One M40 test set is provided with each case of six M18A1’s. The test set is an instrument used for checking the continuity of the electrical firing circuit. A shipping tag on the carrying strap marks the bandoleer which contains the test set. The test set is 2 inches long, 1½ inches high, and weighs 8 ounces. A small window is located on top of the test set and is used for observing the flashes of the indicating lamp (figs. 17 and 18). The M18 A1 antipersonnel mine set up for circuit testing is shown in figure 16.





Figure 15: Diagram of the M18A1 antipersonnel mine installed for uncontrolled firing.





b. Detailed Circuit Testing Procedure. The firing circuit test should be conducted before the blasting cap is placed into the detonator well. This precaution will prevent the destruction of the mine if the testing set malfunctions and detonates the electric blasting cap. If the blasting cap is detonated during testing, it can be replaced by a standard electric blasting cap attached to the remaining firing wire. Before and after completion of the firing device and blasting cap continuity tests, ascertain that the firing device safety bail is in the SAFE position.



(1) Testing the M57 firing device and the M40 test set.



(a) Remove the dust cover from the connector of the firing device and from the female connector of the test set. Plug the test set into the firing device (fig. 5). Leave the combination shorting plug and dust cover assembly on the other end of the test set. Position the firing device bail to the FIRE position and actuate the handle of the firing device with a firm, quick squeeze and observe the flashing of the lamp through the window of the test set. The window of the test set should be held near the eye when checking the firing device and blasting cap circuitry. This minimizes the risk of enemy observation in the dark and enables the operator to see the lamp flashing, even in bright sunlight.



(b) Flashing of the lamp indicates that the firing device is functioning properly. If the lamp does not flash (on and off), it could be caused by corrosion on the electric connectors of the test set. The firer can overcome this by connecting and disconnecting the shorting plug dust cover on the M40 test set. If the test set indicates that several firing devices are faulty, retest with another set since the first one may be defective. Side and top views of the M40 test set are shown in figures 17 and 18.



(2) Testing the blasting cap.



(a) After determining that the firing device and test set are operative, remove the shorting plug dust cover from the connector of the firing wire and from the end of the test set. Plug the connector of the firing wire into the test set. Position the M57 firing device bail to the FIRE position. Insure that no friendly personnel are near the blasting cap, as it may detonate.

DETAILED CIRCUIT TESTING IS CONDUCTED WITHOUT THE BLASTING CAP INSERTED INTO THE DETONATOR WELL.





Figure 16: The M18A1 antipersonnel mine set up for circuit testing.





Figure 17: Side view of the M40 test set.





Figure 18: Top view of the M40 test set.





(b) When the handle of the firing device is actuated, a lamp in the window of the test set will flash. This flash indicates that the blasting cap circuitry is satisfactory. If there is no flash, replace the blasting cap and retest.



(c) Immediately after the circuit test, the firing device is disconnected from the firing wire and the shorting plug dust cover is connected to the firing wire. The operator returns to the mine WITH THE FIRING DEVICE IN HIS POSSESSION and inserts the blasting cap into the detonator well. The operator then rechecks the aim of the mine and returns to his firing position.



(d) If an extended period of time lapses between the circuit test and the insertion of the blasting cap into the detonator well, or if the area is subjected to artillery or mortar fire, another test should be conducted.





NOTE



If time available precludes the conduct of a circuit test with the blasting cap removed from the mine, then an abbreviated test may be conducted with the blasting cap inserted into the detonator well. If an abbreviated test is conducted, all personnel must be under cover at least 250 meters away from the front and sides of the mine and 100 meters to the rear of the mine.





16. DISARMING AND DESTRUCTION



a. Disarming a Mine with an Electrical Firing System.



(1) Prior to disarming the mine, the firing device safety bail must be in the SAFE position.



(2) Disconnect the firing wire from the firing device. Replace the combination shorting plug dust cover on the firing wire connector and the dust cover on the firing device connector.



(3) Unscrew and remove the shipping plug priming-adapter containing the blasting cap from the mine. Remove the blasting cap and firing wire from the shipping plug priming-adapter. Reverse the shipping plug priming-adapter, and screw the plug end of the adapter into the detonator well.



(4) Remove the firing wire from the stake. Reroll the blasting cap and firing wire and place it in its cardboard container.



(5) Remove the mine from its emplacement. Repack the mine and its accessories into their respective pockets in the bandoleer.



b. Disarming a Mine with a Nonelectrical Firing System.



(1) Prior to performing (2) through (6) below, render the firing device safe by replacing all safety pins.



(2) Disconnect the pull wire or tripwire from the nonelectric firing device.



(3) Remove the detonating cord and blasting cap from the detonator well.



(4) Using crimpers, cut the blasting cap free of the detonating cord. Nonelectric blasting caps and detonating cord crimped together can be separated only by cutting the blasting cap free of the detonating cord.



(5) Replace the shipping plug priming-adapter and screw it into the detonator well, plug end down.



(6) Remove the mine from its emplaced position and repack. Store accessory items in appropriate containers.



c. Destruction of Mine to Prevent Enemy Use.CLAYMORES can be most quickly destroyed by detonation or burning.





CHAPTER 3





Tactical Employment




17. GENERAL



The M18A1 mine is primarily a defensive weapon. It may be employed to a limited extent in certain phases of offensive operations. The M18A1 has the same basic capabilities as antipersonnel mines and can be used in most situations where other types of antipersonnel mines are employed. In addition, the M18A1 has the capability of being sighted directionally to provide fragmentation over a specific area and does not necessarily rely upon chance detonation by the enemy. The M18A1 is adaptable for covering the ranges between maximum hand grenade throwing distance and the minimum safe distance of mortar and artillery supporting fires.


18. DEFENSE



a. General. The M18A1 normally is employed in the controlled role as an antipersonnel mine. When used in conjunction with other types of antipersonnel and antitank mines, the employment of the M18A1 will be governed by the procedures described in FM 20-32.



b. Minefields.



(1) Ease of transportation, installation, and removal facilitates the use of the M18A1 in protective, defensive, and nuisance minefield.



(2) The M18A1, with its controlled dispersion pattern, is designed to cover areas where enemy personnel attacks in force are anticipated. They may be located singly, or in multiples (fig. 8).



(3) CLAYMORES may be mixed with antipersonnel and antitank mines in conjunction with nuisance minefield and arranged for detonation by tripwire.



(4) The M18A1 can supplement other mines within a protective minefield, and can be installed and employed in either the controlled or uncontrolled roles. The configuration and composition of the minefield pattern varies with the terrain and tactical situation.



(5) The M18A1 can be used to cover portions of defensive minefield by emplacing it on the minefield perimeter, or within the field to cover lanes between mines. The controlled method of employment is desirable. Care should be taken to insure that the mine is properly aimed to provide fragmentation effect over and not into the minefield. This can be accomplished by securing the mine to trees or other elevated objects which are at least 2 meters above ground level.



c. Find Protective Fires. The M18A1 can be employed to fill the dead space of the final protective fires of automatic weapons in defensive positions. Depending on the importance of the area being protected, CLAYMORE mines may be emplaced behind each other in relatively close proximity. To avoid the risk of sympathetic detonation, mines should be placed no closer than 5 meters apart. Normally, mines closest to the enemy will be detonated first. If the enemy continues to approach a defender’s position, he will successively detonate rearward mines as he comes within their range. In determining positions for emplacing CLAYMORE mines, consideration must be given to the effects of back blast on friendly positions.



d. Security of Outposts. CLAYMORE mines are easily transported and rapidly emplaced for security of outposts. The mines can be installed for complete perimeter coverage of a position. Time permitting, several rows can be employed. The mine can also be emplaced to assist in covering withdrawals from outposts.



e. Defense of Command, Combat Support, Combat Service Support Installations, and Reserve Forces.



(1) CLAYMORE mines can be utilized to assist in the local security of command posts and support installations; and they can be carried in vehicles located within these areas. In addition to providing local protection for these installations, the mines also provide protection for the vehicles.



(2) CLAYMORE mines so emplaced should be employed in the electrically controlled role as a protective measure against inflicting casualties on friendly personnel.



(3) It is necessary to mark, record, and report all such positions as described in FM 20-32. The shorting plug dust cover must be attached to the firing wire and the firing device should not be attached until actual firing, particularly in rear areas where friendly personnel move about extensively.



(4) Reserve forces in blocking positions or assembly areas can use CLAYMORES to augment their local security forces.



f. Local Security of Halted Columns. CLAYMORES may be carried on tanks and other types of vehicles and emplaced for perimeter defense of such vehicles when they are halted. As soon as they are halted, personnel will emplace the CLAYMORES for close-in protection of the vehicles. Controlled electrical firing should be employed for simplicity, speed, and safety.



g. Roadblocks and Obstacles.



(1) In conjunction with roadblocks, CLAYMORES should have a clear field of fire to cover the avenue of approach. Additional CLAYMORES should be placed on the friendly side of a roadblock. When used to cover obstacles, the CLAYMORE should be placed 20 to 30 meters on the friendly side of the obstacle. This distance also applies to barbed wire obstacles.



(2) Controlled detonation is most desirable, since the firer can best judge the exact moment of detonation. However, uncontrolled detonation may be employed allowing the enemy to activate the mine when he attempts to breach the obstacle (para 10).



h. Boobytraps. Using standard firing devices, CLAYMORE mines can be employed as boobytraps (para 13). Concealment of the mine and a positive detonation system is essential. The mine must be emplaced and sighted to cover the desired area. In order to allow for the full effects of the dispersion pattern of the mine, it is best to locate it away from the boobytrap actuation device. The mine is adaptable to many varied situations of boobytrapping, limited only by the ingenuity of the individual emplacing the mine. Authority to emplace boobytraps requires approval by the field army commander.



i. Retrograde Operations.



(1) During a delay while on position, CLAYMORES will be employed in the same manner as they are when employed in the defense. During movement between positions, CLAYMORES will be employed in the same manner as a withdrawal.



(2) During a night-type withdrawal, which is conducted without enemy pressure, CLAYMORES may be emplaced for use by the detachments left in contact, using both controlled and uncontrolled methods of employment. CLAYMORES may be used to assist in covering the gaps left by the main force. They may be used singly or in conjunction with other mines to mine routes of withdrawal.



(3) If used, the rear guard can also employ M18Al’s using the uncontrolled means of firing to assist in covering its withdrawal to the rear. Utilization of the M18A1 in this manner provides added security for the detachments left in contact, or the rear guard, and can delay the enemy’s advance. However, since the M18A1 is employed in the uncontrolled role, it must be reported and recorded as a mine.



(4) If a covering force is used during a daylight-type withdrawal, CLAYMORES can be employed by the covering force in a manner similar to that used in any blocking position and also employed using the same techniques as used during a night-type withdrawal.




19. OFFENSE



a. General. The M18A1 can be employed in certain phases of offensive combat, and provisions for its use should be considered in planning offensive operations. The mine easily can be transported by attacking troops for defense of assembly areas, to provide security during the conduct of the attack, and for protection during the reorganization and consolidation of the objective. The M18A1 also provides an economical means for establishing effective ambushes.



b. Offensive Combat.



(1) Preparation for the attack. When a unit is approaching the enemy and occupies an assembly area prior to an attack, it is particularly vulnerable to surprise enemy attacks. CLAYMORE mines can be quickly emplaced around the perimeter of the assembly area to cover the unit during its preparation for the attack.



(2) Conduct of the attack. During the conduct of the attack, CLAYMORES can be employed by the flank security forces. The ease of employment and disarmament of the M18A1 facilitates its use in this manner.



(3) Reorganization and consolidation. During the conduct of the attack, assaulting troops may carry CLAYMORES for employment during reorganization and consolidation. After a unit has overrun an enemy position and pursued him by fire, it must immediately begin consolidation of the objective. The prompt emplacement of CLAYMORES will provide the base for an immediate defense against possible counterattack, while leaders reorganize their units and prepare to continue the attack. When the final objective is captured, mines should be immediately emplaced. The emplaced CLAYMORES can be integrated into the defensive plans as they are developed.



(4) Defense of supporting elements during the attack.



(a) CLAYMORE mines can be utilized in command posts or in the defense of supporting units, such as mortar and artillery batteries. Immediately after displacement, and as the first echelon of these supporting units moves into new positions, adequate defense measures will be established. CLAYMORES should be emplaced initially to cover likely avenues of enemy approach; eventually, they should be integrated with the fully developed defensive position. When displacements occur, the mines will be disarmed, collected, and moved to the next position. If the area is to be occupied by other units, the mines may be left in position by mutual arrangement with the relieving unit.



(b) When CLAYMORE mines are employed in the defense of command posts, supporting unit installations, or reserve forces in the rear of the battle positions, they must be well-marked and personnel should be familiarized with their location.



c. Ambush. CLAYMORE mines provide an excellent, economical means for establishing effective ambushes deep in enemy territory with a minimum use of friendly personnel. Small groups can easily transport a large number of CLAYMORES; for example, one man can carry six CLAYMORES, enough to cover a frontage up to 300 meters. CLAYMORES may be employed in any or all of the following ways:



(1) Laterally along the killing zone of the ambush, between the ambush element and the killing zone. This method inflicts maximum damage on dismounted troops and is particularly useful in countering enemy immediate action drills that include assault into the ambush element.



(2) At the front and rear of the killing zone (fig. 19). This method provides enfilade fire into the killing zones, greater economy of employment, and is particularly useful when the route through the killing zone is restricted in width. It also provides a good counter in enemy immediate action drills that include withdrawal or forward movement out of the killing zone along the original route.





Figure 19: CLAYMORES employed in ambush.





(3) Laterally or at the front and rear of the killing zone, on the far side of the killing zone from the ambush element (fig. 19). This method of employment is particularly effective in countering enemy immediate action drills that include maneuver or withdrawal out of the killing zone by moving away from the ambush element. Care must be taken to insure the ambush element is protected from the fragmentation of the M18A1.



(4) Defiles. CLAYMORES are particularly effective in covering areas that might afford the enemy cover from small-arms fire, such as defiles. CLAYMORES used in ambushes may be emplaced on the ground, in trees, or on other upright objects which insure a clear, unobstructed, sighted field of fire. Controlled detonation is desirable, since this permits the firing to be delayed until that portion of the enemy which the commander desires to catch in the ambush is in the killing zone. Mines should be carefully camouflaged to prevent their detection.





CHAPTER 4





Safety




20. GENERAL



This chapter covers the safety precautions to be observed when firing the M18A1 antipersonnel mines for training purposes. These safety precautions will assist the instructor in conducting CLAYMORE training. They are intended as a guide only and must be used in conjunction with appropriate safety measures prescribed in Army and/or local installation regulations.


21. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS



a. Before firing, the officer in charge (OIC) will check all mines to insure that—



(1) Mines are installed correctly.



(2) The fragmentation face of the mine is pointed into the impact area and away from friendly troops.



b. CLAYMORES will be installed only on command of the OIC.



c. All mines will be kept under guard until the OIC directs their issue.



d. Once a mine has been emplaced for firing it will not be disarmed, except by order of the OIC.



e. The firing wire will not be connected to the firing device until ordered by the OIC.



f. When more than one mine is to be fired, the OIC will insure that a previous firing has not dislodged other mines in the impact area.



g. No one will enter the impact area without the approval of the OIC.



h. After firing, the impact area will be inspected to insure that all mines have detonated.




22. OPERATIONAL SAFETY FACTORS



a. An individual installing a mine will carry the firing device on his person.



b. Mines must be installed in a manner that will prevent them from becoming disoriented.



c. Blasting caps will not be inserted into the detonator wells until the mine has been emplaced in its firing position and aimed.



d. The safety bail on the firing device must be in the SAFE position after the completion of the firing circuit test.



e. The shunt will not be removed from the firing wire of the Ml8 until the operator is ready to connect it to the firing device. Before installing batteries and firing, leads can be shunted by attaching both leads to the clip on the battery holder.



f. Firing wire leads of the M18 mines that are tactically employed must be twisted together and taped at two or more equidistant places.




23. MISFIRES



a. Electrical Firing System. A misfire of an electrically employed M18A1 must be investigated immediately. If the mine is dual-primed with both electric and nonelectric caps, it will then be necessary to wait 30 minutes before investigating the cause of the misfire. When handling electrical misfires, the following steps will be taken:



(1) Shout MISFIRE (nontactical).



(2) Check the firing device connection to the firing wire connector; make two attempts to fire the mine.



(3) Using the M40 test set, check the continuity of the electric firing circuit.





NOTE



Only one man at a time will investigate the cause of an electric misfire.





b. Nonelectrical Firing System. If the non electric blasting cap initiator attached to the detonating cord fails to function, delay investigation for at least 30 minutes. Then cut the detonating cord between the firing device and the mine and fasten a new firing device to the detonating cord. If the detonating cord leading to the mine detonates, but the mine fails to detonate, delay investigation until it is certain that the mine is not burning. If the mine is not damaged, insert a new blasting cap with detonating cord. In training, if the mine appears to be damaged, it should be treated as a dud and destroyed.




24. SURFACE DANGER AREA FOR THE CLAYMORE ANTIPERSONNEL MINE



a. When employing the antipersonnel mines, careful consideration must be given to the safety of friendly troops. Emphasis must be placed on the danger areas to the rear and sides of the mine, as well as the killing zone to the front. Care must be exercised when installing mines to prevent the creation of secondary missile hazards.



b. No personnel will be allowed within 16 meters of the rear of the mine. Personnel from 16 to 100 meters in a 180Вє arc to the rear of the mine will be in a covered position, lying prone in a depression, or behind some form of protection.



c. When a mine is installed on a tree or some other object, the secondary missile hazard cannot be eliminated. When mines are used in this manner, friendly troops in a 16 to 100-meter radius in a 180Вє arc must be in a covered position.





Figure 20: Surface danger area for CLAYMORE.





Boobytraps





CHAPTER 1





Characteristics of Boobytraps





SECTION I. INTRODUCTION




1. PURPOSE AND SCOPE



a. This manual contains procedures, techniques, and expedients for the instruction of the soldier in the assembly, use, detection, and removal of boobytraps in combat.



b. Included are descriptions and discussions of the design and functioning characteristics of standard demolition items—firing devices, explosives, and accessories—and missiles, such as hand grenades, mortar ammunition, artillery ammunition, and bombs.



c. This manual also contains information on a variety of items and indigenous materials useful for improvising firing devices, explosives, and pyrotechnic mixtures for guerrilla warfare applications.



d. Factory-produced boobytraps (dirty trick devices) are described. Most of these have been developed and used in the field by foreign armies.



e. Safety measures pertinent to boobytrapping operations are provided for the protection of troops from casualty.



f. The contents of this manual are applicable to nuclear and nonnuclear warfare.





2. COMMENTS



Users of this manual are encouraged to forward comments or recommendations for changes for improvement. Comments should be referenced to the page, paragraph, and line of text. The reason for each comment should be given to insure proper interpretation and evaluation. Forward all comments directly to the Commandant, U.S. Army Engineer School, Fort Belvoir, Virginia 22060.



SECTION II. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION




3. TYPES OF BOOBYTRAPS



A boobytrap is an explosive charge cunningly contrived to be fired by an unsuspecting person who disturbs an apparently harmless object or performs a presumably safe act. Two types are in use—improvised and manufactured. Improvised boobytraps are assembled from specially provided material or constructed from materials generally used for other purposes. Manfactured boobytraps are dirty trick devices made at a factory for issue to troops. They usually imitate some object or article that has souvenir appeal or that may be used by the target to advantage.


4. ASSEMBLING BOOBYTRAPS



A boobytrap consists of a main charge, firing device, standard base (not always used), and detonator. Another item, the universal destructor, is an adapter for installing a firing device assembly in a loaded projectile or bomb to make an improvised boobytrap. Also, firing device assemblies are often attached to the main charge by means of a length of detonating cord.



5. BOOBYTRAP FIRING CHAIN



The firing chain is a series of initiations beginning with a small quantity of highly sensitive explosive and ending with a comparatively large quantity of insensitive explosive.





6. INITIATING ACTIONS



The initiating action starts the series of explosions in the boobytrap firing chain.

a. Pressure: Weight of foot starts explosive action.





b. Pull: Lifting the souvenir starts explosive action.



c. Pressure-release: Moving the stone starts explosive action.





d. Tension-release: Raising lower sash starts explosive action.





7. FIRING DEVICE INTERNAL ACTIONS



A firing device when actuated may function internally in many ways to initiate the firing chain.

a. Electric removal of wedge between contacts closes circuit and fires electric cap.





b. Mechanical released striker driven by its spring, fires percussion cap.





c. Pull-friction pulling the chemical pellet through the chemical compound causes flash that fires the detonator.





d. Pressure-friction pressure on top of the striker forces its cone-shaped end into the phosphorus and glass mixture in the mating sleeve, causing a flash that fires the detonator.





e. Chemical



(1) Pressure pressure on the top breaks the vial, the sulphuric acid to mix with the flash powder, producing a flams that fires the detonator.



(2) Delay causing the ampule releases the chemical to corrode the retaining wire, freeing the striker to fire the detonator, the delay is determined by the time needed for the chemical to corrode the retaining wire.





CHAPTER 2





Use of Boobytraps





SECTION I. BASIC DOCTRINE




8. TACTICAL PRINCIPLES



Boobytraps supplement minefields by increasing their obstacle value. They add to the confusion of the enemy, inflict casualties, destroy material, and lower morale. Boobytraps are usually laid by specialists. All military personnel, however, are trained in handling explosives and other boobytrapping material, so that they may, if necessary, boobytrap a mine or install a simple boobytrap.


9. AUTHORITY



a. Army commanders issue special instructions for the use of boobytraps within their command. Supplies are authorized and provided as required to meet boobytrapping needs.



b. Army and higher commanders may delegate authority to lay boobytraps to as low as division commanders. All higher commanders, however, may revoke this authority for a definite or indefinite period, as the tactical situation may require.



c. Records of all boobytraps laid are prepared and forwarded to higher headquarters.



d. Enemy boobytraped areas, as soon as discovered, are reported to higher headquarters to keep all interested troops advised of enemy activities. If possible, all boobytraps are neutralized; otherwise they are properly marked by warning signs.




SECTION II. PLANNING




10. TACTICAL EFFECTS



a. The ingenious use of local resources and standard items is important in making effective boobytraps. They must be simple in construction, readily disguised, and deadly. They may produce unexpected results if conceived in sly cunning and built in various forms. Boobytraps cause uncertainty and suspicion in the mind of the enemy. They may surprise him, frustrate his plans, and inspire in his soldiers a fear of the unknown.



b. In withdrawal, boobytraps may be used in much the same way as nuisance mines. Buildings and other forms of shelter, roads, paths, diversions around obstacles, road blocks, bridges, fords, and similar areas are suitable locations for concealing boobytraps.



c. In defense, boobytraps, placed in the path of the enemy at strategic locations in sufficient numbers, may impede his programs, prevent detailed reconnaissance, and delay disarming and removal of minefields.




11. BASIC PRINCIPLES



Certain basic principles, as old as warfare itself, must be followed to get the optimum benefit from boobytraps. Knowledge of these principles will aid the soldier, not only in placing boobytraps expertly, but in detecting and avoiding those of the enemy.

a. Appearances: Concealment is mandatory to success. All litter and other evidences of boobytraping must be removed.



b. Firing: An obvious firing assembly may distract attention from a cunningly hidden one.



c. Likely Areas: Defiles or other constructed areas are excellent locations.





d. Obstacles: Road blocks, fallen trees, litter, etc, are ideal locations.





e. Gathering Places: In buildings, at building entrances, and in similar places where soldiers may move or gather, delay charges pay off.



f. Appeal to Curiosity: Boobytraps laid in bold positions to dare the curious get results.



g. Bluff: Dummy boobytraps, consistency repeated, may encourage carelessness an obvious boobytrap may mask another and perhaps a more deadly one.





h. Lures: Boobytraps may be raited. The unexpected detonation of a delay action incendiary or explosive boobytrap may scatter troops or detour them into a more heavily laid area.




12. LOCATION OF CHARGES



a. Preparation. Small compact boobytraps are the most desirable for use in raids in enemy-held territory. Each member of a team must carry his own supplies and be able to operate independently. Boobytraps should be assembled, except for the attachment of the firing device, before entering enemy territory. This will reduce the work at the site to the minimum.



b. Location. Charges should be placed when they will do the most damage. A charge detonated against a stone wall will expend its force in magnified intensity away from the wall. The force of an explosion on the ground will affect the surrounding air more if the charge is placed on a hard surface. This deflects the explosive wave upward. A charge detonating 6 to 10 feet above the ground will damage a larger area than one laid on or below the surface.



c. Characteristics. Many inexpensive boobytraps, simple to make and easy to lay, will delay and confuse the enemy more than a small number of the expensive and complex kind. Complex mechanisms cost more, require more care in laying, and offer little more advantage than the simple type.




13. RECONNAISSANCE



Complete reconnaissance of an area is essential to good planning. Without this and the preparation of a program, boobytraps may not be used effectively. Boobytrap teams are best suited to survey a combat area to determine its boobytrapping possibilities.


14. PLAN OF OPERATION



a. The commander with authority to use boobytraps coordinates his plans with other tactical plans. Timing of boobytrap operations with movement plans is extremely essential. Boobytraps should not be laid in areas where friendly troops will remain for any appreciable length of time. Plans will indicate what is to be done, where and when it will be done, and the troops to be used. Generally, trained troops are assigned such tasks.



b. The plan authorizes the use of boobytraps and the types and densities required in specified areas, depending on the terrain, time, personnel, and material available. The completion of the detailed plan is delegated to the commander responsible for installation. Materials are obtained from unit supply stocks on the basis of the proposed action.



c. Complete coordination between the troop commandar and the officer supervising boobytrap activities is essential. The area should be evacuated immediately following the completion of the job.



d. The commander installing boobytraps prepares a detailed plan indicating the site and the location, number, type, and setting. He assigns boobytrap teams to specific areas and the laying of specified types. The plan covers arrangements for supplies and transportation and designates the location where all preliminary work on boobytraps will be done. Time tables are established to insure completion of the work to comply with withdrawal phases of tactical plane.



e. In hasty withdrawal, when there is no time for planning, each team will be given a supply of material with instructions for making the best possible use of it in the time allowed.



f. Boobytrap planning must give proper consideration to all known characteristics of the enemy. Members of teams should study the personal habits of enemy soldiers, constantly devising new methods to surprise them. Repetitions may soon become a pattern easily detected by an alert enemy.



g. Withdrawal operations are the most desirable of all for laying boobytraps. When an enemy meets a boobytrap at the first obstacle, his progress throughout the area will be delayed even though no others have been laid. A few deadly boobytraps and many dummies, laid indiscriminately, can inspire great caution. Dummies, however, should be unserviceable or useless items. Never throw away material that may return to plague friendly forces!




SECTION III. INSTALLATION




15. RESPONSIBILITIES



a. A commander authorized to use boobytraps is responsible for all within his zone of command. He will keep adequate records showing their type, number, and location, and prepare information on those laid and on practices followed by the enemy.



b. Management of boobytrap services may be delegated to the engineer staff officer.



c. Unit commanders must know the location of all boobytraps is their areas and keep all subordinates so advised. Subordinates are also responsible for reporting to higher headquarters all new information obtained on enemy boobytraps.



d. Officers responsible for laying boobytraps prepare plans, supervise preliminary preparations, and direct their installation. They forward to proper authority a detailed report of their progress, advise all concerned when changes are made, and report to engineer intelligence units the discovery of any new enemy devices or low-cunning practices.



e. Engineer and infantry units, with special training, have the responsibility of installing and neutralizing boobytraps. Since adequate numbers of trainees may not always be available, all troops are given familiarity instruction in boobytrapping.




16. PROCEDURES



Like all activities involving explosives, boobytrapping is dangerous only because of mistakes men make. Prescribed methods must be followed explicitly in the interest of personal safety and overall effectiveness.

a. Before assembling a boobytrap, all components should be inspected for serviceability. They must be complete and in working order. All safeties and triggering devices must be checked to insure proper action, and for rust or dents that might interfere with mechanical action.



b. If a boobytrapping plan is not available, one must be prepared on arrival at the site, so that the material obtained will be required items only. A central control point should be established in each boobytrap area where supplies may be unloaded and from which directions may be given. In areas where many boobytraps are concentrated, safe passage routes from the control point to each location most be marked clearly. Lines of tape may be useful where vegetation is heavy. The control man is the key man.



c. Several teams may operate from one control point. Each team (rarely more than two men) is assigned to a specific area and supplies are issued only as needed. Each detail commander must make certain that every man knows his job and is competent to do it. Teams will remain separated so that one may not suffer from the mistake of another. When a job is completed, all teams must report to the control man before going elsewhere.



d. One person in each team is designated leader to direct all work. If possible, members of a team will avoid working close together when a boobytrap is assembled. One member should do all technical work and the other be a helper to carry supplies, provide assistance needed, and learn the skills needed.



e. Boobytraps laid during raids into enemy held territory should be small, simple, and easily installed. Each member of a party must carry the supplies he needs. The use of boobytraps under these conditions, when accurate records are impossible, may be a hazard to friendly troops if raids into the same area should become necessary.



f. Procedure for installing boobytraps is as fallows:



(1) Select the site that will produce the optimum effect when the boobytrap is actuated.



(2) Lay the charge, then protect and conceal it.



(3) Anchor the boobytrap securely, with nails, wire, rope, or wedges, if necessary.



(4) Camouflage or conceal, if necessary.



(5) Teams arm boobytraps systematically, working toward a safe area.



(6) Leave the boobytrapped area clean. Carry away all items that might betray the work that has been done, such as loose dirt, empty boxes, tape, and broken vegetation. Obliterate footprints.




17. REPORTING, RECORDING, AND MARKING



Boobytraps are reported and recorded for the information of tactical commanders and the protection of friendly troops from casualty. Boobytrap installations are reported and recorded as nuisance minefields, whether the area contains both boobytraps and mines or boobytraps alone.

a. Reports



(1) Intent. This is transmitted by the fastest means available consistent with signal security. It includes the location of the boobytrapped area selected, the number and type of mines to be laid (if antitank mine are boobytrapped), bootstraps to be laid, the estimated starting and completing time, and the tactical purpose. The report is initiated by the commander authorized to lay the field and forwarded to higher headquarters.



(2) Initiation of Laying. This report is transmitted by the fastest means available consistent with signal security. It contains the location and extent of the field, total number of mines and boobytraps to be laid, and estimated time of completion. The commander of the unit installing the field sends the report to the commander that directed him to lay it.





(3) Completion. The report of completion is transmitted by the fastest possible means. It contains the number and type of boobytraps laid, location and extent of the field or area and the time of completion. The report is forwarded to army level. When boobytraps are laid, either alone or with mines, the report of intent and the report of initiation of laying will include the estimated number of boobytraps to be placed and the report of completion, the number placed.



b. Records. Boobytraps are recorded as nuisance mine fields on the standard mine field record form. It is filled in as follows:



(1) The general locations are shown on the sketch, using the appropriate symbol. Boobytrapped areas or buildings are lettered serially, “A” being the nearest to the enemy.



(2) The number, types, locations, and method of operation of boobytraps are entered in the NOTES section of the form. If space in lacking, additional sheets may be attached. If the boobytrap cannot be adequately described in a few short sentences, a sketch of minimum details will be included.



(3) The record is prepared simultaneously with the laying of the boobytrap and forwarded through channels to army level without delay. If a standard form is not available, the data required must be entered and submitted on an expedient form.



(4) Nuisance mine fields containing both mines and boobytraps are recorded as prescribed in FM 20–32. When the specific locations of boobytraps and manufactured devices cannot be accurately recorded (scattered laying in open areas) their number and type are entered in the notes section of the form and identified by grid coordinates.



c. Marking. Boobytraps are marked by special triangular signs painted red on both sides. On the side facing away from the danger area, a 3-inch diameter white disc, is centered in the triangle and the word BOOBYTRAPS is painted in white across top in 1-inch letters. The STANAG or new sign is similar except for the 1-inch white stripe below the inscription. Signs may be made of metal, wood, plastic, or similar material. They are placed above ground, right-angled apex downwards, on wire fences, trees, or doors, windows, or other objects or by pushing the apex in the ground. These working signs are used by all troops to identify friendly boobytraps during the period preceding withdrawal from an area, or to warn friendly forces of the presence of active enemy boobytraps.



d. Abandonment. When abandoning a boobytrapped area to the enemy, all markers, wire, etc., are removed.



e. Signs. Signs are also used to mark enemy boobytraps or boobytrapped areas.





CHAPTER 3





Boobytrapping Equipment





SECTION I. FIRING DEVICES




18. INTRODUCTION



Many triggering devices are available for use in boobytraps. They include fuzes, igniters, and firing devices. All U.S. standard firing devices have the following advantages over improvisations: established supply, speed of installation, dependability of functioning, resistance to weather, and safety. All have a standard base coupling by which they may readily be attached to a variety of charges. For more detailed information see TM9-1375-200.


19. M1A1 PRESSURE FIRING DEVICE



a. Characteristics.





b. Functioning. A pressure of 20 pounds or more on the pressure cap moves the trigger pin downward until the striker spindle passes through the keyhole slot. This releases the striker to fire the percussion cap.





c. Installing.



(1) Remove protective cap from base and crimp on a non-electric blasting cap, Crimper jaws should be placed no further than 1/4 inch from open and of blasting cap.



(2) Assemble 3-pronged pressure head and extension rod and screw in top of pressure cap, if needed.



(3) Attach firing device assembly to standard base.



(4) Attach firing device assembly to charge.





d. Arming. Remove safety clip first and positive pin last.





e. Disarming.



(1) Insert length of wire, nail, or original pin in positive safety pin hole.



(2) Replace safety clip, if available.



(3) Separate firing device and explosive block.



(4) Unscrew standard bass assembly from firing device.





20. M1 PULL FIRING DEVICE



a. Characteristics.





b. Functioning. A pull of 3 to 5 lb. on trip wire withdraws tapered end of release pin from split head of striker. This frees striker to fire the percussion cap.





c. Installing.



(1) Remove protective cap.



(2) With crimpers, attach blasting cap to standard base. Crimper jaws should be placed no farther than Вј in. from open end of blasting cap.



(3) Attach firing device assembly to charge.





d. Arming.



(1) Anchor trip wire and fasten other and to pull ring.



(2) Remove locking safety pin first and positive safety pin last.





e. Disarming



(1) Insert nail, length of wire, or original safety pin in positive safety pin hole first.



(2) Insert a similar pin in locking safety pin hole.



(3) Cut trip wire.



(4) Separate firing device and charge.





21. M3 PULL-RELEASE FIRING DEVICE



a. Characteristics.





b. Functioning.



(1) Pull. A pull of 6 to 10 1b. on taut trip wire raises release pin until shoulder passes constriction in barrel. The striker jaws then spring open, releasing striker to fire percussion cap.



(2) Tension-release. Release of tension (cutting of taut trip wire) permits spring-driven striker to move forward, separate from release and fire percussion cap.





c. Installing.



(1) Remove protective cap.



(2) With crimpers, attach blasting cap to standard base. Crimper jaws should be placed no farther than Вј in. from open end of blasting cap.



(3) Attach firing device assembly to anchored charge (must be firm enough to withstand pull of at least 20 lb.).



(4) Secure one end of trip wire to anchor and place other end in hole in winch.



(5) With knurled knob draw up trip wire until locking safety pin is pulled into wide portion of safety pin hole.





d. Arming.



(1) With cord, remove small cotter pin from locking safety pin and withdraw locking safety pin. If it does not pull out easily, adjust winch winding.



(2) With cord, pull out positive safety pin. This should pull out easily. If not, disassemble and inspect.



e. Disarming.





(1) Insert length of wire, nail, or cotter pin in positive safety pin hole.



(2) Insert length of wire, nail, of safety pin in locking safety pin hole.



(3) Check both ends and cut trip wire.



(4) Separate firing device from charge.





NOTE



Insert positive safety pin first. Cut trip wire last.





22. M5 PRESSURE-RELEASE FIRING DEVICE



a. Characteristics.





b. Functioning. Lifting or removing retaining weight releases striker to fire the percussion cap.





c. Installing.



(1) Insert a length of 10-gage wire in interceptor hole. Bend slightly to prevent dropping out.



(2) Remove small cotter pin from safety pin.



(3) Holding release plate down, replace safety pin with length of No. 18 wire. Bend wire slightly to prevent dropping out.



(4) Remove protective cap from base and with crimpers, attach blasting cap. Crimper jaws should be placed no farther than Вј inch from open end of blasting cap.



(5) Secure firing device assembly in charge.





d. Arming.



(1) Place restraining weight on top of firing device.



(2) Remove thin wire from safety pin hole. If wire does not come out easily, restraining weight is either insufficient or improperly placed.



(3) Remove heavy wire from interceptor hole. It should move freely. Note. Withdraw thin wire first and heavy wire last. Follow arming procedure carefully.



e. Disarming.



(1) Insert length of heavy gage wire in interceptor hole. Bend wire to prevent dropping out. Proceed carefully, as the slightest disturbance of the restraining weight might initiate the firing device.



(2) Separate firing device from charge.





23. 15-SECOND DELAY DETONATOR



a. Characteristics. This device consists of a pull-friction fuse igniter, 15-second length of fuse, and blasting cap. The blasting cap is protected by a transit cap screwed on the base.



b. Functioning. A strong pull on the pull ring draws the friction igniter through the flash compound, causing a flame which ignites the time fuse.





c. Installing.



(1) Unscrew transit cap from base.



(2) Secure device in charge.





d. Arming.



(1) Manual initiation. Remove safety pin.



(2) Trip wire initiation.



(a) Attach one end of trip wire to anchor stake and the other to pull ring.



(b) Remove safety pin.





e. Disarming.



(1) Insert length of wire, nail, or original safety pin in safety pin hole.



(2) Remove trip wire.



(3) Separate firing device from charge.





24. 8-SECOND DELAY DETONATOR



a. Characteristics. This device consists of a pull-type fuse lighter, 8-second length of fuse, and blasting cap. The blasting cap is protected by a transit cap, screwed on the base.



b. Functioning. A strong pull on the T-shaped handle draws the friction igniter through the flash compound, causing a flame that ignites the time fuse.





c. Installing.



(1) Unscrew transit cap from base.



(2) Secure device in charge.





d. Arming.



(1) Manual initiation. Remove safety pin.



(2) Trip wire initiation.



(a) Attach one end of trip wire to anchor stake and the other to pull ring.



(b) Remove safety pin.





e. Disarming.



(1) Insert length of wire, nail, or safety pin in safety pin hole.



(2) Remove trip wire.



(3) Separate firing device from charge.





25. M1 DELAY FIRING DEVICE



a. Characteristics.





b. Functioning. Squeezing copper half of case crushes ampule, releasing chemical to corrode restraining wire and release striker.





c. Installing.



(1) Select device of proper delay.



(2) Insert nail in inspection hole to make sure that firing pin has not been released.



(3) Remove protective cap from base.



(4) With crimpers, attach blasting cap to base. Crimper jaws should be placed no further than Вј in. from open end of blasting cap.



(5) Secure firing device assembly in destructor and then in charge.





d. Arming.



(1) Crush ampule by squeezing the copper portion of case.



(2) Remove safety strip.





e. Disarming. There is no safe way of disarming this firing device. If disarming is necessary, insert an improvised safety pin through inspection holes.




26. M1 PRESSURE-RELEASE FIRING DEVICE



a. Characteristics.





b. Functioning. Lifting or removing restraining weight unlatches lever, releasing striker to fire percussion cap.





c. Installing.



(1) Insert a length of heavy gage wire in interceptor hole. Bend slightly to prevent dropping out.



(2) Holding down latch, remove safety pin and replace with length of thin wire.



(3) Remove protective cap from base and with crimpers attach nonelectric blasting cap. Crimper jaws should be placed no farther than Вј in. from open end of blasting cap.



(4) Assemble length of detonating cord, priming adapter, nonelectirc blasting cap, and explosive block.



(5) Attach free and of detonating cord to blasting cap on M1 release device with friction tape, allowing 6 in. of detonating cord to extend beyond joint.





d. Arming.



(1) Place restraining weight on top of firing device.



(2) Remove thin wire from safety pin hole. If it does not come out easily, restraining weight in either insufficient or improperly placed.



(3) Remove heavy wire from interceptor hole.





NOTE



Proceed carefully.





e. Disarming.



(1) Proceed carefully as the slightest disturbance of restraining weight might unlatch lever and detonate the mine. Insert length of heavy gage wire in interceptor hole. Bend wire to prevent dropping out.



(2) Insert length of thin wire in safety pin hole, if possible.



(3) Separate firing device assembly and explosive charge.





SECTION II. DEMOLITION MATERIALS



27. EXPLOSIVES AND ACCESSORIES (FOR MORE DETAILED INFORMATION SEE FM5–25 AND TM 9-1375-200.)





a. TNT. This is issued in 1вЃ„4, ВЅ and 1-pound blocks in a cardboard container with lacquered metal ends. One end has a threaded cap well. Half-pound blocks are obtained by cutting a 1-pound package in the center.





b. M1 Chain Demolition Blocks (Tetrytol). This explosive consists of eight 2ВЅ-pound tetrytol blocks cast 8 inches apart onto a single line of detonating cord, which extends 2 feet beyond the end blocks. All blocks have a tetryl booster in each end. Each chain is packed in a have sack, and two haversacks in a wooden box.





c. M2 Demolition Block (Tetrytol). The M2 demolition block is enclosed in an asphalt impregnated paper wrapper. It has a threaded cap well in each end. Eight blocks are packed in a haversack, and two haversacks in a wooden box.





d. M3 and M5 Demolition Blocks (Composition C3). These consist of a yellow, odorous, plastic explosive more powerful than TNT. The M3 block has a cardboard wrapper perforated around the middle for easy opening. The M5 Block has a plastic container with a threaded cap well. Eight M3 or M5 blocks are packed in a haversack; and two haversack, in a wooden box.





e. M5A1 Demolition Block (Composition C4). This is a white plastic explosive more powerful than TNT, but without the odor of C3. Each block is wrapped in plastic covering with a threaded cap well in each end. Twenty-four blocks are packed in a wooden box.





f. M112 Demolition Charge (Composition C4). This is composition C4 in a new package measuring 1 in. x 2 in x 12 in. Each block has an adhesive compound on one face. Further information is not available.





g. M118 Demolition Charge. The M118 charge is composed of PETN and plasticizers. The detonating rate is approximately 23,000 ft. per second. Each package contains four sheets Вј in. x 3 in. x 12 in. Each sheet has an adhesive compound on one face. Further information is unavailable.



h. Composition B. Composition B is a high explosive with a relative effectiveness higher than TNT, and more sensitive. Because of its high dentonation rate and shattering power, it is used in certain bangalore torpedoes and in shaped charges.



i. PETN. This is used in detonating cord. It is one of the most powerful military explosives, almost equal to nitroglycerine and RDX. In detonating cord, PETN has a velocity rate of 21,000 feet per second.



j. Amatol. Amatol, a mixture of ammonium nitrate and TNT, has a relative effectiveness higher than that of TNT, Amatol (80/20) is used in the bangalore torpedo.



k. RDX. This is the base charge in the M6 and M7 electric and nonelectric blasting caps. It is highly sensitive, and has a shattering effect second only to nitroglycerine.



l. Detonating Cord.



(1) Types I and II. These consist of a flexible braided seamless cotton tube filled with PETN. On the outside is a layer of asphalt covered by a layer of rayon with a wax gum composition finish. Type II has the larger diameter and greater tensile strength.



(2) Type IV. This is similar to types I and II, except for the special smooth plastic covering designed for vigorous use and rough weather.





m. Blasting Time Fuse. This consists of black powder tightly wrapped in layers of fabric and waterproofing materials. It may be any color, orange being the most common. As burning rate varies from about 30 to 45 seconds per foot, each roll must be tested before using by burning and timing a 1-foot length.



n. Safety Fuse M700. This fuse is a dark green cord with a plastic cover, either smooth or with single pointed abrasive bands around the outside at 1-foot or 18-inch intervals and double pointed abrasive bands at 5-foot or 90-inch intervals. Although the burning rate is uniform (about 40 seconds per foot), it should be tested before using by burning and timing a 1-foot length.





o. M60 Fuse Lighter.



(1) To install: Unscrew the fuse holder cap, remove shipping plug, insert time fuse, and tighten cap.



(2) To reload;



(a) Insert primer base and primer in end of lighter housing.



(b) Put washers and grommets in open end of fuse holder cap as shown, and screw fuse holder cap firmly on housing.



(c) Unscrew fuse holder cap about three turns and insert a freshly cut end of time fuse into the hole in the cap until it rests against the primer.



(d) Tighten cap.





(3) To fire:



(a) Remove safety pin



(b) Pull on pull ring.





NOTE



Lighter is reusable after the insertion of a new primer and the reassembly of parts.





p. Electric Blasting Caps. Electric blasting caps have three lengths of leads—short (4 to 10 ft.), medium (12 to 14 ft), and long (50 to 100 ft). The short-circuit tab or shunt prevents accidental firing. It must be removed before the cap is connected in the firing circuit. Military blasting caps are required to insure detonation of military explosives.





q. Nonelectric Blasting Cape. Two types are available, the No. 8 and the special M7, which resembles the No. 8 in appearance except for the expanded open end.





r. Priming Adapter. This is a plastic device with a threaded end for securing electric and nonelectric primers in the threaded cap wells of military explosives. A groove for easy insertion of the electric lead wires extends the full length of the adapter.





s. M10 Universal Destructor. The destructor is used to convert loaded projectiles, missiles, and bombs into improvised charges. The destructor has booster caps containing tetryl pellets. All standard firing devices with the standard base coupler screw into the top.





t. Antitank Mine Activator. This is a detonator designed for boobytrapping antitank mines. The top is threaded to receive all standard firing devices, and the base to screw in antitank mine activator wells.





28. BANGALORE TORPEDO



The bangalore torpedo is a group of 10 loading assemblies (steel tubes filled with high explosive) with nose sleeve and connecting sleeves. The loading assemblies may be used singly, in series, or in bundles. They are primed in four ways: by a standard firing device; a standard firing device, nonelectric blasting cap, length of detonating cord, priming adaptor, and nonelectric blasting cap (para 29); a standard firing device, and length of detonating cord attached by the clove hitch and two extra turns around the cap well at either end of the loading assembly; and electrical methods (para 29).





29. M2A3 SHAPED CHARGE



This charge consists of a conical top, conical liner integral standoff, threaded cap well, and 11ВЅ pounds of explosive. It may be primed in three ways; by a standard firing device; a standard firing device, nonelectric blasting cap, length of detonating cord, priming adapter, and nonelectric blasting cap; and a priming adapter and electric blasting cap connected to power source.





30. M3 SHAPED CHARGE



Tin M3 shaped charge is a metal container with a conical top, conical liner, threaded cap well, 30 pounds of explosive, and a D metal tripod standoff. It may be primed in the same manner as the M2A3 shaped charge above.





SECTION III. MISSILES




31. INTRODUCTION



Hand grenades, bombs, and mortar and artillery ammunition have wide application as improvised explosives charges. The only portion of these useful in boobytrapping, however, are the container and its explosive filler. The fuse is replaced by a standard firing devices and an M10 universal destructor—an adapter designed especially for this purpose. The number and types of missiles useful in boobytrapping, however, are not limited to the examples given below.


32. HAND GRENADES



The M26 hand grenades, an improved model, consists of a thin metal body lined with a wire-wound fragmentation coil, fuse, and composition B explosive charge. It has a variety of applications to boobytrapping. The fuse is removed and a standard firing device is screwed directly into the fuse well or remotely connected by a length of detonating cord, priming adapter, and a nonelectric blasting cap.





33. SIMM MORTAR SHELL



This is converted by replacing the fuse with a standard firing device and a properly assembled destructor or by a firing device, length of detonating cord, priming adapter, nonelectric blasting cap, and a properly assembled destructor. If a destructor is not available the detonating cord and nonelectric blasting cap are packed firmly in the fuse well with C4 explosive.





34. HIGH EXPLOSIVE SHELL



The high explosive shell is readily adapted to boobytrapping. The fuze is removed and replaced by a standard firing device and a properly-assembled destructor or a standard firing device, length or detonating cord, priming adapter, nonelectric blasting cap, and a properly-assembled destructor. If a destructor is not available, the detonating cord and nonelectric blasting cap are packed firmly in the fuze well with C4 explosive.





35. BOMBS



These are adapted to boobytrapping in the same manner as high explosive and mortar shells. They are primed by replacing the fuze with a standard firing device and a properly-assembled destructor, or with a standard firing device, length of detonating cord, priming adapter, nonelectric blasting cap, and a properly-assembled destructor. If a destructor is not available, the detonating cord and blasting cap are packed firmly in the fuze well with C4 explosive.





36. ANTITANK MINES



A land mine may be used as the main charge in a boobytrap by removing the fuze and attaching a standard pull or pressure-release firing device in an auxiliary fuze well.

a. Pull.



(1) Remove locking safety cotter pin in M1 pull firing device and replace with length of thin wire. Bend wire slightly to prevent dropping out.



(2) Remove positive safety cotter pin and replace with length of thin wire. Bend wire slightly to prevent dropping out.



(3) Remove plastic protective cap from standard base. (4) Assemble firing device, activator, and mine.





b. Pressure-Release.



(1) Insert length of heavy wire in interceptor hole in M5 pressure-release firing device. Bend wire slightly to prevent dropping out.



(2) Withdraw safety pin and replace with length of thin wire. Bend wire slightly to prevent dropping out.



(3) Remove plastic protective cap from standard base.



(4) Assemble firing device, activator, and mine.





NOTE



The firing device must be set on a firm base. A piece of masonite is issued with the M5 for this purpose.





CHAPTER 4





Construction Techniques





SECTION I. BOOBYTRAPPING MINES IN MINEFIELDS




37. TACTICAL PURPOSE



Antitank mines laid in mine fields are boobytrapped (or activated) primarily to make breaching and clearing as dangerous, difficult, and time consuming as possible in order to confuse, demoralize, and delay the enemy. Most standard U.S. antitank mines and many foreign antitank mine have auxiliary fuze wells for this purpose. See FM20–32 for more detailed information.


38. METHODS



U.S. standard antitank mines are generally boobytrapped by means of a pull or a pressure-release firing device, or both, if desirable.

a. Pull. Dig hole to proper depth to bury mine on firm foundation with top of pressure plate even with or slightly above ground level. Arm mine before boobytrapping.



(1) Installing.



(a) Remove locking safety cotter pin and replace with length of thin wire. Bend wire slightly to prevent dropping out.



(b) Remove positive safety cotter pin and replace with length of thin wire. Bend wire slightly to prevent dropping out.



(c) Remove protective cap from standard base and assemble firing device, activator, and mine.





(2) Arming.



(a) Anchor one end of trip wire to stake and fasten the other to pull ring.



(b) Remove locking safety wire first.



(c) Remove positive safety last.



(d) Camouflage.





(3) Disarming.



(a) Uncover mine carefully.



(b) Locate boobytrap assembly.



(c) Replace positive safety first, then locking safety.



(d) Cut trip wire.



(e) Turn arming dial of mine to safe and remove arming plug.



(f) Remove fuse and replace safety clip.



(g) Replace arming plug.



(h) Recover mine and firing device.





b. Pressure-Release. Dig hole to proper depth to bury mine on firm foundation, with top of pressure plate even with or slightly above ground level.



(1) Installing.



(a) Insert length of heavy wire in interceptor hole. Bend wire slightly to prevent dropping out.



(b) Remove safety pin. Apply pressure on release plate until pin comes out easily.



(c) Insert length of light wire in safety pin hole and bend slightly to prevent dropping out.



(d) Remove protective cap from standard base and assemble firing device, activator, and mine.



(e) Place mine and firing assembly in hole, using pressure board to insure a solid foundation for firing device.





(2) Arming.



(a) Camouflage mine, leaving hole at side to remove safeties.



(b) Carefully remove thin safety wire first, then the interceptor wire.



(c) Complete camouflage.





(3) Disarming.



(a) Uncover mine carefully.



(b) Locate boobytrap assembly.



(c) Insert length of heavy wire in interceptor hole.



(d) Turn dial on pressure plate to “S” (safe) and replace safety fork.



(e) Recover mine and firing device assembly.



(f) Remove pressure plate, unscrew detonator, and replace shipping plug.



(g) Reassemble mine.





39. BOOBYTRAPPED FOREIGN MINES



a. Antitank Mines. The Communist European and Asiatic armies boobytrap mines in a much different fashion from that of the U.S. and other NATO countries. The Germans in World War II used both special antilift devices and antidisturbance fuzes, one of which has been copied by the French.



(1) Antilift devices.



(a) Russia



1. The Russians, Communist Chinese, and North Koreans boobytrapped wooden antitank mines by laying two of them, one on top of the other, in the same hole. The mines were connected by am MUV pull fuze and a pull wire, so that the bottom mine would detonate when the top mine was lifted.



2. The Russians in World War II also had a more sophisticated method — a special wooden antilift device, placed under the mine. This, however was readily located by probing. It consisted of an outer case, a charge, an MUV pull fuze, a pressure release lid supported on two coil springs, and a fuze access hole. Lifting the mine initiated the antilift. This device is too dangerous to disarm. Even though the pressure-release might be secured by a rope or length of wire, the chances of additional pull wires and boobytrap charges are too great to risk. Also deterioration of the wooden case from prolonged burial adds to the difficulty. The best procedure is to blow all wooden antitank mines and antilifts in place.





(b) Czechoslovakia. This satellite country has a wooden antitank mine (PT-M1-D) that may prove extremely hazardous to breaching and clearing parties. Having an RO-1, pull fuze in each end, it is easily boobytrapped by means of wire anchored to a stake underneath the mine and extended through a hole in the bottom of the case to the fuze pull pin.





(c) World War II Germany. The German armies had several pressure-release devices for boobytrapping antitank mines. In a future war in Europe, these or facsimiles may appear on any battlefield.



1. Nipolite all explosive antilift. This consisted of two oblong blocks of moulded explosives joined together with brass bolts and recessed to contain the metal striker assembly. It may be disarmed by inserting a safety in the lower safety pin hole.





2. EZ. SM2 (EZ 44). This device consists of an explosive charge, a pressure-release firing mechanism, a safety bar and a metal case. When the safety bar is removed, the device arms itself by means of clockwork inside the case. This device cannot be disarmed.





3. SF3. This antilift consists of an explosive charge, pressure-release striker assembly, safety bar, and chemical arming equipment. A turn of the safety bar crushes the glass vial, releasing the chemical to dissolve the safety pellet. This device cannot be disarmed.





(2) T. Mi. Z 43 and T. Mi Z 44 antidisturbance fuzes.



(a) Germany. In addition to several antilift devices, the Germans developed two antidisturbance fuzes initiated by pressure or pressure-release for activating Teller mines 42 and 43. To arm, the fuze is placed in the fuze well and the pressure plate screwed down on top of the fuze, shearing the arming pin. Removal of the pressure plate initiates the pressure-release mechanism and detonates the mine. Although the T. Mi. Z 44 was an experimental model that never reached the field, copies of both fuzes are now in use in several European armies. Mines armed with these fuzes can neither be identified by size, shape, marking, or color of the case, nor be disarmed.





(b) France. The French have a copy of the T. Mi. Z 43 antidisturbance (pressure and pressure-release) fuze, and Teller mine 43, named models 1952 and 1948 respectively. The fuze is placed in the fuze well and the pressure plate screwed down on top, shearing the arming pin. Removing the pressure plate actuates the pressure-release element, detonating the mine.





b. Antipersonnel Mines. Antipersonnel mines are laid in antitank minefields to halt and delay enemy troops and make breaching and clearing as difficult, dangerous, and time consuming as possible. Enemy mine layers may increase this harrassment substantially by laying small blast type antipersonnel mines near the anchors and along the trip wires, which, according to procedure, must be traced from pull ring to anchor before cutting. These are extremely hazardous to breaching and clearing specialists who may detonate them unawares by the pressure of a hand, knee, or elbow on the pressure plate.





SECTION II. BOOBYTRAPPING BUILDINGS




40. ADVANTAGES



Boobytraps laid in buildings and their surroundings can be very effective. Buildings are very attractive to fighting men for they provide a degree of comfort and shelter from the elements. They are also useful for headquarters where plans may be made and communications carried on with greater dispatch.


41. IMMEDIATE SURROUNDINGS



a. Once a building has been occupied, it becomes the focal point for travel and communication from many directions. Thus the immediate vicinity becomes a potential location for boobytraps.



b. Dwellings in sparsely populated areas often have out buildings, wood piles, fruit trees, wells, fences with gates, walks, and other locations easily rigged to wound or destroy careless soldiers.



c. Delayed action charges detonated in buildings after they are occupied are extremely effective. Such charges, however, are difficult if not almost impossible to conceal, especially in large masonry and steel buildings, which may require a large quantity of explosive for serious damage or destruction. None but a most ingenious specialist, given time, help, and a wide selection of material can do this satisfactorily. In World War II, the Russians prepared such a boobytrap for the Germans. However, after lone careful search the charge and its clockwork fuze were located by means of a stethoscope. Small buildings, on the other hand, may be only moderately difficult to destroy by delayed charges.





42. ENTRANCES



Curiosity prompts a soldier to investigate hurriedly an interesting building in his path. Women, loot, or mere inquisitiveness may be the motive. His rush to be the first inside makes all entrances excellent spots for boobytraps. For the foolish, a rigging connected to the front door, side door, or back doors may be sufficient. But for the experienced soldier, who may carefully seek entry to the basement first and then try to clear the building story by story, careful and ingenious effort may be required.

a. Basement Windows. Here boobytraps must be concealed to prevent detection by the enemy’s breaking the pane or kicking out a door panel. Basement windows should be boobytrapped at the top or in the floor underneath.





b. Upper Floor Windows. Window charges are easier concealed in the weight box behind the jamb than in the wall or under the floor. Experienced hands can remove and replace window trim without obvious damage.



(1) Nonelectric firing.



(a) Assemble M3 pull-release firms device, standard base, and blasting cap.



(b) Place sheet explosive in weight box.



(c) Bore hole in side jamb for pull wire.



(d) Anchor one end of pull wire to window, and thread through hole in side jamb.



(e) Attach free end of pull wire to ratchet on firing device.



(f) Arm firing device.



(g) Conceal boobytrap.





(2) Electric firing.



(a) Fasten two metal brackets to side of weight box close enough to wedge two flashlight batteries between.



(b) Place sheet explosive charge in weight box.



(c) Insert electric blasting cap in charge.



(d) Cut one leg wire and attach to lower bracket.



(e) Cut other leg wire to proper length to twist an uninsulated loop on end and fasten to hang in place just above top of window weight.



(f) On a length of leg wire twist on uninsulated loop around the leg wire hanging above the weight. Thread other end through other uninsulated loop and fasten to top clamp. Tape wire to window weight.



(g) Test circuit with galovonmeter first, then insert batteries between brackets.



(h) Conceal boobytrap.



c. Doors. Improved detection methods have made the use of boobytraps on doors, with charges, firing devices, and wires exposed, a waste of time and material, except for purposes of deception. The best location is the head or side jamb, not the sill, which is often recommended. The sill is exposed, so that one experienced clearing unit may easily locate the rigging while in the jamb, it is concealed by the doorstop.



(1) Head jamb rigging.



(a) Assemble M1 pull firing device, standard base, and nonelectric blasting cap.



(b) Assemble length of detonating cord, priming adapter, nonelectric blasting cap and explosive block.



(c) Attach firing device firmly to stud and tape free end of length of detonating cord to nonelectric blasting cap.



(d) Drill hole at proper place in header and head jamb.



(e) Anchor one end of pull wire at proper place on door and thread free end through holes.



(f) Close door and attach pull wire to pull ring.



(g) Arm and conceal boobytrap.





(2) Side jamb rigging.



(a) Attach metal brackets to side jamb close enough to wedge two flashlight batteries between.



(b) Insert sheet explosive charge snugly between stud and jamb.



(c) Place electric blasting cap in charge, and fasten one leg wire to top bracket.



(d) Bore pull wire hole at proper spot inside jamb.



(e) Cut other leg wire long enough to twist on an insulated loop on one end and fit over pull wire hole. Loop should be about ВЅ inch in diameter.



(f) Twist on uninsulated loop on one end of leg wire and secure to lower bracket so that loop fits over pull wire hole. Fasten wire to jamb.



(g) Anchor one end of insulated pull wire at proper spot on door, and thread free end through pull wire hole and loop fastened to jamb.



(h) Close door. Fasten free end of pull wire to other loop to hold it snugly against stud.



(i) Check circuit with galvonometer first, then



(j) Install batteries between brackets.



(k) Conceal boobytrap.





43. STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK



a. In a building charges should be placed where detonation will seriously impair its structural strength, such as walls, chimneys, beams, and columns. Charges and firing devices must be carefully concealed to avoid detection.



b. In boobytrapping load-bearing walls, several charges should be laid to detonate simultaneously near the base. Chimneys and fireplaces are difficult to boobytrap for charges placed there are readily detected. These should detonate from intense heat.





c. Beams and columns when they collapse cause much more damage than walls because they bear much mere weight.



(1) In wooden beams, holes for concealed explosives should be bored close enough together for sympathetic detonation. An M1 delay firing device and detonator placed in a hole within the bulk explosive charge should suffice. Buildings of masonry and steel construction may also be boobytrapped with delay charges. The difficulty of the job depends often on the interior finish, type of decoration, heating ducts, air conditioning, and type of floors.



(2) A column may be destroyed by a charge buried below ground level at its base. Although heavy delay charges like these are often considered mines, they are shown here because they may be found in boobytrap locations.





d. Loose floor boards sometimes are excellent objects for boobytrapping. The rigging must escape detection, however; otherwise, it will be ineffective. This rigging might be harder to detect if the support underneath is chiseled out to let the floorboard sink about Вј inch when tramped on.



e. A double delay chain detonating boobytrap should be very effective if timed right and skillfully laid. First, is the explosive of a minor charge laid in an upper story damaging the building only slightly. Then, after a curious crowd has gathered, a second heavy charge or series of charges go off, seriously damaging or destroying the building and killing or wounding many onlookers.





44. INTERIOR FURNISHINGS



Vacated buildings provide much opportunity for boobytrapping. Hurriedly departing occupants usually leave behind such odds and ends as desks, filing cases, cooking utensils, table items, rugs, lamps, and furniture. Electric light and power fixtures are also exploitable.

a. Desk. Because of its construction a desk is easily boobytrapped. If carefully placed the rigging may be nondetectable and if properly constructed, cannot be neutralized. Electric firing systems are the most suitable for this purpose. Sheet explosive is much better than other types, because its adhesive surface holds it firmly in place. Check the circuit with a galvonometer before installing the batteries.





b. Office Equipment. Many items used in offices have boobytrap potential.



(1) Telephone list finder.



(a) Remove contents from finder.



(b) Assemble sheet explosive, shrapnel, and blasting cap.



(c) Remove insulation from ends of wire and twist to form loop switch.



(d) Place boobytrap in finder so that the raising of the lid draws the loops together.



(e) Insulate inside of case from contact with loops with friction tape.



(f) Check circuit with galvanometer first, then install batteries.





NOTE



Batteries may be connected to legwires by wrapping them tightly in place with friction tape.





(2) Card File. A wooden card file can be boobytrapped effectively by the use of a mousetrap rigged as a trigger, a standard base with blasting cap attached, a support block fastened inside to hold the firing assembly at the proper level for operation, and a trigger block to hold the trigger in armed position.



(a) Rig wire trigger of mousetrap with screw and metal strip.



(b) Locate support block on strips at proper level to fix trigger in trigger block.



(c) Bore hole in support block at proper place to admit standard base and blasting cap so that sheet metal screw will strike percussion cap.



(d) Insert explosive, then support block with mousetrap, standard base, and blasting cap in position.



(e) Raise trigger and close lid so that trigger is fixed in firing position.





c. Electric Iron.



(1) Remove bottom plate.



(2) Insert bulk explosive and electric blasting cap.



(3) Attach shortened leg wires to power inlet.





d. Teakettle.



(1) Assemble sheet explosive, electric blasting cap and mercury element in teakettle.



(2) Cheek circuit with galvanometer first, then install batteries.





NOTE



Batteries may be bound tightly in circuit with friction tape. For safety and ease of assembly, use a wrist watch delay in circuit (para 60d).





e. Pressure Cooker.



(1) Antidisturbance circuit.



(a) Assemble sheet explosive, mercury element, and electric blasting cap in cooker.



(b) Check circuit with galvanometer first, then install batteries.





NOTE



Batteries may be bound tightly in circuit with friction tape. For safety and ease of assembly, use a wrist watch delay in circuit (para 60d).





(2) Loop switch.



(a) Assemble sheet explosive and electric blasting cap.



(b) Cut leg wires to proper length. Remove insulation from ends and twist to form loop switch.





(3) Check circuit with galvanometer.



(a) Fasten one leg wire (insulated) to lid to serve as pull wire.



(b) Secure batteries in circuit by wrapping tightly with friction tape.





f. Radio and Television Sets. Both sets may be boobytrapped by assembling a charge and an electric blasting cap inside the case.





The leg wires are connected in the circuit for detonation at turning of off-on switch. Extreme care is required in connecting leg wires to prevent premature explosion.



g. Bed. Two methods may be used — a charge, nonelectric blasting cap, and pull firing device or a charge, batteries, electric blasting cap, and a mercury switch element.



(1) Nonelectric rigging.



(a) Assemble pull wire, M1 will firing device, blasting cap, and sheet explosive charge.



(b) Anchor pull wire so that a person sitting or lying on bed will initiate firing device.



(c) Conceal boobytrap.





(2) Electric rigging.



(a) Assemble sheet explosive charge, electric blasting cap, and mercury element.



(b) Check circuit with galvanometer.



(c) Place boobytrap on bed to initiate when its level position is disturbed.



(d) Install batteries in circuit by wrapping tightly with friction tape.



(e) Conceal boobytrap.





NOTE



For safety and ease of assembly, use a wrist watch delay in circuit (para 60d).





h. Chairs and Sofas. These may be boobytrapped nonelectrically and electrically as in f above. For nonelectric rigging the M1A1 pressure firing device, nonelectric blasting cap and sheet explosive charge are probably the most suitable. The sofa because of its size should have more than one rigging. If the electrical method is used the circuit should be tested with the galvanometer before the batteries are installed.



i. Book. A book with an attractive cover is sure to invite examination.



(1) Cut hole in book large enough to accommodate the rigging.





(2) Assemble sheet explosive, electric blasting cap, mercury element, and shrapnel.



(3) Test circuit with galvanometer first, then



(4) Secure batteries in circuit by wrapping tightly with friction tape.





SEECTION III. TERRAIN




45. HIGHWAYS, TRAILS, AND PATHS



Boobytraps used along roads are a great help in slowing down enemy traffic, especially if they are laid in and around other obstructions. Those placed on paths and trails are excellent against raiding parties that must operate under cover of darkness.


46. LOCATIONS



Boobytraps in roadway obstructions should be concealed on the enemy side. If the obstruction is heavy, requiring force to remove it, boobytraps concealed underneath will increase its effectiveness. Fragmentation charges are very destructive against personnel. These include hand grenades; bounding antipersonnel mines with their own special fuzes actuated by pressure or trip wire; ordinary explosive charges covered with pieces of scrap metal, nails, gravel, lengths of wire, nuts and bolts; and the like. The latter may be actuated by any of the standard firing devices—by pressure, pressure-release, pull-release, and pull.





a. The jet of the M2A3 shaped charge from the roadside directed into a moving vehicle is very destructive.



(1) Assemble an M3 pull-release firing device and detonator, length of detonating cord, priming adapter, and nonelectric blasting cap.



(2) Drive anchor stake in berm at side of road and attach pull wire. Drive stake or lay log, stone, or other object on other side to support pull wire at proper height off ground.



(3) Attach firing device assembly to stake at proper position.



(4) Fix shaped charge in position to direct explosive jet into vehicle when front wheels hit trip wire.



(5) Attach free end of pull wire in hole in winch and draw taut.



(6) Screw priming adapter and nonelectric blasting cap in threaded cap well.



(7) Conceal boobytrap.



(8) Arm firing device.





NOTE



Cone may be filled wish fragments.





b. An M3 shaped charge boobytrap placed overhead in a tree in a wooded area will destroy both tank and crew if located properly. Trip wire, being very thin and camoufloage-colored, is not easily detected by a driver.



(1) Assemble two firing devices (only one may be necessary) with detonators and lengths of detonating cord and a detonating cord primer.



(2) Attach firing assemblies and MS shaped charge in position in tree, so that when the vehicle contacts the trip wires, the explosive jet will penetrate the crew compartment.



(3) Arm boobytrap.





c. Boobytraps laid in and along a narrow path may prove delaying or frustrating obstacles to foot troops. These may be improvised shrapnel charge with a pressure-release firing device concealed under a stone, piece of wood, or other object, or with a pull or pull-release firing device and a trip wire. The latter would be very effective against patrols.





47. SPECIAL LOCATIONS



a. Abandoned serviceable or repairable items are frequently boobytrapped if time and equipment are available. Even unserviceable items may be rigged against scavengers who may search through the wreckage for useful things.



b. Abandoned ammunition should be exploited to the maximum. Chain detonations of connected mines or sections of bangalore torpedo are particularly effective.





c. Boobytraps are applicable to storage areas where materials cannot be removed or destroyed. Several charges strategically laid will prove very rewarding. A lumber pile provides excellent concealment for an explosive rigging. Sheet explosive may be used in many places where TNT is impractical, because of its size and shape. Here again chain detonations of explosive blocks and bangalore torpedos will do extensive damage, if the firing mechanism is properly located and cunningly concealed.





48. ABANDONED VEHICLES



a. Truck Wheel.



(1) Insert length of heavy wire in interceptor hole in firing device.



(2) Remove safety pin and replace with length of thin wire. Bend both wires slightly to prevent falling out.



(3) Assemble standard base, nonelectric blasting cap, and firing device.



(4) Assemble two 2-block explosive charges, nonelectric blasting caps, priming adapters, and length of detonating cord.



(5) In hole prepared under truck wheel, assemble bearing blocks (take weight off explosive charge), charges, bearing board, protective blocks (take weight off firing device), and firing device.



(6) Arm firing device.



(7) Cover boobytrap, and camouflage.





b. Motor. The fan belt is an excellent anchor for a pull wire. The pull wire will be much harder to detect if anchored underneath the bottom pulley, from where it may be extended any length to the firing device and charge.



c. Electric System. A useful combination is a charge primed with an electric blasting cap with clamps attached to the leg wires. This may be attached to detonate by turning on the ignition switch, engaging the starter, braking, and the like.





d. Body. Another combination useful in rigging a seat or any other part of the vehicle body is a charge detonated electrically by means of a mercury switch element.



(1) Assemble charge, electric blasting cap, and mercury element.



(2) Place boobytrap in position and check circuit with a galvanometer.



(3) Attach batteries in circuit by wrapping tightly with friction tape.





NOTE



Always check circuit before attaching batteries. This rigging may be assembled in a small package for use in a seat cushion or separated for convenience for another location in the body of the vehicle.





CHAPTER 5





Miscellaneous Boobytraps





SECTION I. STANDARD BOOBYTRAPS




49. TACTICAL USE



In World War II, every major power manufactured boobytraps to use against the enemy. Most of them were charged imitations of useful objects, which maimed or killed helpless soldiers that handled them. The defect common to all standard boobytraps however, is that after the first or second explosion, all others of the same type become ineffective. A “one-shot” job hardly justifies production costs.


50. FOREIGN TYPES



a. The Soviets used more standard boobytraps in World War II than any other combatant. A weird assortment of charged imitations of items issued to German soldiers were dropped from Soviet planes. Some of these were:



(1) Cartridge boxes, apparently filled with ammunition, containing high explosives and detonators. (2) Bandage packets containing detonators and shrapnel.



(3) Bandage cases with Red Cross insignia rigged as mines.



(4) Rubber balls, about twice the size of a fist that detonated upon impact.



(5) Silver-grey light metal boxes or flasks that exploded when the lid was raised.



(6) Cognac bottles filled with incendiary liquid.



(7) Small red flags marked with an M and attached to mines that detonated when the flag was removed.



(8) Imitation earth-grey colored frogs that detonated when pressed on.



(9) Flashlights containing high explosive which detonated when the switch was moved.



(10) Mechanical pencils, watches, cigarette cases, cigarette lighters, salt cellars, and similar items that detonated when handled.



b. Knowing the German interest in books, the Soviets prepared a book boobytrap. The charge inside detonated when the cover was raised.



c. The British also had a book boobytrap; but it was slightly more complicated than the Soviet version above.



d. All sorts of dirty-trick devices were used by the enemy.



(1) A flashlight was rigged with a charge and an electric detonator powered and actuated by the original dry cell battery switch, and circuit.





(2) Bottles designed to look like liquor bottles were filled with a liquid explosive detonated by a pull-friction fuze attached to the cork.



(3) A fountain pen, though very small was rigged with an explosive charge, a spring driven striker to fire a percussion cap, and a detonator.



(4) The Japanese manufactured a pipe boobytrap with a charge, detonator, and spring-loaded striker.





(5) The Italians had a boobytrapped headset containing an electric detonator connected to the terminals on the back. The connection of the headset into the live communication line initiated detonation.





(6) The Germans converted their own and enemy standard canteens into boobytraps. The explosive charge was detonated by a pull fuze and a pull wire connected to the cap. When partially filled with water and placed in its canvas case, it was very deceptive. The canteen boobytrap had an effective radius of 3 to 5 yards.





(7) Another German device was the boobytrap whistle. This consisted of a policeman’s or referee’s whistle with a charge and a metal ball covered with a layer of friction compound. Blowing the whistle moved the ball, igniting the friction compound and detonating the charge.





(8) The German Peters candy bar boobytrap was ingenious indeed. The explosive charge, fuze, and thin canvas pull device were covered with chocolate.





SECTION II. IMPROVISATIONS




51. INGENUITY



a. Through information on military operations in World War II, the U.S. soldier has been well-prepared for the dangerous mission of laying, detecting, and disarming boobytraps in conventional warfare. However, he now is virtually a novice in comparison with the cunning and ingenious present day guerrilla, who at the start was almost totally lacking in material and equipment.



b. Experience has shown that in guerrilla warfare, carried on by illy-equipped native populations, boobytrapping success depends largely on ingenuity. Explosive, a necessary element, is either improvised from commercial ingredients or captured from the enemy. Captured mines, ammunition, and other similar material are disassembled and every ounce of explosive saved.




52. TRAINING



Every soldier should have some training in the lessons learned from the guerrillas, for many items they have improvised and the way they have used them are also applicable to conventional warfare. With little effort, a soldier may be trained so that with no military equipment what so ever, but with ample funds, he may prepare himself to fight effectively with materials available from merchants, junk piles, and salvage.


53. APPLICATION



The improvisations included in this section are gathered from numerous sources. Some may have wider application to boobytrapping than others. How the guerrilla may use them, however, is unpredictable. All are presented to stimulate initiative and arouse enthusiasm to out-do backward enemy peoples in devising and placing boobytraps and to develop a higher level of proficiency than ever before in their detection and removal.


54. IMPROVISED TIME FUSE AND EXPLOSIVE CAPS



a. Fast burning fuse (40 inches per minute).



(1) Braid three lengths of cotton string together.



(2) Moisten fine black powder to form a paste. Rub paste into twisted string with fingers and allow to dry. If a powder is not available, mix 25 parts potassium nitrate (salt-peter) in an equal amount of water and add 3 parts pulverized charcoal and 2 parts pulverized sulphur to form a paste. Rub paste into twisted string and allow to dry.



(3) Check burning rate before using.





b. Slow burning fuse (2 inches per minute).



(1) Wash three lengths of string or three shoelaces in hot soapy water and rinse.



(2) Dissolve 1 part potassium nitrate or potassium chlorate and 1 part granulated sugar in 2 parts hot water.



(3) Soak string or shoelaces in solution and braid three strands together. Allow to dry.



(4) Check burning rate.



(5) Before using, coat several inches of the end to be inserted into cap or material to be ignited with black powder paste (a (2) above).



c. Electric Blasting Cap.



(1) With files other instrument make hole in end of light bulb.



(2) If jacket is not available, solder or securely fasten two wires to bulb—one on metal threads at side and other at metal contact on bottom.



(3) Fill bulb and empty portion of blasting cap with black powder. Tape blasting cap on top of bulb.





d. Percussion Cap Assembly.



(1) Remove projectile, but not powder from small arms cartridge.



(2) Tape nonelectric blasting cap securely in cartridge.





55. PULL FIRING DEVICES



a. Tube and Striker.

Assemble tube, spring, striker shaft with hole or with hex nut, soft wood or metal top plug, pull pin, and improvised percussion cap assembly.





NOTE



Always assemble firing device before attaching the improvised percussion cap assembly.





b. Clothes Pin.



(1) Wrap stripped ends of leg wires around clothes pin jaws to make electrical contact.



(2) Assemble charge, adapter, electric blasting cap, and clothes pin.



(3) Insert wooden wedge, anchor clothes pin, and install trip wire.



(4) Check circuit with galvonometer first, then, connect batteries.





c. Stake or Pole Initiator.



(1) Assemble stake or pole, container, metal contact plates, charge, electric blasting cap, and pull cord.



(2) Check circuit with galvonometer first, then connect batteries.



(3) Fasten down top of container and seal hole around stake with friction tape.





d. Rope and Cylinder.



(1) Cut leg wires to proper length.



(2) Prepare wooden end plugs and bore hole in one to receive leg wires.



(3) Thread leg wires through hole in block.



(4) Strip end of one leg wire and twist into loop, and secure other leg wire in position.



(5) Test circuit with galvonometer.



(6) Assemble metal cylinder, contact bolt, pull cord, charge, blasting cap, end blocks, and batteries.





e. Trip Lever and Pull Pin.



(1) Flat placement.



Assemble container, charge, improvised pull firing device (a above) and trip lever.





(2) Sloping placement.



Assemble container, charge, improvised firing device (a above) and stake.





56. PRESSURE FIRING DEVICES



a. Mechanical Concussion.



(1) Force striker into hole in pressure board.



(2) Insert wood or soft metal shear pin in shear pin hole.



(3) Assemble striker, metal tube, and improvised blasting cap (para 54).





b. Electrical.



(1) Lever arm.



(a) Attach contact blocks to ends of wooden levers.



(b) Assemble wooden levers, rubber strip, and plastic sponge.



(c) Attach leg wire contacts.





(2) Flexible side.



(a) Attach metal contact plates to bearing boards.



(b) Thread leg wires through holes in lower bearing board and attach to contact plates.



(c) Attach flexible sides.





(3) Springed pressure board.



(a) Assemble metal contacts, springs, bearing board, and pressure board.



(b) Attach leg wires to metal contacts.





(4) Wooden plunger.



(a) Assemble box, leaving one side open.



(b) Assemble contact plate and three spacing blocks inside box.



(e) Drill holes in spacing block for leg wires.



(d) Assemble plunger, metal release, contact block, metal contact, and contact screw.



(e) Thread leg wires through holes in spacing block and attach to contacts.




(5) Metal box.



(a) Attach metal contact to wooden contact block.



(b) Assemble contact block and metal contact, brackets, metal release, plunger, and wooden box lid.



(c) Bore hole in side of box for leg wires.



(d) Thread leg wires through hole in box.



(e) Attach one leg wire to plunger, the other to metal contact.





NOTE



Batteries may be placed inside box if necessary.





57. TENSION-RELEASE FIRING DEVICE



Attach stripped ends of circuit wires to ends of clothes pin to farm contacts. Attach taut trip wires below contacts.





58. PRESSURE-RELEASE



a. Double Contact.



(1) Bore holes in top of mine body to accommodate long contacts.



(2) Assemble pressure board, coil springs, wooden contact board and metal contacts.



(3) Attach circuit wires.





b. Clothes Pin.



(1) Attach stripped ends of circuit wires to clothes pin to make contacts.



(2) Place mine on top, keeping contacts apart.





c. Bottom Plunger.



(1) Bore hole in bottom of mine case to admit plunger.



(2) Attach lower metal contact over hole.



(3) Assemble mine, pressure block, upper metal contact, and nonmetallic plunger.



(4) Attach circuit wires.





d. Mousetrap.



(1) Mechanical



See para 44 b (2)



(2) Electrical



(a) Remove triggering devices from mousetrap.



(b) Assemble trap, contact plate, and circuit wires.



(c) Place weight on top with striker in armed position.





59. ANTI-LIFE DEVICES



a. Loop Contact.



(1) Drill hole in bottom of mine to admit insulated pull wire.



(2) Assemble plunger, metal release, and contact plate.



(3) Attach circuit wires and bare loop to plunger contact and contact plate.



(4) Thread anchored insulated trip wire through holes in bottom of mine and contact plate and attach to bare loop.





b. Double Detonator.



(1) Drill three holes—one in bottom, one in partition, and one in side—to admit nonmetallic plunger and two electric blasting caps.



(2) Assemble blasting cap, leg wires, contact plates, plunger, and pressure block.



(3) Check circuit with galvanometer first. Then connect batteries with friction tape.



(4) Install blasting cap connected to pressure firing device in side of mine.





c. Sliding Contact.



(1) Assemble metal cap, nonmetallic tube or carton, sliding contact, wooden plug, and leg wires at contacts.



(2) Check circuit with a galvonometer first, then connect batteries with friction tape.



(3) Install assembly in tube.





60. DELAY FIRING DEVICES



a. Cigarette Timer.



(1) Test burning rate of time fuze and cigarette. (A cigarette usually burns at the rate of 1 inch in 7 to 8 minutes.)



(2) Cut sloping end on length of time fuze.



(3) Assemble slopped end of time fuze, match head, and cigarette.





b. Dried Seed Timer.



(1) Determine expansion rate of seeds.



(2) Place in jar and add water.



(3) Assemble jar, lid, circuit wires, metal contacts, and metal disk and secure with friction tape.





c. Alarm Clock Timers.



(1) Electric.



(a) Assemble base, metal contacts, and alarm clock.



(b) Tie knot in one end of string. Thread other end through metal contacts and attach to alarm winding stem, which winches string and closes circuit.





NOTE



An alarm clock, being a very versatile delay, may be connected in many other ways.





(2) Nonelectric.



(a) Drill hole in board of proper size to hold standard base tightly.



(b) Remove standard safety pin from firing device and replace with easily removed pin.



(c) Remove protective cap from standard base and crimp on nonelectric blasting cap.



(d) Screw standard base with blasting cap into firing device.



(e) Assemble alarm dock and firing device on board.



(f) Attach one end of length of string to eye in safety pin and the other to alarm winding stem, which winches string and removes safety pin.





d. Wrist Watch Timer.



(1) One-hour delay or less.



(a) Drill small hole in plastic crystal and attach circuit wire with screw of proper length to contact minute hand.



(b) Attach other circuit wire to case.



(2) Twelve-hour delay or less.



(a) Remove minute hand.



(b) Drill small hole in plastic crystal and attach circuit wire with screw of proper length to contact hour hand.



(c) Attach other circuit wire to case.





61. BOMBS



a. Pipe Bombs.



(1) Grenade.



(a) Drill hole in cap or plug to admit length of time fuze.



(b) Crimp nonelectric blasting cap to length of time fuze.



(c) Assemble pipe, caps or plugs, time fuze primer, and explosive charge.





(2) Antidisturbance bomb.



(a) Drill hole in end cap to admit length of burnt time fuze to make a bomb look like a “dud.”



(b) Attach electric cap and mercury element on base.



(c) Test circuit with galvonometer first, then connect batteries with friction tape.



(d) Assemble bomb.



CAUTION



If possible, assemble bomb in place, as the mercury element, when disturbed, may cause premature explosion. To assemble more safely and easily, attach wrist watch timer in circuit.





(3) Shotgun bomb.



(a) Close one end of pipe with hammer, allowing opening for detonating cord primer or electric blasting cap.



(b) Remove protective cap from M1A1 pressure or M1 pull firing device and crimp on nonelectric blasting cap.



(c) Screw standard base with blasting cap into firing device.



(d) Assemble pipe, shrapnel, wadding, explosive, nonelectric primer or electric blasting cap (for controlled firing), and proper firing device.





NOTE



The force of the explosive and the strength of the pipe are important in calculating the size of the charge.





b. Nail Grenade.

Attach nails to top and sides of charge by means of tape or string. Under certain conditions, nails may be required on only two sides, or even on one side.



c. Delay Bomb.



(1) Chemical delay.



(a) Crimp nonelectric blasting cap on base of appropriate M1 delay firing device.



(b) Assemble firing device and charge in package.



(c) Crush copper end of firing device with fingers.



(d) Place package in suitcase or container.





NOTE



Use this bomb only when delay is necessary but accuracy is secondary, as the delay time of any chemical firing device varies considerably according to temperature.





(2) Alarm clock delay.



(a) Drill hole in wooden base of proper size to hold standard base firmly.



(b) Remove standard safety pin from M5 pressure-release firing device and replace with easily-removed pin.



(c) Crimp nonelectric blasting cap on standard base and attach to firing device.



(d) Assemble alarm clock and firing device on wooden base.



(e) Attach one end of string in eye in pull pin and the other to the alarm winding stem so that its turning will winch the string and withdraw the pin.



(f) Place assembly in suitcase or container.





d. Envelope Bomb.



(1) Cut leg wires of electric blasting cap of proper length to make circuit.



(2) Strip insulation off ends of circuit wires and twist into ?-inch loops to make loop switch.



(3) Test circuit with galvanometer first, then attach batteries.



(4) Assemble cardboard base, batteries, electric blasting cap, and explosive as package.



(5) Attach one end of string to loop switch so that it will pull the bared loops together to close circuit.



(6) Cut hole inside of envelope under flap.



(7) Fix package in envelope firmly and thread string through hole.



(8) Attach string firmly but concealed to underside of flap.



(9) Close envelope with elastic band.





e. Hot Shrapnel Bomb.



(1) Remove protective cap from standard base and crimp on nonelectric blasting cap.



(2) Screw base with cap in M1 pull firing device.



(3) Crimp nonelectric blasting cap on one end of length of detonating cord, and install in Claymore mine.



(4) Attach firing device to detonating cord with tape.



(5) Assemble Claymore mine with priming and firing accessories and drum of napalm.



(6) Arm firing device.





f. Rise Paddy Bomb.



(1) Remove protective cap from standard base and crimp on nonelectric blasting cap.



(2) Screw standard base with cap in M1 pull firing device.



(3) Assemble firing device, detonating cord, priming adapter, nonelectric blasting cap, and explosive charge.



(4) Attach charge to drum of napalm.



(5) Arm firing device.





g. Tin Can Bomb.



(1) Cut a notched metal contact disk to provide clearance for length of stiff insulated wire and 1вЃ„8 to ? in. from walls of can.



(2) Cut stiff insulated wire of proper length to support disk and strip insulation from both ends. Bend hook on one end to hold bars suspension wire.



(3) Bend stiff wire to proper shape.



(4) Assemble can, explosive, contact to can, blasting cap, insulated support wire, suspension wire and contact disk.



(5) Check circuit with galvanometer first, then connect batteries.





62. MISCELLANEOUS CHARGES



a. Improvised Shaped Charge.



(1) Cut strip of thin metal to make cone of 30? to 60? angle to fit snugly into container.



(2) Place cone in container.



(3) Pack explosive firmly in container to a level of 2x height.



(4) Attach standoffs to set charge above target at height of cone.

2x diameter of cone.



(5) Attach blasting cap at rear dead center of charge.





b. Improvised Antipersonnel Mine.



(1) Assemble container, explosive, separator, and shrapnel. Explosive must be packed to uniform density and thickness (should be ? weight of shrapnel).



(2) Remove protective cap from standard base and crimp on nonelectric blasting cap.



(3) Screw standard base with blasting cap into proper firing device.



(4) Secure firing device in place.



(5) Fix primer in rear center of explosive and tape to firing device.



(6) Arm firing device.





c. Platter Charge.



(1) Assemble container, charge, and platter. Charge should weigh same as platter.



(2) Place primer in rear center of charge.



(3) Align center of platter with center of target mass.



(4) Attach and arm firing device.





d. Improvised Claymore.



(1) Attach shrapnel to convex side of base and cover with cloth, tape, or screen retainer.



(2) Place layer of plastic explosive on concave side of base.



(3) Attach legs to concave side of base.



(4) Attach electric blasting cap at exact rear center.



(5) Attach firing device to firing wires at proper distance from mine for safety.





CHAPTER 6





Boobytrap Detection and Removal





SECTION I. CLEARING METHODS




63. TECHNICIANS



a. Although engineer and infantry specialists are responsible far boobytrap detection and removal, all military organizations assigned to combat zone missions must provide trained men to assist them.



b. If possible, trained engineer, infantry, or explosive ordnance disposal units will search out and neutralize all boobytraps in front of friendly troops or prepare safe passage lanes. When discovered, boobytraps will either be disarmed immediately or marked by warning signs. Only the simple ones will be disarmed during attack. Those more complicated will be marked and reported for removal.



c. To avoid casualty, boobytrapped areas, especially villages and other inhabited places, should be bypassed, to be cleared by specialists later. Tactical units will neutralize boobytraps only when necessary for continued movement or operation.




64. CLEARANCE TEAMS



Men who clear boobytraps are organized into disposal teams and assigned to specific areas according to their training and experience.

a. Direction and control is the responsibility of the person in charge of clearance activities, who will—



(1) Maintain a control point near at hand and remain in close contact with his clearance parties.



(2) Give assistance to disposal teams when required.



(3) Preserve new types of enemy equipment found for more careful examination by engineer intelligence



teams.



b. Searching parties will be sufficient in number to cover an area promptly, without interfering with each other.



c. In clearing a building, one person will direct all searching parties assigned.



d. Open area clearance will be preceded by reconnaissance if the presence of boobytraps is suspected. Once boobytraps are found, search must be thorough.



e. Searching parties must be rested frequently. A tired man, or one whose attention is attracted elsewhere, is a danger to himself and others working with him.




65. TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT



a. Body Armor. Armor of various kinds is available. Special boots and shoe pacs, also issued, will give greater protection against blast than boots generally worn.



b. Mine Detectors.



(1) Three mine detectors useful in the removal of boobytraps are issued: AN/PRS-3 (Polly Smith) and the transistorized, aural indication model, designed for metal detection, and AN/PRS-4 for nonmetallic detection. Of the metal detectors, the transistorized model is the lighter and more powerful. All three models have the same deficiences. They may signal a small piece of scrap as well as a metal-cased explosive or signal an air pocket in the soil, a root, or disturbed soil generally.



(2) Operating time should not exceed 20 minutes to avoid operator fatigue. Tired operators often become careless operators.



c. Grapnels. These are hooks attached to a length of stout cord or wire, long enough for the operator to pull a mine or boobytrap from place from a safe distance or from at least 50 meters behind cover.



d. Probes. Lengths of metal rod or stiff wire, or bayonets, are good probes for locating buried charges. Searching parties sometimes work with rolled-up sleeves better to feel trip wires and hidden objects.



e. Markers. Standard markers are carried by disposal teams to designate the location of known boobytraps, pending their removal.



f. Tape. Marking tape is useful for tracing safe routes and identifying dangerous areas.



g. Hand Tools. Small items, such as nails, cotter pins, pieces of wire, friction tape, safety pins, pliers, pocket knife, hand mirror, scissors, flashlight, and screw driver are very useful in boobytrap clearance.





66. DETECTION



a. The most careful observation is required for the detection of boobytraps. Soldiers must be trained and disciplined to be on guard, especially when moving over an area previously held by the enemy. Although a soldier may not be assigned the responsibility for their detection and clearance, he must be alert for any sign that may indicate their presence. He must also discipline himself to look carefully for concealed boobytraps before performing many acts of normal life.



b. Often prisoners of war through interrogation give information on new or unknown boobytrap devices that may aid in their identification and handling later on. Local inhabitants also often provide information on boobytraps laid in the neighborhood.



c. Searching for boobytraps and delayed charges is difficult and tedious, particularly when intelligence is lacking or inadequate. The extent of search required, the ease of placing and camouflaging, and the great number of devices available to the enemy make the clearance of all charges almost impossible. Searching parties, before being sent out, will be briefed on all that is known about enemy activities in the area.




67. OUTDOOR SEARCHING TECHNIQUES



As boobytraps are so deadly and as a rule cunningly conceived and hidden, outdoor searching parties should be suspicious of—

a. All movable and apparently valuable and useful property.



b. All disturbed ground and litter from explosive containers.



c. Marks intentionally left behind to attract or divert attention.



d. Evidence of former camouflage.



e. Abrupt changes or breaks in the continuity of any object, such as unnatural appearances of fences, paint, vegetation, and dust.



f. Unnecessary things like nails, wire, or cord that may be part of a boobytrap.



g. Unusual marks that may be an enemy warning of danger.



h. All obstructions, for they are ideal spots for boobytraps. Search carefully before lifting a stone, moving a low hanging limb, or pushing aside a broken-down wheelbarrow.



i. Queer imprints or marks on a road, which may lead a curious person to danger.



j. Abandoned vehicles, dugouts, wells, machinery, bridges, gullies, defiles, or abandoned stores. Also walk carefully in or around these as pressure-release devices are easily concealed under relatively small objects.



k. Areas in which boobytraps are not found immediately. Never assume without further investigation that entire areas are clear.



l. Obvious trip wires. The presence of one trip wire attached to an object does not mean that there are no others. Searching must be complete.




68. INDOOR SEARCHING TECHNIQUES



Those in charge of disposal teams should:

a. Assign no more than one man to a room in a building.



b. Indicate the finding of a large charge by a prearranged signal. All teams except those responsible for neutralizing large charges must then vacate the building immediately by the original route of entry.



c. Examine both sides of a door before touching a knob. Observe through a window or break open a panel. If doors and windows must be opened and both sides cannot be examined, use a long rope.



d. Move carefully in all buildings, for boobytraps may be rigged to loose boards, moveable bricks, carpets, raised boards or stair treads, window kicks, or door knobs.



e. Never move furniture, pictures, or similar objects before checking them carefully for release devices or pull wires.



f. Never open any box, cupboard door, or drawer without careful checking. Sticky doors, drawers, or lids should be pulled with a long rope.



g. Not sit on any chair, sofa, or bed before careful examination.



h. Never connect broken wires or operate switches before checking the entire circuit. Such action may connect power to a charge.



i. Remove all switch plates and trace all wires that appear foreign to a circuit. Examine all appliances.



j. Investigate all repaired areas. Look for arming holes. Enlarge all wall and floor punctures. Cavities may be examined by reflecting a flashlight beam off a hand mirror (this is also applicable for searching under antitank mines).



k. Empty all fire boxes, remove the ashes, check fire wood, and move the coal pile.



l. Always work from the basement upward. Check, move, and mark everything movable including valves, taps, levers, controls, screens, and the like. A clockwork delay may not be heard if it is well hidden.



m. Double check basements and first floors—especially chimney flues, elevator and ventilator shafts, and insulated dead-air spaces. Check straight flues and shafts by observing from one end against a light held at the other. Dog-leg flues may be checked by lowering a brick from a safe distance.



n. Guard all buildings until they are occupied.



o. When possible and only after a thorough check, turn on all utilities from outside the building.





NOTE



A soldier by training can develop his sense of danger. Also by experience and careful continuous observation of his surroundings while in a combat area, he can develop an acute instinct that warns him of danger—a most valuable asset toward self-protection.





SECTION II. DISARMING METHODS




69. NEUTRALIZATION



a. This is the making of a dangerous boobytrap safe to handle. If this is not possible, however, it must be destroyed. Neutralization involves two steps—disarming or replacing safeties in the firing assembly and defuzing or separating the firing assembly from the main charge and the detonator from the firing assembly.



b. Although types of boobytraps found in conventional warfare in a combat zone vary greatly, equipment used by most armies is basically similar except in construction details. Accordingly, a knowledge of the mechanical details and techniques in the use of standard U.S. boobytrapping equipment in conventional warfare prepares a soldier to some extent for dealing with that of the enemy. This, however is not true in guerrilla warfare. Most enemy boobytraps found recently in guerrilla infested areas, were cunningly and ingeniously improvised and laid. Such boobytraps can rarely be neutralized even by the most experienced specialists. These are discussed and illustrated in chapter 5.



c. Boobytraps may be neutralized by two methods. (1) Whenever the location permits, they may be destroyed by actuating the mechanism from a safe distance or detonating a charge near the main charge. These should be used at all times unless tactical conditions are unfavorable. (2) When necessary, boobytraps may be disassembled by hand. As this is extremely dangerous, it should be undertaken only by experienced and extremely skillful specialists.





NOTE



Complete knowledge of the design of the boobytrap should be obtained before any neutralization is attempted.





d. In forward movements, all complicated mechanisms found are bypassed. These are marked and reported for neutralization later, when more deliberate action may be taken without hartassment by enemy fire.



e. All boobytraps exposed to blast from artillery fire or aerial bombing should be destroyed in place.



f. Boobytraps with unrecognizable or complicated firing arrangements should be marked and left for specialists to disarm.



(1) Electrically fired boobytraps are among the most dangerous of all. Though rare in the past, they now turn up frequently in guerrilla warfare. Some may be identified by the presence of electric lead wires, dry cells, or other batteries. Some are small containers with all elements placed inside which actuate at the slightest disturbance. These can hardly be disarmed even by experts.



(2) Another difficult type has delay fuzing—a spring-wound or electric clockwork for long delay periods or chemical action firing devices. As the line of detonation is uncertain, such boobytraps should be destroyed in place, if possible or tactically feasible.




70. RULES OF CONDUCT



a. Keep in constant practice by inspecting and studying all known boobytrap methods and mechanisms.



b. Develop patience. A careless act may destroy you and others as well.



c. Remember that knowledge inspires confidence.



d. Let only one man deal with boobytrap. Keep all others out of danger.



e. If in doubt, get help from an expert.



f. Never group together when there is danger.



g. Be suspicious of every unusual object.





PART III





Region - Specific Combat





Combat in Desert Environments





CHAPTER 1





The Environment and Its Effects on Personnel and Equipment





SECTION I. THE ENVIRONMENT



Successful desert operations require adaptation to the environment and to the limitations its terrain and climate impose. Equipment and tactics must be modified and adapted to a dusty and rugged landscape where temperatures vary from extreme highs down to freezing and where visibility may change from 30 miles to 30 feet in a matter of minutes. Deserts are arid, barren regions of the earth incapable of supporting normal life due to lack of water. See Figure 1-1 for arid regions of the world. Temperatures vary according to latitude and season, from over 136 degrees Fahrenheit in the deserts of Mexico and Libya to the bitter cold of winter in the Gobi (East Asia). In some deserts, day-to-night temperature fluctuation exceeds 70 degrees Fahrenheit. Some species of animal and plant life have adapted successfully to desert conditions where annual rainfall may vary from 0 to 10 inches.

Desert terrain also varies considerably from place to place, the sole common denominator being lack of water with its consequent environmental effects, such as sparse, if any, vegetation. The basic land forms are similar to those in other parts of the world, but the topsoil has been eroded due to a combination of lack of water, heat, and wind to give deserts their characteristic barren appearance. The bedrock may be covered by a flat layer of sand, or gravel, or may have been exposed by erosion. Other common features are sand dunes, escarpments, wadis, and depressions. This environment can profoundly affect military operations. See Figure 1-2 for locations of major deserts of the world.

It is important to realize that deserts are affected by seasons. Those in the Southern Hemisphere have summer between 21 December and 21 March. This 6-month difference from the United States is important when considering equipping and training nonacclimatized soldiers/marines for desert operations south of the equator.





Figure 1-1: Deserts of the world.





TERRAIN



Key terrain in the desert is largely dependent on the restrictions to movement that are present. If the desert floor will not support wheeled vehicle traffic, the few roads and desert tracks become key terrain. Crossroads are vital as they control military operations in a large area. Desert warfare is often a battle for control of the lines of communication (LOC). The side that can protect its own LOC while interdicting those of the enemy will prevail. Water sources are vital, especially if a force is incapable of long distance resupply of its water requirements. Defiles play an important role, where they exist. In the Western Desert of Libya, an escarpment that paralleled the coast was a barrier to movement except through a few passes. Control of these passes was vital. Similar escarpments are found in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.





Figure 1-2: Desert locations of the world.





Types of Desert Terrain

There are three types of desert terrain: mountain, rocky plateau, and sandy or dune terrain. The following paragraphs discuss these types of terrain.

Mountain Deserts

Mountain deserts are characterized by scattered ranges or areas of barren hills or mountains, separated by dry, flat basins. See Figure 1-3 for an example of mountain desert terrain. High ground may rise gradually or abruptly from flat areas, to a height of several thousand feet above sea level. Most of the infrequent rainfall occurs on high ground and runs off in the form of flash floods, eroding deep gullies and ravines and depositing sand and gravel around the edges of the basins. Water evaporates rapidly, leaving the land as barren as before, although there may be short-lived vegetation. If sufficient water enters the basin to compensate for the rate of evaporation, shallow lakes may develop, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah or the Dead Sea; most of these have a high salt content.





Figure 1-3: Example of mountain desert terrain.





Rocky Plateau Deserts

Rocky plateau deserts are extensive flat areas with quantities of solid or broken rock at or near the surface. See Figure 1-4 for an example of a rocky plateau desert. They may be wet or dry, steep-walled eroded valleys, known as wadis, gulches, or canyons. Narrow valleys can be extremely dangerous to men and materiel due to flash flooding after rains; although their flat bottoms may be superficially attractive as assembly areas. The National Training Center and the Golan Heights are examples of rocky plateau deserts.





Figure 1-4: Example of rocky plateau desert terrain.





Sandy or Dune Deserts

Sandy or dune deserts are extensive flat areas covered with sand or gravel, the product of ancient deposits or modern wind erosion. “Flat” is relative in this case, as some areas may contain sand dunes that are over 1,000 feet high and 10–15 miles long; trafficability on this type of terrain will depend on windward/leeward gradients of the dunes and the texture of the sand. See Figure 1-5 for an example of a sandy desert. Other areas, however, may be totally flat for distances of 3,000 meters and beyond. Plant life may vary from none to scrub, reaching over 6 feet high. Examples of this type of desert include the ergs of the Sahara, the Empty Quarter of the Arabian desert, areas of California and New Mexico, and the Kalahari in South Africa. See Figure 1-6 for an example of a dune desert.





Figure 1-5: Example of sandy desert terrain.





Figure 1-6: Example of dune desert terrain.





Trafficability

Roads and trails are rare in the open desert. Complex road systems beyond simple commercial links are not needed. Road systems have been used for centuries to connect centers of commerce, or important religious shrines such as Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia. These road systems are supplemented by routes joining oil or other mineral deposits to collection outlet points. Some surfaces, such as lava beds or salt marshes, preclude any form of routine vehicular movement, but generally ground movement is possible in all directions. Speed of movement varies depending on surface texture. Rudimentary trails are used by minor caravans and nomadic tribesmen, with wells or oasis approximately every 20 to 40 miles; although there are some waterless stretches which extend over 100 miles. Trails vary in width from a few meters to over 800 meters.

Vehicle travel in mountainous desert country may be severely restricted. Available mutes can be easily blinked by the enemy or by climatic conditions. Hairpin turns are common on the edges of precipitous mountain gorges, and the higher passes may be blocked by snow in the winter.

Natural Factors

The following terrain features require special considerations regarding trafficability.

Wadis or dried water courses, vary from wide, but barely perceptible depressions of soft sand, dotted with bushes, to deep, steep-sided ravines. There frequently is a passable route through the bottom of a dried wadi. Wadis can provide cover from ground observation and camouflage from visual air reconnaissance. The threat of flash floods after heavy rains poses a significant danger to troops and equipment downstream. Flooding may occur in these areas even if it is not raining in the immediate area. See Figure 1-7 for an example of a wadi.





Figure 1-7: Example of a wadi.





Salt marsh (sebkha) terrain is impassable to tracks and wheels when wet. When dry it has a brittle, crusty surface, negotiable by light wheel vehicles only. Salt marshes develop at points where the water in the subsoil of the desert rose to the surface. Because of the constant evaporation in the desert, the salts carried by the water are deposited, and results in a hard, brittle crust.

Salt marshes are normally impassable, the worst type being those with a dry crust of silt on top. Marsh mud used on desert sand will, however, produce an excellent temporary road. Many desert areas have salt marshes either in the center of a drainage basin or near the sea coast. Old trails or paths may cross the marsh, which are visible during the dry season but not in the wet season. In the wet season trails are indicated by standing water due to the crust being too hard or too thick for it to penetrate. However, such routes should not be tried by load-carrying vehicles without prior reconnaissance and marking. Vehicles may become mired so severely as to render equipment and units combat ineffective. Heavier track-laying vehicles, like tanks, are especially susceptible to these areas, therefore reconnaissance is critical.

Man-made Factors

The ruins of earlier civilizations, scattered across the deserts of the world, often are sited along important avenues of approach and frequently dominate the only available passes in difficult terrain. Control of these positions maybe imperative for any force intending to dominate the immediate area. Currently occupied dwellings have little impact on trafficability except that they are normally located near roads and trails. Apart from nomadic tribesmen who live in tents (see Figure 1-8 for an example of desert nomads), the population lives in thick-walled structures with small windows, usually built of masonry or a mud and straw (adobe) mixture. Figure 1-9 shows common man-made desert structures.





Figure 1-8: Example of desert nomads.





Figure 1-9: Common man-made desert structures.





Because of exploration for and production of oil and other resources, wells, pipelines, refineries, quarries, and crushing plants may be of strategic importance in the desert. Pipelines are often raised 1 meter off the ground—where this is the case, pipelines will inhibit movement. Subsurface pipelines can also be an obstacle. In Southwest Asia, the subsurface pipelines were indicated on maps. Often they were buried at such a shallow depth that they could be damaged by heavy vehicles traversing them. Furthermore, if a pipeline is ruptured, not only is the spill of oil a consideration, but the fumes may be hazardous as well.

Agriculture in desert areas has little effect on trafficability except that canals limit surface mobility. Destruction of an irrigation system, which may be a result of military operations, could have a devastating effect on the local population and should be an important consideration in operational estimates. Figure 1-10 shows an irrigation ditch.


TEMPERATURE



The highest known ambient temperature recorded in a desert was 136 degrees Fahrenheit (58 degrees Celsius). Lower temperatures than this produced internal tank temperatures approaching 160 degrees Fahrenheit (71 degrees Celsius) in the Sahara Desert during the Second World War. Winter temperatures in Siberian deserts and in the Gobi reach minus 50 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 45 degrees Celsius). Low temperatures are aggravated by very strong winds producing high windchill factors. The cloudless sky of the desert permits the earth to heat during sunlit hours, yet cool to near freezing at night. In the inland Sinai, for example, day-to-night temperature fluctuations are as much as 72 degrees Fahrenheit.





Figure 1-10: Irrigation ditch.





WINDS



Desert winds can achieve velocities of near hurricane force; dust and sand suspended within them make life intolerable, maintenance very difficult, and restrict visibility to a few meters. The Sahara “Khamseen”, for example, lasts for days at a time; although it normally only occurs in the spring and summer. The deserts of Iran are equally well known for the “wind of 120 days,” with sand blowing almost constantly from the north at wind velocities of up to 75 miles per hour.

Although there is no danger of a man being buried alive by a sandstorm, individuals can become separated from their units. In all deserts, rapid temperature changes invariably follow strong winds. Even without wind, the telltale clouds raised by wheels, tracks, and marching troops give away movement. Wind aggravates the problem. As the day gets wanner the wind increases and the dust signatures of vehicles may drift downwind for several hundred meters.

In the evening the wind normally settles down. In many deserts a prevailing wind blows steadily from one cardinal direction for most of the year, and eventually switches to another direction for the remaining months. The equinoctial gales raise huge sandstorms that rise to several thousand feet and may last for several days. Gales and sandstorms in the winter months can be bitterly cold. See Figure 1-11 for an example of wind erosion.





Figure 1-11: Example of wind erosion.





Sandstorms are likely to form suddenly and stop just as suddenly. In a severe sandstorm, sand permeates everything making movement nearly impossible, not only because of limited visibility, but also because blowing sand damages moving parts of machinery.


WATER



The lack of water is the most important single characteristic of the desert. The population, if any, varies directly with local water supply. A Sahara oasis may, for its size, be one of the most densely occupied places on earth (see Figure 1-12 for a typical oasis).

Desert rainfall varies from one day in the year to intermittent showers throughout the winter. Severe thunderstorms bring heavy rain, and usually far too much rain falls far too quickly to organize collection on a systematic basis. The water soon soaks into the ground and may result in flash floods. In some cases the rain binds the sand much like a beach after the tide ebbs allowing easy maneuver however, it also turns loam into an impassable quagmire obstacle. Rainstorms tend to be localized, affecting only a few square kilometers at a time. Whenever possible, as storms approach, vehicles should move to rocky areas or high ground to avoid flash floods and becoming mired.

Permanent rivers such as the Nile, the Colorado, or the Kuiseb in the Namib Desert of Southwest Africa are fed by heavy precipitation outside the desert so the river survives despite a high evaporation rate.

Subsurface water may be so far below the surface, or so limited, that wells are normally inadequate to support any great number of people. Because potable water is absolutely vital, a large natural supply may be both tactically and strategically important. Destruction of a water supply system may become a political rather than military decision, because of its lasting effects on the resident civilian population.



SECTION II. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON EQUIPMENT



Conditions in an arid environment can damage military equipment and facilities. Temperatures and dryness are major causes of equipment failure, and wind action lifts and spreads sand and dust, clogging and jamming anything that has moving parts. Vehicles, aircraft, sensors, and weapons are all affected. Rubber components such as gaskets and seals become brittle, and oil leaks are more frequent. Ten characteristics of the desert environment may adversely affect equipment used in the desert:

• Terrain.



• Heat.



• Winds.



• Dust and sand.



• Humidity.



• Temperature variations.



• Thermal bending.



• Optical path bending.



• Static electricity.



• Radiant light.



The relative importance of each characteristic varies from desert to desert. Humidity, for example, can be discounted in most deserts but is important in the Persian Gulf.


TERRAIN



Terrain varies from nearly flat, with high trafficability, to lava beds and salt marshes with little or no trafficability. Drivers must be well trained in judging terrain over which they are driving so they can select the best method of overcoming the varying conditions they will encounter.

Track vehicles are well suited for desert operations. Wheel vehicles may be acceptable as they can go many places that track vehicles can go; however, their lower speed average in poor terrain maybe unacceptable during some operations. Vehicles should be equipped with extra fan belts, tires, (and other items apt to malfunction), tow ropes (if not equipped with a winch), extra water cans, and desert camouflage nets. Air-recognition panels, signal mirrors, and a tarpaulin for crew sun protection are very useful. Wheel vehicles should also carry mats, or channels as appropriate, to assist in freeing mired vehicles.

The harsh environment requires a very high standard of maintenance, which may have to be performed well away from specialized support personnel. Operators must be fully trained in operating and maintaining their equipment. Some types of terrain can have a severe effect on suspension and transmission systems, especially those of wheel vehicles. Tanks are prone to throw tracks when traveling over rocks.

Track components require special care in the desert. Grit, heat, and bad track tension accelerate track failure. Sprockets wear out quickly in sandy conditions. Track pins break more easily in high temperatures and high temperatures also increase rubber/metal separation on road wheels. Proper track tension is critical, as loose track is easily thrown and excessive tension causes undue stress on track components.

Increase the unit PLL of tires and tracks as sand temperatures of 165 degrees Fahrenheit are extremely detrimental to rubber, and weaken resistance to sharp rocks and plant spines, Items affected by mileage such as wheels, steering, track wedge bolts and sprocket nuts, and transmission shafts, must be checked for undue wear when conducting before-, during-, and after-operations maintenance.


HEAT



Vehicle coding and lubrication systems are interdependent. A malfunction by one will rapidly place the other system under severe strain. In temperature extremes, all types of engines are apt to operate above optimum temperatures, leading to excessive wear, or leaking oil seals in the power packs, and ultimately, engine failure. Commanders should be aware which types of vehicles are prone to excessive overheating, and ensure extra care is applied to their maintenance. The following are considerations for ensuring engines do not overheat:

• Check oil levels frequently to ensure proper levels are maintained (too high may be as bad as too low), that seals are not leaking, and oil consumption is not higher than normal.



• Keep radiators and air flow areas around engines clean and free of debris and other obstructions.



• Fit water-cooled engines with condensers to avoid steam escaping through the overflow pipe.



• Cooling hoses must be kept tight (a drip a second loses 7 gallons of fluid in 24 hours).



• Operators should not remove hood side panels from engine compartments while the engine is running as this causes air turbulence and leads to ineffective cooling.



Batteries do not hold their charge efficiently in intense heat. Check them twice daily. The following are additional considerations for maintaining batteries in intense heat:

• Change battery specific gravity to adjust to the desert environment (see vehicle TMs for details).



• Keep batteries full, but not overfilled, and carry a reserve of distilled water.



• Keep air vents clean, or vapors may build up pressure and cause the battery to explode.



• Set voltage regulators as low as practical.



• Increase dry battery supplies to offset high attrition rate caused by heat exposure.



Severe heat increases pressure in closed pressurized systems such as the M2 fire burner unit, and increases the volume of liquids. Ensure that the working pressure of all equipment is within safety limits and be careful when removing items such as filler caps.

Treat Halon fire extinguishers with care. High temperatures may cause them to discharge spontaneously. Put wet rags on them during the hottest part of the day to keep them coder.

Some items of equipment are fitted with thermal cutouts that open circuit breakers whenever equipment begins to overheat. Overheating is often caused by high ambient temperatures, and can be partly avoided by keeping the item in the shade or wrapping it in a wet cloth to maintain a lower temperature by evaporation.

Flying time and performance of helicopters are degraded as the altitude and heat increases. Helicopter performance is also affected by humidity. Aircraft canopies have been known to bubble under direct heat and should be covered when not in use.

Ammunition must be out of direct heat and sunlight. Use camouflage nets and tarpaulins to provide cover. Ammunition cool enough to be held by bare hands is safe to fire.

Wood shrinks in a high-temperature, low-humidity environment. Equipment, such as axes carried on track vehicles, can become safety hazards as heads are likely to fly off shrunken handles.

Radiators require special attention. Proper cooling-system operation is critical in high-temperature environments. Check cooling systems for serviceability prior to deployment. Local water may be high in mineral content which will calcify in cooling systems. Distilled water is better since tap water contains chemicals that will form a crusty coating inside the radiator and will ultimately clog it. A mixture of 40 percent antifreeze and 60 percent water is usually acceptable—check your appropriate technical manual to be certain.

During movement, and at operation sites where extremely hot temperatures exist, continuous protection from the heat is necessary for medical items and supplies, which deteriorate rapidly.

Air and all fluids expand and contract according to temperature. If tires are inflated to correct pressure during the cool of night, they may burst during the heat of day. If fuel tanks are filled to the brim at night, they will overflow at midday. Servicing these items during the heat of day can result in low tire pressure, overheating of tires, and a lack of endurance if the fuel tanks were not filled to their correct levels. Air pressure in tires must be checked when the equipment is operating at efficient working temperatures, and fuel tanks must be filled to their correct capacity as defined in the appropriate technical manual. These items should be checked several times a day and again at night.

The major problem with radios in a desert environment is overheating. The following steps can help prevent overheating of radios:

• Keep radios out of direct sunlight.



• Place a piece of wood on top of the radio. Leaving space between the wood and the top of the radio will help cool the equipment. Operating on low power whenever possible will also help.



• Place wet rags on top of radios to help keep them cool and operational. Do not cover the vents.



Any oil or fuel blown onto a cooler (heat exchanger) will gather and quickly degrade cooling. Fix even slight leaks promptly. Do not remove cooling ducts or shrouds. Check them for complete coverage—use tape to seal cracks. Do not remove serviceable thermostats if overheating occurs.


WINDS



Desert winds, by their velocity alone, can be very destructive to large and relatively light materiel such as aircraft, tentage, and antenna systems. To minimize the possibility of wind damage, materiel should be sited to benefit from wind protection and should be firmly picketed to the ground.


DUST AND SAND



Dust and sand are probably the greatest danger to the efficient functioning of equipment in the desert. It is almost impossible to avoid particles settling on moving parts and acting as an abrasive. Sand mixed with oil forms an abrasive paste.

Lubricants must be of the correct viscosity for the temperature and kept to the recommended absolute minimum in the case of exposed or semiexposed moving parts. Lubrication fittings are critical items and should be checked frequently. If they are missing, sand will enter the housing causing bearing failure. Teflon bearings require constant inspection to ensure that the coating is not being eroded.

Proper lubrication is crucial for success. Wipe off all grease fittings before you attach the grease gun and after use. Keep cans of grease covered to prevent sand contamination. Preserve opened grease containers by covering and sealing with plastic bags. Use of grease cartridges in lieu of bulk grease is preferred. All POL dispensing tools must be stored in protected areas to prevent contamination. Place a tarpaulin, or other material, under equipment being repaired to prevent tools and components from being lost in the sand. The automotive-artillery grease possesses a significantly high-temperature capability. If not available, an alternative is general purpose wide-temperature range (WTR) aircraft grease.

Oil should be changed about twice as often under desert conditions as under U.S. or European conditions, not only because grit accumulates in the oil pan, but also because noncombusted low-octane fuel seeps down the cylinder walls and dilutes the reservoir. Diluted lubricants cool less effectively, and evaporate at the higher temperatures generated during engine operation. Oil changes and lubrication of undercarriage points at more frequent intervals will prolong engine and vehicle life under desert conditions. Units employed in desert environments should reevaluate their engine oil requirements and plan accordingly.

Keeping sand out of maintenance areas is critical due to the strong possibility of sand or dust entering the cylinders or other moving parts when the equipment is stripped. Baggies, cloth, or plastic can be used to protect open or disassembled components from blowing sand and dust. The same applies for disconnected water, oil, or other fluid lines. Be sure to cover both ends of the connection if stored. It is essential to have screens against blowing sand (which also provides shade for mechanics). The surrounding ground may be soaked in used oil or covered with rocks to bind it down. Mechanics must keep their tools clean.

Dust and sand can easily cause failure of such items as radio and signal distribution panels, and circuit breakers, and cause small electrical motors to burn out. Wheel and flight control bearings may require daily cleaning and repacking, and engines should be flushed of contaminants daily.

Rotor heads have reduced life, requiring more frequent inspections than in temperate climates. Pay particular attention to sand-caused wear on rotor heads, leading edges of rotor blades, and exposed flight controls. Over 200 pounds of dirt has been known to accumulate in the fuselage area of helicopters operating in desert conditions. These areas must be routinely checked and cleaned to prevent a pound-for-pound reduction in aircraft-lift capability.

Filters must be used when refueling any type of vehicle, and the gap between the nozzle and the fuel tank filler pipe must be kept covered. It takes comparatively little dirt to block a fuel line. Fuel filters will require more frequent cleaning and will need to be checked and replaced often. Engine oil should be changed more often and oil filters replaced more frequently than in temperate climates.

Compression-ignition engines depend on clean air; therefore, examine and clean air cleaners of every type of equipment at frequent intervals. The exact interval depends on the operating conditions, but as a minimum, should be checked at least daily.

Air compressors are valuable pieces of equipment in the desert. They are essential for cleaning air filters and removing dust and sand from components. Intake filters require cleaning daily.

Windblown sand and grit, in addition to heat, will damage electrical wire insulation over a period of time. All cables that are likely to be damaged should be protected with tape before insulation becomes worn. Sand will also find its way into parts of items such as “spaghetti cord” plugs, either preventing electrical contact or making it impossible to join the plugs together. Use a brush, such as an old toothbrush, to brush out such items before they are joined. Electrical tape placed over the ends of spaghetti cords also works.

Radio is the primary means of communications in the desert. It can be employed effectively in desert climates and terrain to provide the reliable communications demanded by widely dispersed forces. However, desert terrain provides poor electrical ground, and a counterpoise (an artificial ground) is needed to improve the range of certain antennas.

Some receiver-transmitters have ventilating ports and channels that can get clogged with dust. These must be checked regularly and kept clean to prevent overheating. Mobile subscriber equipment may require the deployment of additional radio access units (RAU) AN/VRC-191. These assemblages are the primary link for the mobile subscriber radio telephone terminal (MSRT) AN/VRC-97s which are located down to battalion level. The normal operating range of the receiver-transmitter used with these radios may only be 10 kilometers in the desert.

Dust and sand adversely affect the performance of weapons. Weapons may jam or missiles lock on launching rails due to sand and dust accumulation. Sand- or dust-clogged barrels lead to in-bore detonations. Daily supervised cleaning of weapons is essential. Particular attention should be given to magazines which are often clogged, interrupting the feeding of weapons. Cover missiles on launchers until required for use. To avoid jamming due to the accumulation of sand, the working parts of weapons must have the absolute minimum amount of lubrication. It may even be preferable to have them totally dry, as any damage caused during firing will be less than that produced by the sand/oil abrasive paste. Paintbrushes are among the most useful tools to bring to the desert; they are extremely effective in cleaning weapons and optics.

Take precautions to prevent exposure of floppy disks and computers to dust or sand. Covering them in plastic bags is a technique that has worked for several different units. A number of units have successfully operated PLL computers in inflatable medical NBC shelters (MIS 1). This technique has obvious drawbacks since the shelter was not designed for this; however, until a materiel fix is developed, this sort of innovation may be necessary. Compressed air cans, locally purchased from computer vendors, will facilitate the cleaning of keyboards and other components of computer systems.

All optics are affected by blown sand, which gradually degrade their performance due to small pitting and scratching. It is necessary to guard against buildup of dust on optics, which may not be apparent until the low light optical performance has severely deteriorated. It may be advisable to keep optics covered with some form of cellophane film until operations are about to start, especially if the unit is in a sandstorm. A cover that has no sand on the underside should also be used and must be secured so it cannot vibrate against the wind screen. Both of these measures are equally important to tactical security as sun reflected from these optics will reveal positions.

Sand and dirt can easily accumulate in hull bottoms of armored vehicles. This accumulation, combined with condensation or oil, can cause jamming of control linkages. Sand accumulation at the air-bleeder valve can inhibit heat from escaping from the transmission and result in damage to the transmission. Park tactical wheeled vehicles with the rear facing the wind to keep sand out of the radiator. Tracked vehicles should park to protect the engine compartment (grille doors away from wind) from the same sort of damage. The operator’s checks and services increase in importance in this environment.


HUMIDITY



Some deserts are humid. Where this is the case, humidity plus heat encourages rust on bare metal and mold in enclosed spaces such as optics. Bare metal surfaces on equipment not required for immediate use must be kept clean and very lightly lubricated.

Items such as optics must be stored in dry conditions; those in use should be kept where air can circulate around them, and should be purged at frequent intervals. Aircraft must be washed daily, particularly if there is salt in the air, using low-pressure sprays.


TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS



In deserts with relatively high-dew levels and high humidity, overnight condensation can occur wherever surfaces (such as metal exposed to air) are cooler than the air temperature. Condensation can affect such items as optics, fuel lines, and air tanks. Drain fuel lines both at night and in the morning (whenever necessary). Clean optics and weapons frequently. Weapons, even if not lubricated, accumulate sand and dirt due to condensation.


THERMAL BENDING



Weapon systems such as the tank cannon are affected in several ways by the desert. One is thermal bending, which is the uneven heating and cooling of a gun lube due to ambient temperature changes. Modem tanks, like the MI, have been designed to compensate for these factors. The muzzle reference system (MRS) allows the crew to monitor any loss of gun sight relationship and to comet for any error using the MRS update at regular intervals. MI-series tanks are equipped with a thermal shroud, allowing for more even heating and cooling o the gun tube. Both factors can greatly reduce the accuracy of a tank weapon system. By boresighting at regular intervals and constant monitoring of the fire control system, the tank crew can maximize its readiness. “Gun tube droop” can be countered using the MRS update at least four times in a 24-hour period: at dawn as part of stand-to; at noon to compensate for gun tube temperature change: before EENT, for TIS reticle confirmation; and at 0100 hours to compensate for gun tube temperature changes.


OPTICAL PATH BENDING



The apparent illusion of target displacement is commonly called refraction. Under certain light and environmental conditions, the path of light (line of sight) may not appear to travel in a straight line. Refraction may cause problems for tank crews attempting engagements at ranges beyond 1,500 meters. Figure 1-17 shows an example of optical path bending in the desert. Refraction may occur in the following conditions:

• Day-Clear sky, flat terrain, winds less than 10 miles per hour.



• Night-Clear sky, flat terrain, winds under 4 miles per hour.



The effect of refraction is to make the target appear lower during the day; the sight picture, though it appears center of visible mass to the gunner, is actually below the target. This may result in a short round. At night, the effects are the opposite and may result in an over round. Crews must not be fooled by what appears to be a good range from their laser range finder (LRF); the laser beam will refract with other light rays and still hit the desired target.



NOTE



Any time heat shimmer is present, refraction may also exist.





The most effective measure available to the crew to minimize refraction is an elevated firing position. A position at least 10 meters above intervening terrain will generally negate any effects. If this type of position is not available, a crew operating under conditions favorable to refraction, and having missed with their first round, should apply the following:



NOTE



Crews do not need to make a correction for refraction at ranges of less than 1,500 meters.





• Day—Adjust sight picture up 1/2 target form. See Figures 1-18 and 1-19 for examples of day and night refraction, respectively.



• Night—Adjust sight picture down 1/2 target form.



Boresight does not correct refraction, but crews must ensure that all prepare-to-fire checks and boresighting procedures are performed correctly. When a crew is missing targets under these conditions, the cause is refraction and not crew error or loss of boresight due to improper procedures.





Figure 1-12: Optical path bending in the desert.





Figure 1-13: Day refraction.





Figure 1-14: Night refraction.





STATIC ELECTRICITY



Static electricity is prevalent and poses a danger in the desert. It is caused by atmospheric conditions coupled with an inability to ground out due to dryness of the terrain. It is particularly prevalent with aircraft or vehicles having no conductor contact with the soil. The difference of electrical potential between separate materials may cause an electrical discharge between them when contact is made, and if flammable gases are present, they may explode and cause a fire. Poor grounding conditions aggravate the problem. Be sure to tape all sharp edges (tips) of antennas to reduce wind-caused static electricity. If you are operating from a fixed position, ensure that equipment is properly grounded.

Establish a metal circuit between fuel tankers and vehicles before and during refueling. Ensure the fuel tankers and vehicles are grounded (for example, by a cable and picket or by a crowbar). Grounding of vehicles and equipment should be accomplished in accordance with appropriate operations manuals.

Static electricity is also a hazard with helicopter sling loads. Exercise care when handling and transporting unlike materials that might generate static electricity. Also turn off all switches, uncouple electrical connectors, and ground vehicle or aircraft electrically-operated weapon systems before reaming. Static electricity will also ruin circuit boards and other electronic equipment.


RADIANT LIGHT



Radiant light may be detrimental to plastics, lubricants, pressurized gases, some chemicals, and infrared tracking and guidance systems. Items like C02 fire extinguishers, M13 decontamination and reimpregnating kits, and Stinger missiles must be kept out of constant direct sunlight. Optics nave been known to discolor under direct sunlight (although this is unusual), so it is wise to minimize their exposure to the sun’s rays.





Introduction



Arid regions make up about one-third of the earth’s land surface, a higher percentage than that of any other type of climate. As we have seen in the recent past, some of these regions – because of diverse and conflicting cultures, strategic importance, and natural resources – have become centers of conflict.

Military leaders have long recognized the potential for U.S. involvement in conflict in these regions. Exercises at the Army’s National Training Center, Fort Irwin and the Marine Corps’ Marine Air Ground Combat Center, Twentynine Palms, California, have provided an opportunity for virtually all our ground forces to experience desert conditions. The success of Operation Desert Storm can be directly attributed to this realistic training.

Desert operations demand adaptation to the environment and to the limitations imposed by terrain and climate. Success depends on an appreciation of the effects of arid conditions on soldiers (both physically and psychologically), on equipment and facilities, and on combat and support operations. Leaders and soldiers must continually evaluate the situation and be ready to react to changing conditions. Equipment and tactics must be modified and adapted to a dusty, rugged landscape where temperatures vary from extreme highs to freezing lows and where visibility can change from 30 miles to 30 feet in a matter of minutes.

The key to success in desert operations is mobility. This was clearly evident in the ground operations of Desert Storm. The tactics employed to achieve victory over Iraq were wide, rapid flanking movements similar to those executed by Montgomery and Rommel during World War II. During Desert Storm, however, new technologies increased higher-echelon headquarters’ ability to target, attack, and fight deep operations simultaneously. Modern weapon systems like the M1A1 Abrams tank, Bradley fighting vehicle, light armored vehicle, and assault amphibious vehicle, coupled with newly developed navigation and targeting devices, contributed immeasurably. Tactical units were able to fight battles with minimal direction; leaders were able to exercise initiative based on a clear understanding of their commanders’ intent. Current doctrine—focused on improving mobility and implemented through the planning, preparation, and execution processes, battle drills, and tactical SOPs, paved the way for the overwhelming triumph.

Arid regions create both opportunities and restraints for soldiers and marines at all levels. The U.S. military’s performance in Desert Storm shows it understands these factors and has successfully addressed the effects of desert warfare on troops, equipment, and operations. As they prepare for the future, leaders, soldiers, and marines must study past campaigns and use the lessons they learn to reduce casualties, use the environment to their advantage, and ensure victory on the desert battlefield.





CHAPTER 2





Desert Concealment and Camouflage



In the desert, camouflage problems are encountered that require imagination, ingenuity, and intelligence. The lack of natural overhead cover, the increased range of vision, and the bright tones of the desert terrain place emphasis upon siting, dispersion discipline, and the skillful employment of decoys to achieve deception and surprise. Total concealment is rarely achieved, yet proper camouflage measures can reduce the effectiveness of enemy observation, and consequently enemy operations.

Cover from enemy direct fire may be afforded by dunes, hills, and other irregularities in the desert terrain. Camouflage is an essential part of all operations in the desert and the importance of the concept must be impressed upon fresh units and individual replacements upon their arrival in theater. Poor camouflage may also compromise a highlevel plan and lead to an operational failure. One poorly concealed vehicle can compromise an entire task force. Improvisation of available assets is just as important as being able to properly use camouflage systems. As previously described, deserts generally do not offer much natural concealment or means for camouflage; therefore, make maximum use of any artificial means available.


VEHICLES AND AIRCRAFT



Movement of vehicles produces dust, diesel plumes, and distinctive track marks. The slower the speed, the less dust that is produced; however, the need for speed must be balanced against the amount of dust that may be produced. Drivers must avoid harsh use of accelerators, the main cause of diesel plumes.

Shine from optical instruments (which should be kept shaded), and matte paint that has been polished by continual wear, or from tracks, particularly if rubber blocks have been removed, are difficult to camouflage during the desert day. See Figure 2-1 for shading optics. Running gear on tracks that has been polished by wear should be covered with burlap when stationary. Windscreens and windows should be removed or lowered to prevent reflection of the sun and heat. Vehicle silhouettes can be reduced in the forward areas by removing cabs and tops.

Disruptive pattern painting for vehicles and aircraft is described in FM 20–3. Local materials can also be used. The color and texture of the local terrain is best represented by placing dirt on vehicles and using a little water to make it stick.

The effects are increased by covering a vehicle with a wide-mesh net and using foliage brackets to attach local vegetation. Twine or wire may be used as an alternative to the mesh net, provided vegetation is available.

Some or all of the equipment listed in the following paragraphs should be available for every vehicle and aircraft, although aircraft will not necessarily be able to carry all of it.

The preferred net is the lightweight camouflage screen system (LCSS), desert version, which provides concealment against visual, near IR, and radar target acquisition/surveillance sensor devices. Additionally, the transparent version of the LCSS allows U.S. units to camouflage radars (less CW type radars) without degrading operations. A desert camouflage net should be a complete cover, as it depends on its Imitation of the ground surface, and both color and texture, for its effect. The alternatives to the LCSS in order of priority include the following:

• The specially produced desert-pattern net of the lightweight screen system.



• An open-weave cloth (colored as appropriate to the soil or “patched”) stitched to an ordinary wide-mesh net and used with the string uppermost. This provides both color and texture and can be suitably garnished with radar-scattering plastic, such as that used in the lightweight screening system, and with any local vegetation.



• A cover of close-weave cloth, colored as appropriate.



• A standard net garnished solid, threaded in long straight strips that have been colored to harmonize with the terrain. The garnishing must be maintained.





Figure 2-l: Shade optics to prevent shine.





The number of nets issued depends on the size of the equipment to be covered, but should be sufficient to allow a gradual slope of not more than 15 degrees from the top of the equipment to the earth. Each company-size unit should be equipped with a spray gun and various tints of paint to provide for temporary variations in net color to match the terrain.

When using nets for stationary equipment—

• Do not allow nets to touch sensitive items such as helicopter rotor heads and radio antennas which may cause a net to catch fire.



• Do not pull nets so tight that each supporting pole stands out.



• Ensure the net does not prevent the equipment from fulfilling its primary task. In some equipment, such as helicopters, a net must be easily removable to reduce reaction time.



• Avoid straight-edged patterns on the ground, which indicate something is there.



• Use burlap spray-painted in a nondescript desert color to cover all reflecting surfaces (excluding fire control optics) and shadow-producing areas under vehicle bodies, including tank suspensions. Aircraft equipped with windscreen covers will not require it.



• Cut desert scrub in the immediate area.



• Use poles, natural or man-made, to raise the nets from the equipment, thereby hiding its shape. They must be brought into the area of operations by the force and are extremely difficult to replace in the desert if lost or damaged.



• Make a “mushroom” out of thin iron tubing locally, It resembles an open umbrella without its cloth cover and with the end of the spokes joined together. Slotted into a socket that has been welded onto the top of a tank, self-propelled gun, or personnel carrier, it lifts the net above the vehicle, concealing its shape, increasing air circulation, and permitting the crew or team to use the top hatches.



• Hook and hold a camouflage net to the ground away from the vehicle by using wooden pegs or long steel pins, depending on soil consistency.



• Use mallets to drive pegs and pins into the ground.



After dismounting local security, camouflage is the first priority when a vehicle halts. Actions to be taken are—

• Site in vegetation or shadow, if available.



• Cover shiny surfaces and shadow areas with burlap screens.



• Drape the net.



• Add any available vegetation to the net.



• Blot out vehicle tracks for 50 meters behind vehicles.



Stationary aircraft take a relatively long time to conceal as they are fragile in comparison with other equipment, have a considerable heat signature, and must also be readily accessible for maintenance. The more they are concealed, the greater their response time is likely to be. Tactical flying is discussed in Appendix B, but take the following actions in sequence when approaching a landing site where aircraft will stay for some time:

• Ensure aircraft approach the site terrain-masked from enemy surveillance.



• Close down aircraft as soon as possible.



• Cover all reflective surfaces.



• Move aircraft into shadow if it can be towed or pushed.



• Shift the main rotor (depending on the type) until it is at a 45-degree angle with the fuselage and drape a net over the rotor and fuselage. The rotor must be picketed to the ground.



• Conceal the remainder of the aircraft.




POSITION SELECTION



Position selection is critical at all levels. One of the fundamentals of camouflage in any environment, but particularly the desert, is to fit into the existing ground pattern with a minimum of change to the terrain. A wadi bottom with vegetation or a pile of boulders that can be improved with grey burlap and chickenwire are good examples. Sites chosen must not be so obvious that they are virtually automatic targets for enemy suppressive frees, and antennas must be screened against the enemy, if possible.

Shadows, particularly in the morning and evening, identify objects; so equipment must be placed in total shadow (rarely found), or with its maximum vertical area facing the sun so that minimum shadow falls on the ground (“maximum vertical area” is the rear of a 5-ton truck with canopy, but the front of an M88, for example). See Figure 2-2 for the effects of shadows. The shadow can be broken up, which is normally achieved by siting equipment next to scrub or broken surfaces, such as rocks. Equipment should not be sited broadside to the sun, and it is usually necessary to move as the sun moves. Digging in reduces the length of any shadow that is cast (on the principle that the lower the object, the shorter the shadow).

Vehicles passing over pebbles or heavy ground surfaces press the pebbles or gravel into the soil, causing track marks to be prominent when viewed from the air. Avoid such areas if possible. Use existing trails and blend new trails into old ones whenever possible.

Soil texture suitable for digging must be a consideration when reconnoitering for battle positions. Holes must be covered to avoid shadows being cast. If vehicles will be in position for more than a day, trenches should be dug for them.





Figure 2-2: Camouflage: the effects of shadows.





In forward areas, tactical operations centers are probably the most difficult positions to hide although their need for concealment is great. They require strict camouflage discipline. Vehicles and aircraft should not be allowed to approach closer than 300–400 meters. They must be dispersed and concealed so nets may have to be readily available for aircraft. Pay special attention to lights and noise at night.

Generators will have to be dug-in and allowed adequate air space for cooling. Radios and antenna systems must be remoted as far out as possible, and in different directions. Whenever possible, dig in the entire command post. Use engineer assets to build a berm around the perimeter and to help break up the silhouette and to enhance security. Other equipment should not be placed too close to minimize the possibility of the enemy’s attention being attracted to the site.

Engineer activity often precedes operations, which makes it important that such work be concealed from enemy surveillance. The following guidelines should be used to conceal engineer activity:

• Employ the minimum number of equipment and personnel.



• Keep equipment well away from the site, and dispersed and concealed if not in use.



• Complete all possible preparations well away from the site.



• Follow the ground pattern, if possible.



Combat service and support assets must rely on concealment for most of their protection. The following guidelines will assist unit commanders in concealing trains while stationary or on the move:

• All vehicles of a given type should look alike. This will make it difficult for an enemy to pick out critical vehicles, such as water and fuel trucks, in a column. Canopies over fuel trucks disguise them and prevent radiant heat from striking the fuel containers.



• Vehicles should follow the tracks of the preceding vehicle if it is possible to do so without breaking through the crust, as this reduces the possibility of an enemy intelligence analyst to calculate how many vehicles have passed.



• Screen exhaust systems to reduce heat signature.



• Vehicles must never form a pattern, either when stationary or on the move.




SUPPLY POINTS



A supply point is likely to be in a location where its main threat of detection will be either by the eye or by photograph. Normally, greater emphasis can be placed on selecting supply positions from the point of view of concealment rather than for tactical efficiency, particularly in situations where air defense cover may be limited. The following guidelines should be used when setting up supply points:

• The location should be selected where trails already exist. Vehicles must use existing trails to the extent possible.



• Stocks should be irregularly spaced, both in length and depth, to the maximum extent possible so that there is no definite pattern.



• Stocks should be piled as low as possible and preferably dug-in. For example, a stack of gasoline cans should be only one can high.



• The shape of the area should not be square or rectangular, but should follow the local ground pattern.



• Stocks should be covered with sand, gravel, burlap, netting, or anything else that harmonizes with the local terrain, and the sides should be gradually sloped with soil filled to the top of the dump.



• The contents of each supply point should be mixed so that the destruction of one supply point will not cause an immediate shortage of a particular commodity.





CHAPTER 3





Operations in Desert Conditions





SECTION I. HOW THE DESERT ENVIRONMENT

AFFECTS TACTICAL OPERATIONS



The key to success in desert operations is mobility, and this was clearly evident in ground operations in Desert Storm. The tactics employed to achieve victory over Iraq were wide and rapid flanking movements similar to those Rommel and Montgomery executed in North Africa.

Trafficability and cross-country movement become critical to desert operations when using these tactics. Trafficability is generally good in the desert and cross-country movement is a lesser problem, but not always. Salt marshes can create NO-GO conditions during the rainy season. Sand can also bog down traffic and make foot movement slow and exhausting. The steep slopes of dunes and rocky mountains can make vehicular movement a NO-GO. The wadis create cross-compartmented terrain. The banks of these stream beds can be steep and unconsolidated. Then, when it rains, it becomes a torrent of dangerously rushing water, leading to flat lake beds that can create NO-GO mud conditions. Rock quarries and mining areas can also adversely affect mobility and trafficability. Often these areas are not reflected on maps. Satellite imagery can be helpful in identifying these areas, as was the case in Kuwait during Operation Desert Storm. In rocky terrain, tires can easily be punctured by sharp angular debris; however, overall movement is mostly uninhibited. Given ample fuel, water, and other resources, units can go around natural and man-made obstacles.

Movement can easily be detected because of sand and dust signatures left due to the loose surface material. In an actual engagement, this may not be all that bad because a unit is obscured from direct fire while advancing, but the element of surprise may be lost. Moving at night becomes the logical choice. The dust is still there, and vehicles (which should be widely spaced) can get separated. But at night, reflection of the sun’s rays from glass, mirrors, or metal, which can give away movement and positions up to 20 kilometers away, is not a concern.

Using the ability to make fast and wide flanking movements, a unit can encircle and cut off enemy forces. The Israeli forces under General Ariel Sharon did just that to the Egyptian Third Army in the 1973 War, and the British did the same to the Italians in North Africa in January 1941. In Desert Storm, the night-fighting AH-64 helicopters, combined with field artillery fires, made for an unbeatable team in this regard.

Land navigation is a challenge during movement in the wide expanses of many arid regions. There are few landmarks to key on, and maps and even photos can become dated quickly, especially in the sandy deserts where dunes migrate. The global positioning system (GPS) with the small lightweight GPS receivers (SLGRs) is a major aid for desert operations.

Refuel and resupply operations require periods in which forces assume the defense, but only temporarily. The flat sandy desert topography that is characteristic of Saudi Arabia is not conducive to defense, compared to rocky plateau topography. In mountains and canyons, a defensive posture can be favorable. Controlling the passes, as mentioned earlier, can essentially close off vast areas to an attacker and make it extremely costly for him.

While a unit is in the defense, it needs both ground and air reconnaissance to detect enemy movement at long range. Obstacles must be placed in all types of topography, primarily to slow advances and channel columns. Neglecting these security measures in the flat, sandy regions can lead to disaster.


MILITARY ASPECTS OF THE TERRAIN



The following paragraphs describe how terrain affects tactical operations in the desert. This discussion follows the outline of the terrain analysis process summarized by the factors of OCOKA.

Observation and Fields of Fire

Observation and fields of fire are generally excellent in most desert areas. The atmosphere is stable and dry, allowing unrestricted view over vast distances, but this can also be a problem. Range estimation by “gut feeling” is subject to error. The effective ranges of weapons can easily be reached, and a correct estimation of maximum ranges is critical for all weapons, especially for wire-guided munitions.

Flat desert terrain permits direct-fire weapons to be used to their maximum range. Open terrain and a predominantly clear atmosphere generally offer excellent long-range visibility; but at certain times of the day visibility may be limited or distorted by heat.

Two primary considerations in the desert environment are longer range observation, and fields of fire at the maximum effective ranges for weapons. However, rapid heating and cooling of the atmosphere hinder these factors and cause distortion of ranges to the aided and unaided eye. Mechanical and electronic means must be used to verify estimated ranges such as GSR and laser range finders. Boresight and zero more frequently at standard ranges.

The desert is not absolutely flat, so weapons are sited to provide mutual support. Dead space is a problem. Even though the landscape appears flat, upon closer inspection it can be undulating with relatively deep wadis and depressions. These areas must be covered by indirect fire.

When on the offense, attacks should be initiated with the sun at or near one’s back whenever possible. This eliminates most shadows that degrade optical weapon guidance and makes visual target acquisition difficult.

When there is no usable dominant terrain available, the only means of observation may be from an aeroscout, or limited to short-range observation by the vehicle commander. Other visibility problems are caused by heat distortion. Heat waves at the desert surface cause images to shimmer making positive identification difficult and degrade depth perception. Ranges to targets may be distorted from heat rising from the desert surface. Use range finders to verify correct distances. Be prepared to use bracketing techniques with large adjustments to hit an enemy target with artillery.

Radars are unlikely to be affected by heat haze so they could be valuable on flat terrain during midday heat if optical vision is hopelessly distorted; however, they are almost useless in sandstorms. Image intensification is of limited value in sandstorms, and depends on the phase of the moon at night. If there is no moon, use artificial illumination outside the field of view of the system.

Since thermal imagery devices depend on the difference between ambient temperature and equipment temperature, they are more useful at night than in the day. Because of the distinct advantages of thermal sights, they should be used as the primary sighting systems for vehicles so equipped.

Correction of field artillery fires, especially those of larger pieces, may be complicated by dust hanging in the air following the impact of ranging rounds. Forward observers should consider placing initial rounds beyond a target rather than short of the target. Observation of fires, especially direct fires by tanks, may be difficult due to dust clouds, so wingmen may have to observe direct fires.

Cover and Concealment

Cover and concealment are generally scarce in the desert. The flat, sandy deserts provide little if any natural cover or concealment, especially from aerial attack or reconnaissance. Ground concealment and protection from fire can be found behind dunes or in wadis. Troops must be aware of the potential for flash floods when using wadis for ground concealment.

Some arid regions have vegetation that can provide limited concealment from ground observation. In rocky, mountainous deserts, cover and concealment are best found behind boulders and in crevices. Daytime vehicular movement eliminates nearly any possibility of surprise, as dust trails created by the traffic can be spotted for miles. At night noise and light discipline is critical, as both sound and light travel great distances because of the unobstructed flatness of the terrain and atmospheric stability. Camouflage can be effectively employed to improve on natural cover and concealment. See chapter 2 for additional information on concealment and camouflage.

Obstacles

Natural obstacles do exist in the desert, and arid regions are well suited for man-made obstacles. The wadis and steep slopes of escarpments, mountains, hills, and dunes hinder cross-country movement. Sand dunes may stretch for miles and prevent direct movement across their length. These sand dunes are often more than 100 feet in elevation and consist of loose sand with high, steep downwind faces that make vehicular traversing next to impossible. Aerial reconnaissance immediately before any large movement is advisable because sand dunes migrate with shifting winds, and they may not be where maps or even photographs show them.

In the Desert Storm area, the salt marshes have a crust on the top that can deceive a vehicle driver. These dry lake beds can become obstacles, especially in the wetter seasons when the water table is higher. A top crust forms on the surface, but below the crust the soil is moist, similar to marsh conditions. The surface may look like it has good trafficability, but the crust will collapse with the weight of a vehicle, and the vehicle becomes mired. The high premium on fuel and time makes it costly to go around these natural obstacles.

Sandy deserts are ideal for employing minefield. Although windstorms can reveal previously buried mines, these mines can still channel movement and deny access to certain areas. The battles of the Bi’R Hacheim Line and El Alamein were influenced by minefield. Other obstacles include ditches, revetments, and barriers, such as the Bar Lev Line along the Suez Canal, made by bulldozing sand mounds or by blasting in rocky mountainous areas to close passes.

Key Terrain

Key terrain in the desert can be any man-made feature, mountain pass, or source of water, and of course, high ground. Because there are few man-made features in the desert, those that do exist can become important, perhaps even key.

Passes through steep topography are also likely to be key, again because they are so few. The North African campaigns of World War II focused on the control of passes, specifically the Sollum and Halfaya. In the Sinai Wars between Egypt and Israel, the Mitla, Giddi, and Sudar passes were key. In Afghanistan, control of the mountain passes provided the Mujahideen safe haven from the Soviets. Oases, where wells exist, become important for water resupply. The high ground in desert terrain is usually key terrain. The relative flatness and great distances of some deserts, such as in Iraq, make even large sand dunes dominant features.

Avenues of Approach

Avenues of approach are not clearly defined in arid regions. The vast, relatively flat areas permit maneuver from virtually any direction. This point became obvious to units establishing defensive positions in Desert Storm. Wide envelopments are possible, as demonstrated in the Desert Storm ground campaign. Modem sensor technology, limited natural concealment, and improved observation make the element of surprise a challenge. Yet, surprise was achieved during Desert Storm—Iraqi commanders were shocked when they discovered U.S. tanks in their perimeters.

The major limitation with respect to avenues of approach may be fuel. The great distances a unit must travel to outflank enemy positions require significant amounts of fuel and complicate resupply. In mountainous and canyon topography avenues are much more limited, and the wadis and valleys are likely to be the only possible access routes. Any roads that do exist are probably in the valleys. Nevertheless, none of the considerations outlined above are reasons to disregard flanking movements.


MANEUVER



Army operations are ideally suited to desert environments. Its thrust of securing and retaining the initiative can be optimized in the open terrain associated with the desert environments of the world. In that environment, the terrain aspect of METT-T offers the potential to capitalize on the four basic tenets of the doctrine initiative, agility, depth, and synchronization.

Initiative

Israeli efforts in 1967 and initial Egyptian assaults in 1973 clearly illustrate the effects of initiative in the desert environment.

Agility

The Egyptian success in 1973 was negated by their failure to ensure agility. Conversely, the Israeli actions on the flanks of the Egyptian force demonstrated the effects of a force capable of rapid and bold maneuver.

Depth

Depth does not necessarily relate to distance. In the nonlinear battlefield offered by the desert, depth often equates to an agile reserve force of sufficient size to counter enemy efforts into flanks and rear areas. Depth is also a concept of all-around defense for forces—the ability to fight in any direction.

Synchronization

To a large measure, the German successes against the British in the Western Desert were due to their ability to synchronize their operating systems. More recent events illustrate this tenet between and internal to, operating systems. Heavy/light operations have demonstrated that light forces can be key to achieving tactical and operational momentum. The Israeli airmobile assault against supporting artillery in the 1967 battle of Abu Ageila is a good example of the effective use of light forces in this type of environment.

Maneuver must be at the maximum tactical speed permitted by the terrain, dust conditions, and rate of march of the slowest vehicle, using whatever cover is available. Even a 10-foot sand dune will cover and conceal a combat vehicle. Air defense coverage is always necessary as aircraft can spot movement very easily due to accompanying dust clouds. In some situations movement may be slowed to reduce dust signatures. Rapid movement causes dramatic dust signatures and can reveal tactical movements.

Another consideration during maneuver is dust from NOE flight, which can be seen as far as 30 kilometers. This is especially true when the enemy is stationary. Aeroscouts must use caution to avoid blundering into enemy air defense weapons.

To achieve surprise, maneuver in conditions that preclude observation, such as at night, behind smoke, or during sandstorms. In certain circumstances, there may be no alternative to maneuvering in terrain where the enemy has long-range observation. Then it is necessary to move at the best speed possible while indirect fires are placed on suspected enemy positions. Speed, suppressive fires, close air support, and every other available combat multiplier must be brought to bear on the enemy.

Tactical mobility is the key to successful desert operations. Most deserts permit good to excellent movement by ground troops similar to that of a naval task force at sea. Use of natural obstacles may permit a force to establish a defensive position that theoretically cannot be turned from either flank; however, these are rare. Desert terrain facilitates bypassing enemy positions and obstacles, but detailed reconnaissance must be performed first to determine if bypassing is feasible and will provide an advantage to friendly forces.

Dismounted infantry may be used to clear passes and defiles to eliminate enemy ATGM positions prior to the mounted elements moving through.

Avenues of approach of large forces may be constrained due to limited cross-country capability of supply vehicles coupled with longer lines of communications. The limited hard-surface routes that do exist are necessary for resupply.


RECONNAISSANCE



Reconnaissance is especially important in desert environments. Reconnaissance is a mission undertaken to obtain information by visual observation, or other detection methods, about the activities and resources of an enemy, or about the meteorologic, hydrographic, or geographic characteristics of a particular area. The desert environment may influence any or all of these techniques. The environmental effects on troops and their equipment may also influence observation techniques, or the frequency of vehicle and equipment maintenance that is required. Reconnaissance produces combat information. Combat information is a by-product of all operations, acquired as they are in progress. Reconnaissance, however, is a focused collection effort. It is performed prior to or in advance of other combat operations, as well as during that operation, to provide information used by the commander to confirm or modify his concept. Cavalry is the Army corps or division commander’s principal reconnaissance organization.

Surveillance is a primary task of Army cavalry during reconnaissance operations. Surveillance is the systematic observation of airspace or surface areas by visual, aural, electronic, photographic, or other means. Scouts, ground and air, are the principal collectors of information. Scouts and their associated equipment are particularly affected by the environmental aspects of deserts. They require equipment that enhances their senses allowing them to conduct mounted and dismounted surveillance with stealth, at long-range, and in limited visibility, all of which can be adversely influenced by the desert environment.


SECURITY



Security operations obtain information about the enemy and provide reaction time, maneuver space, and protection to the main body. Security operations are characterized by aggressive reconnaissance to reduce terrain and enemy unknowns, gaining and maintaining contact with the enemy to ensure continuous information, and providing early and accurate reporting of information to the protected force. Security operations may be affected by various aspects of the desert environment including the sun, wind, sand, vegetation, sandstorms, terrain, and heat. Security operations include:

• Screen



• Guard



• Cover



Counterreconnaissance is an inherent task in all security operations. Counterreconnaissance is the sum of actions taken at all echelons to counter enemy reconnaissance and surveillance efforts through the depth of the area of operation. It is active and passive and includes combat action to destroy or repel enemy reconnaissance elements. It also denies the enemy information about friendly units.


COMMAND, CONTROL, AND COMMUNICATIONS



The following paragraphs describe command, control, and communications considerations when operating in a desert environment.

Command

The effort to synchronize battlefield operating systems during the planning process can be negated by the failure to continue the synchronization effort during the preparation phase of a mission. This is especially true in the construction of engagement areas for defensive operations. Direct fire, indirect fire, and obstacles are linked, and the adjustment of one requires the adjustment of all. The commander must know and have a feel for what his unit can do, how long his unit takes to accomplish a mission, and what he really wants his unit to accomplish.

Adjustment of the elements of the battlefield operating systems can unravel the focus of a commander’s intent. This is especially true in open terrain. Tactical commanders should personally direct the synchronization of engagement areas. Obstacles should be positioned, indirect fires adjusted, and direct fires rehearsed under the personal supervision of the commander. The commander controls operations using a highly mobile command group located well forward. He personally directs the battle, but must not be drawn into personally commanding an isolated segment of the force to the detriment of the remainder of the command. As previously mentioned, dry desert conditions can sometimes reduce radio signal strength and create unforeseen blind spots, even in aircraft operating nap of the earth.

Units may employ either a jump TOC or retransmission stations to facilitate communications with rear areas, as maneuver units are unlikely to be in one place very long. (If wire is used it should be buried to a minimum depth of 12 inches to avoid damage from track vehicles or shell fire.) There must be plenty of slack in the line to allow for sand shift, and accurate map plots of buried wire should be kept. If overhead wire must be used, it should be mounted on posts erected in the form of tripods to avoid falling during severe weather.

Air or vehicle mounted liaison officers can be used if units are stationary or under listening silence. They should be proficient in navigation and sufficiently equipped to facilitate parallel planning. Liaison officers are highly effective and should be employed at every opportunity.

Continuous Operations

Continuous operations are affected by a number of factors in a desert environment. Fatigue is probably the foremost degrader of performance. Performance and efficiency begin to deteriorate after 14 to 18 hours of continuous work and reach a low point after 22 to 24 hours. Most tasks involving perceptual skills begin to show a performance degradation after 36 to 48 hours without sleep. Soldiers/marines cease to be effective after 72 hours without sleep. Performance decreases dramatically in an NBC environment and sleep becomes more difficult in MOPP gear. Sleep deprivation coupled with the environmental factors of the desert and the stresses of combat can significantly affect mission accomplishment.

The two categories of personnel who can be expected to show signs of fatigue first are young immature soldiers/marines who are not sure of themselves and seasoned old soldiers/marines upon whom others have relied and who have sustained them at a cost to themselves. Commanders and leaders often regard themselves as being the least vulnerable to fatigue. Tasks requiring quick reaction, complex reasoning, and detailed planning make leaders the most vulnerable to sleep deprivation. Leaders denying themselves sleep as an example of self-control is extremely counterproductive. These factors are complicated by the environmental aspects of desert operations and should be considerations for operational planning.

Control

Clear identification of engagement areas is necessary to facilitate the massing and distribution of fires. In the absence of identifiable terrain, target reference points (TRPs) can be created with damaged/destroyed vehicles that are moved into required locations at the direction of commanders invested with the responsibility for specific engagement areas. Other types of TRPs could be used. For example, marker panels, visible and infrared chemical lights, flags, and white phosphorus/illumination rounds could be used. The construction or fabrication of TRPs must be resourced and well planned in order to be effective. For example, how will TRPs be replaced for subsequent defensive operations? Another common problem is TRP proliferation, which makes TRPs difficult to identify when each echelon of command has allocated too many TRPs.

Pyrotechnics are usually more effective in desert climates than in temperate climates; however, heat mirages and duststorms may impair or restrict their use. Even heliographs (signal mirrors) may be useful as they are directional and therefore can aid security. Sound communications are usually impractical due to distance, vehicular noise, and storms, but can be used for local alarm systems.

Colored flags with prearranged meanings can be used as a means of communication in the flat open terrain of the desert. Colored flags tied to antennas may also assist in vehicle/unit recognition during limited visibility operations and offensive operations.

As previously described, the desert offers excellent fields of fire. Tanks and heavy antitank weapons should be sited to take advantage of their long range and accuracy. Firing first and accurately are the most important considerations in desert operations.

Target identification is the recognition of a potential military target as being a particular object (such as a specific vehicle, by type). At a minimum, this identification must determine the potential target as friendly or threat (identify friend, foe, or neutral [IFFN]). Because it is easy to become disoriented, it is often necessary to mark sectors of fire on the ground with poles or rocks, if available.

Communications

Communications support is also adversely affected by high temperatures. The heat causes anomalies in radio and other electrical transmissions, and radio battery life is reduced. Radio range is shorter during the day than at night. At night, range improves but static electricity may cause interference. FM communications range can be reduced by as much as 50 percent because of high temperatures. HF ground wave propagation over the dry sandy soil is reduced.

Night communications make communications security a concern, as it always should be. Experience in Desert Shield and Desert Storm indicates vastly expanded ranges of FM radios. Communications between units 40 to 50 kilometers apart was not unusual. Communications obviously affect command and control as well as intelligence collection and dissemination, and their importance must not be underestimated.


COMBAT SUPPORT



A force operating in the desert must be a balanced force with combat support and combat service support—it must be a combined arms team. While principles of combat support operations are found in doctrinal manuals dealing with a specific arm of service, there are some techniques that must be modified or emphasized in the desert.


INTELLIGENCE



The relative importance of intelligence sources may vary from that expected in more conventional areas. Enemy prisoners of war require immediate interrogation as the flexibility of operations will rapidly make their information outdated. Information given by civilians encountered in desert operations should be treated with caution unless corroborated. Military intelligence teams located in the area of operations can determine if these EPWs and civilians are in fact what they say they are, or infiltrators sent to harass the rear area and commit acts of sabotage. Electronic support measures are a major source of intelligence in desert warfare. Enemy activity, or the lack of it, is a good source of information; so punctual, accurate reports by all sources, both positive and negative, are necessary.


FIRE SUPPORT



The Allies in North Africa in 1942 found that placing small field artillery units in support of small maneuver units gave the units a sense of security, but produced limited results. Field artillery was effective only when massed (battalion or higher) and only when continued for some time because of the protective posture and mobility of the target. Typically, the control of massed fires was the responsibility of the division artillery.

The Allies in North Africa in 1942 experienced heavy casualties from Axis units overrunning the artillery positions after penetrating the armor and infantry positions. Often, the Axis units would attack from the east at one time, from the west later, and from several directions simultaneously. At first, the Allies simply emphasized direct fire. Later, the Allies attached antitank gun units to the artillery battalions to increase the artillery’s antitank ability.

When armor and infantry units move, the artillery must move with them. The most useful technique is for the artillery to move in a formation with a lead vehicle so that, immediately upon stopping, the artillery is in a position or formation to deliver fire in any direction and simultaneously defend the position from any direction. The Allies in North Africa in 1942 and units in Desert Shield/Storm found that the armor and infantry units would outdistance the artillery unless the artillery moved with them. The artillery moved within 2–3 kilometers of the leading troops to provide responsive fires. The armor and infantry provided protection for the artillery. The whole group moved in one cohesive formation, sometimes in a large box or diamond formation.

Due to the fluid nature of desert operations and the possibilities for excellent enemy observation, close and continuous field-artillery support for all levels of the force is necessary. Field-artillery pieces should be at least as mobile as the force they are supporting. Crews must be proficient in direct fire and prepared to defend against a ground attack.

Due to the threat of immediate counterbattery fire, field artillery units must be prepared to move into position, fire, and rapidly displace to another position. A battery should be prepared to displace several times a day.

Field artillery units employed in desert operations should be equipped with the most sophisticated survey devices available. Manual systems are slower and not necessarily as accurate, thus affecting tactical employment and reducing response time.

Aerial observation may often be extremely difficult due to enemy air defense, so most adjustment is by ground observers. How the environment affects observation of fires was described previously in this chapter in the paragraph, “Observation and Fields of Fire.” Recompute weather conditions frequently as weather conditions can change rapidly from the morning to the evening, and thus affect the accuracy of fires.

Fires are planned as in temperate climates. When there are no significant terrain features along a route of advance, targets are planned using coordinates.

A moving force in a desert is at a disadvantage in comparison with a stationary unit due to lack of concealment and the presence of dust clouds. The defender may engage with missiles from an unexpected direction or from terrain features of no apparent significance. The attacker must be prepared to rapidly shift fires to suppress unforeseen targets. Tactical aircraft may be used to suppress or destroy targets. Targets for aircraft can be marked with indirector direct-fire smoke. White phosphorus or illuminating rounds set for low-air burst are also effective.

Indirect fires are used to slow the enemy advance, to suppress enemy weapons and observers, and to conceal movement between positions using smoke. Defensive operations in deserts are characterized by long-range engagement with tanks and ATGMs.


AIR DEFENSE



Identification of friend or foe is difficult. Throughout the entire theater of operations there will be numerous weapon systems that are common to both sides of the conflict. The individual soldier/marine is going to be faced with the monumental task of separating friend from foe by more than just from the recognition of the manufacturer or silhouette of a piece of equipment. This will be true of both air and ground systems. This identification problem will be compounded by the nonlinear battlefield where the focus of operations will not be separated by a line.

The desert is an outstanding environment for employing aircraft. Every unit must be extremely proficient at passive and active air defense. The Allies in North Africa and the Israelis in the Middle East found that dispersion limited the effects of air attacks, and small arms air-defense techniques were effective. Almost every weapon in North Africa had a secondary antiaircraft or antitank mission.

Emphasize to each unit that, when in position, units must disperse very widely making a less lucrative target. When moving in column and under air attack, units must move at least 40 to 50 meters off the road because aircraft normally have nose guns trained on both sides of the road. A vehicle on the road or on both sides of the road will die.

Because of the wide open spaces characteristic of many deserts and the relatively large areas associated with desert operations, forces fighting in the desert should be reinforced with additional air-defense weapons. Still, there may not be sufficient dedicated air-defense systems to fully cover the force. When this is the case, commanders must be especially careful when establishing air-defense priorities in view of relatively long lines of communication and the tendency to maneuver over relatively large areas. In any event, all units must include a scheme for countering air attacks in their battle plans using both active and passive measures.

Although Army armored and mechanized infantry division air-defense weapons are tracked, this does not necessarily apply to corps medium-altitude air defense units. However, Army corps surface-to-air missile (SAM) units have considerably greater ranges and are equipped with more sophisticated early warning and control systems. Some corps units should be employed well forward. These weapons will have to displace by section to ensure continuous coverage.

Air-defense units should be located close to elements of supported units to provide for ground defense. When the supported unit moves, the air defense unit must also move, which requires careful coordination to ensure that movement of the supported unit is not delayed. Airspace management difficulties are compounded in the multinational environment. SOPS should be exchanged among multinational forces to lessen the confusion of airspace management.


ENGINEERS



Engineer operations in the desert are similar to those in temperate climates although there are fewer natural terrain obstacles to be crossed. Depending on the terrain anticipated in the operations area, a dry-gap crossing capability may have to be obtained from corps support units. Important tasks for engineers in desert operations include:

• Mobility/countermobility/survivability support, including construction of obstacles, logistics facilities and routes, field fortifications, airfields, and helicopter landing pads.



• Water supply.



• Topographic support (map-making).



Mobility

The vastness of the desert makes mobility a prime concern. Roads are usually scarce and primitive. Cross-country mobility is possible in some areas, but trafficability is poor in soft sand, rocky areas, and salt flats. Engineers assist maneuver by reducing slopes, smoothing rock steps, and bridging dry gaps.

Expanded engineer reconnaissance capability will be needed to identify routes, existing obstacles, and minefield locations. Flat, open areas provide good sites for aircraft landing strips; however, in most cases the soil must be stabilized. Normally, desert soil produces extensive dust and has limited weight-bearing capacity.

Engineers use various agents to alleviate severe dust conditions (diesel, JP4, or oil mixtures for example). This is particularly critical in reducing engine wear in areas supporting rotary wing aircraft. It is also important along heavily traveled roads and in cantonment areas. Engineers also use soil-stabilization techniques to increase soil-bearing capacity for airstrips and MSRs.

The application of the fundamentals of breaching—suppress, obscure, secure, and reduce—and the organization of the force in terms of supporting, breaching, and assaulting elements, are even more important in the desert due to the enhanced observation and fields of fire. However, the desert does offer greater opportunities to bypass enemy obstacles because of the greater range of mobility afforded by desert terrain. Caution must be exercised when choosing to bypass enemy obstacles since the bypass may lead the force to the enemy’s kill sack.

The increased mobility in the desert makes it easier for the enemy to counterattack exposed flanks of attacking forces. Plan obstacles to protect flanks during offensive operations. Beyond conventionally emplaced minefield, FASCAM, which includes artillery-delivered mines, GEMSS, and air-delivered Gator munitions, are all systems that lend themselves to situational development. FASCAM and conventional minefield maybe appropriate, but consider the time required to employ FASCAM when selecting this option. Artillery-delivered FASCAM does not deploy well in soft sand and removes a majority of your indirect-fire assets from the fight.

Countermobility

Due to the mobility inherent in desert operations, obstacles must be extensive and used in conjunction with each other and with any natural obstacles, and covered by direct and indirect fires. Isolated obstacles are easily bypassed.

Mines are easily emplaced in a sand desert, and blowing sand will effectively conceal evidence of emplacement. However, the following potential problem areas must be considered when emplacing mines:

• Large quantities of mines are required for effectiveness.



• Sand can cause malfunctioning.



• Shifting sand can cause mine drift.



• An excessive accumulation of sand over the mines can degrade performance.



• Sand may be blown away and expose the mines.



In suitable terrain, antitank ditches that exceed the vertical step of enemy main battle tanks may be used. Because antitank ditches cannot be conceded, they must be dug so they do not outline a defensive front or flank. They have the advantage of not requiring as much logistic support as minefields. They must be covered by observation and fire to prohibit enemy infantry using them as ready-made trenches.

Because of limited off-road mobility of most combat service support vehicles, considerable engineer efforts may be necessary to construct and maintain routes forward to maneuver units. Local resources, such as salt-marsh mud laid on sand, can be used. Track vehicles should not use these routes since they could easily ruin them.

Most desert regions have a natural terrain structure that restricts maneuver such as sandy dunes, rocky plateaus, mountains, and wadis. These structures must be interpreted rapidly and correctly, and then reinforced with obstacles to fix, turn, or disrupt enemy movement, according to the commander’s plan.

Minefield and antitank ditches are the primary means of creating obstacles in the desert. Antitank ditches require extensive preparations, but they are effective when adequate preparation time is available. Many desert villages have irrigation ditches that can be used tactically. Other countermobility methods are generally not effective. Road craters, for example, are usually easy to bypass. In sandy areas, ditches can easily be filled in, so they are not good obstacles. Opportunities for bridge destruction are rare, and local materials for expedient obstacles are scarce.

Engineers and combat forces should coordinate the siting of planned obstacles to support the defensive concept. In defensive operations the effectiveness of obstacles requires synchronization.

Survivability

Desert terrain varies from region to region. Generally, however, observation is excellent and concealment is difficult. Deserts provide little cover and concealment from ground-based observers and even less from aircraft. These conditions make modern weapon systems more lethal in deserts than in any other environment.

In the desert, hull and turret defilades for tactical vehicles are essential. This allows the defending force to take advantage of their long-range weapon systems in the face of enemy fires. Dispersion and frequent moves are other survivability techniques that can be used.

The preparation of fortifications in the desert is difficult. Fortifications in sandy soil often require revetments. In rocky plains or plateaus it may be impossible to dig. To counter this problem, build up emplacements with rocks and use depressions.

Camouflage is very effective when properly employed; however, patterns and techniques must be carefully selected to match the local desert environment. Camouflage nets should be provided for all equipment. See Appendix E for additional comments on desert concealment and camouflage.


DESERT SURVIVABILITY POSITIONS



Defensive positions are very vulnerable to offensive fire due to long-range observation and fields of fire in the desert. This, coupled with a lack of natural obstacles, may lead the commander to invest the bulk of his engineer effort into survivability positions. Survivability positions enhance the ability of all direct-fire elements to survive indirect-fire and to return fire on the enemy. Survivability positions are normally more important than antitank ditches, especially in open terrain. See Figures 3-1 through 3-6 for examples of survivability positions. The following are some things you should or should not do when preparing survivability positions:



DO –



DO NOT –





• Ensure adequate material is available.



• Fail to supervise.





• Dig down as much as possible.



• Use sand for structural support.





• Maintain, repair, and improve positions continuously.



• Forget to camouflage.





• Inspect and test position safety daily, after heavy rain, and after receiving direct and indirect fires.



• Drive vehicles within 6 feet of a position.





• Revet excavations in sandy soil.



• Overfill sandbags.





• Interlock sandbags for double-walled constructions and corners.



• Put troops in marginally safe bunkers.





• Check stabilization of wall bases.



• Take shortcuts.